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Advanced

Rev. Adv. Mater.


materials
Sci. for
44 power
(2016)electronics
33-45 packaging and insulation 33

ADVANCED MATERIALS FOR POWER ELECTRONICS


PACKAGING AND INSULATION

Salman Amin, Asra Abid Siddiqui, Areeba Ayesha, Tayyaba Ansar


and Ayesha Ehtesham
Electrical Engineering Department University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
Received: May 22, 2015

Abstract. Insulation is an important part of any electrical and electronic system. More and more
insulation materials are being introduced to cope with the high speed electronics and integrated
circuits. Different types of insulation materials have different applications in industry. Power
electronics devices have a higher trend towards integration and increase in density nowadays.
Main motives towards evolution of power electronic devices are to increase the reliability, thermal
and electrical performances by achieving hybrid integration. In this paper, we have reviewed
different insulation materials essential for protection of electrical and electronics system, factors
that result in degradation of insulation materials i.e. power electronic convertors and adjustable
speed drives, designs used to improve the power quality of medium voltage grid stations and
effect of transient frequency on service life of insulation materials. Moreover the degradation of
insulation materials and factors affecting insulation are also been discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION for the PCBs while some have proved to be the best
for the applications where insulation has to bear
The Insulation materials have very high resistivity.
severe vibrations like motors and generators.
These materials oppose the flow of electric current
Insulation materials have found wide spread ap-
due to high resistance. Insulating materials play an
plications everywhere in transformers, electric
important part in various electrical and electronic
switches and circuit breakers.
circuits. There are certain factors that affect the in-
In Electrical and Electronic systems, specifically
sulation materials including. There are various fac-
polymeric insulating materials are used widely.
tors that results in degradation of insulation materi-
These polymeric materials include polyethylene
als and hence lifetime. Major factors are tempera-
(PE), poly tetra-flouro ethylene (TEFLON), polyes-
ture, moisture, applied voltage, aging, corona effect
ter, poly vinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene- 2, 6-
and bad dielectric medium used etc. As the aging
Naphthalene Di carboxylate (PEN), poly amides,
proceeds, the insulation properties of the materials
poly propylene and many others.
are affected. Similar is the effect of moisture. With
Researchers are heading towards newer and
the passage of time materials also absorb water.
reliable materials in field of insulation. More and more
This degrades its performance. The material used
insulation materials are being introduced to cope
for insulation must be hydrophobic i.e. water repel-
with demands of high speed switching in electron-
lent.
ics and integrated circuits. In past, the key feature
Different types of insulation materials have dif-
Q] aW RSSReOaa]Z SZgb VSo b
SQV ]Z ]UgpPcb ]eO
ferent applications in industry. Some are more suit-
days key parameters that are to be encountered
able for the use in avionics; some are more suited
Corresponding author: Salman Amin, e-mail: mani_6pk@yahoo.com

j % 2Rd
O QSRDb
cRg4S b
S 4] b
R
34 S. Amin, A.A. Siddiqui, A. Ayesha, T. Ansar and A. Ehtesham

are quality, reliability and environmental factors along discharge resistance, tracking resistance, thermal
with technology. This trend has changed the basic conductivity and glass transition temperature have
goal of manufacturing of insulation materials. Ear- been greatly changed by incorporating nano com-
lier wire splices were used either without insulation posites in the polymers.
or they were just wrapped by tape in order to pro- Major problem in high power electronic is failure
tect. But later sealed splices based on dual wallet of thin dielectric insulation. Several standard test
heat shrink tubing came to market when the auto- procedures are available for measuring the quality
mobiles became more reliant on electronics and of insulation or causes which lead to the failure of
wire splices failed to provide desired reliability. Criti- insulation materials. Harmonization between differ-
cal thing related to this type of insulation is sizing ent standards is essential in order to reduce the
and installation of tubing over the splice. New tech- cost and time delay in testing the components and
nique based on procured gels is recently developed devices to multiple standards. Standard test proce-
PSQOcaSW bp
ad SgRW TTW
QcZbb]QSOb SaSOZ SRa Z WQSOa dures available for evaluation of electronic power
it requires huge amount of heat and availability of transformer insulation are based on accelerated
huge heat sink is not that much easy. Gel can be thermal aging. In this study various test procedures
manufactured chemically from large variety of elas- proposed by IEEE standard test guidelines for in-
tomers like butyl, polyurethane, silicones and sulation have been conferred in detail.
fluorosilicates. Silicones and fluorosilicates act as We will further discuss the effects of harmonics
best temperature resistant and solvent at extreme on lifetime of insulation. Electrical Networks are
conditions. Gel shows great sealing capabilities and shifting towards the smart grids which make the
WbpaSOagb ]VO RZ SW b2][Ob W
Q ]Zg [S ag abS[a use of more and more smart components in power
are not always suitable as insulating components quality assessment. We will also discuss the scope
although they provide resistance to chemical and of insulation in optical electronics where high volt-
high temperature environments [1]. age signal is first converted into optical signal and
Since, one can simply understand the impor- then transmitted over fiber.
tance of insulation in the reliability of a system, so
several tests are also used to test the insulation 2. POLYMER INSULATION
materials. One of such tests is Surface Insulation MATERIALS AND THEIR
Resistance (SIR) Test. Surface insulation resistance APPLICATIONS
(SIR) represents the electrical resistance between
two electrical conductors separated by some dielec- Considering the use of polymer insulation materials
tric material under the artificial aging conditions like widely in the applications where the different mate-
medium heat and high humidity. Reasons to per- rials are in contact with one another, the electronic
form an SIR test are to classify or qualify a product, properties of the polymer interfaces are worth giving
to evaluate and control a process and to compare importance while dealing with charge injection/ex-
materials or processes. Besides such tests, thick- traction processes. C. Laurent et al. in [2], discussed
ness of insulation also plays an important role in the case of polyethylene (PE) when used in differ-
the reliability of an electrical system. Many tools ent applications like HVDC insulated systems, di-
are being developed to measure the thickness of electric barrier discharges resulting from the cold
the insulations to a greater precision and to ensure plasma processes used in surface treatment of UV-
its reliability and strength under extreme situations. VUV sources and situations where dielectrics are
Moreover, work is also being done to develop high subjected to ionizing radiations and particle fluxes.
quality substrate materials for use in the PCBs be- In PE surface, the impurities may concentrate on
sides commonly used material epoxy to support the surface of PE and chemical attacks like oxida-
much higher frequencies and clock speeds. In this tion may begin there. Author performed AC lumi-
scenario, Thermount and Polyamide are the two nance modeling of PE interfaces. The measurement
materials that appear to be a better choice for such of current emission from charged surface of PE was
applications and provide low CTE, high Tg and low made by exposing it to plasma. It was observed
dielectric constant along with many other added that energy trapped in the sites over the surface of
benefits. PE in form of charge follows an exponential distri-
Nowadays addition of nano composites have bution. Measurement of the emission current, once
largely strengthen the insulating properties of insu- a known quantity of charge has been deposited on
lators by increasing the resistance of the materials. the sample surface, into the vacuum can provide a
Dielectric breakdown strength, treeing life, partial
Advanced materials for power electronics packaging and insulation 35

spectroscopic method to infer the distribution in For the thicker films, deeper traps were observed
charge trapping sites. as compared to thin film. So it was observed from
Due to vast advantages of polyethylene (PE) in experimental results that crystalline form is more
electric and mechanical properties and as it can resistant to degradation.
withstand up to 100 kV/mm high electric stress, it Polymer insulation materials have found wide
is widely used in insulating power cables and for spread applications in last decade in all fields of
electrical energy transmission. Premature failure of electrical engineering. Polymer materials with addi-
insulation can occur by exceeding the voltage stress tion of nano particles form nano composites. Nano
which in turn increases the dielectric stress on in- composite materials are commonly used now a days
sulation. Stress due to AC voltage cause reduction in outdoor, indoor insulation and manufacturing of
of insulation resistance by amount of several order electronic components. Nano composites exhibits
continuously. Crossed linked polyethylene (XLPE) functional performance as flame retardancy, bio
cables can withstand more electric stress under DC degradability, gas barer effect and paint performance.
field than under AC field. Reason of reduction of in- Some of the effects of adding nano particles to poly-
sulation resistance of XLPE cable are moisture ab- mers include reduction in polarization, permittivity,
sorption, moist environment, carrier transfer and space charge, partial discharge, tracking resistance
charge accumulation under AC stress. X. Zhang et and increase in thermal conductivity. The shape of
al [3] examined two specimens of XLPE cables and the nano particle mixed with polymer is assumed
measured the effect of DC voltage on them by using to be spherical but any other shape also works.
Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) and dielec- Formulation of methods for development of industry
tric loss tangent measurements. First sample was standard polymer nano composites is required. The
aged in service for one year and second one was finished product can be characterized by advance
virgin XLPE sample. Electrical tree formation was analytical methods such as small angle X-ray scat-
examined by SEM. Results show that the electri- tering (SAXA), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
cal tree formation in case of aged sample is longer (EDX), wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) and
than virgin. Dielectric loss tangent (tan ) of aged transmitting electron microscopy (TEM), etc. [5]
sample is 30% higher than virgin. Electrical con- Polymers are widely used as a based substrate
ductivity increases with temperature. Author con- material for many field effect transistors. Drain/
cludes that application of DC voltage to any cable source terminals are the most vulnerable points in
insulation results in enhanced electric stress this aspect as they have to suffer all the stresses of
whereas, application of AC voltage increases the conducting current and open circuit voltages. Plas-
moisture absorption. So in order to produce the worst tic electronics refer to cheap and simple mass pro-
combination of stresses those encountered in power duction using solution processing as compared to
electronic components due to harmonics, a combi- expensive techniques like vacuum deposition or
nation of AC and DC voltages should be applied to photolithography and spin-coating or printing. Huge
XLPE cable and other insulation materials intended work is done till now to improve the field-effect mo-
to be used in HVDC systems. bility of organic layers. High width to length (W/L)
Polymers are getting popular day by day. Ther- ratio is required to compensate the low field-effect
moplastics is a group of insulation material that are mobility operating with channel length less than 10
widely used in electrical and electronic systems. m. Till now resolution of range 100 m in case of
Polyethylene- 2, 6- Naphthalene Di carboxylate screen printing of conductive inks have been achieved
(PEN) is a member of this group of polymers. J. F. PcbW bp
a ]bb VOb[cQVaOb W
aTOQb ]gO RZ Ob
SOZSa]
Chavez and J. J. Martinez-Vega [4] have researched lution of 10 m. Field effect mobility of 1.5 cm2/Vs
for the effect of high electric field on PEN along with for pentacene have been observed as compared to
the influence of morphology. Under the influence of hydrogenated amorphous silicon TFTs. E. Becker
low electric field, amorphous PEN samples showed and coworkers [6] explain patterning technique us-
high current density as compared to crystalline PEN ing selective electro-polymerization (polymerization
samples. Due to semi crystalline morphology, cur- under the influence of electric current) of doped posi-
rent density at high fields is limited. In HV domain, tive substrate. Polymerization is carried out by cre-
dielectrics are not reliable as there are defects in ating a potential difference between anode and cath-
microscopic volume that arises from degradation of ode. Film thickness is adjusted by monitoring the
materials. This results in micro voids leading to rapid amount of charge per area. Film pattern can be trans-
aging. Semi crystalline samples are less conduc- ferred easily to an insulating polymer. Authors pro-
tive and create more opposition to charge carriers. posed a patterning technique that is straight-forward
36 S. Amin, A.A. Siddiqui, A. Ayesha, T. Ansar and A. Ehtesham

and require wet-chemical procedure. That proposed and aluminum nitride are most commonly used for
technique is fast and material efficient, anode can this purpose because of their superior mechanical
be reused many times. Manufacturing cost of the strength and electrical properties.
pattern of polymer films is independent of the ex- T. Lebey [10] investigated the use of aluminum
penses of patterning technique. This technique is nitride for making substrate of different power elec-
also applicable in industrial production. tronic components. This study helps in proper de-
Parylene is also a member of polymer series. signing of new generation power electronic compo-
Parylene is a chemical vapor deposited poly xylylene nents. The author suggests that to increase the re-
polymers. Parylene conformal coating is used for liability, electrical performance, thermal endurance
protection of devices, components and surfaces. It and to decrease the cost, hybrid integration is a
is a vacuum deposited plastic that has the ability to good approach. Hybrid integration can be achieved
deposit in a uniform nature hence provides dielec- using multi-layer ceramic construction which com-
tric behavior. In the paper, R. Olson [7] has described bines different ceramic materials in a layer by layer
certain applications of Parylene. It is used for envi- three dimensional architecture. There are two fur-
ronmental protective coating due to its low dissipa- ther approaches which can be employed to do this
tion factor, high dielectric and mechanical strength integration. First approach realizes construction of
and excellent noise and chemical barrier properties. a high voltage switch through a serial connection of
Y. Cao and P. C. Irwin [8] studied the effects of low voltage switches which can be glued together
nano filler on properties of polyimides using Short using an epoxy resin. Second approach is to use a
circuit thermally stimulated current (TSC). The trans- mixture of different ceramic materials in a way to
formation from main thermally stimulated current achieve the strength required for a high voltage
peak to high current indicates deeper trapping due switch. However this process needs a very precise
to incorporation of nano fillers. These nano fillers design and control to achieve a reliable product.
effect the properties and the study on polyimides
showed that addition of nano fillers results in de- 3. POWER ELECTRONICS AND
creased conductivity, improved discharge resis- ELECTRICAL INSULATION
tance, mechanical robustness and heat dissipation. SYSTEMS
Electrical conductivity of polyimides filled with nano
fillers reduces for high temperatures. Presence of distorted voltages or currents due to
Nano composites have an intercalated structure. low frequency and high frequency harmonics and
Molecules of resin are inserted in the spaces be- non-sinusoidal voltage on network and load side
tween each layer. This property results in an in- cause significant reduction in quality and reliability
crease in insulation breakdown strength of epoxy ]TWabc[S b apWacZ Ob
W] 4c S bRW ab
]b W] WW
resin as compared to that of epoxy resin without struments cause acceleration of aging phenomenon
layered silicate. Epoxy resin is mixed with micro resulting in power loses and overheating of insula-
scale inorganic material particles like silica or alu- tion and conductor. The main cause of (current and
mina. T. Imai et al [9] elaborated experiments for voltage) these distortions are extensive use of PEC
the measurements of insulation properties of epoxy (power electronics convertors). PECs are used to
layered silicate nano composite. The time for break- control speed and power in low and medium voltage
down has been measured and the results showed ac-rotating machines. Inorganic insulated wires used
that nano composites have approximately twice the for electrical machines (frequency range 50-60 Hz)
time of the break down as compared with epoxy show premature breakdown due to use of ASD (Ad-
resin. Similarly, process of electrical treeing was justable speed drives). ASD is basically generate
observed in case of nano composites and epoxy impulsive waveforms i.e. waveform (width-modulated
resins. In case of epoxy resins electrical treeing impulses having high slew rate) generated by PEC
appeared more frequently but in case of nano com- using fast electronic switches. Power convertors
posites treeing pattern appears at higher electrical manufactured using SCR has been replaced by BJT
fields as compared to epoxy resin. So, Epoxy lay- due to continuous development in technology, pro-
ered silicate nano-composite has better insulation ducing square waveform. This improvement in tech-
properties as compared to non-layered structure. nology cause reduction in switching losses and
In power electronics involving high voltage, sub- improves the reliability and stability, but still a lot of
strates are important part of components as they work is needed to investigate the phenomenon oc-
have to bear all peak inverse voltages. Ceramics curring in the insulation of machines with these re-
are usually employed to make substrates. Alumina liable PECs [11].
Advanced materials for power electronics packaging and insulation 37

A. Cavallini and coworkers [12] have discussed 4. INSULAION IN LITHIUM-ION


the dominant factors which accelerate the aging of BATTERIES
insulation materials being used in equipment hav-
ing power electronic convertors (PEC). Two major Among the energy storage sources used in elec-
factors of over voltage i.e. switching and lightening tronic devices, most popular is Lithium ion battery.
cause huge increase in stress resulting in insula- It has benefits like high energy density, smooth dis-
tion failure due to the fact that it can exceed the charge characteristics and able to work in a sealed
breakdown strength of insulation material. Low fre- environment. In spite of all these advantages, there
quency harmonic component existence increases are some serious concerns related to the use of
the actual slope, peak voltage and decreases di- Lithium ion batteries. Among them, most important
electric and thermal properties of insulation mate- is fire hazard. In order to reduce this fire hazard,
rial. Lifetime of insulation decreases by a factor of 2 separator materials used in the construction of Li-
to 4 with increase in dielectric loss that in turn cause ion batteries should be highly stable against ther-
increase in temperature up to 10-20 i C but increase mal stress. This separator is a polymer insulation
in peak voltage even only by few percent can dras- paper which has the pores to allow free movement
tically reduce the lifetime by several order. On the of Li ions without electrically shorting the negative
other hand, high frequency harmonic components and the positive layers. B. N. Pinnangudi [14] have
due to the use of PEC can cause exceed in ampli- presented a detailed overview of different separator
tude of fundamental voltage and this uneven voltage materials used in li-ion batteries. Author reports that
distribution along motor windings results in increase commonly used separators are polyethylene (PE),
in inter turn insulation electric stress and can cause polypropylene (PP), blends of PE and PP, high den-
premature failure. That electric stress results en- sity PE and ultra-high molecular weight PE. Other
hanced partial discharge (PD) activity. PD can se- materials used include polyamide, poly-tetra-fluro-
verely affect the windings of motors that are made ethylene (PTFE or Teflon), polyvinyl chloride and
up of organic insulated magnetic wires i.e. polya- polyesters. In recent years, separators made up of
mide-imide (PI). Composites of organic/inorganic blends of polymer and ceramic materials are also
materials working together can sustain more PD being used. These materials combine the advan-
activity than organic insulation materials acting tages of flexible polymers and high temperature
alone. Uneven voltage distribution also accelerate ceramics. The important characteristics of separa-
the insulation degradation. PD measurement is nec- tors are chemical stability, uniform thickness, high
essary so that during operation using PEC, PD re- porosity, high permeability, wettability and less ther-
main in safe limit. The dominant factors which age mal shrinkage. The author investigated 1 amp-hour
up the insulation include low and high frequency Li-ion cells supplied by five different manufacturers
harmonics, PD, thermal stress and dielectric loss. under application of over-charge stress. The over-
As PD activity drastically effects the organic in- charge was brought to a point where the cell tem-
sulated motors, so it is necessary to guarantee the perature rises to about 500 degree Celsius. Many
insulated motors as PD free. Contrary to this mo- reasons were found for thermal runaway. Among
tors having composite organic/inorganic insulation these one was failure of separator resulting in shorted
can withstand high PD activity. A. Cavallini and co- cell; another was an application of an incorrect volt-
workers [13] examined the insulation conditions age to charge the cell. Over charging it turned out
during motor operation and PD activity. Parameters to be a reason for thermal runaway.
of PD like amplitude and repetition rate accelerate
the aging mechanism along with space charge ac- 5. IMPORTANCE OF INSULATION IN
cumulation. In order to prevent from premature MOTORS
breakdown of insulation materials, PD measurement
Motors are an essential part of domestic and indus-
is very useful and indicative tool. It must be per-
trial load. It is estimated that almost 70% of the
formed as a part of quality control. Use of multilevel
electrical energy produced in the world is consumed
converters can reduce the electric stress offering to
by motors for a vast majority of applications. Many
insulation material and also cause reduction in over
]Tb VSaS[]b ]aR] p bS_cWSb ]PS] SOb SRObT cZZ
voltages. Improvement in electrical apparatus de-
power all the time. Therefore, speed control is very
sign by strengthening the inter turn insulation and
important. Among the techniques used for the speed
phase of rotating machines can prevent from situa-
control of induction motors, most efficient is adjust-
tion that lead to the overstress between turns.
able or variable speed drives. These kinds of drives
38 S. Amin, A.A. Siddiqui, A. Ayesha, T. Ansar and A. Ehtesham

employ chopping of voltage along the time axis which duction currents in service. The electrical signal thus
results in lossless speed control [15]. However, one obtained is converted into optical signal and trans-
drawback of this scheme is that steep fronted volt- mitted via fiber. Commercial instrument transduc-
ages are applied to the motors. The steep-fronts in ers that have already been used in power transmis-
the voltage when applied to motors generate high sion have limitation of operational frequency. D. Gallo
d ]ZbOUSacUSaEVSaSacUSaeSOYS b VS[]b ]p a and his coworkers [17] proposed a design of real-
stator and rotor insulations. The high frequency of ized voltage transducer (RVT) for medium Voltages
these steep-front voltages result in applications of with fiber optic insulation. This voltage transducer
thousands of short duration high voltage surges to transforms the input signal into a corresponding light
motor winding insulation. This results in larger cir- signal proportional to it and resulting light signal is
culating currents through the coil which in-turn melts transmitted over optical fiber which solves the prob-
the copper and causes burning of insulation. The lems of bandwidth limitation and errors of measure-
author concludes that medium voltage motor insu- ment transformers.
lation may not be effected widely by high frequency The input stage of RVT is a resistive Voltage
variable speed drives used in high speed electron- divider with an op-amp for impedance adjustment.
ics. The attenuation of voltage divider and maximum dis-
sipated power are limited to 17000 and 1 W, re-
6. INSULATION APPLICATIONS IN spectively; so that the load effect on network and
OPTICAL ELECTRONICS its cost are lower. This is done by choosing proper
resistance values. The transmission stage includes
Measurement of high voltages, conduction and leak- voltage/current converter, the optical transmitter with
age currents in service by direct methods is rarely optical fiber and optical feedback part. Voltage/cur-
feasible. For this purpose many indirect methods rent converter transforms the incoming bipolar volt-
are available. Commonly used techniques involve age into corresponding unipolar current. Op-amp
capacitive or resistive voltage dividers as transduc- used in this stage has higher gain bandwidth prod-
ers. The low voltage obtained from these transduc- uct which increases the overall bandwidth of trans-
ers is then frequency or light modulated and trans- ducer by improving optical feedback and impact of
mitted over air or optical fiber. L. H. Christensen parasitic components are minimized by its low in-
[16] proposed a new design in which an optical volt- put resistance. Plastic optic fiber is used for trans-
age modulator is used. This voltage modulator trans- mission of light signal because it does not oxidize
forms the electric field of line into a corresponding and damage in presence of rain and works well in
light signal. This eliminates the need of capacitive presence of vibrations. Fourier analysis and AC
or resistive voltage divider (as voltage transducer) analysis performed shows that the RVT reduces the
which is the previously used approach. The optical harmonics, limits the attenuation to 84.86 dB, pro-
voltage transducer (OVT) presented in this research vide good accuracy and bandwidth. As simple elec-
consists of two electrodes connected to ground and tronic components are used in its construction so it
HV terminal which have electric field between them. has low cost. All these specifications can be more
A]QYSZ paQg abOZ 3W4
Ge3O12) is connected with beneficent for mass scale deployment in future smart
U]c RSRSZ SQ b]RSA]Q YSZpaQg abOZeVS Sf ]a SR grids.
to electric field, generates a light corresponding to The enhancing demand for power quality assess-
field strength. This results in formation of an optical ment in medium voltage grids opted by spiking
voltage transducer for 132-150 kV. This scheme pro- amount of diffusion of distributed generation sources
vides an OVT with adjustable transformation ratio empower to employment of transducers to convert
and less weight as compared to conventional PT. and obtain voltage signal with better and convalesced
The temperature dependent error of this optical trans- accuracy. Conventional potential transformers used
RcQS W aPSb eSS k ( SQS bFaWUb VW
aag abS[ for power quality analysis have limitation on fre-
increases the noise immunity, measurement band- quency bandwidth and linearity. Capacitor and re-
width and connectivity with digital equipment. sistor voltage dividers are used to resolve these is-
Electrical Networks are shifting towards the sues but have disadvantage of absence of galvanic
smart grids which make the use of more and more insulation. G. Aurilio and his companions presented
smart components to measure quality and con- a design of medium voltage insulated divider (MVID)
sumption of energy efficiently. Capacitive or resis- [18]. MVID is composed of high impedance voltage
tive voltage dividers are commonly used as trans- divider (VD) and electronic insulation interface (EII).
ducers to measure high voltages, leakage and con- Resistive-capacitive voltage divider is used to step
Advanced materials for power electronics packaging and insulation 39

down the high line voltages to the voltages that are and multilayered PCBs, there is need for the mate-
needed by electronic components. To provide suit- rials with high glass temperature (Tg) and low ther-
able insulation, divider is filled with resins. The low mal expansion coefficient (CTE). In such situation,
voltage attained is then converted to optical or light Thermount and Polyamide are the materials that
signal using an infrared light emitting diode (LED) can replace the glass epoxy composite laminate,
and transmitted over plastic optic fiber. Optical to FR-4 which was previously used as a substrate in
electrical conversion is then takes place using a the manufacturing of PCBs. Thermount has several
photodiode, which is used in closed loop scheme performance benefits over the standard materials:
with infrared LED. AC and spectral analysis shows low CTE, high Tg, low dielectric constant, dimen-
that proposed design provides better linearity, very sional stability along with the benefit that it enables
large bandwidth and high accuracy, it has error ra- high speed laser microvia formation, however it ab-
tio of 12% at 100 KHz. The magnitude and phase sorbs more moisture than FR-4 when subjected to
d OW ObW
]W ak% O Rk %[ ORc b WZ%% 9h high humidity and that could severely affect its elec-
trical properties. Similarly, Polyamide also provides
7. IMPORTANCE OF INSULATION AND certain benefits: low z-axis CTE, high Tg but simi-
HIGH QUALITY SUBSTRATE lar to Thermount, it also absorbs more moisture when
MATERIALS IN PCBs exposed to high humidity. The electrical properties
of these materials are guaranteed under the stan-
The manufacturers of polymer materials have to face dard normal conditions but they can be affected
the increasing frequencies of electronic devices, severely when exposed to a single or the combina-
therefore more and more polymer materials are ex- tion of different environmental factors, therefore, A.
pected to emerge in the coming years. In the field Bulletti et al. in [20] investigated the surface resis-
of aeronautics, polymer materials are also widely tivity (Rs) of these base laminates (epoxy, thermount,
used to make cables and PCBs protection etc. For polyamide) when they are subjected to the certain
such applications, we have to choose the dielectric environmental factors like relative humidity, tempera-
material by considering its insulation resistance, ture, solder flux contaminations, corona discharges
dielectric strength, loss characteristics and the ag- and outgassing phenomenon in vacuum and con-
ing rate over a wide range of environmental condi- cluded that surface resistivity of polyamide PCB is
tions. The authors in [19] investigated the dielectric slightly higher than those for epoxy and thermount
] Sb WSa]T l[ b VWQY ]Z gcSb VO SQ] T ][OZ PCBs, however when these boards were subjected
coating. This is one of the highly used materials in to humidity and then dried, there was no change in
aeronautics for the protection of different modules. surface resistivity. Exposure to vacuum slightly in-
Such coatings are made to protect PCBs and other creased the Rs of polyamide but has little effect on
related equipment from chemical and environmen- thermount and epoxy. When these boards were
tal hazards such as fuel vapors, oxidative agents, subjected to flux contamination and then passed
temperature and humidity. Impedance measurement through standard cleaning, there came a large drop
was performed on the test specimen under artificial in the surface resistivity which indicates that these
aging conditions like high temperature, humidity and boards absorb ionic matter from the flux. Hence the
frequency range from 0.1 to 10 MHz. It was observed author concluded that flux contaminations should
that impedance measurement is one of the best always be removed and it is essential to bake the
methods to test the dielectric materials because it boards to expel moisture that would have been ab-
permits the investigation of degradation of polymers sorbed by board substrates during cleaning proce-
in real aeronautics environment by simulating the dure.
artificial aging conditions with a better sensibility
than infrared methodologies. The author suggests 8. POWER SUPPLIES WITH HIGH
investigation of polyurethane and other organic in-
INSULATION CAPABILITY TO BE
sulation materials at further higher frequency bands
USED IN ELECTRONICS
and under different environmental conditions.
The design and fabrication of multilayered, high In the Medium Voltage (1 kV to 36 kV) power distri-
speed and high density printed circuit boards (PCB) bution market, the need for the smart intelligent
requires the high quality substrate materials. The control systems, sensors, actuators and commu-
manufacturers have decreased the pin pitch from nication equipment is growing fast. These applica-
1.27 mm to less than 0.5 mm over the years. More- tions are usually located on the high voltage poten-
over, to use the high temperature soldering processes tial side and can be supplied with an auxiliary power
40 S. Amin, A.A. Siddiqui, A. Ayesha, T. Ansar and A. Ehtesham

of few watts or less. This auxiliary power requires dictate the functioning of the connector or contact
the need of a power supply that is able to handle a are resistance and insulation between different con-
very high input voltage. Hence to feed the electron- tact points. The minimization of contact resistance
ics on the high potential side of MV distribution lines, is usually investigated by a lot of manufacturers in
the major challenge is to achieve high partial dis- order to make their product reliable. However re-
charge voltage which has to be above the opera- search on failure of insulation within a connection is
tional voltage of the insulation devices. Moreover, a very limited. Xin Xi Zhang, Kun Li, and Jun Xu [22]
low leakage current through the connection has to investigated failure modeling of insulation in a con-
be ensured under steep transients and a low cou- nector and its effect on signal transmission. The
pling capacitance is necessary. To fulfill these re- main aim of this research was to investigate the
quirements, a low volume, resonant switch mode insulation strength between two contacts in one part
power supply with special transformer design has of a connector in presence of water. The surface of
been proposed by L. Heinemann, J. Mast, and G. contact was covered with a thin layer of water and
Scheible in [21] by making the use of parasitic ele- salt in order to simulate the pollutants encountered
ments of transformer as resonant elements. The in harsh service environments. It was observed that
electrical properties of the transformer like leakage a leakage current is setup between the two con-
inductance, magnetizing inductance, coupling co- tacts which affects the low voltage signal being car-
efficients and winding losses etc. are mainly domi- ried in that contact. It was observed in this research
nated by parasitic elements which mean that if the that smaller the insulation resistance between two
transformer is operated in the conventional switched contacts, greater the voltage drop and distortion of
mode power supply, then only a low power transfer signal. This distortion also effects the adjacent con-
is possible. Therefore, in order to transfer signifi- tacts in terms of interference generated towards
cant amount of power using transformer, the leak- them.
age inductances have to be compensated for using
the series of connected capacitances. For simplic- 10. DEGRADATION OF INSULATION
ity, a power circuit similar to class E-converter was MATERIALS
chosen. To keep the leakage inductances and com-
pensation capacitors close to resonance despite of Accumulation of water on insulations is more dam-
component tolerances, the control circuit must be aging as compared to the effects of high humidity in
able to adjust the switching frequency. As obvious the atmosphere. Degradation of electrical insulation
from the above discussion that the main element of and coatings in presence of moisture greatly in-
the proposed MV-isolating DC-DC converter de- creases. The situation is worst in case of marine
scribed is the high frequency transformer with high environment where salt particles get deposited on
insulation voltage, low coupling capacitance, excel- the surface of insulator. H. R. Baker and R. N. Bol-
lent mechanical properties and low volume along ster [23] studied the effect of moisture on insulation
with simple manufacturing process. The transformer material and measured the surface resistivity. Hy-
simply consists of simple distributed windings. The drophilic substances are more prone to degrada-
electric field in the transformer is controlled by simple tion as they allow water to make contact with them-
insulation section in order to achieve a higher insu- selves. But in case of hydrophobic materials, they
lation capability and low coupling capacitance. R] p bOZ Z]e eOb Sb ][OYSQ] b OQbVS QSeOb S
Moreover, the transformer is encapsulated with ep- R]Sa p bT][aOQ] b Wc]caT W
Z[ 9g R] V]PW Q[O
oxy that serves as a simple epoxy block for the terials are less vulnerable to surface degradation
primary and secondary sided terminals to connect and have higher surface resistivity as compared to
to the electronics. The power supply thus presented hydrophilic materials. Due to high contact angles,
is able to transfer 2.5 W over an isolation barrier lesser area of insulator is covered by water hence
usually required for MV electrical power distribution. small leakage current will flow. By increasing the
It guarantees a partial discharge free insulation volt- roughness of material, the hydrophobicity property
age of more than 50 kV along with insulation test of material can be increased. More hydrophobic
voltage of more than 80 kV. surfaces show lesser surface resistivity.
A. Brockschmidt [24] has listed the factors which
cause the degradation and breakdown of insulation
9. INSULATION FAILURE IN
material in power electronics; these key factors in-
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
clude corona, heat and harmonics. In this particular
Connectors play a vital role in all electrical and elec- paper the effects of corona are discussed in detail.
tronic systems. The two important factors which Corona is a state in which an insulation gas is just
Advanced materials for power electronics packaging and insulation 41

before its breakdown point. Failure of capacitors filled ing the repetition frequency between 1 KHz and 10
with liquid impregnation has been reported in litera- KHz. The results show that the degradation of pa-
ture. An idea proposed to prevent failure from co- per increases with increase in AC voltage magni-
rona was manufacturing and use of ovular capaci- tude. As the frequency of transients increases, de-
tors. Transformers that are not properly designed terioration of paper increases. This decrease in life
experience corona at high voltage peaks or altitude time of paper occurs as a result of faster deprivation
between windings. Electric field cause ionization of of dielectric properties of cellulose. When high fre-
gases and thus accelerates the electrons of ion- quency is applied to paper, the cellulose molecules
ized gases. Acceleration of electrons results in for- aligned themselves according to polarity. The mol-
mation of more photons due to frequent collision of ecules re-aligned themselves as the polarity
electrons with gas particles. Recombination of elec- changes. This will create a free space around mol-
trons with positive ions is faster in case of light or ecules in which molecules can move freely until
low electric field then in case of high electric field. break down occur. Higher the rate of polarization,
Electrons continuously recombine with ions at an- lower the life time of insulation. Heat is another fac-
ode side thus resulting in glow as neon lamp. Re- tor causing the degradation of insulation.
combination of electrons with positive ions also gen-
erates electromagnetic interference. Large number 11. TESTS AND INSTRUMENTS TO
of gases is used to prevent from breakdown but SF6 MEASURE INSULATION QUALITY
has higher breakdown and corona voltage then other
gases. Corona effect varies from DC to various AC Harmonization of multiple standards is the need of
frequencies. Lifetime and reliability of insulation in hour because testing of materials, components and
power electronic circuits is highly dependent upon equipment according to multiple standard increases
the switching frequencies, corona inception voltages the cost and time delay which is not desirable in
and corona extinction voltages. industry. Harmonization is a step by step proce-
Modern high power electronic uses thin dielec- dure which includes categorizing standards of same
tric insulation. Insulation material fails with passage scope, comparison of test procedures, pointing out
of time under certain specific conditions. The cause the differences, resolving the differences by agree-
of failure could high voltage and high frequency tran- ing on same contract and identifying the remaining
sient. These factors cause breakdown of materials. differences if any.
W.J. Sarjeant [25] has discussed in detail the fac- R.F. Weddleton and coworkers [27] has pre-
tors that cause the degradation of insulation mate- sented a comprehensive overview of the efforts of
rials used in modern power electronics. Author high- IEEE standards Coordinating Committee 4 (SSC 4)
lights the processes which lead to breakdown. The to harmonize electrical insulation test procedures
dielectric insulation material under consideration is and standards between IEEE and IEC. The aim of
polypropylene (PP) because of low power dissipa- this effort is to write IEEE standards as international
tion and broad applications. A number of life tests standards so that these standards are accepted as
were performed at different voltages and different IEC standards. SSC 4 works by developing a har-
repetition rates to measure the number of pulses monization strategy after comparing IEEE electri-
that cause on failure of PP film. High voltage pulse cal insulation standards with IEC standards.
causes the breakdown of air which in turn damage Harmonization can be achieved using several
the surface of insulation material leading to the fail- routes depending upon goal for harmonization.
ure of material. Two goals are discussed in the paper
The need of Power electronic devices for conver- 1. Keeping both IEEE and IEC standards. Identify-
sion between AC and DC waveforms becomes clear ing the similarities and differences between them.
in modern power grids. The switching between AC Testing is required twice only for non-common ar-
and DC waveforms results in repetitive transients eas.
which reduces the lifetime of insulation. Repetitive 2. Having a single standard.
transients have high slew rate, high repetition fre- After setting the goal for harmonization, next step
quency and high magnitudes. Each of these have is to choose the route through which harmonization
drastic effect on lifetime of insulation. J.J. Smit [26] is attained. Two of which are conferred in the paper.
addressed the effect of repetition frequency on life R Comparing scope, test procedures, units of mea-
time of insulation. Author used oil impregnated pa- sure etc. of both standards, identifying the differ-
per as test sample. MOSFET was used for switch- ence and resolve the differences by selecting the
ing. A number of life tests were performed by vary- better one.
42 S. Amin, A.A. Siddiqui, A. Ayesha, T. Ansar and A. Ehtesham

R Choosing one of the standard for fixed time period. ware and it has the capability to be connected with
Authors of the paper compared ANSI/IEEE-1- computer through serial port as well as it has the
.- m 8S SOZ WQWZ SaT ]b S[ SOb cSZ W
[W b
aW extra advantage to be connected with any length-
the rating of electric equipment and for evaluation of measuring device such as calipers and traveling
SZSQ bW
Q OZ Wa cZOb
W] neW bV:64- .-)m bVS[OZ SdOZc microscopes without concerning about the least
Ob W
] O RQ ZOaaW
TWQOb W
] ]T SZ
SQbW QOZWa cZOb
W
] n2 R measurements and coincided amounts.
the areas with non-common points were addressed. There are various standard test procedures avail-
Author suggests that a lot of efforts are required to able for evaluation of electronic power transformer
harmonize different standards into a single set of insulation. Most popular among them are listed by
standards. In order to achieve this goal industry IEEE 350 hours, 1000 hours, 3000 hours, 5000
support through participation in standard laying com- hours multi-stress tests . Most of these tests are
mittee like IEEE, IEC and ASTM is mandatory. based on accelerated thermal aging. There are cer-
Surface Insulation Resistance (SIR) is an im- tain drawbacks in some standard test procedures
portant property of any insulation material. It repre- like recommended test temperature often exceeds
sents the resistance between two electrical con- the chemical stability temperature of various com-
ductors separated by some dielectric material. SIR ponents inside that transformer. Some test tech-
testing is usually done by exposing the material niques produce severe gassing of water vapors due
under test to artificial aging conditions. This test is to elevated temperature which otherwise would never
basically performed on different insulation materi- be encountered in real service of that transformer.
als to find out their long term reliability and that E.N. Henry [30] has presented a detailed over-
whether the material, when used in an assembly view of different test methods used for evaluation of
would produce the unacceptable amount of leak- electronic power transformer insulation. Author high-
age currents. M.Pantazica et al. in [28] carried out lights special precautions and procedures which
the experiment to determine the effects of protec- must be considered during accelerated thermal
tive coating on the SIR of the specially designed evaluation of power transformer insulation.
printed circuit boards with laminate FR-4 epoxy Various test procedures proposed by IEEE stan-
glass. These boards were coated with five different dard test guidelines for insulation have been dis-
types of solder pastes and then the measurements cussed in detail in this study along with the limita-
of SIR were made after exposing them to the artifi- tion put by each test on the system. All the units
cial aging conditions. The results showed that the which failed before 50 hours of operation had many
average SIR for the coated board dropped to 48% of common phenomenon occurring in them. For ex-
the initial value while the average SIR for the un- ample, failure was originated in hotspot area in most
coated board dropped to nearly 35% of its initial of the cases. There was mechanical damage due
value, therefore it can be concluded that coating is to gas pressure in all the cases. Failure was al-
bringing obvious improvement in the values of SIR. ways accompanied with splitting of encapsulation
Insulation thickness is an important factor in the with corresponding gas oozing. Excessive heat, turn
servicing and manufacturing of electrical devices and to turn insulation failure and coil to coil insulation
components, that is why it is needed to measure failure was observed in most of the samples. Cellu-
the insulation thickness accurately and with high lose insulation transformer generates water due to
precision. Therefore, J.H.S.R. De Silva in [29] de- chemical breakdown under normal conditions. There-
scribes the working and design of an efficient, user- fore, applying IEEE test procedures without precon-
friendly and cost effective length measuring tool ditioning causes premature failure in sealed elec-
O[SRm D[Ob]UUSnEVW aWa bc[S b Q] aWab
a]T tronic power transformer. So the test will depict an
three parts namely digital micrometer, auto tool and unrealistic evaluation of insulation. In lieu of this fact
processing unit. This instrument can be used to it is recommended that before accelerated thermal
measure the curvature of arcs, spherical surfaces evaluation of any electronic power transformer insu-
along with the small lengths conventionally mea- lation following factors must be kept in mind.
sured by a micrometer screw gauge. The process- 1. In first 80 hours of operation transformer should
ing unit is the most important part of the Smart Log- be operated with minimum start up voltage with re-
ger which handles all its functions. It has a digital sistive load only which circulated load current with-
display from where readings can be directly read out saturation. This will ensure dryness before any
along with the keypad and memory to store the further tests.
measurements. Smart Logger 2.0 is the software, 2. After 80 hours of operation water escape path
designed using the Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 soft- should be sealed in order to avoid any further mois-
ture absorption from air.
Advanced materials for power electronics packaging and insulation 43

Results of any tests conducted after this 80 cal properties and are used in the insulation of heavy
hours drying procedure should still not be used for electrical equipment like transformers, current trans-
direct assessment of insulation life. Rather it should formers etc. However, it is observed that the epoxy
be critically analyzed to compare the performance resins made by adding fillers (like Aluminum Nitride)
of test specimen with those used in actual service. have better thermal stability than the simple epoxy
Insulation systems without cellulose may not re- resins.
quire the above set of procedures but it may require Wide range of insulation materials are known
certain other precautions for its realistic evaluation. like Parylene conformal coating, PEN, polyimide
So a lot of investigation is needed for other kinds of nano composites, epoxy layered silicate nano com-
insulation systems in order to develop a set of pro- posites etc. PEN- polyethylene 2-6 Naphthalene
cedures which can realistically evaluate these sys- Di-carboxylate a member of thermoplastics has the
tems. properties of mechanical and thermal resistance
Ungrounded insulated terrestrial power networks along with dielectric and insulating characteristics.
have floating live and neutral. If any of the phase Nano composites are multiphase solid material
gets shorted i.e. first fault occurs no hazardous where one of phases has 1, 2 or 3 dimensions of
current will flow through it. Capacitive coupling to less than 100 mm polymer nano composites are
ground occurs in the case. Usually the amount of 2nd generation of filled resins i.e. it consists of poly-
current flowing due to first fault is not very large so mers filled with large amount of micron sized in or-
do not activate circuit breakers and system remains ganic fillers.
functional. If second fault occurs large current flows Surface electrical leakage on insulations and
and system has to be turned off by a fuse or circuit coatings in the presence of moisture condensation
breaker. The currents due too first fault needed to greatly deteriorates the material. Accumulation of
be measured so that it can be corrected before sec- water on insulations is more damaging as compared
ond fault. P. V. Vugt and coworkers [31] in this pa- to the effects of high humidity in the atmosphere.
per have explained certain insulation monitoring Connectors are one of the basic component of
devices. A device needs to be installed to detect electrical and electronic systems. Major factor that
the insulation fault IMD- Insulation Monitoring De- degrade the functionality of contacts are insulation
vice or PIM- Power Insulation Monitor. There are three and resistance between contacts. Leakage current
methods for capacitance handling. First being DC gets established between two contacts and effects
method that cannot handle more capacitance. DC the low voltage signal being carried out in that con-
method uses a DC voltage that is injected into the tact.
phase and then the current that is returned through Low and high frequency harmonics, non-sinu-
ground is measured. Second is Pulse measurement soidal voltages at network and load side results in
method has limited capacity of handling capacitance significant reduction of insulation life time. Another
but has disadvantage of too long detection times. major reason of degradation of insulation material
Pulse measurement method uses pulses of posi- is extensive use of PEC and ASD. Power conver-
tive and negative voltages. Third is AMP Adaptive tors made up of SCR has been replaced by BJT.
Measuring Pulse measurement method adapts the PEC made up of BJTs has improved the stability
length of pulse due to changing RC and it can handle and reliability.
more capacitance and detects fault on time. For any reliable system, system must be iso-
lated from ground. So, a first fault do not results in
12. DISCUSSION tripping or interruption. Maximum allowed capaci-
tance to ground is the disadvantage as the detec-
Main motives towards evolution of power electronic tion of first fault to ground is obstructed by these
devices are to increase the reliability, thermal and capacitances. For this purpose, Insulation Monitor-
electrical performances by achieving hybrid integra- ing Device and Adaptive Measuring Pulse measure-
tion. Parylene is a chemical vapor deposited poly- ment AMP methods are used.
xylylene polymers. Parylene conformal coating is Many tools are being developed to measure the
used for protection of devices, components and thickness of the insulations to a greater precision
surfaces. Nano fillers have a great impact on di- and to ensure its reliability and strength under ex-
electric properties of polyimides. Epoxy layered sili- treme situations. Moreover, work is also being done
cate nano-composite has better insulation proper- to develop high quality substrate materials for use
ties. Epoxy resins are also considered excellent in the PCBs besides commonly used material ep-
electrical insulators with good thermal and mechani- oxy to support much higher frequencies and clock
44 S. Amin, A.A. Siddiqui, A. Ayesha, T. Ansar and A. Ehtesham

speeds. In this scenario, Thermount and Polyamide [6] E. Becker, H.H.Johannes, T.Benstem,
are the two materials that appear to be a better T.Dobbertin, D.Heithercker, D.Metzdorf,
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high Tg and low dielectric constant along with many International IEEE Conference on Polymers
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age the organic insulated motors whereas motors on Electrical Electronics Insulation
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