ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

Residual stresses in welded structures

R.H. Leggatt
TWI, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge, UK

Abstract

The nature of residual stresses in welded structures is discussed in terms of their magnitude, directionality, spatial distribution, range
and variability. The effects of the following factors on the residual stresses are considered: material properties, material manufacture,
structural geometry, fabrication procedure, welding procedure, post-weld treatments and service conditions.
Examples are given of residual stress distributions in plate butt welds, circumferential butt welds and weld cladding. These illustrate
the different magnitudes and distributions of residual stress that can be found in different joint geometries, and demonstrate the effects of
the mechanical, thermal and metallurgical properties of the constituent materials and the sensitivity of residual stresses to pass sequence
and to the restraints applied during welding. Further examples for the common case of circumferential butt welds in pipes and pressure
vessels are used to illustrate the extent of residual stresses as a function of distance from the weld and the effects of post-weld heat
treatment.
Measurements or analytical predictions of residual stresses are often subject to significant scatter or variability. This scatter may be due
to systematic factors such as variability in measurement location or material properties, or to experimental error in measured data,
erroneous assumptions in analytical modelling or unknown factors such as pre-existing residual stresses, inadequately documented
welding or fabrication procedures or unrecorded local repairs. Improved prediction and reduction of uncertainty of residual stresses will
require better recording of the whole manufacturing and service history of the welded structure and its component materials and better
understanding and analysis of the many processes that may affect the residual stresses.
r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Residual stress; Welding; Post-weld heat treatment

1. Introduction welding or tacking to other component parts of the

The principal factors that determine what residual
stresses are present in a welded structure are as follows:
 Residual stresses present in the parts being joined before
welding, resulting from the processes used to manufac-
ture the component materials, and fabrication opera-
tions prior to welding.
 The material properties of the weld and parent
materials, including composition, microstructure, ther-
mal properties and mechanical properties.
 The geometry of the parts being joined.
 The restraints applied to the parts being welded by the
application of external fixtures such as welding jigs
or local alignment fixtures, or by their attachment by
E-mail address: rick.leggatt@ntlworld.com
structure.
 The welding procedure, including the weld preparation,
the welding conditions and the pass sequence in multi-
pass welds.
 Residual stresses generated or relaxed by manufacturing
operations after welding or by thermal or mechanical
loading during service life.
The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of how
the above factors affect the magnitude, directionality and
distribution of residual stresses in welded joints and
structures.
2. Residual stresses before welding
Within the fusion zone, the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
and the adjacent parent material where the thermal

0308-0161/$ - see front matter r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2007.10.004
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
softening and thermal strains caused by the heat flow from
the weld are sufficient to cause yielding during welding, the
residual stress field will be dominated by the weld-induced
residual stresses. At greater distances from the weld, the
residual stresses after welding will be a function of the
superimposition of the weld-induced residual stresses and
any pre-existing residual stresses in the parts being joined.
This superimposition may be in the linear elastic or non-
linear elastic plastic or creep range, depending on
combined magnitude of the residual stresses and the
mechanical properties of the parent material.
Residual stresses before welding may be caused by
thermal or mechanical processes during materials manu-
facture or fabrication operations. Material- or product-
manufacturing operations that cause significant residual
stresses include casting, forging, rolling, heat treatments,
quenching, straightening and carburisation. Significant
pre-welding fabrication processes include flame, plasma
or laser cutting, bending, machining, jigging and correction
of misalignment.
In many material-manufacturing or fabrication opera-
tions, there is a rebalancing of the residual stresses during
or after the application of the process, and the magnitude
of the final residual stresses is often less than half the yield
strength of the material. Some operations, such as heat
treatment with slow cooling, may relax the stresses caused
by previous operations. But processes such as machining or
rapid quenching which cause localised yielding at the
surface may leave yield magnitude stresses near the surface,
possibly with enhanced yield strength due to work
hardening.
The possibility of pre-existing residual stresses should
always be considered when the residual stresses in welded
structures are being evaluated. In programmes to measure
residual stresses in welded components, it is advisable to
measure the residual stresses in regions not affected by
welding, or in piece parts before welding, in order to
determine the magnitude of pre-existing residual stresses.
3. Magnitude of residual stresses in welds
The simple assumption is often made that the magnitude
of the maximum tensile residual stress in a weld in the as-
welded condition is equal to the yield strength of the weld
or parent material [1]. This is a reasonable assumption in
many but not all materials. Tensile residual stresses are
generated at welds due to the thermal contraction of the
weld metal and the adjacent heated parent during cooling
Table 1
Contraction strain and yield strain in various materials (To ¼ 20 1C)
Material a (1Cl) Ts (1C)
6
Type 316 18  10 1050
C–Mn 12  106 X650
Ti–6Al–4V 7.3  106 875
PEI 56  106 219
145
after welding. These tensile residual stresses will be of
approximately yield magnitude if two conditions are met,
namely that
 there is restraint against the free thermal contraction of
the heated material.
 The thermal contraction strain from the softening
temperature to ambient or pre-heat temperature is
greater than the yield strain of the material.
The first condition is a function of the geometry and
stiffness of the parts being joined, which will be discussed
in a subsequent section of this paper. The second condition
is a function of the material properties, which will be
discussed in the next section.
4. Material properties
Yield magnitude residual stresses may occur if the
thermal strain during cooling after welding is greater than
the yield strain, that is if
aðT s  T o ÞXsY =E, (1)
where a is the coefficient of thermal expansion; Ts the
softening temperature, defined here as the temperature at
which the yield strength drops to 10% of its value at
ambient temperature; To the ambient or uniform pre-heat
temperature; E the Young’s modulus; sY the yield strength
at ambient or pre-heat temperature.
Typical values of the relevant material properties for
Type 316 austenitic stainless steel, carbon manganese steel,
a titanium alloy and a high strength polymer, polyether-
imide (PEI), are given in Table 1.
Yield magnitude residual stresses are likely to occur
where the contraction strain in the penultimate column is
greater than the yield strain in the last column. This is the
case in all austenitic stainless steels, as for example in type
316, where the thermal strain is more than ten times greater
than yield strain, and residual stress up to the 1.0% proof
stress can occur. In C–Mn steels the thermal contraction
strain is about five times greater than the yield strain, and
yield magnitude residual stresses usually result. However,
because of the high yield strength and low Young’s
modulus in Ti–6Al–4V, the contraction strain is not
sufficient to generate yield magnitude residual stresses.
There is an even greater discrepancy in high strength
polymers. Fig. 1 shows the variation of longitudinal
residual stresses across the weld in hot-plate welded
sY (MPa) E (MPa) a(Ts–To) (%) eY ¼ sY/E (%)
300 193,000 1.85 0.16
350 207,000 X0.76 0.17
950 106,000 0.62 0.89
90 3000 1.11 3.00
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
146 R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
Fig. 1. Residual stresses in hot-plate welded high strength polymers [2].
Fig. 2. Effect of phase change on accumulation of stresses during
cooling [3].
samples of three different polymers [2]. The maximum
stress in the PEI was 15 MPa, about one-sixth of the yield
strength. The longitudinal residual stress decreases with
distance from the weld, proportionately to the peak
temperature reached during welding.
Another material property that may affect the residual
stresses in welded joints is phase change, particularly where
this occurs at low temperatures during cooling after
welding. Fig. 2 shows the accumulation of stresses during
cooling in restrained tensile specimens subject to simulated
HAZ thermal cycles [3]. Tests were made with samples of
type 316 austenitic stainless steel and two low alloy ferritic
steels, 2.25Cr1Mo and 9Cr1Mo.
The type 316 austenitic stainless steel has no phase
changes, and the stress accumulates steadily as the material
cools under restraint from 1300 1C to room temperature.
The stress at any temperature is approximately equal to the
yield strength at that temperature. The low alloy steels have
phase changes between 600 and 400 1C in the 2.25Cr1Mo,
and between 500 and 300 1C in the 9Cr1Mo. The
temperatures at which the phase change starts and ends
are sensitive to the rate of cooling, which is fast in the
HAZ, giving phase changes at relatively low temperatures.
During the phase change, the crystal lattice expands, and
the accumulated stresses are relaxed to a small negative
value. After the phase change is complete, the stresses
Fig. 3. Predicted through-thickness distribution of residual stresses in low
alloy steel clad with austenitic stainless steel. Calculated with (T.P.) and
without (N.T.P.) transformation plasticity [4].
increase rapidly, reaching a value approaching the yield
strength of the 2.25Cr1Mo steel at room temperature, but
only reaching a low value in the 9Cr1Mo. If a general pre-
heat is applied, for example at about 200 1C as shown by
the dotted line in Fig. 2, then there is no further
accumulation of stress in the weld after the temperatures
in the weldment equalise at the pre-heat temperature, and
the final residual stress is given by the intercept with the
dotted line.
Fig. 3 shows the predicted through thickness distribution
of residual stresses in A508 Cl.3 low alloy steel clad with
316 stainless steel [4]. High-tensile residual stresses are
predicted in the cladding and in the parent metal adjacent
to the HAZ, due to the shrinkage of the heated region,
resisted by the stiffness of the 100 mm thick parent metal.
However, compressive residual stresses are predicted to
occur in the HAZ, due to the effect of low temperature
phase change during cooling. The predictions illustrate the
effect of transformation plasticity, which causes a loss of
strength during transformation. Very large compressive
stresses (600 MPa) are predicted in the HAZ if transfor-
mation plasticity is ignored. If transformation plasticity is
included, then lower compressive stresses are predicted.
5. Restraint
The restraint at a welded joint may be described as the
resistance to the free thermal expansion and contraction of
the heated material. It sounds like a simple concept, but in
fact is complex: it varies with direction and position in the
weld and it changes continuously during the fabrication of
a welded component or structure. It is affected by a wide
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
range of factors, including the geometry of the parts being
joined, the use of fabrication aids such as tacks, cleats and
jigs, the pass sequence for multipass welds and the welding
sequence for structures with more than one weld. The
effects of internal and external restraints on the residual
stresses acting in different directions in a welded joint is
discussed below with reference to results from measure-
ment or modelling of residual stresses for various weld
geometries and procedures.
Fig. 4 shows the convention used in this paper for
describing the directions relative to a straight weld in a flat
plate. Fig. 5 shows the through-wall distribution of
longitudinal, transverse and through-thickness residual
stresses measured on the centre line of the weld in a
multi-pass butt weld in a 60-mm-thick steel plate with no
external restraint [5].
It can be seen in Fig. 5 that the residual stresses in the
three orthogonal directions are completely different. This is
caused by the different restraints acting in the three
directions. Longitudinal shrinkage of the weld is strongly
resisted by the parts being joined, so high tensile residual
stresses are generated throughout the thickness of the weld.
The transverse shrinkage of the final weld passes on the
upper surface of the plate is resisted by the passes deposited
previously, so tensile residual stresses are generated near
Fig. 4. Nomenclature for directions relative to weld. sx longitudinal; sy
transverse; sz through-thickness.
Fig. 5. Residual stresses in multipass butt weld in thick steel plate [5].
147
the upper face, balanced by compression at mid-thickness
and tension at the lower surface. In this case, the mean
transverse stress through the thickness is tensile. This is
usually the case in butt-welded plates where the length and
width are of the same order. There is reduced transverse
shrinkage at the ends of the welds, causing mean transverse
compressive stresses at the ends of the weld and mean
tensile stresses at mid-length. The through-thickness
residual stresses were entirely compressive. Each pass is
free to shrink in the through-thickness direction when it is
deposited, so no residual stresses are generated in that
direction initially. However, when the central region is
compressed in the transverse direction by the shrinkage of
the near-surface passes, compressive stresses in the
through-thickness direction are generated.
Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate the effects of restraint on
transverse residual stresses in multipass welds in 50 mm
thick type 316L stainless steel [6]. If bending restraint is
applied to resist the angular distortion at the weld caused
by the transverse shrinkage of successive weld passes, then
a net bending stress can be generated at the weld. Results
from two welds are shown in Fig. 6. With low bending
restraint and a balanced pass sequence which gave low final
angular distortion, the through wall distribution of
transverse stresses was balanced, with compressive stresses
at mid-depth in equilibrium with tensile stresses near the
surfaces. In a more highly restrained plate with an
unbalanced welding sequence, the compressive zone was
nearer the lower face, and the tensile stresses were increased
at the top face and decreased at the lower face, giving a net
bending stress through the thickness.
When in-plane or membrane restraint is applied to resist
the mean transverse shrinkage at the weld, then net
membrane stresses are generated across the weld. Distribu-
tions of transverse residual stresses are shown in Fig. 7 for
Fig. 6. Effect of bending restraint on transverse residual stresses in multi-
pass butt weld in austenitic stainless-steel plate [6].
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
148 R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
three levels of membrane restraint. As the restraint
increases, the tensile stresses generated by the transverse
shrinkage of the near-surface passes also increases, and are
Fig. 7. Effect of membrane restraint on transverse residual stresses in
multi-pass butt weld in austenitic stainless-steel plate [6].
Fig. 8. Bending stress at multipass welds in 50 mm austenitic stainless steel as a function of bending restraint coefficient, weld preparation and pass
sequence [6].
resisted by tensile stresses transmitted through the plates to
the restraints, so the compressive stresses at mid-depth are
reduced and become tensile under high restraint. Where the
membrane restraint is very high, for example at the ends of
a full depth repair, the transverse residual stresses are
tensile and approaching yield magnitude over the full
thickness of the plate.
Fig. 8 shows the variation of the net transverse bending
stress generated by multipass butt welds in 50 mm thick-
type 316L stainless-steel plate as a function of the bending
restraint coefficient for a single-sided weld and two double-
sided welds with different pass sequences [6]. These results
were obtained by computer modelling of the deposition of
the weld passes, with experimental validation at two levels
of restraint. The bending restraint coefficient is a measure
of the rotational stiffness of the plates at the joint, and is
defined as the bending stress at the weld divided by the
relative rotation of the plate edges in radians and by the
plate thickness.
In a single-sided weld, angular distortion builds up
continuously as successive weld passes are deposited,
causing high bending stresses across the weld, which
increase as the restraint increases. Two different pass
sequences were considered for a double-sided weld with a
1 2
3 : 3 preparation depth ratio. The ‘‘typical’’ pass sequence
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
consists of half filling the 23 preparation with passes 1–6,
then filling the 13 preparation with passes 7–13 and finally
filling the remainder of the 23 preparation with passes 14–20.
This sequence gives low angular distortion and low
bending stress at low levels of bending restraint, but it
gives significant angular distortion and high bending
stresses at high levels of restraint. Lower bending stresses
were obtained using the ‘‘balanced’’ welding sequence, in
which passes 1–10 were deposited in the 23 preparation,
passes 11–17 in the 13 preparation and finally passes 18–20
in the 23 preparation. The number of passes in the final
block was just sufficient to counteract the angular
distortion and negative bending stress resulting from the
previous passes, without going too far and building up
large distortion and bending stress with the opposite sign.
6. Circumferential welds in pipes
For circumferential welds, it is convenient to describe the
stress directions in terms of the component coordinates, i.e.
in terms of the circumferential, axial and radial directions
(corresponding to longitudinal, transverse and through
thickness directions at butt welds in flat plate). Circumfer-
ential butt welds in cylindrical components such as pipes or
pressure vessels are subject to bending restraint across the
weld due to the curvature of the parts being joined. In
addition, they are subject to interaction between the
Fig. 9. Variation of hoop and axial residual stresses with distance from the centreline of a circumferential butt weld in a 16 mm  600 mm steel pipe [7].
149
circumferential membrane stresses and axial bending
stresses, which are both functions of the radial displace-
ment of the pipe wall.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of hoop (circumferential) and
axial residual stresses with distance from the centre of a
circumferential butt weld in a 16 mm thick, 600 mm OD
(outside diameter) API-XL-X65 pipe [7]. Three sets of
results are given: the surface residual stresses measured by
the hole drilling method (symbols), the linear components
(i.e. the sum of the net membrane and bending components
of the through-wall stress distributions) measured by
removal of strain gauged blocks (dashed lines), and the
linear components obtained from the theory of the elastic
behaviour of thin cylinders as a function of the circumfer-
ential shrinkage force and angular distortion at the weld
(solid lines).
The measured and theoretical values of the linear
components were in good agreement in the elastic region
beyond about 25 mm from the weld centreline. The effect
of the circumferential yielding and shrinkage of the weld is
represented in the theory as an external circumferential
shrinkage force acting on the weld centre line, and hence
the tensile hoop stresses in the plastically deformed zone at
the weld are not included in the theoretical distribution. It
has been shown [8] that the half width of the plastic zone at
a weld in steel is equal to w/2 +O(122(q/v)/sy), where w is
the width of the weld, q/v is the heat input of the largest
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
150 R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
weld bead and sy is the yield strength of the parent metal.
With w ¼ 16 mm, q ¼ 1000 J/mm and sy ¼ 510 MPa, the
half width of the plastic zone containing tensile hoop
stresses is predicted to be 23.5 mm, which agrees well with
the experimental results.
Outside the plastically deformed zone, the hoop stresses
varied in accordance with thin cylinder theory and tended
to a uniform bending stress of 760 MPa (tensile outside) at
about 175 mm from the weld. This uniform bending stress
was not caused by the weld: it was a pre-existing residual
stress resulting from the manufacture of the pipe. The axial
bending stresses were approximately zero at the weld, due
to the opposing effects of the angular distortion at the
weld, which causes tension at the outside surface, and the
circumferential shrinkage of the weld, which causes tension
inside. Outside the weld, the axial bending stresses
increased to a peak value of about 7150 MPa at 50 mm
from the weld, before decreasing to a negligible value at
about 175 mm from the weld. This distance corresponds to
the half wave length of the exponential harmonic function
associated with axisymmetric bending in a thin-walled
cylinder, which is equal to 2.5ORt, where R ¼ radius ¼
300 mm and t ¼ thickness ¼ 16 mm, giving a half wave
length ¼ 173 mm. These results show that residual stresses
may be present at a considerable distance from the weld,
and do not always decay rapidly within one or two plate
thicknesses, as is sometimes claimed.
7. Changes in residual stresses after welding
There is a wide range of factors that may modify the
residual stresses after welding, either during subsequent
stages of manufacture, or during the service life of the
welded structure. These factors should be considered when
the state of residual stress in a welded joint is being
assessed.
Manufacturing operations that may significantly modify
the as-welded residual stresses include:
 Local weld repairs of defects found during NDE.
 Release of temporary fixtures.
 Subsequent welding operations, including fit-up and
welding of other structural components or attachments,
and weld cladding.
 Surface treatments, including peening and case hard-
ening.
 Machining operations, which may cause redistribution
of residual stresses due to material removal, and surface
stresses on the machined faces.
 Distortion correction by plastic deformation or flame
straightening.
 Mechanical loading, such as proof testing or vibration
during transportation.
 Thermal treatments, including post-weld heat treatment
(PWHT) applied in a furnace or by local heating.
 Mechanical treatments such as vibrational stress relief
or auto-frettage.
Fig. 10. Through-wall variation of residual stresses at a circumferential
butt weld in a pipe [9], (a) as-welded, (b) after PWHT.
Operations and processes during service life that may
further modify the residual stresses include:
 Normal or exceptional service loads, causing plastic
straining, particularly in areas of stress concentration or
high residual stress.
 Creep at operating temperatures within the creep range.
 Irradiation.
 Contact stresses.
 In-service repairs.
 Loss of material due to corrosion.
Fig. 10 shows the effect of PWHT on the through-wall
distribution of residual stresses on the centre-line of a
circumferential butt weld in a 22 mm thick, 219 mm OD
C-Mn steel pipe [9]. The hoop, axial and radial residual
stresses were all reduced significantly after PWHT
(Fig. 10b) compared with their magnitudes after welding
(Fig. 10a). The through-wall distributions are similar in
shape before and after heat treatment, though the
reduction in residual stress is not proportional.
8. Variability and scatter
Measurements or analytical predictions of residual
stresses are often subject to significant scatter or variability.
This may be caused by real variations in the residual
stresses, or to the limitations of the measurement or
modelling methods. The residual stresses may have been
affected by operations other than welding occurring during
material manufacture, fabrication or service life. There
may be no record of some of these operations, even for
components with demanding quality control requirements.
The residual stresses may be sensitive to small changes in
the joint geometry, welding conditions, inter-pass time,
ambient environment, bead lay-up, material composition
and mechanical properties, within the permitted ranges for
these parameters. They may also vary rapidly with position
relative to the fusion boundary, such that measurements
are very sensitive to location and sampling volume.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.H. Leggatt / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 85 (2008) 144–151
Numerical modelling of the heat flow and evolution of
stresses during welding can be used to obtain a detailed two-
or three-dimensional distribution of the residual stresses at a
welded joint. Numerical modelling eliminates some of the
errors and uncertainties associated with experimental mea-
surements, but may introduce other errors due to limitations
in the input data or modelling assumptions. The effects of
operations other than welding may be ignored.
The best approach for reliable determination of residual
stresses is by a combination of measurements and
modelling. Distributions of residual stresses obtained by
different methods should be compared; any discrepancies
should be investigated and improved measurement and
modelling methods should be applied until consistent
results are obtained.
9. Concluding remarks
In this paper, the author has used a number of examples
to illustrate the main factors controlling the residual
stresses due to welding. The influence of material properties
including the coefficient of thermal expansion, the yield
strength and phase change has been discussed. It has been
shown that the residual stresses in the three orthogonal
directions relative to the weld are systematically different
due to the different restraints acting in these directions. The
influence of the inherent restraint due to the geometry of
the parts being joined and the applied restraint due to
welding jigs or the surrounding structure have been
explored.
It should be remembered that the residual stresses in a
welded structure are the product of its entire history, from
the moment that its constituent materials were manufac-
151
tured and through all subsequent manufacturing opera-
tions and service conditions. Welding is just one stage in
this long process, in which many operations may not be
fully recorded or fully understood. Until such time as
computer-integrated manufacturing and operation be-
comes a reality, embracing recording and analysis of the
whole history of the structure and its component materials,
the determination of residual stresses in real welded
structures will remain an inexact science.
References
[1] BS7910. Guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in
metallic structures. British Standards Institution, July 2005.
[2] Leggatt RH, Tavakoli SM. Measurement of residual stresses in welded
thermoplastics. Plast, Rubber Compos Process Appl 1997;26(5):222–9.
[3] Jones W, Alberry PJ. A model for stress accumulation in steels during
welding. In: Residual stresses in welded construction and their effects,
proceedings of the international conference, London, 15–17 November
1977.
[4] Dubois P, et al. Numerical simulation of a welding operation:
calculation of residual stresses and hydrogen diffusion. In: Fifth
international conference on pressure vessel technology, California,
1984.
[5] Zdhanov IM, Gonchar AK. Determining the residual stresses at a
depth in metal. Autom Weld 1978;31(9):22–4.
[6] Leggatt RH. Residual stresses and distortion in multipass butt welded
joints in type 316 stainless steel. Residual Stresses Sci Technol 1986;2:
997–1004.
[7] Leggatt RH. Residual stresses at girth welds in pipes. In: Welding in
energy related projects. Oxford: Pergamon; 1984. p. 429–40.
[8] Leggatt RH. Welding residual stresses. In: Proceedings of the fifth
international conference on residual stresses, Linkoping, Sweden,
16–18 June 1997.
[9] Josephson BL. Stress redistribution during annealing of a multi-pass
butt-welded pipe. ASME, J Pressure Vessel Technol 1983;105(2):
165–70.