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: 07 Forensic Anthropology
Module : 20 Personal Identification
Development Team
Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor
Principal Investigator
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi
Monika Saini
Content Writer
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi
Prof.R.K.Pathak
Content Reviewer
Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh
Forensic Anthropology
Anthropology
Personal Identification
Description of Module
Module Id 20
Forensic Anthropology
Anthropology
Personal Identification
Contents
1. Introduction to Personal Identification
2. Complete and Partial Identification
3. Need of Identification
· Among Living
· Among Dead
4. Medico-Legal aspects of Identity
5. Historical record of Identification
6. Identification in the Living and Dead
7. Characteristics of identification
· Primary Characteristics
· Secondary Characteristics
8. Methods of personal identification
9. Summary
Learning Outcomes:
After going through this module the reader will be able to:
Forensic Anthropology
Anthropology
Personal Identification
Introduction
Personal identification is defined as the determination of the individuality of a person. It also refers to
the process of linking an unknown personal object or material (which may be a whole body, a skeleton,
a finger print, a biological fluid, etc.) back to an individual of known identity (Christensen et al, 2013).
It is a key issue in forensic anthropology and consists of the correct assignment of an identity to an
unknown corpse. Although it may seem an easy and automatic procedure, the mechanism of
identification encompasses several difficulties concerning the methods, and above all, the significance
of identification process in court. The process of identification is towards two conclusions: exclusion
and positive identification.
Partial identification refers to the ascertainment of only some facts about the identity while others
remain still unknown. Partial identification may assist in complete or total identification of a person.
e.g. identified as a female, Christian, about 40 years of age, having 6 feet height, whereabout regarding
her family, occupation etc. are not known.
1. In Living:
1.1 Civil Cases
(a) In impersonation or false personification cases in relation with:
· Inheritance of property
· Pension
· Life insurance
· Voting rights
· Passport
(b) Disputed identity in cases of divorce or nullity of marriage
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(c) Disputed Sex
(d) Missing persons
2. In Dead:
The need to identify the dead is obvious for social and medico-legal purposes. It is required in cases of
natural mass disasters like earth quakes, tsunamis, landslides, floods etc., and in man-made disasters
like bomb explosions, fire, air crash, building collapse, railway accidents or bodies recovered from sea,
rivers, canals, wells and in cases when the body is highly decomposed or dismembered to deliberately
conceal the identity of the individual (Modi, 2011).
The term ‘Corpus Delicti’ means the body of offence or the body of crime. In a charge of homicide it
includes:
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Personal Identification
The interest of the community in the scene of death, after the discovery of remains or after a mass
disaster, is often overwhelming. The disturbance of scene by curiosity seekers or by ill-trained police
personnel may preclude not only accurate identification of bodies but also complete collection of
physical evidence. This invites the “Law of Multiplicity of Evidences’ to play its role wherever called
for. The Supreme Court has laid down that in law, a conviction, for an offence does not necessarily
depend upon the ‘Corpus Delicti’ being proved. The cases may be conceivable where the discovery of
the dead body, from the very nature of the case, is impossible. Therefore, it may be said that the
existence of the dead body of the victim is no doubt a proof positive of death but its absence not fatal
to the trial of the accused for the homicide. Indeed, any other view would place in the hands of the
accused an incentive to destroy the body after committing murder and thus secure immunity for his
crime (Vij, 2008).
The examination of a person for the purpose of identification should not be undertaken without
obtaining his free consent, and at the same time it should be explained to him that the facts noted might
go in evidence against him. It should be remembered that consent given before the police is of no
account, and that the law does not oblige anyone to submit to examination against his will and thus
furnish evidence against himself (Modi, 1977).
· In ancient times criminals were punished by mutilation and branding. This may be looked upon as
the first attempt toward subsequent identification. Branding disappeared more than a century ago-
in Russia, for example, not until 1860 or thereabouts. In France, branding was abolished at the end
of the revolution, but was later reinforced and finally abolished in 1832. It had already disappeared
in Germany but Holland continued to employ it until 1854 and China until 1905.
· Descriptions of wanted criminals were used as far back as the Egypt of the Ptolemys and in the
days of the Roman empire; and the system used then has a surprising similarity to the portrait
parle’ of today. They were planless, unmethodical, and gave rise to serious mistakes.
· About 1840, the Belgian statistician Quetelet stated that there are no two human beings in the
world of exactly the same size. This theory is said to have been used for the first time for
criminological purposes by Stevens, the warden of the prison in Louvain, who in 1860 proceeded
to measure heads, ears, feet, breasts, and lengths of bodies of criminals.
· The first accurate system for description of prisoners, also called portrait parle (French term)
(spoken picture), was devised by Bertillon. In its original form the portrait parle was divided into
four categories: (a) Determination of Colour (left eye, hair, beard and skin) (b) Morphological
determinations (Shape, direction and size of every part of the head) (c) General determinations
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(grade of stoutness, carriage, voice and language, dress, social standing etc.) (d) Description of
indelible marks (scars, tattooing etc.) (Soderman, 1952)
"Every measurement slowly reveals the workings of the criminal. Careful observation and patience
will reveal the truth."
—Alphonse Bertillon
Alphonse Bertillon in 1879 (French criminologist) first developed the anthropometric system of
physical measurements of body parts, especially components of the head and face, to produce a
detailed description of an individual. This system also known as the Bertillon system, or
bertillonage, is widely used as a reliable, scientific method of criminal investigation. The
following physical measurements and data were included in this system:
Descriptive Data: Colour of eyes, hair, complexion, shape of nose, ear and chin.
Body measurements: Height, head length, head breadth, arm span, sitting height, left middle
finger length, left little finger length, left foot length, right ear length, cheek width and cubit.
These measurements, along with photographs, were recorded on cardboard forms which were kept
in a specially arranged cabinet. By dividing each of the measurements into small, medium and
large groupings, Bertillon could place the dimensions of any single person into one of 243 distinct
categories. This system requires the employment of special instruments and a large number of
men, so that there is always a possibility of errors creeping into the records of the actual
measurements.
However, this system had serious drawbacks. It was limited to adults, and there was often a
marked difference in the measurement of a person who had been measured in different police
departments or for a second time in the same department.
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(a) (b)
Figure 1: Bertillon system of Identification
Source: (a) http://www.nleomf.org/assets/images/themuseum/online-newsletter/november-2011/2006-488-
106_1_2009-lg.jpg
(b) http://www.nleomf.org/assets/images/themuseum/online-newsletter/november-2011/2006-488-
106_2_2009-lg.jpg
· Early Genetic testing for Human Identification - Antigens on red blood cells can be used to
help identify an individual. Antigens themselves are not alleles, but are the result of what allele
is encoded by a person’s DNA. The six different major blood group systems that have been
used for human identification are ABO, Rh, MNS, Kell, Duffy and Kidd. Discovery of the
ABO system and that each blood group is derived from a genetic locus was the beginning of
genetic testing for human identification.
Table 1: Identification of ABO blood types by Agglutination
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Identification in the Living
Identification in the living persons is justified for various reasons. Identification of living almost
exclusively depended on recognition by personal impressions until the fingerprint was recognized as a
powerful means of identification. It is still being employed as part of the investigation of crime to hold
‘identification parades’. The suspect or the accused is included in a group of persons of approximately
similar build, age and appearance etc. and witness/witnesses are invited to point out one of them as the
alleged criminal.
The identification of the living person is based entirely on known finger prints or birth marks or several
personal impressions with regard to characteristic gestures, movements or shape and other features of
the teeth, eyes and hair, or voice but is liable to mistakes. These methods require the services of
different experts with reasonable experiences. Fingerprints, palm prints and toe prints are unique, as
means of identification, both in living as well as in dead. Along with these other characteristics may be
included like testing of mental calibre, educational level in the living which, for obvious reasons
cannot be applied to the dead.
Photography is also an important aid in identification of living but may be of not much use in the
identification of dead. Appreciable change, exaggerated by decomposition can occur in features after
death. However, it may also be wrong to assume that excellent photographs never lead to an error in
the identification of living.
The examination of a person for the purpose of identification depends on the presence of the following
data or techniques. These are as follows:
1. Primary Characteristics: Age, Sex, Stature. These characteristics cannot be altered after death.
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2. Secondary Characteristics: Features, personal belongings (pocket contents, clothes including any
marks/defects/stitching, jewellery etc.), Hairs, Scars, Tattoos, External peculiarities including
deformities, whether natural or due to disease, occupational stigma, Race, religion and nationality.
1. Race:
Race is a population concept, which differs in the frequency of genes. There are three main types of
races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid. The particular race of a person can be determined on the
basis of skull, forehead, skin colour, hair form, facial form and eye form.
2. Sex:
It is easy to determine sex in normal cases from external appearance and inspection of genitals, but it
becomes difficult in case of intersex, concealed sex, advanced decomposed body and in the skeleton.
Sex of a person can be determined by any one of the following:
· Physical morphology
· Bone Study
· Microscopic study of sex chromatin in cells
· Gonadal biopsy
· Hormonal study (in case of intersex)
· Dental methods
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3. Age:
The complexion may be fair, whitish, coloured, dark, brown or shallow. The colour may vary in
different environmental conditions. The facial features include eyes, nose, lips, chin, ear and teeth.
These features may change considerably from disease, dissipation, ageing or due to stress.
5. Hair:
This forms an important means of identification, as it resists putrefaction and the effect of dyeing,
bleaching, cutting or heat can be noticed. Examination of hair (form, colour, texture) is also of
considerable help in crime detection as it is frequently found at the scene of crime.
Anthropometric system is widely used for personal identification. It deals with the measurements of
various parts of the human body. It is also called Bertillon system (Bertillonage) introduced in 1882. It
is based on the principle that after twenty-one years of age no change occurs in measurement of
various parts of body. Therefore, this system is applicable to adults only.
Dactylography, also known as fingerprint system and consists of taking the impressions of the bulbs of
the fingers and thumbs on an unglazed white paper and examining with magnifying lens. It is based on
the principle that skin of the balls of the fingers and thumbs is covered with particular ridges, the
arrangement and distribution of which remains constant throughout life.
7. Footprints:
Footprints are impressions of foot or footwear left behind by a person walking or running. The careful
observation of a footprint reveals many interesting facts regarding his/her mode of walking or running
and may be as specific as a finger print.
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8. Deformities:
Deformities are good source of identification both in dead and living. It may be congenital or acquired.
Congenital deformities include cleft-palate, harelip, super-numerary fingers or toes, supplementary
mammary, web-fingers or toes, birth marks and moles whereas acquired deformities are malunited and
ununited fractures of the bones of extremities.
9. Scars:
A scar or a cicatrix is a fibrous tissue covered by epithelium formed as a result of the healing process
of a wound or injury in which there has been a breach of continuity of substance. They may be linear,
broad, circular, and irregular depending on the original wound. They can also help in finding out the
cause of injury. E.g. wound of a shot.
Tattoo marks provide wide information about the person possessing them. Their designs vary from
initials to Gods of worship and even those indicating emblems of moral depravity art. They can be
permanent or temporary. Sometimes tattoo marks may be superimposed over the old ones to obscure
the identity.
Occupational marks are helpful in identifying a person as certain occupational work leave marks on
hand/feet by which individuals involved in them may be identified e.g. horny and rough hands are
noticed among the persons who do hard manual labour.
12. Handwriting:
Clothes and ornaments can provide a valuable source of identification in case of mass disaster. In
living persons, clothes and personal articles do not form any essential piece of evidence for
identification as the individuals can change them at will.
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14. Speech and Voice:
Peculiarities of speech e.g. stammering, stuttering, lisping and nasal twang assist in the process of
identification. Voice is also affected in nervous diseases, such as cerebrovascular episodes, general
paralysis of the insane and disseminated sclerosis.
15. Gait:
An individual can also be recognized from his gait or body contour but it may be altered by an accident
or disease such as locomotor, hemiplegia, spastic paraplegia.
This form of identification is generally hereditary e.g. repetitive jerky movement of the shoulder or
muscle of the face.
Identification based on these points are also helpful in establishing the identity of person especially in
case of imposture.
Summary:
Identification is the determination of the individuality of a person. It deals with the recognition and
verification of a person. This process is done in living or dead persons by recognizing or identifying
certain features or characteristics that are unique to that person. Identification also has certain medico-
legal importance in civil or criminal cases. There are a number of sources by which a person may be
identified which includes race, age, sex, stature, complexion, hair, finger-prints, footprints,
anthropometry, personal effects, deformities, scar, handwriting and mannerism. Sex, age and stature
are primary characteristics whereas personal effects, hand prints and footprints, deformities, scar,
handwriting, mannerism come under secondary characteristics which help in complete identification of
an individual.
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