Unit 7electric Traction

Electrical Power Utilization (10EE72)
UNIT: 7
STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL TRACTION
MOTORS
7.1. SPEED CONTROL AND STARTING OF DC MOTORS:
Various methods used for starting and controlling of speed of dc series motors are
discussed below.
1. Rheostatic Control:
 A series motor can be started by connecting an external resistance (starter) in
series with the main circuit of the motor. At the starting instant, since the back
emf developed by the motor is zero, therefore, the resistance connected in series
with the motor is maximum and is of such a value that the voltage drop across it
with full load rated current is equal to line voltage.
 As the motor speeds up, the back emf developed by the motor increases,
therefore, the external resistance is gradually reduced in order to maintain the
current constant through the starting or accelerating period. Basic traction motor
circuit with rheostatic starting is shown in fig. In this method there is a
considerable loss of energy in the external circuit.
The resistance employed is designed for short time rating and not for continuous
rating as they are required to carry current only during starting of motors. The motor can,
therefore, have only one speed characteristic.
Pooja. P.S, Asst Prof, Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore
2. Series-Parallel Control.
The main disadvantage of rheostatic control is wastage of electrical energy. This partly
overcome in this method when there are two or more motors.
In case of two motors, the motors are first connected in service with each other
and a starting or control resistance as illustrate in fig (a). The additional resistance is
gradually cut-out by the controller as the motors attain speeds and finally the control
resistance is totally removed. Then each motor has one half of the line voltage across it, as
shown in fig (b). This is the first running position. In this position for any given value of
armature current each motor will run at half of its normal speed.
Since there is no external resistance in the circuit, hence there is no wastage of energy
and so motors operate at a efficiency nearly equal to that obtainable with full line voltage
across the terminal of each motor.
In the next step the two motors are connected in parallel and in series with a variable
resistance R, as shown in fig (c). This resistance is gradually cut out as the motors attain the
speed and finally when this resistance is totally removed from the circuit, as illustrated in
fig.,(d) the second running position is obtained. In this position each motor is connected
across the full line voltage. A diagram of connections illustrating the switching sequence is
given in the figure below.
3. Field Control.
A speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the flux (assuming line voltage
constant), therefore, the speed can be vied by varying the flux. In case of series motors
the flux can be varied either (i) by connecting a variable resistance known as diverter in
parallel with the series field winding by cutting out some of the series field turns. Since
in both the cases the flux can be only reduced, therefore, this method is known as field
weakening method and speeds above normal can be obtained. By this method speed can
be raised to the extent of 15 to 30 percent of normal speed owing to design difficulties
arising with traction motors.
The field weakening method is of no use for starting purpose. This method is used for
increasing the speed of traction motors unto the extent of 10 or 15 percent when they have
attained maximum possible speed by series-parallel control system. The advantage of this
system is that it increases the flexibility of the train utility.
For instance for city service, the speed required is low and frequent starting and
stopping are required, the equipment can operate with full field. When the same vehicle has
to be employed for suburban and inter-urban lines where higher speeds are required, it
would need a change in the gear ratio. By using field weakening method of speed control, the
necessity of, changing the gear ratio can be eliminated. Thus one type of equipment can be
used to operate various types of services with reasonable energy consumption.
4. Motor-Generator Locomotive Control.
The motor-generator set usually consists of a single phase synchronous motor driving
one or two dc generators and an exciter on the same shaft. The set is usually started and
brought upto speed by a starting motor and automatically synchronized when it attain
speed. The generator voltage is regulated by means of field control from exciter,
therefore, neither resistance is required in traction motor supply circuit nor is series-
parallel control required to obtain economical running speeds or save rheostat losses in
the traction-motor control.
A series-parallel arrangement is sometimes used to permit economy in the size and

weight of the generator.
5. Diesel Electric Locomotive Control.
Diesel electric locomotive have come into prominence in the past few decades and have
largely replaced steam locomotive, in many parts of the world. Primarily a diesel-electric
drive, as used on locomotive, is a self-contained system of power conversion in which a
diesel engine supplies power to the traction motors through a dc generator which it
operates. Thus there are three fundamental parts in the diesel locomotive namely the
diesel engine, the dc generator and the dc series traction motors. The diesel engine drives
the generator, and the generator supplies dc power to the traction motors, which in turn
supply motive power to drive the vehicle. The field of the generator is indirectly excited
by a battery and the voltage may be varied by a rheostat. The battery voltage in turn
varies the voltage of an auxiliary exciter or an amplidyne and this excites the main
generator. The voltage of the generator is thus under control and this form of control
makes unnecessary resistance grids in the main motor circuits to protect the traction
motors in starting and accelerating. The engine speed is normally controlled by a load
regulator which loads the engine according to the controller setting. This regulator
automatically maintains a constant output, because if the engine demands more fuel than
called for the setting, the regulator reduces field excitation and thus prevents stalling the
engine. There are several types of diesel engine control, but they all in general follow this
principle.
7.1.1. PLAIN RHEOSTATIC STARTING (NOTCHING).

As already mentioned in this method the voltage across the motor is gradually increased from
zero to full (normal) voltage and the current is kept constant at normal rated value by
reducing the external resistance gradually. Let the starting period be T seconds, constant
current I amperes and line voltage V volts.
At the instant of switching on the supply, the back emf is zero and it starts building up
immediately the motor starts rotating. At any instant the sully voltage is equal to emf
developed by motor plus voltage drop in the series field and armature of motor plus voltage
drop in starting rheostat.
𝑖, 𝑒. 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑅𝑚 + 𝐼𝑅
At the starting period, the back emf becomes approximately equal to line voltage and is given
as 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑅𝑚
(As external resistance is reduced to zero, and therefore voltage drop in the external
resistance is zero)
Energy drawn from the supply during starting =VIT watt sec
Energy lost in external resistance= average voltage drop across the external resistance*
current * time
𝑉−𝐼𝑅𝑚 + 0
= ∗𝐼∗𝑇
2
𝑉
=2∗𝐼∗𝑇
1
= 2VIT watt-sec
Energy utilized in driving the motor, = energy supplied- energy wasted in external resistance
1
= VIT- 2 VIT
1
= VIT watt-seconds
2
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑
Starting efficiency η= ∗ 100
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛
𝑉𝐼𝑇
2
= 𝑉𝐼𝑇 *100 = 50%
7.1.2. SERIES – PARALLEL STARTING

This method is usually employed in electric traction as motors employed for traction work are
usually two, four, six or more than this even.
(1) First consider two motors. Let the current be constant and equal to I amperes
throughout, the line voltage be V volts and accelerating period be T seconds.
At the starting instant, both the motors are connected in series along with the
starting resistance, the voltage across the motors (neglecting voltage drop in armature
and series field resistance) is approximately equal to zero and voltage drop across
external resistance is maximum and equal to V volts. As the motors speed up, the
external resistance is gradually reduced to zero. During this period the voltage acting
𝑉
across each motor gradually increases from 0 to volts. Let the time required be half
2
𝑇
of total accelerating period i.e. 2 seconds.
Energy utilized by each motor = Average voltage acting across each motor x current x
time
𝑉
0+ 𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑇
2
= ∗𝐼∗ = watt-seconds
2 2 8
𝑉𝐼𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑇
Energy utilized by two motors =2x = watt-seconds
8 4
𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑇
Energy drawn during this period = VI × = watt-seconds
2 2
When the motors are changed from series grouping to parallel grouping external
𝑉
resistance is again inserted in the motors circuit. The voltage across each motor is equal to 2
volts, the current per motor is I amperes and current drawn from the line is 2 I amperes. As
the motors speed up, the external resistance is gradually reduced to zero and voltage across
𝑉
each motor increases gradually from 2 to V volts.
Energy utilize in driving the motors
= Number of motors * Average voltage across each motor * current * time

𝑉
+𝑉 𝑇 3𝑉𝐼𝑇
= 2 × 22 × 𝐼 × = watt-seconds
2 4
𝑇
Energy drawn during this period = V * 2I * 2 = VIT watt-seconds
Total energy utilized in driving the motors

𝑉𝐼𝑇 3𝑉𝐼𝑇
= + = VIT watt-seconds
4 4
𝑉𝐼𝑇 3
Total energy drawn from the line = + 𝑉𝐼𝑇 = 2 VIT watt-seconds
2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐼𝑇

Overall starting efficiency, η = × 100 = 3 × 100 = 66.67%
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼𝑇
2
(2) In the case of 4 motors all the four motors are connected in series with starting
𝑉
resistance first. The voltage across each motor is gradually increased from 0 to 4 volts
by reducing the external resistance gradually to zero. The current per motor is equal
to I amperes. The current drawn from the line is also equal to I amperes. The time
𝑉
required for increasing the voltage across each motor from 0 to 4 volts is one-fourth of
𝑇
the total accelerating period ie., 4 seconds.
In second step two groups, each consisting of two motors connected in series is put in
𝑉 𝑉
parallel. The voltage across each motor increases from to volts. The current per motor is
4 2
𝑇
equal to I amperes and current drawn from the line is 2 I amperes. The period is 4 seconds.
In third step all the four motors are placed in parallel. The voltage across each motor
𝑉
gradually increases from to V volts. The current per terminal is I amperes. Therefore, the
2
𝑇
total Line current is 4 I amperes. The period is 2 seconds.
Energy utilized in driving the motors
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
(0+ ) 𝑇 ( + ) 𝑇 ( + 𝑉) 𝑇
4 4 2 2
=4× ×Ix + 4 ×𝐼 × +4 ×𝐼 ×
2 4 2 4 2 2
𝑉𝐼𝑇 3𝑉𝐼𝑇 3𝑉𝐼𝑇

= + + = 2 𝑉𝐼𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
8 8 2
𝑇 𝑇 T
Total energy input = V × 𝐼 × + V × 2 𝐼 × 4 + 4𝐼 × = 2.75 VIT watt − seconds
4 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 2𝑉𝐼𝑇

Overall starting efficiency = × 100 = × 100 = 72.72%
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 2.75 𝑉𝐼𝑇
(3) In case of 6 motors all the six motors are connected in series with starting resistance.
𝑉
The voltage across each motor is gradually increased from 0 to volts by reducing
6
the external resistance gradually to zero. The current drawn per motor is equal to I
amperes. The time required for increasing the voltage across each motor from 0 to
𝑉 𝑇
volts is one-third of the total accelerating period i.e. 3 seconds.
6
In second step two groups, each consisting of three motors connected in series are put in
𝑉 𝑉
parallel. The voltage across each motor increased from 𝑡𝑜 volts. The current per motor
6 3
is equal to I amperes and current drawn from the line is 2 I amperes. The time required will
𝑇
be 3 seconds.
In third step three groups each consisting of two motors connected in series are put in
𝑉 𝑉
parallel. The voltage across each motors increases from 3 𝑡𝑜 volts. The current per motor
2
is equal to I amperes and current drawn from the line is 3 I amperes. The time required will
𝑇
be again seconds.
3
Energy utilized in driving the motors

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
(0+ ) 𝑇 ( + ) 𝑇 + 𝑇
6 6 3 3 2
=6 I× +6 ×𝐼 × + 6( ) 𝐼 ×3
2 3 2 3 2
𝑉𝐼𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑇 5𝑉𝐼𝑇

= + + = 1.5 V I T watt-seconds
6 2 6
Total energy input

𝑉𝐼𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
= + 𝑉 × 2𝐼 × + 𝑉 × 3𝐼 × = 2 𝑉 𝐼 𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
3 3 3
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 1.5 𝑉𝐼𝑇

Starting efficiency = × 100 = × 100 = 75%
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 2 𝑉𝐼𝑇
Advantages of Series-Parallel Starting.
(i)Higher starting efficiency. 66.67% with two motors, 72.72% with four motors and 75%
with six motors whereas only 50% efficiency is obtained with plain rheostat starting.
(ii)Different economical speeds. Two with two motors in the ratio of 1 : 2 : three with four
motors in the ration of 1 : 2 : 4 and three with six motors in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 3.
(iii) For the same power input the torque of different magnitude is obtained. Torque in
parallel combination is 1/4th of that in series combination but speed is four times of hat with
series combination. For the same motor current, the torque remains the same but speed as
parallel combination becomes double the speed of that of series combination.
(iv) Owing to low energy loss in the starting rheostats, they are not of cumbersome size. The
main difficulty associated with series-parallel control is in obtaining a satisfactory method of
transition from series to parallel without interrupting the torque or permitting any heavy rush
of current. Leaving smaller units it is quite inadmissible to open the circuit to affect the
change-over.
7.1.3. TRANSITION METHODS
The method of changing-over the connections from one grouping to another are known as
transition methods. The change-over from full series (when the two motors are connected in
series and voltage across each motor is equal to half of the supply voltage) to first parallel
(when the two motors are connected in parallel and part of the starting resistance is re-
inserted in the circuit to cause the voltage drop to half of the supply voltage) is possible by
three methods.
1. Open circuit transition 2. Shunt transition and 3. Bridge transition.
1. Open-Circuit Transition. The various steps involved in open-circuit transition are

shown in fig. In open circuit transition first the series connection between the motor is
disconnected and power is switched off with full load current. Then some of the starting
resistance is re-inserted in the circuit, the two motors are connected in parallel and supply
is restored. It causes interruption to torque, and therefore, its use is limited to very small
units.
2. Shunt Transition. In this method first the motors are run up and brought to full series
position by cutting out the external resistance gradually. Then some resistance is re-
inserted, one of the motor is short-circuited, one end of the short-circuited motor is
opened and finally connected across in such a way that motors are placed in first parallel.
The series resistance is now gradually reduced to zero and the motors are places in full
parallel. There is a jerk in this system as one motor is shorted and ceases to act and then
other jerk when it is re-inserted. This method is employed in tramways, industrial
locomotives and main line locomotives. It is preferred for voltage above 600 volts.
3. Bridge Transition. In this method the starting resistance is split up into two equal
parts. The motors and starting resistance are connected in series, as shown in fig. In the
transition each motor have a section of the starting resistance in parallel with it and two
such combinations are put in series with each other, then the bridge link is removed and
the motors are placed in first parallel. Now the external resistance is gradually reduced to
zero and motor come in full parallel.
The advantage of the bridge transition method is that during transition, the motors
always remain connected to the supply and as the resistances are so adjusted that the value of
current remains the same, the torque remains constant, and therefore, uniform acceleration is
obtained without causing inconvenience to the passengers. This method is used for railway
traction. In case this method is employed for voltage above 600 V double contacts at series
links are required in order to avoid heavy arcing due to heavy current.
7.1.4. SPEED CONTROL AND STARTING OF SINGLE PHASE SERIES

MOTORS
The control of speed and torque in case of single phase ac series motor is carried out by
varying the applied voltage. As the operating voltage for a single phase series motor is very
low (about 300 volts), thus, transformer forms an essential part of the locomotive equipment
and, therefore, variable voltage for both starting and speed control can be obtained by means
of tappings on the transformer without requiring any additional equipment for this purpose.
The transformer tappings are usually provided on lt side of the transformer in order to avoid
insulation difficulties but 11,000 volt locomotives have been built with hv tappings, which
enables a lighter construction to be used on account of much lower currents to be dealt with.
As no external resistance is required for starting purpose, so there is no loss of power and
each control point becomes a running point. The regulation of voltage is affected by the
contactor method of tap changing as shown in fig.
A preventive coil is employed for reducing the circulating current flowing on account of
short-circuiting of a section of the winding of the transformer between the tappings.
Preventive coil (choking coil having high resistance) is inserted between the terminals of two
groups consisting of tappings 1, 3, 5 and 2, 4, 6 as shown in the fig. The motor is connected
to the centre point of the preventive coil. Two contactors, connected to the adjacent tappings
(1, and 2 or 2 and 3 or 3 and 4or 4 and 5 or 5 and 6) are closed on each notch of the
controller. Each contactor therefore carries approximately one half of the total current
required. For changing- over voltage from one value to another one contactor is opened and
another contactor belonging to the same group is closed.
An important advantage of this method is that each notch provides a running position
so that many running speeds are available. Between 6 and 12 tapings are usually provided,
giving a corresponding number of economical speeds.
In case larger current are to be handled by the contactors (for large capacity traction
motors), a larger number of contactors are to be employed simultaneously so that the current
is divided between them and each contactor has not to deal more than a pre-specified design.
Contactor method of tap changing for larger currents (over 1,000 A) is shown in fig.
In this method four adjacent contactors are connected to the same notch of the controller.
There are three preventive coils, also called bridging coils arranged in such a fashion as to
facilitate the correct amount of contactors.
The ac contactors are quite different from the dc contactors. In general, dc contactor
is much lighter than the ac contactor and needs less power for its operation. Other special
features of ac contactors are (i) laminated magnetic circuit (ii) provision of shading coil in
order to avoid chattering of contactors.
7.2 BRAKING: MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CONTROL

EQUIPMENT
7.2. BRAKING
 Electrical and mechanical, both types of braking are used in electric traction. In
electric braking the braking energy is converted into electrical energy instead of
converting it into heat energy at the break shoes, it is either dissipated by the
resistance mounted on the vehicle or it is returned to the supply system.
 Electric braking reduces the wear of the brake shoes and wheel tyres considerably
and also gives higher rate of braking retardation, thus brings the vehicle quickly to
set and shortens the running time to a considerable extent.
 In case if regenerative braking is employed, the braking energy is returned to the

supply system thereby a considerable saving is seen in the running cost, higher
speeds are possible while going down the gradients as more braking power is
available and heavier trains can be propelled down the gradients with safety and
speed without dividing it into sections. Electric braking cannot replace the
ordinary mechanical brakes, as the vehicle cannot be held stationary by it.
The considerable requirements of a braking system are given below;
1. The braking system should be simple, robust, quick and reliable in action.
2. Maintenance needs should be minimum and braking system must be easy for driver to
control and operate.
3. The system should apply brakes simultaneously over the entire vehicle.
4. Normal service application of brakes should be very gradual and smooth so as to
avoid dame to the goods and discomfort to the passengers.
5. The braking force applied to each axle should be proportional to the axle load so as to
obtain uniform deceleration.
6. In case of emergency braking, safety consideration is the main consideration. As such
retardation rate would be maximum consistent with the safety, so as to make unfailing
halt in the minimum possible distance.
7. Kinetic energy of the train should as far as possible be storable during baking which
could subsequently be used during acceleration of the train.
8. The braking system should be inexhaustible.
9. There should be automotive slack adjustment for constant piston stroke as a result of
wear in the rim and the brake blocks in the case of mechanical braking.
The requirements of a braking system on a main-line locomotive differ from those of motor
coaches-the former usually needs braking to hold the train at the steady speed on a long down
grade, whereas with the latter braking is primarily required for stopping the train. Rheostat
braking is employed in both the cases but regenerative braking is mainly confined to main-
line locomotives due to the complications involved in providing regenerative braking with dc
series motors.
There are three methods of applying electric braking namely (i) plugging (ii) rheostatic
braking and (iii) regenerative braking.
 Plugging: This is the simplest type of braking. In this method of braking the torque
of the motor is reversed, which brings the motor and its driven machine to standstill.
This method of applying electric braking with dc motor, 3-phase induction motors and
synchronous motors.
2. Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking
 In this method of braking the motor is disconnected from the supply and operated as a
generator driven by the kinetic energy of the rotating parts of the motors and its
driven machines. Thus the kinetic energy of rotation is converted into electrical
energy, which is dissipated in the external resistance connected across the motor at the
braking instant. This method of applying electric braking with dc motors, 3-phase
synchronous motors and induction motors.
 In traction work where two or more motors are employed, they are put in parallel
across a resistance for braking, as the series connection would produce too high
voltage.
 During the braking period the motors are driven as generators owing to the kinetic
energy of the train and the electrical energy so generated is dissipated in the form of
heat in the resistances connected across them.
 An equalizer connection, as shown in the figure (a), is used to ensure that the two
machines share the load equally. If the equalizer connection were not done, the
machine that would build up first would send a large current through the other in the
opposite direction, causing it to excite with reversed voltage and so that two machines
would be short-circuited on themselves. A large braking torque would be developed
in this way, but it would be quite uncontrollable and the current would be dangerously
large. An alternative method of avoiding this situation is cross-connection of the two
machines, as illustrated.
3. In case the voltage of one of the machines becomes larger than that of the other, the
first machine will cause flow of a higher current through the field winding of the
second machine. As a result the second machine will have higher voltage while the
field current in the first machine. Thus, an automatic compensation of the
unbalancing is achieved.
4. The second method is advantageous to the first one as if the direction of rotation of
the machine armatures reverses (may be on account of run back due to up gradation),
the machines will fail to excite with equalizer connection and, therefore, no braking
effect will be reduced which may prove fatal for the passengers whereas with cross-
connection the machines will build up in series and being short-circuited on

themselves will provide an emergency braking and the train will not be allowed to
run back on the gradient.
5. Rheostatic braking cannot be employed with 3-phase induction motors.
6. In case of ac series motors the rheostatic braking is obtained by operating the

machines as generators excited from the supply or as self-excited dc generator
supplying power to resistance load. In the former case the fields are energized at low
voltage from a suitable trapping on the main transformer while in the latter case the
fields of the motors are excited from one of the motors acting as a series generator and
in this case dc will be generated as rotors of the motors and the kinetic energy of the
rotors will dissipated as dc power in the loading resistors.
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
 In the regenerative braking the motors remain connected to the supply and return
the braking energy to the supply.
For regenerative braking it is necessary that traction motors must generate power at a voltage
higher than the supply voltage and at a reasonable constant voltage.
Regenerative braking is an inherent characteristic of dc shunt wound motors and does

not require any change of connections. DC shunt motors are electrically stable also i.e.,
braking torque is independent of line voltage fluctuations. Regenerative braking with dc
shunt motors.
The dc series motors cannot be used readily for regenerative braking and some
modification of shunt winding or separate excitation of the series field at low voltage is
necessary to be employed to enable the motor to act as a generator.
(1) One method of obtaining regenerative braking with series motors is French method.
Inherently a dc series generator has no stability of voltage, and therefore, an external

means is required, a separate motor driven exciter, has a separately excited field winding
F1 and also another field winding F2 connected to the main motor circuit in such a fashion
that the field created by the motor, opposes the field created by separately excited
winding F1 during regeneration as shown in the below fig. (a). The stabilizing resistance
R is employed to prevent current surges when the train crosses from one section of the
supply to another, and to compensate for variable line voltage. In case the line voltage
falls, regenerated current will tend to increase, resulting in strengthening of field F2 which
will weaken the field F1 and, therefore, reduction in emf generated by the exciter. Thus
the field of the traction motors will be weakened resulting in reduction of emfs generated
by the traction motors operating as dc series generators. Thus compensation for a
decrease in the line voltage is automatically provided.
The arrangement shown in fig (b) has a exciter armature connected in the circuit of
the field winding of traction motors and the stabilizing resistance. The current through the
stabilizing resistance is the sum of the exciter current and the regenerated current. The
voltage of the exciter circuit can be regulated by either varying its field strength of
manipulating resistances in series with the armature. In case the line voltage falls the
regenerated current will tend to increase resulting increase in voltage drop across the
stabilizing resistances and, therefore, reduction in the voltage available in the exciter
armature circuit causing a reduction in the excitation current of the traction motors operating
as dc series generators. This reduces the emfs generated and thus compensation is provided
automatically.
(2) Regenerative braking is an inherent characteristic of an induction motor since an

induction motor operates as an induction (non-synchronous) generator when run at
speeds above back to the supply line. The machine, however, is not self-exciting as a
generator and is required to be connected to a system supplied from synchronous
generators. This system supplies the excitation and determines the frequency at
which the induction generator operates. Torque-speed characteristics of an induction
machine are as shown in figure.
From the torque-speed characteristics of an induction machine it is obvious that

without any extra resistance in the rotor circuit, there is only a slight variation of
speed with the torque whereas with the external resistance inserted in the rotor circuit
speed increase for a particular braking torque. Thus we see that with no extra
resistance in the rotor circuit the speed during braking remains almost constant and
independent of the gradient and the weight if the train. This is a great advantage with
the induction motor when used for traction. But if increased speeds are necessary
with light loads, these can be obtained by inserting external resistance in the rotor
circuit. It is advantageous on mountain railways. It returns about railway run and
save a great deal of brake shoe wear.
(3) Regenerative braking with ac series motors is more difficult than that with the dc
series motor. The difficulties encountered are as follows.
During the regeneration period, the machine should not operate as a self-excited
generator. Generally the high power factor is the main consideration in order to achieve a
reasonable braking torque. Circuit for regeneration at high power factor usually suffers from
self excitation, and those which are inherently stable and free from self excitation usually
operate at a poor power factor.
For the regenerative braking the regenerated power should have the same frequency
as that of the main supply. This necessitates the energizing of the motor field winding from
the ac mains. The regenerated current must be in phase opposition to the applied voltage and
also the flux Ф, so that power may be supplied back into the supply system.
The arrangement to provide the above conditions is illustrated in the figure.
In order to satisfactory arrangement one of the traction motors is used as generator to supply
current to excite the fields of the remaining motors. As the speed of the locomotive falls, the
voltage of the motors can be controlled by increasing the excitation current. This is
accomplished by increasing the voltage on the exciting motor by employing another
transformer tap. Further flexibility can be obtained by changing the tap from the generating
motor.
Another scheme known as Behn Eschenburg scheme of regenerative braking is as

shown in figure below. In this case an auxiliary transformer is used to excite the exciting
winding of the traction motor. The armature of the traction motor is connected to the
transformer through tap changer. In between the motor armature and tap changer is inserted a
choking coil or iron-cored reactor in series. Commutating pole winding C in series with a
resistor R is shunted with another iron-core reactor in order to obtain the correct (leading)
phase of the commutating flux.
The current flowing in the exciting winding, If will lag behind the voltage V at the tap
changer approximately by 900 and the emf generated in the armature of the motor, E will be
in phase with the exciting current If . The voltage equal to phasor difference of voltage V and
emf E will act across the reactor I. The armature current I a lags behind the voltage acting
across the reactor I (represented by phasor OD) by roughly 900.
For a given voltage across the tap-changer the braking torque produced will be
proportional to Ia cos Ψ and the power returned to the supply main will be proportional to Ia
cos α if losses are neglected.
From the phasor diagram we conclude that, for constant excitation,
(i) The braking torque is approximately constant at, all speeds.

(ii) Volt-amperes absorbed by reactor I are more than those generated by the
armature.
(iii) The power factor of the generated power is about 0.7, which is considered as low
power factor. But this is not considered a serious drawback as the arrangement
provides simplicity of operation, reliability, stability and free from self excitation.
Advantages:
1. A part of energy is returned to the supply system, so energy consumption for the run
is considerably (about 20 to 30 percent) reduced thereby affecting a considerable
saving in the operating cost.
2. The wear of the brake shoes and wheel tyres is reduced to considerable extent,
therefore, their life is increased and replacement cost is reduced.
3. Higher value of braking retardation is obtained so that the vehicle can be brought to
rest quickly and running time is considerably reduced.
4. Small amount of brake dust is produced when the mechanical brakes are applied.
5. Higher speeds are possible while going down the gradients because the high braking
retardation can be obtained with regenerative braking.
6. Propulsion of heavier trains on gradient sis possible without diving them into sections
with speed and safety.
Disadvantages.
1. Additional equipment is required for control of regeneration and for protection of

equipment and machines, hence initial as well as maintenance cost is increased.
2. The dc machines required in case of regenerative braking are of large size and cost
more than those ordinary employed, therefore, the weight of the locomotive and thus
the required mechanical strength and cost increase.
3. Owing to recuperated energy the operation of the substations becomes complicated
and difficult.
4. In case of substations employing mercury-arc rectifiers for conversion purpose,
additional equipment is required either to deal with regenerated energy separately or
to change one or more of the ordinary rectifiers over to inverted operation. No such
difficulty is experienced in case of substations employing rotary convertors or motor-
generator sets for converting purpose.
5. Regenerative braking is employed down to a speed of 16 kmph, then rheostatic
braking to about 6.5 kmph and then mechanical braking is required to bring the
locomotive to rest.
In most of the cases, however, and especially with motor-coach trains the increased
cost of the train equipment and the additional features required in order to obtain
regenerative braking, combined with the increase in the maintenance cost of the
electrical equipment, may entirely offset the economics in the energy consumption
and the other items.
For tramways, trolley buses, the regenerative braking is not recommended as it

will unnecessarily increase the initial cost as well as increase the operating problems.
Generally regenerative braking is desirable and necessary for the service lines having
long gradients exceeding 0.6%.
MECHANICAL REGENERATIVE BRAKING
When the train is accelerated up to a certain speed it acquires energy, known as kinetic
1
energy, corresponding to that speed (KE = 2 mv2), while coasting a part of this stored energy
is utilized in propelling the train against frictional and other resistance to motion and,
therefore, the speed falls. Thus coasting may be considered as a form of mechanical
regenerative braking. The saving in energy consumption can be considerably affected by
increasing the coasting but it will reduce the schedule speed. If, however, the original
schedule speed is to be maintained, an increase in the acceleration is required which is
possible with large motors. Thus the saving in energy consumption may be neutralized by
the increased train weight and the additional cost of the equipment.
With modern city and suburban traffic conditions, the coasting period is about 20 to
50 percent of the total running period and consequently a large percentage of kinetic energy
has to be wasted in brakes. One of the ways of tackling this problem based on the principle
of mechanical regenerative braking is adoption of graded track system. It facilitates the
saving of energy consumption to about 25%
In the graded track system the stations are situated at a certain height above level
track, slope of track while leaving station is 1 in 30 and while approaching station is q in 6-0.
In this system the kinetic energy of the train instead of being wasted in brakes is utilized and
stored as potential energy as the train has to climb up a slope of 1 in 60 while approaching the
station. This potential energy is utilized in moving the train down gradient and imparting
acceleration to it. By using this system small motors can be used for during the train and
specific energy consumption can be reduced to 75 percent of that when the level track was
employed. This system can be employed only in underground railways because on surface
railway difficulties will be experienced in the construction of the required track.
MECHANICAL BRAKING
For stopping the train and holding it stationary, in addition to electrical brakes, mechanical
brakes are also required. The modern tendency is to employ regenerative braking down to a
speed of 16 km per hour, then rheostatic braking down to about 6.3 km per hour, and finally
mechanical braking to a stand stall. Mechanical brakes are usually supplied by brake block
shoes pressed with force against the trend of the wheels. Braking force is caused by the
movement of the piston which is transmitted to the brake through a system of levers.
Mechanical brakes are of two types namely the compressed air brakes and vacuum
brakes; the former is extensively used in electric railways whereas the latter is used in steam
railways. The compressed air brakes are little advantageous to the vacuum brakes as
compressed air can conveniently be stored up and released for quick action whereas in the
vacuum brakes the necessary vacuum is to be created by the pump. However, this drawback
is overcome by use of vacuum reservoir.
1. Compressed Air Brakes:

The compressed air brake system consists of a reservoir compressed air, a brake
cylinder, compressed air pipe, a valve, springs, piston and piston rods and levers. The
brakes are kept in the off position by means of springs provided for this purpose. While
applying brakes, compressed air is allowed to enter into the brake cylinder through the air
pipe and valve, which presses the piston against the force of springs. The force with
which the brakes are applied depends upon the quantity of compressed air allowed to
enter into the cylinder. A valve placed at the inlet of brake cylinder controls the flow of
air into it. /the brakes are released by exhausting the air. The piston along with the brakes
return to its original position under the influence of spring force on exhausting the air.
The compressed air is used at about 5.5 kg/cm2 pressure. The compressed air brakes are
extensively employed on electric railways.
2. VACUUM BRAKES.
The vacuum brake system consists of a vertical cylinder with a piston inside the
piston is an easy fit in the cylinder and is provided with rolling rubber ring. The position is
connected to the piston rod which operates the braking arrangement through a system of
levers. Vacuum is always maintained on the top and the underside of the piston so that in
normal conditions the piston rests at the bottom of the cylinder.
While applying brakes air at atmospheric pressure is gradually admitted beneath the
piston through air pipe and valve the piston moves up and applies the brakes. The force with
which the brakes are applied depends upon the rapidity with which the vacuum is destroyed.
The brakes are released by recreating the vacuum. The vacuum is recreated by
drawing air from lower side f the piston through the pipe. The piston falls to bottom of the
cylinder on account of its own weight. Vacuum brakes are applied with steam locomotives.
3. HYDRAULIC BRAKING
This system consists of an assembly similar to a hydraulic coupling, the rotor being
keyed to the axle and the stator being keyed to the bogie frame. The circulation of
fluid (water or oil) through the assembly by the rotor vanes produces a braking torque.
The brake is applied by filling the coupling by means of a pump.
4. MAGNETIC TRACK BRAKES

It comprises a bipolar electro-magnet with elongated pole faces a short distance apart
(about 6 mm) and along with track. The body of the electro-magnet is made of cast
steel, the pole faces are made of soft steel and can be easily replaced and the winding
is enclosed in a water tight metal case. When produce a retarding effect due partly to
the magnetic pull (which increases the effective weight of the coils) and partly to
mechanical drag.
The flux created due to flow of current is perpendicular to the pole faces and
tract force of attraction between the tracks a magnet is given as
𝐵2 𝐴
F = newtons
2 ×4𝜋 ×10−7
where B is flux density in Wb/m2 and A is the pole face in square metres.
The braking force or the drag = 𝜇F where 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction. Magnetic brakes are
usually employed on trolley buses and cars. Brakes are usually employed on trolley buses and
cars.
ELECTRO-MEHCANICAL DRUM BRAKES

In this type the brake drum is mounted on the motor shaft. The brake shoe is pressed
against it by springs. The brakes are released by means of a solenoid energized from
a battery. This type of brake is usually employed on trolley buses and cars.
EDDY CURRENT BRAKES

Eddy current brakes are of two type’s viz linear and rotary type. In the linear type
brakes, shoe carrying the excitation current acts as a primary and the rail itself forms
the secondary element of the system. During braking, traction motors are made to
operate as generators and supply power to the shoe of the eddy current brakes. In the
rotary system, the rotor, which acts as a secondary member is attached to the motor
shaft and the dc excitation is supplied to the primary member which is fixed in space.
The torque developed due to induced currents in the rotor will tend to reduce the
relative speed between the rotor and the stationary field. Thus braking effect will
come in action. The braking torque can be varied by the varying the dc excitation of
the primary member (stator).
The main advantage of eddy current braking is the same as that of the disc
brake and is used satisfactorily in conjunction with the friction brakes for bringing the
vehicle to rest.
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The main considerations in connection with the locomotive are the wheel arrangement
and general disposition of equipment in order to have good riding properties and the
transmission of power from motors to the driving wheels.
1. Wheel Arrangement,
The maximum tractive effort which can be exerted by a locomotive without slipping
of the driving wheels depends upon the coefficient of adhesion (which is about 0.15 to 0.25)
and the weight on the driving wheels. Hence for propulsion of train, certain maximum
weight on the driving wheels is essential. The maximum permissible weight on the driving
wheels depends on the number of driving axles and the strength of the track, bridges etc.
(which is between 15 and 30 tonnes). The minimum µ and maximum permissible weight per
driving axle.
𝐹
𝜇 × 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒.
For example if the maximum tractive effort required is 30,000 kg, coefficient
of adhesion is 0.2 and maximum allowable weight per driving axle is 19 tonnes, then
number of driving axles required
30,000
= =8
0.2 ×1,000 ×19
Such a train will b hauled by two locomotives each has 4 driving axles making 8 in
all.
In case of dc locomotives since the electrical equipment is lighter in weight, so whole
of the locomotive weight is placed on the driving axles so that required tractive effort may be
obtained.
In case of ac locomotive, since the electrical equipment is comparatively heavy, so the
required tractive effort can be obtained by placing only a portion of the weight on the driving
wheels and supporting the rest on trailing axles. The riding qualities of high speed
locomotives are improved by the trailing axles, which are often used on dc locomotives for
this purpose.
Drive:
There are two methods of driving the electric train. These are individual drive and collective
drive. In individual drive separate motor of smaller size is employed for each driving axle
whereas in collective drive a single large sized motor is employed for driving all the axles
through connecting rods as in steam locomotives. The collective drive has the following
advantages and disadvantages over individual drive.
Advantages:
1. The wheels when coupled have got fewer tendencies to slip.
2. The motor can be mounted well up in main body of the locomotive; therefore, the
centre of gravity is raised thereby reducing the wear on track.
3. The motor for collective drive need not be paid so much attention in designing
with regard to dimensions as much that for individual drive.
Disadvantage:
Collective drive is not suitable for high speed locomotive because of stresses and
vibrations in the connecting rods at high speeds
From the above I can be concluded that individual drive is advantageous only for high
speed locomotives whereas for low-speed locomotives, which are usually employed for
passengers and goods trains, collective drive is preferred.
Transmission of Drive.
The electric locomotives are specially designed to have springs between the driving
axles and the main body and it is desirable to have as much of locomotive weight spring-
borne as possible. This reduces not only vibrations in the locomotive but also reduces
substantially the damage to the track owing to hammer blows. In case the motors are fixed
on the locomotive or bogie frame in order to have maximum locomotive weight spring-borne,
there will be a relative motion between the motor armature and the driving axle owing to
compression and extension of the springs. Hence flexible drive between the two is required,
which is one of the most difficult problems of the electric locomotive.
1. Gearless Drive
(a) Direct drive. The simplest way is to employ bipolar motors, whose armatures are
mounted directly on the driving axles with the field attached to the frame of the
locomotive. The pole pieces of the motors are approximately flat so that the armature
can more relatively to them without affecting the operation. The size of motor
armature is limited by the diameter of driving wheels. In case driving wheels of large
diameters are employed, the speed of the motor will have to be limited to lower one.
Because of these facts and relatively large unsprung weight, poor utilization of
material and the low centre of gravity of the locomotives the applications of this
method are limited.
(b) Direct Quill Drive: The quill is a hollow shaft which surrounds the driving axle
and is connected to it by springs or more other flexible device as shown in the fig.
The armature of the motor is directly mounted on the quill and therefore, it is entirely
spring-borne. Thus the unsprung weight is reduced to a minimum and motor of a
normal design can be employed. The speed and size of armature are still limited by
the diameter of the driving wheels.
5. Geared Drive.
The size of the motor is reduced with the increase in speed for a given output, so the
gear drive is necessary in order to reduce the size of the motor for given output by
running it at a higher speed. The gearing ratio usually employed is 3 to 5 : 1.
(a) Nose Suspension. The most common type of geared drive is nose suspended
motor as shown in fig below. In nose suspension, the motor is partly supported
from the driving axles and partly between springs which are put on the frame of
the vehicle. More than 50 percent of the total weight of the motor and gear is thus
spring-borne. The motor is coupled to the motor armature. Because of axle

support the space available is short and limits the size of the motor to about 337.5
kW for normal gauge vehicles. The method is usually employed for motor
coaches and tramways. Because of the relatively large unstrung weight this system
is not used on large locomotives. This limitation is also imposed by the available
space which will not accommodate motor of larger size.
(b) Geared Quill Drive. Geared quill drive is employed when the motor is to be
placed higher in the frame than is possible with the nose suspension so that a
motor of larger size (output) can be employed, centre of gravity can be raised and
when unstrung weight is to be reduced. In this case quill surrounds the driving
axle, as in direct quill drive and gear is mounted on the quill instead of motor
armature.
One of the methods already discussed can be used for providing a flexible
connection between the quill and the axle.
6. Brown Boveri Individual Drive.

In this drive, flexibility is achieved by providing a special link arrangement between
the gear wheel and the driving wheel. This arrangement can be employed with
considerable success on both high-and low-speed locomotives.
7. Transmission Arrangement in Collective Drive.

Collective Drive With connecting rod. Common method of collective drive is to drive with
coupled wheels by means of a connecting rod attached to a crank mounted on the motor shaft
or on a “jack” shaft geared to the motor shaft. The connecting rod is fixed in such a was as to
remain nearly horizontal as I the steam locomotive. /such an arrangement eliminates the
chances of any relative motion between the motor shaft and the driving wheels.
(b) Collective Drive with Scotch Yoke. In this drive also, known as scotch yoke, or Kando
type of drive, a triangular frame work having two sides projecting from the apex is used. The
apex of the triangular framework is attached to the coupling rod and the other two corners are
attached to the cranks mounted on two motor shafts. Vertical play is allowed in the bearings
to secure the required flexibility between motor shaft and driving wheels.
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Unit 7electric Traction

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Unit 7electric Traction

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Electrical Power Utilization (10EE72)

7.1. SPEED CONTROL AND STARTING OF DC MOTORS:

4. Motor-Generator Locomotive Control.

A series-parallel arrangement is sometimes used to permit economy in the size and

5. Diesel Electric Locomotive Control.

7.1.1. PLAIN RHEOSTATIC STARTING (NOTCHING).

7.1.2. SERIES – PARALLEL STARTING

Energy utilize in driving the motors

= Number of motors * Average voltage across each motor * current * time

Total energy utilized in driving the motors

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐼𝑇

Energy utilized in driving the motors

𝑉𝐼𝑇 3𝑉𝐼𝑇 3𝑉𝐼𝑇

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 2𝑉𝐼𝑇

Energy utilized in driving the motors

𝑉𝐼𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑇 5𝑉𝐼𝑇

Total energy input

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 1.5 𝑉𝐼𝑇

Advantages of Series-Parallel Starting.

7.1.3. TRANSITION METHODS

1. Open circuit transition 2. Shunt transition and 3. Bridge transition.

1. Open-Circuit Transition. The various steps involved in open-circuit transition are

7.1.4. SPEED CONTROL AND STARTING OF SINGLE PHASE SERIES

7.2 BRAKING: MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CONTROL

 In case if regenerative braking is employed, the braking energy is returned to the

The considerable requirements of a braking system are given below;

2. Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking

connection the machines will build up in series and being short-circuited on

5. Rheostatic braking cannot be employed with 3-phase induction motors.

6. In case of ac series motors the rheostatic braking is obtained by operating the

Regenerative braking is an inherent characteristic of dc shunt wound motors and does

Inherently a dc series generator has no stability of voltage, and therefore, an external

(2) Regenerative braking is an inherent characteristic of an induction motor since an

From the torque-speed characteristics of an induction machine it is obvious that

The arrangement to provide the above conditions is illustrated in the figure.

Another scheme known as Behn Eschenburg scheme of regenerative braking is as

From the phasor diagram we conclude that, for constant excitation,

(i) The braking torque is approximately constant at, all speeds.

1. Additional equipment is required for control of regeneration and for protection of

For tramways, trolley buses, the regenerative braking is not recommended as it

MECHANICAL REGENERATIVE BRAKING

1. Compressed Air Brakes:

4. MAGNETIC TRACK BRAKES

ELECTRO-MEHCANICAL DRUM BRAKES

EDDY CURRENT BRAKES

spring-borne. The motor is coupled to the motor armature. Because of axle

6. Brown Boveri Individual Drive.

7. Transmission Arrangement in Collective Drive.

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