What is the Gravitational Force?

The universe has a lot of forces, a lot of pushes and pulls. We're always pushing or pulling something,
even if only the ground. But it turns out that in physics, there are really only four fundamental forces
from which everything else is derived: the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and
the gravitational force.

The gravitational force is a force that attracts any two objects with mass. We call the gravitational
force attractive because it always tries to pull masses together, it never pushes them apart. In fact,
every object, including you, is pulling on every other object in the entire universe! This is called
Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation. Admittedly, you don't have a very large mass and so, you're not
pulling on those other objects much. And objects that are really far apart from each other don't pull on
each other noticeably either. But the force is there and we can calculate it.

Sir Isaac Newton

The force of static friction F_sFs is a force between two surfaces that prevents those surfaces from
sliding or slipping across each other. This is the same force that allows you to accelerate forward when
you run. Your planted foot can grip the ground and push backward, which causes the ground to push
forward on your foot. We call this "grippy" type of friction, where the surfaces are prevented from
slipping across each other, a static frictional force. If there were absolutely no friction between your
feet and the ground, you would be unable to propel yourself forward by running, and would simply end
up jogging in place (similar to trying to run on very slippery ice).

Now, if you park on a hill that is too steep, or if you are being pushed backward by a Sumo wrestler
you're probably going to start sliding. Even though the two surfaces are sliding past each other, there
can still be a frictional force between the surfaces, but this sliding friction we call a kinetic frictional
force. This force of kinetic friction F_kFk always opposes the sliding motion and tries to reduce the
speed at which the surfaces slide across each other. For example, a person sliding into second base
during a baseball game is using the force of kinetic friction to slow down. If there were no kinetic
friction, the baseball player would just continue sliding (yes, this would make stealing bases in baseball
difficult).

[Physically, why are there any frictional forces at all?]

Concept Check: For each of the following cases of a car changing velocity described in the table below,
choose whether it is more likely to be the force of static or kinetic friction causing the change in
velocity.

Static frictional force Kinetic frictional force

A car slows gently to a stop.

A car slams on the brakes and skids to a stop.

A car accelerates gently to a higher speed.

A car "floors it" and peels out of a stop light.

A car takes a turn gently.

Transcript of Energy, Energy Transformations, Work & Simple Machines

Energy
The ability to cause change or do work. Measured in joules (J).
All changes on Earth are because of energy

A change from one form of energy to another

Energy Transformations

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Matter is made up of particles that are always in motion.

A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force.[2] In
general, they can be defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage (also
called leverage) to multiply force.[3] Usually the term refers to the six classical simple machines which
were defined by Renaissance scientists:[4]

 Lever

 Wheel and axle

 Pulley

 Inclined plane

 Wedge

 Screw

A simple machine uses a single applied force to do work against a single load force.
Ignoring friction losses, the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the applied force. The
machine can increase the amount of the output force, at the cost of a proportional decrease in the
distance moved by the load. The ratio of the output to the applied force is called the mechanical
advantage.

Simple machines can be regarded as the elementary "building blocks" of which all more
complicated machines (sometimes called "compound machines"[5][6]) are composed.[3][7] For example,
wheels, levers, and pulleys are all used in the mechanism of a bicycle.[8][9]The mechanical advantage of a
compound machine is just the product of the mechanical advantages of the simple machines of which it
is composed.

Although they continue to be of great importance in mechanics and applied science, modern mechanics
has moved beyond the view of the simple machines as the ultimate building blocks of which
all machines are composed, which arose in the Renaissance as a neoclassical amplification of ancient
Greek texts. The great variety and sophistication of modern machine linkages, which arose during
the Industrial Revolution, is inadequately described by these six simple categories. Various post-
Renaissance authors have compiled expanded lists of "simple machines", often using terms like basic
machines,[8] compound machines,[5] or machine elements to distinguish them from the classical simple
machines above. By the late 1800s, Franz Reuleaux[10] had identified hundreds of machine elements,
calling them simple machines.[11] Modern machine theory analyzes machines as kinematic
chains composed of elementary linkages called kinematic pairs.

Energy Transformation using Energy Systems Language

Energy transformation, also termed as energy conversion, is the process of changing energy from one
of its forms into another. In physics, energy is a quantity that provides the capacity to perform many
works—think of lifting or warming an object. In addition to being convertible, energy is transferable to a
different location or object, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some service to society such
as heating, refrigeration, lighting or performing mechanical work to operate machines. For example, in
order to heatyour home, your furnace can burn fuel, whose chemical potential energy is thus converted
into thermal energy, which is then transferred to your home's air in order to raise its temperature.

In another example, an internal combustion engine burns gasoline to create pressure that pushes the
pistons, thus performing work in order to accelerate your vehicle, ultimately converting the fuel's
chemical energy to your vehicle's additional kinetic energy corresponding to its increase in speed.

Heat

Heat energy, also referred to as thermal energy, is really the effect of moving molecules. Matter is made
up of molecules, which are in continual motion and in a solid, vibrate about a mean position. The motion
of any molecule increases when the energy of the substance is increased. This may cause an increase in
the temperature of the substance or lead to a change of state. The higher the temperature, the greater
the internal energy of the substance.

Heat energy is the most easily lost or dissipated form of energy. It is also the form of energy into which
other forms of energy can easily change. However, heat can be changed into other forms of energy with
a lot of waste.also called Solar Energy

Light

Sunset: Image provided by courtesy of Flickr- www.flickr.com

Light energy is a type of wave motion. That is, light is a form of energy caused by light waves. It enables
us to see, as objects are only visible when they reflect light into our eyes.

Sound
Sound energy is also a type of wave motion. We are heard by others when we talk because of the sound
energy we produce. It is due to the effect of the air molecules vibrating when we talk. The vibrating
molecules hit our eardrums, which enable us to hear others talk. Sound energy may be converted into
electrical energy for transmission, and later the electrical energy can be converted back into sound
energy at the receiving end. An example of such transformations could be seen in the microphone and
the loudspeaker.

Sound, like heat energy is easily lost. The transformation of one form of energy into another may be
accompanied by losses in the form of sound and/or heat that are often not desirable.

Electrical Energy

Transmission of electrical energy: Image provided by courtesy of Flickr- www.flickr.com

Electrical energy is really the effect of moving electrical charges from one point to another in a
conductor. Electrical charges moving through a conductor is called electricity. Electrical energy may be
easily changed into other forms of energy to suit our particular needs. Lightning is an example of
electrical energy. Electric current is the means by which electrical energy is most easily transported to
places where it is needed and converted into other forms.

Chemical Energy

This is the energy stored within chemical compounds. A chemical compound is formed by the
rearrangement of atoms that is accompanied by energy loss or gain. This energy is the chemical energy
gained or lost in the formation of the compound.
Food, biomass, fuel and explosives have a store of chemical energy. The energy from food is released by
chemical reactions in our bodies in the form of heat. Fuels like coal, oil and natural gas contain chemical
energy that may be converted into other forms of energy like heat and light. The chemical energy
present in a given fuel is determined by its calorific value – the heat liberated when 1 Kg of the fuel is
burnt. Batteries and explosives also contain chemical energy that could be converted into other forms of
energy, some beneficial, others harmful.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Energy, also known as atomic energy, is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It is this energy
that holds the nucleus together and could be released when the nuclei are combined (fusion) or split
(fission) apart. Nuclear energy can be used for peaceful purpose as well as destructive purposes (as in
the atomic bomb). Considering peaceful purposes, nuclear energy is used to generate electricity in
nuclear power plants, produce steam for driving machines, powering some submarines and spacecrafts.
In these applications, the nuclei of uranium atoms are split in a process called fission. Nuclear energy is
also the source of the sun’s energy. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms
in a process called fusion.

Albert Einstein put forward the following equation that provides the basis for calculating the amount of
energy released when the nucleus of an atom is split. E = mc2

The equation means that when the nucleus of an atom is split, the amount of energy released, E, in
joules, is equal to the loss of its mass, m, in kilograms, times the speed of light squared, c2, in m/s2.
Because c2 is a very large figure (300,000,000 X 300,000,000 = 90,000.000,000,000,000 ), a small amount
of mass can be converted into an enormous amount of energy. An atom of uranium splits into two
smaller atoms and loses roughly 0.1 percent of its mass that is converted into a vast amount of energy.
One-kilogram mass of any substance completely converted into energy equals 90,000,000,000,000,000 J
or 25 billion kilowatt hours!! This is more than the electrical energy needs of the United States for two
days!!

Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is the kind of energy that can do mechanical work directly. Naturally occurring
sources of mechanical energy include winds, waterfalls and tides.

There are two kinds of mechanical energy, namely kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is
the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion. A moving body of mass, m Kg and velocity v m/s

possesses kinetic energy of magnitude mv2 joules. Thus, the magnitude of the kinetic energy of
an object depends both the mass and the velocity of the object. Flowing water and winds have kinetic
energy.
Potential energy is the energy of a body due to its position or shape. This form of energy could be
considered as energy stored in a body to be released when it begins to move or change its position or
shape. Quite often, potential energy changes to kinetic energy. A ball at the top of a slope, water behind
a dam, a compressed spring and a stretched elastic band possess potential energy. For a body of mass,
m Kg located at a height h metres above a particular chosen level such as ground level or sea level, its
potential energy is mgh joules, where g = acceleration due to gravity, in m/s2. For an elastic spring
stretched x m, its potential energy is (1/2)kx2 joules, where k = spring constant, in N/m.

Energy Conversion

One important property of energy is its ability to change from one form to another form. For example,
chemical energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) can be converted into heat energy when
burned. The heat energy may be converted into kinetic energy in a gas turbine and finally into electrical
energy by a generator. The electric energy may subsequently be converted into light, sound or kinetic
energy in our homes through various household appliances.

During any energy conversion, the amount of energy input is the same as the energy output. This
concept is known as the law of conservation of energy and sometimes referred to as the First Law of
Thermodynamics. This law states: energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from
one form to another. Thus, the total energy of an isolated system is always constant and when energy of
one form is expended an equal amount of energy in another form is produced. In every energy
conversion, some high-grade energy is converted into low-grade energy as heat. Thus, the total amount
of low-grade energy in the universe is increasing while high-grade energy is decreasing. Even though
energy is never destroyed, we usually complain that the world is suffering from an energy shortage.
Indeed we are suffering from shortage of high-grade energy that has the potential of producing useful
power! Energy may change form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.