Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

Origin of abnormal high pressure and its

relationship with hydrocarbon accumulation
in the Dina 2 Gas Field, Kuqa Depression
Fengqi Zhang1,2*, Zhenliang Wang2, Hongli Zhong3, Yubin Song4, Weiming Liu1 and Chi Wei1

1
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China
2
Department of Geology, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
3
College of Geology & Environment, Xi'an University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710054 , China
4
Tazhong Exploration & Development Research Management Department, Petrochina Tarim Oilfield Company, Korla 841000, China
Received February 4, 2016; Accepted July 25, 2016

Abstract: Based on distribution of formation pressure by indirect estimation and formation testing,
this study investigates origin of abnormal high pressure in the Dina 2 Gas Field in the Kuqa
Depression in combination with the latest research findings. Contribution of major overpressure
mechanisms to this gas field is estimated, and generation of the abnormal high pressure as well as its
relationship with natural gas accumulation is explored. Disequilibrium compaction, tectonic stress,
and overpressure transfer are the major overpressure mechanisms. Overpressure transfer resulted
from vertical opening of faults and folding is the most important cause for the overpressure. Gas
accumulation and abnormal high pressure generation in the reservoirs of the Dina 2 Gas Field show
synchroneity. During the early oil-gas charge in the Kangcun stage, the reservoirs were generally
normal pressure systems. In the Kuqa deposition stage, rapid deposition caused disequilibrium
compaction and led to generation of excess pressure (approximately 5–10 MPa) in the reservoirs.
During the Kuqa Formation denudation stage to the Quaternary, reservoir overpressure was greatly
increased to approximately 40–50 MPa as a result of vertical pressure transfer by episodic fault
activation, lateral overpressure transfer by folding and horizontal tectonic stress due to intense
tectonic compression. The last stage was the major period of ultra-high pressure generation and gas
accumulation in the Dina 2 Gas Field.

Key words: abnormal high pressure; overpressure transfer; tectonic

compression; Dina 2 Gas Field; Kuqa Depression

1 Introduction experienced intense tectonic compression in the Late Himalayan.

The Dina 2 Gas Field, a major new discovery following the Kela
2 Gas Field in the Tarim Basin, is a large-scale coal-derived
gas field with a reserve of 100×109 m3(Yan et al., 2009). The
Dina 2 Gas Field is an ultra-high pressure gas field, which has
a formation pressure of 106 MPa and pressure coefficient of
2.14–2.29 in the central part (Ma et al., 2003). This gas field has
Previous studies indicated that the late Himalayan tectonic
compression imposed strong influences on ultrahigh pressure
generation in the Dina 2 Gas field (Ma et al., 2003; Sun et al.,
2004; Zeng et al., 2004a; Shi et al., 2007), but these researches
have mainly focused on fluid pressurization caused by tectonic
stress (Zeng et al., 2004a; Shi et al., 2007). In the context of

* Corresponding author. Email: zhangfengqi68@126.com

© 2017 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 93
F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

intense tectonic compression, overpressure transfer caused by et al., 2004). The Kuqa Depression comprises several tectonic
strata deformation (e.g. folding) and episodic opening of faults units, and the Dina 2 Gas Field lies in the eastern Qiulitage
can also lead to fluid pressurization (Osborne and Swarbrick, tectonic belt in the central part of the depression (Fig. 1) (Yan
1997; Liu, 2002; Luo, 2004a; Guo et al., 2010), which may et al.,2009). The development and evolution of the eastern
greatly influence hydrocarbon accumulation. Presently, there is Qiulitage tectonic belt are controlled by the north-dipping
little work on the generation mechanism of ultra-high pressure thrust faults developed in its south and north: one is the Dina
and its relationship to hydrocarbon accumulation under the joint north fault developed in the Himalayan; the other is the eastern
action of multi-factors in the context of tectonic compression. Qiulitage fault initiated in the Yanshanian, continuously
An in-depth study on the issues is needed, especially for the evolving through the Himalayan, and for med the final
quantitative assessment and process analysis. configuration in the Late Himalayan (Yan et al., 2009). Both
faults disappear upward in the gypsum mudstone sequences and
This study examines lateral distribution of pressure in cut through downward into the basement. The two faults not
sandstone-mudstone formations in the Dina 2 Gas Field using only control tectonic framework of the eastern Qiulitage tectonic
directly measured pressure data of permeable layers and belt but also control generation of the Dina tectonic strata. The
indirectly estimated pressure data in mudstone layers. Building faults connect to oil source kitchens but do not expose to the
upon some already published work, a recognition model of ground surface, and thus are ideal conduits for vertical oil and
major overpressure mechanism is established. The origin of gas migration (Sun et al., 2004). Beneath the gypsum mudstone
abnormal high pressure in the Dina 2 Gas Field is discussed. and salt rock sequences of the Jidike Formation, the Mesozoic
Additionally, relative contribution of major overpressure - Cenozoic tectonic strata have developed fault-bend folds and
mechanisms to the present abnormal high pressure is estimated duplexes. The Dina-2 structure is a fault-bend fold of sub-salt
and the generation process of abnormal high pressure as well reservoirs of the Jidike Formation (Ma et al., 2003).
as its relationship with gas accumulation in the gas field is
studied. Theses findings will improve understanding of origin of In the Dina 2 Gas Field, source rocks are the Middle - Upper
abnormal high pressure under complex effect of multi-factors in Triassic and Jurassic coal measure formations. The reservoirs
the foreland compression zones, and provide new insights into are the lower Neogene Jidike Formation and the Paleogene
generation mechanism of overpressure in the Dina 2 Gas Field, Kumugeliemu - Suweiyi formations, mainly composed of
thereby guiding regional hydrocarbon exploration. sandstone, pebbly sandstone and siltstone. The reservoir-
cap rock is a several hundred-meter-thick gypsum salt rock -
2 Regional setting gypsum mudstone - mudstone interval of the Jidike Formation,
which has strong sealing capacity and forms good reservoir-cap
The Dina 2 Gas Field is located in the Kuqa Depression, a
rock assemblages in the cross-section (Sun et al., 2004).
Mesozoic - Cenozoic foreland basin between the southern
Tianshan orogenic belt and the Tabei uplift belt (Fig. 1) (Ma In the Dina 2 area, the basin has experienced long-term multi-

0 5km
N
B
DN102
DN11
DN1

DN202
DN22 Basin First-level Second-level Well location City/County
boundary tectonic unit line tectonic unit line
DN201 DN2
DN204 ld
A G as F ie
D in a 2 Gas field
0 40km
DN203
Fault

Northern monoclinic belt

Ke - Yi tec to
YN 2 ni c be lt
t Ke - Yi tecto nic belt
bel KL 2 DN 1 Yangxia Sag
nic eng S
a g
cto B a ic h e l t
DN 2
Y i te b
e- ic
K ton i Up
lift Yang 1
Baicheng tec Ta b e
Luntai
DB 1
t a ge M ou nt ain
ag l i Ti an sh an
eng S Qi
u Kuqa
Wushi Sag B a ic h 0 150km 提5

库尔勒

Xinhe
Qiulitage tectonic belt
Quele 1
U p li ft
We n s u YM 1
Tarim Basin
ft
Ku

i Upli
Ta b e
nl

in
un

Aksu nta
M

ou
ou

tu nM
nt

Al
ai
n

Fig. 1 Division of tectonic units and location of the Dina 2 Gas Field in the Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin

94
 F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

stages evolution. In the Pliocene, the eastern Qiulitage tectonic
belt rapidly deposited the strata (He et al., 2004). Since the
Late Pliocene, intense tectonic compression occurred N- to
S-trending in the basin, leading to generation of stress field of
the maximum principal horizontal stress (Zeng et al., 2004b).
The tectonic compression was associated with high-magnitude
uplift and erosion, large-scale faulting and closely related
intense fold deformation (Li et al., 2008). The above tectonic
activities played a crucial role in controlling distribution and
evolution of formation fluid pressure in the study area.
3 Distribution of formation test pressure
The results of formation testing show that the Cretaceous,
Paleogene, and Neogene formations at Dina 2 Gas Field are
associated with overpressure to strong overpressure (Fig. 2). The
Paleogene and Neogene formations are both associated with
strong overpressure, with the pressure coefficient of 1.93–2.26
and relatively high excess pressure of 48.8–55.9 MPa. In the deep
Cretaceous formations, formation testing is only performed in
Well ND 11 where the pressure coefficient drops to 1.5–1.7 with
corresponding excess pressure of 26–33 MPa. In the DN 2, DN
201, DN 202, and DN 204 at Dina 2 wells, excess pressure is
generally within range of 52–55 MPa and occasionally at 48.8
MPa in reservoirs of the Paleogene Kumugeliemu Formation.
The excess pressure is 53.5–54.5 MPa in the reservoirs of the
Paleogene Suweiyi Formation and 50.8 MPa at the only pressure
testing point in the reservoirs of the Neogene Jidike Formation.
The above results show that the excess pressure in the Paleogene

Pressure coefficient Excess pressure(MPa)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 10 20 30 40 50 60
4000 4000

4500 Well DN 11 4500 Well DN 11

Well DN 2 Well DN 2
Well DN 202 Well DN 202
Buried depth (m)

Buried depth (m)

Well DN 204 Well DN 204

5000 Well DN 102 5000 Well DN 102
Well DN 201 Well DN 201

5500 5500

6000 6000
Jidike Formation Jidike Formation
Suweiyi Formation Suweiyi Formation
Kumugeliemu Formation Kumugeliemu Formation
Cretaceous
6500 6500 Cretaceous
(a) (b)

Fig. 2 Distribution of formation testing pressure in Dina 2 Gas Field, Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin

Kumugeliemu–Suweiyi formations is generally consistent with or
slightly higher than that in the overlying Neogene Jidike Formation.
4 Origin of abnormal high pressure
Overpressure generation and development mechanisms are
complex and can be classified into compaction disequilibrium
and unloading (Ramdhan and Goulty, 2011). Herein, unloading
refers to pressurization that tends to reduce vertical effective
stress. The major unloading mechanisms of overpressure are
fluid expansion, tectonic stress, and overpressure transfer.
Fluid expansion is primarily caused by gas generation,
hydrothermal pressurization, and clay mineral dehydration
(Bowers, 2002; Ramdhan and Goulty, 2011). Previous numerical
simulations demonstrated that pressurization from hydrothermal
pressurization and clay mineral dehydration is weak and
negligible (Luo, 2000). In the widely developed source rock, gas
generation can cause a wide-range of overpressure (Tingay et al.,
2009). As for the reservoirs, the major unloading mechanisms of
overpressure are tectonic stress and overpressure transfer.
Under action of vertical disequilibrium compaction, porosity
generally remains unchanged (Fig. 3a). Variations in fluid
pressure with depth approximately parallels to that of the
lithostatic pressure(Tingay et al., 2009; Ramdhan and Goulty,
2011) (Fig. 3b); variations in the vertical effective stress and
porosity of the overpressured formations comply with normal
compaction relationship (Fig. 3c) (Tingay et al., 2009), and
variation relationship should be exponential (Luo, 2004a). The
variation relationship can be expressed as follows:
  0 eb (1)
Where φ 0 is the surface porosity,%; φ is the porosity at a certain
depth, %; b is a constant; and δ is the effective stress at the same
depth, MPa.
Equation (1) can be transformed into
 1  0 1eb (2)
According to equation (2), the recognition model of Tingay et al
(2009) is modified by replacing the DC trend line to the DC-X

95
F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

Porosity Pressure

Reciprocal of porosity or acoustic

velocity at the maximum depth

Li
Fluid sealing

tho
depth

sta
tic
Unloading

pr
Normal pressurization path

es
compaction

su
FE

re
Disequilibrium compaction

n
at ctio
pressurization paralleling

n p pa
to lithostatic pressure curve

h
at com
su ium
io
DC

es br
riz
Reciprocal of porosity

pr uili
or acoustic velocity
H y d ro st

q
se
DC- X

Di
Porosity path of

h
at
at um
disequilibrium

at ic p re

np
iz ri
compaction

ur lib
io
pressurization

ss ui
re eq
ss u re

n p dis
ct ied
pa dif
io
o
M
Depth
Depth

m
co
Overpressure transference or Overpressure transference or
fluid-expansion overpressure fluid-expansion overpressure Vertical effective stress
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3 A recognition model of major overpressure mechanisms, (a) relationship between porosity
and depth, (b) relationship between pressure and depth, (c) relationship between vertical effective
stress and acoustic velocity (modified from Tingay et al (2009))

trend line (Fig. 3c). After fluid pressurization is caused by fluid
expansion, overpressure transfer, and tectonic stress, changes in
porosity related to tectonic stress may be relatively larger and those
related to fluid expansion and overpressure transfer are smaller. All
of the pressurization processes can contribute to reduction of the
vertical effective stress. Thus, variations in the vertical effective
stress and porosity of the overpressured formation should deviate
from the exponential curve, as shown in the FE trend line (Fig. 3c)
(Tingay et al., 2009). Accordingly, the unloading mechanism for
overpressure can be recognized based on variation relationship
between porosity (or acoustic velocity) and vertical effective stress
of the overpressured formation.
4.1 Disequilibrium compaction
Pressurization mechanism of compaction can be classified into
two geological factors, the relatively thick low-permeability
formation and the relatively rapid overlying load deposition
(Audet and McConnell, 1992; Luo et al, 2004).
The eastern Paleogene formations of the Qiulitage tectonic
belt have mainly developed fan delta and lake facies, with
lagoon facies locally. The Paleogene Kumugeliemu Group
has a drilling thickness of 146–192 m and its average ratio of
mudstone constitute+s an environment for abnormal pressure
generation.
Since the Neogene, subsidence rate of the eastern Qiulitage
tectonic belt has apparently increased. The subsidence rate was
<50 m/Ma in the Triassic to Paleogene, approximately 175 m/Ma
in Well Dongqiu 5 adjacent to Dina-2 Gas Field in the Jidike stage,
and approximately 133 m/Ma in Well Dongqiu 5 in the Kangcun
stage; subsidence rate of the Yangxia Sag at southern Dina 2 Gas
Field in the Kuqa stage was approximately 1286 m/Ma, and the
subsidence rate of the Dina 2 Gas Field during the Kuqa stage was
estimated to be approximately 1000 m/Ma (He et al., 2004). Such
rapid deposition allowed generation of overpressure in the Jidike
Formation as well as its underlying formation of low permeability
gypsum-mudstone and mudstone.
Based on analysis of mudstone compaction process, the
abnormal pressure is estimated in the mudstone formation
caused by disequilibrium compaction using a depth balancing
method (Luo et al., 2004). The mudstone compaction curves
show that in DN11, DN 22, and DN 202 wells, the acoustic
travelling time difference starts to deviate from normal 100
compaction trend line from the Jidike Formation (Fig. 4), and
abnormal high pressure exists in the mudstone. The generation 95

mudstone thickness-to-stratum thickness (M/S) is 40%. The
Paleogene Suweiyi Formation is drilled to 184–218.5 m and its
average ratio of mudstone thickness to stratum thickness is 35%
(Yan et al., 2009). The Neogene Jidike Formation develops a
1400-m-thick interval of gypsum-salt rock, gypsum-mudstone,
of abnormal high pressure in mudstone is generally related 75
to regional deposition of large intervals of thick mudstone
formation, and the rapid deposition during the Kuqa stage
led to generation of abnormal high pressure in the mudstone.
The upper boundary of the abnormal pressure belt at Dina- 25

and mudstone with low permeability, thus providing a good 2, is basically that of the Jidike Formation, which is widely 5
regional seal for the Dina 2 Gas Field. The low-permeability distributed (Fig. 5). The magnitude of excess pressure in the
0

96
 F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

mudstone of the upper Jidike Formation is relatively large, with 4.2 Pressurization of tectonic stress
the maximum pressure coefficient generally within range of 1.6–
1.7 and the maximum excess pressure up to 25 MPa. In certain Being a major overpressure mechanism, tectonic stress has
wells such as Well DN 11, the maximum pressure coefficient received substantial attention in recent years, however, related
of the upper mudstone of the Jidike Formation is up to 1.8–2.0 studies on tectonic stress have primarily focused on qualitative
and the maximum excess pressure reaches 45 MPa (Fig. 5). The evaluations with few quantitative evaluations of overpressure
excess pressure declines to 5–15 MPa in the mudstone of the mechanism (Berry, 1973; Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997;
lower Jidike Formation and Paleogene to Cretaceous formations, Luo et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Bilotti and Shaw, 2005;
with the pressure coefficient generally in the range of 1.1–1.3. Feyzullayev and Lerche, 2009). Tectonic stress does not act

Pressure (MPa) Acoustic travel time (µs/m) Pressure (MPa) Acoustic travel time (µs/m) Pressure (MPa) Acoustic travel time (µs/m)
-40 0 40 80 120 100 200 400 600 -40 0 40 80 120 100 200 400 600 -40 0 40 80 120 100 200 400 600
600

600 600
1200

1200 N2k
1800 N 2 k 1200 N 2 k
L it h o st

1800
2400 1800

L it h o st
a ti c p re

L it h o st

3000 2400
Depth(m)

Depth(m)

Depth /m

at ic p re
2400
ss u re

at ic p re

N 1-2 k
N 1-2 k N 1-2 k 3000

re
3600

ss u re
Hy dro sta tic pre ssu
re

re

ss u re

3000
Hy dro sta tic pre ssu

Hy dro sta tic pre ssu

4200 3600
3600
N1j N1j
4800 4200
N1j
4200
5400 4800
E 2-3 s E 2-3 s
E 1-2 km 4800 E 2-3 s E 1-2 km
6000 K 1 bs K 1 bs
E 1-2 km 5400 Formation testing pressure
Formation testing pressure
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4 The compaction curves and lateral pressure distribution in the Well DN 11 (a), Well DN 22 (b),
and Well DN 202 (c) of the Dina 2 Gas Field in the Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin. N2k is Pliocene Kuqa
Formation; N1-2k is Mioc ene-Pliocene Kangcun Formation; N1j is Miocene Jidike Formation; E 2-3s is
Eocene-Oligocene Suweiyi Formation; E1-2km is Paleocene-Eocene Kumugeliemu Formation; K1bs is
Lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation.

Excess pressure Excess pressure Excess pressure Excess pressure Excess pressure Excess pressure Excess pressure
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
A 0 20 40 0 20 40 0 20 40 0 20 0 20 40 0 20 0 20 40 B
1500

1000
Q+N 2 k 0 5km
500

- 500
N1-2k
Elevation (m)

- 1000

- 1500

- 2000

- 2500 N1j
Top of overpressure
- 3000
E2-3s
- 3500 E 1 - 2 km

- 4000 Well DN22

Well DN204 Well DN201 Well DN202
Well DN203
- 4500 Well DN102 Well DN11

Fig. 5 The distribution of the top of overpressure in the Dina 2 Gas Field, Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin.
Section location sees Fig.1.

97
F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102
directly on sediment particles but function through compaction
of the formation pressure. Thus, the action of tectonic stress
to formation pressure is considered to be lateral compaction
(Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997; Luo et al., 2007).
During the late Himalayan, the maximum principal stress in
the study area changed direction to horizontal. The tectonic
deformation at the southern Tianshan Mountains and the basin-
mountain boundary was dominated by nearly N-S-trending
compressional deformation, whereas in the Kuqa Depression,
nearly NS- and NW-SE-trending compressional deformation
was the dominating tectonic deformation (Wang et al., 2003).
The maximum effective principal stress in the Late Himalayan
was investigated by the acoustic emission experiments (Zeng
et al., 2004b; Zhang et al., 2004). Comparative analysis
demonstrated that the horizontal effective principal stress was
greater than the vertical effective principal stress, proving that
the Kuqa Depression experienced intense tectonic compression
in the late Himalayan. Tectonic stress accomplished compaction
through lateral compaction, which, combined with vertical
compaction, led to generation of obvious abnormal pressure
in the Jidike Formation (pressure coefficient up to 2.0, excess
pressure up to 45 MPa). The abnormal pressure resulted from
tectonic compaction of mudstone is relatively low in other
formations (Fig. 4). Assuming that the maximum excess
pressure generated by total compaction of the Jidike Formation
is completely transferred to the underlying formation, it is still
insufficient to generate such high excess pressure at Dina 2
Gas Field (Fig. 2). When comparing the measured pressure of
sandstone layer and the compaction curve estimated pressure of
the adjacent mudstone layer in the same well, great differences
between two sets of data are observed: the measured pressure of
sandstone layer is generally greater than the calculated pressure
of mudstone layer (Fig. 4).
Based on the concept of tectonic compaction, previous work
has established a quantitative evaluation model for f luid
pressurization caused by tectonic compaction under actual
formation conditions (Zhang et al., 2011)
(3)
Δp = ξ (σ 1 − S)
Where Δp is the fluid pressurization caused by tectonic stress,
MPa; σ1is the largest horizontal principal stress, MPa; S is the
load prior to pressurization, MPa; ζ is the sealing coefficient
that measures the actual sealing ability of the underground
geologic body (0–1; 0 represents a completely open fluid system,
and 1 represents a completely sealed fluid system).
The evaluation results show that fluid pressurization caused
by tectonic stress in the Cretaceous formations is relatively
small in the Well DN 201 (1.2 MPa) and Well DN 202 (1.3
MPa) (Zhang et al., 2011). Following equation (3), the fluid
pressurizeation caused by tectonic stress in the Cretaceous
98
formations in the Well DN 204 is estimated to be approximately
1. 5 MPa. The maximum horizontal principal stress of the
Cretaceous formations in the Well DN 11 and Well DN101 are
less than the overlying loads, indicating that the tectonic stress
in the Cretaceous formation of the DN 1 anticline at eastern
Dina 2 Gas Field basically causes no fluid pressurization.
As for the Cretaceous and Paleogene reservoirs at the same
tectonic position and with the same tectonic morphology, the
fluid pressurization caused by tectonic stress is quite similar.
Overall, the fluid pressurization caused by tectonic stress in the
Paleogene reservoirs at Dina area is low, e.g., <2 MPa, whereas
the tectonic stress in the DN 1 anticline basically causes no fluid
pressurization.
4.3 Pressurization of overpressure transfer
Previous studies on the overpressure generation mechanism
have found that over pressure transfer has played an important
role in the generation of abnormal high pressure in the Brunei
Baram region, and China’s Junggar, Bohai Bay and Yingge Sea
basins (Audet and McConnell, 1992; Liu, 2002; Luo, 2004b;
Tingay et al., 2009; Guo et al., 2010). Folding can cause un-
uniform changes in the overlying load along the horizontal
direction, whereas different generation conditions of formation
pressure in the lateral direction lead to fluctuations of formation
depth. Formations sharing the same permeability are in contact
with those of different excess pressures, resulting in generation
of fluid pressure and lateral fluid migration (Luo et al., 2004).
Deep overpressure will drive fluid migration up-dip and thus
overpressure transfer, leading to generation of overpressure in
the up-dip part of permeable sand bodies (Liu, 2002). When
a fault cuts through two overpressure systems with different
excess pressures, reactivation of the fault will allow fluid to
flow along the fault conduits, thereby rapidly adjust excess
pressure and lead shallow formation (previously with low excess
pressure) to form relatively high overpressure (Osborne and
Swarbrick, 1997; Liu, 2002; Luo, 2004a; Guo et al., 2010).
The Dina 2 structure is a fault-bend fold of sub-salt reservoirs
of the Jidike Formation, which has oil-bearing faults developed
in the south and north sides. The formation of folds could cause
the lateral overpressure transfer in the sub-salt reservoirs of
the Jidike Formation that shared the same permeability and
pressurization of the excess pressure in the upper reservoirs
of the anticline with the same permeability (Fig. 6). Oil and
gas sources were accumulated the Middle - Upper Triassic
and Jurassic formations. Rapid burial in the Pliocene to
Quaternary led to fast hydrocarbon generation of the Triassic
and Jurassic source rocks (Sun et al., 2004). The process of
hydrocarbon generation caused fluid pressure increases in the
source rock formation (Barker, 1990; Osborne and Swarbrick,
1997). During the rapid burial period, the deep source rock
formations and the upper Paleogene to Neogene formations

were subject to pressurization of hydrocarbon generation in
addition to the similar pressurized conditions. Therefore, the
deep source rock formations formed greater excess pressure
than the overlying formations during the rapid burial period.
During the intense tectonic compression in the late Himalayan,
the faults experienced episodic opening and each opening event
would allow rapid adjustment between the relatively high excess
pressure in the deep source rock of overpressure system and the
relatively low excess pressure in sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike
Formation. That is, the vertical overpressure transfer occurred
and thus increased the excess pressure in the sub-salt reservoirs
of the Jidike Formation. Such pressurization process was
commonly associated with lateral transfer (Fig. 6).
Well DN202
0 5km
Q +N 2 k
0
-1.0 N 1-2 k
Elevation (km)
-2.0
N1j
-3.0
E
K
-4.0
E T
K J
-5.0 J
T T
-6.0
Overpressure transfer direction
Fig. 6 Overpressure transfer in the north-south section of the
Dina 2 structure, in the Dina 2 Gas Field, Kuqa Depression
(Sun et al., 2004)
The overpressure that is caused by overpressure transfer
via fault connection can be evaluated in view of following
geological phenomena: (1) a hydrostatic pressure gradient is
maintained between the upper and lower formations connected
by faults; (2) pressure coefficient of the shallow formation is
extremely high; (3) great pressure difference between permeable
formation and wall rock; and (4) a thin upper transition zone
of the overpressured formations (Luo, 2004b). In the Dina 2
Gas Field, the excess pressure occurs in the sub-salt Paleogene
and Neogene reservoirs of the Jidike Formation. The Dina 2
structure is relatively low. Excluding one point of the Neogene
Jidike Formation in the Dina 2 Gas Field, all of testing points
have excess pressure <3 MPa (Fig. 2). The upper and lower
formations connected by faults generally maintain a hydrostatic
pressure gradient. Sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike Formation in
the Dina 2 structure have an extremely high pressure coefficient,
and shallow reservoirs have an even greater pressure coefficient
than deep reservoirs (Fig. 2). As compared to the surrounding
mudstone, the sub-salt reservoir of the Jidike Formation in the
Dina 2 structure has relatively the large excess pressure (Fig. 4).
All above observations suggest that overpressure transfer of the
Dina 2 structure along faults is one of the key mechanisms for
the abnormal high pressure generation in the sub-salt reservoirs
of the Jidike Formation.
With the measured geological data of the Dina 2 Gas Field, a
F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102
normal compaction fitted trend line is achieved with vertical
effective stress and acoustic velocity of normal compaction
points, and then projections of the vertical effective stress and
acoustic velocity of the abnormal pressure points are done in a
coordinate system. The results show that the data points of the
vertical effective stress vs acoustic velocity apparently deviate
from the normal compaction trend line, and degree of deviation
is quite large (Fig. 7).
6.0
5.5
5.0
Acoustic velocity(km/s)
Well YN2 N 4.5
4.0
N1j
Normal pressure point
3.5
Abnormal pressure point in well DN11
E Abnormal pressure point in well DN204
K 3.0 Abnormal pressure point in well DN102
J Abnormal pressure point in well DN201
Abnormal pressure point in well DN202
2.5 Normal compaction trend line
2.0
Fault 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Vertical effective stress (MPa)
Fig. 7 The relationship between the effective stress and the
acoustic velocity of overpressured formations in the Dina 2 Gas
Field of the Kuqa Depression
Based on the above analysis, the tectonic stress and overpressure
transfer jointly are considered to cause the fluid pressurization
in the sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike Formation. Assuming
that after the late Himalayan fluid pressurization caused by
unloading, the formation porosity was unchanged, then the
corresponding acoustic velocity remained basically unchanged
as well. With this hypothesis, the reduction of vertical effective
stress resulted from fluid pressurization by tectonic stress and
the overpressure transfer can be quantified. The reduction of the
vertical effective stress is due to the fluid pressurization caused
by the tectonic stress and overpressure transfer (Table 1). Results
show that the overpressure transfer caused relatively large fluid
pressurization, generally in the range of 40–50 MPa, accounting
for 65%–90% of the measured excess pressure with an average
of 81.2% (Table 1). The pressurized hydraulic fluid caused by
the compaction and horizontal tectonic stress can be obtained
from the excess pressure in the adjacent mudstone formations
(Table 1). As compared to the measured excess pressure, sum of
estimated pressurization generated by different mechanisms has
an absolute error <8 MPa (generally <5 MPa) and an relative
error <15% (generally <10%). The estimates of pressurization
generated via different overpressure mechanisms generally
show small differences from the measured excess pressures,
thus are considered reliable. According to the estimated fluid
pressurization generated by different overpressure mechanisms,
99
F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

Table 1 Estimation of fliud pressurization generated by different overpressure mechanisms in some typical wells of the Dina 2 Gas
Field, Kuqa Depression
Ratio between overpressure Absolute error between sum
Testing Formation Measured excess Effective stress Acoustic velocity Overpressure transfer Tectonic stress Adjacent mudstone
Well transfer pressurization and pressurization and measured
depth (m) pressure (MPa) pressure (MPa) (MPa) (km/s) pressurization (MPa) pressurizzation (MPa) excess pressure (MPa)
measured excess pressure (%) excess pressure (MPa)
DN 11 5768.48 112.14 52.16 20.71 5.17 39.70 0 12.42 76.11 -0.04
DN 11 5336.33 110.97 55.48 11.93 4.76 36.69 0 12.65 66.13 -6.14
DN 204 5154.63 107.99 54.38 10.73 5.08 45.74 1.5 5.37 84.11 -1.77
DN 204 5318.49 107.52 52.21 14.97 5.17 43.93 1.5 4.69 84.14 -2.09
DN 102 5699.73 108.10 48.83 23.16 5.44 44.81 0 4.21 91.75 0.18
DN 102 5508.09 111.25 53.97 15.60 5.35 49.80 0 7.48 92.27 3.31
DN 201 4975.03 105.92 54.19 8.65 5.00 45.72 1.2 9.12 84.37 1.85
DN 201 4987.84 106.34 54.47 8.53 5.08 48.24 1.2 10.57 88.56 5.53
DN 202 5159.65 109.61 55.96 9.21 4.92 42.70 1.3 7.11 76.30 -4.85
DN 202 5060.85 106. 16 53.53 10.40 4.69 34.67 1.3 9.81 64.77 -7.75
DN 202 4964.36 105.39 53.77 8.94 5.00 45.33 1.3 8.16 84.30 1.03

the overpressure transfer appears to be the major cause for the
overpressure in the Dina 2 Gas Field.
5 G enerat ion proce ss of abnor mal
high pressure and its relationship with
hydrocarbon accumulation
Previous studies have investigated hydrocarbon accumulation in
the Kuqa Depression, and a two-stage accumulation model was
proposed with an early oil accumulation followed by a late gas
charge. It has been suggested that the Early Miocene (23–12 Ma)
was the major oil accumulation period, whereas the Pliocene
(5–0 Ma), especially the Kuqa stage (2.5 Ma) was the major gas
accumulation period (Liang et al., 2002; Zhao and Lu, 2003).
Additionally, a three-stage hydrocarbon accumulation model
has also been proposed as follows: Neogene early - middle
Kangcun stage (17–10 Ma), late Kangcun stage to early - middle
Kuqa stage (10–3 Ma), and late Kuqa stage to Late Quaternary
period (3–1 Ma) (Zhao and Dai, 2002). The results of the K-Ar
isotope dating analysis with two authigenic illite samples from
the Paleogene sandstone reservoir in Well DN 22 showed that
ages of the illite are 11.3 ± 1.4 and 10.4 ± 1.2 Ma, corresponding
to the middle Kangcun stage. The results of previous analyses
of the hydrocarbon generation history indicated that the Middle
- Upper Triassic source rock in the Yangxia Sag entered the
early maturity stage in the Paleogene, peak oil generation stage
in the Neogene - Late Miocene (approximately 5 Ma), and over-
maturity stage since the Pliocene - Quaternary due to a rapid
burial. The Jurassic source rock entered the peak oil generation
period in the Neogene - Late Miocene, mature and over-mature
in the Pliocene - Quaternary, and peak gas generation in the
Late Pliocene (Sun et al., 2004). In summary, the Dina 2 Gas
Field experienced an early oil-gas charge during the Kangcun
stage, and a late natural gas charge mainly in the late Kuqa
stage (5 Ma). The latter appears to be the key hydrocarbon
accumulation period for the Dina 2 Gas Field.
In the late Kangcun stage, a low-magnitude structure was
formed in the Dina area and the deep source rock formation
entered peak oil generation stage. Hydrocarbon generation led
to formation of abnormal high pressure, and high-pressure oil-
gas was charged into the upper sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike
Formation. Despite the excellent sealing capacity of the gypsum-
salt rocks of the Jidike Formation, the Dina low-magnitude
structure had good reservoir properties such as porosity,
permeability and lateral continuity, thus had poor lateral sealing
of the reservoir. After the high-pressure oil and gas was charged
into reservoirs of the Dina low-magnitude structure, it was
difficult to generate abnormal high pressure and reservoirs
retained normal pressure system due to poor lateral sealing. In
this period, low-magnitude structural oil-gas reservoirs were
formed (Fig. 8a).
In the Kuqa stage, deep source rock entered into mature and over
mature stages. Undercompaction and hydrocarbon generation led
to generation of ultra-high pressure with great excess pressure.
Due to rapid deposition, the gypsum-salt rocks of the overlying
Jidike Formation formed relatively high abnormal pressure, thereby
enhancing its sealing capacity. In the sub-salt reservoirs of the
Jidike Formation, a relatively sealed system was formed under
effects of diagenesis, lateral sealing of faults, and vertical sealing of
cap rocks. Compaction disequilibrium resulted in a low magnitude
of excess pressure (approximately 5–10 MPa). During this period,
tectonic activity was not intense and reactivation of faults was
relatively weak. The deep high-pressure gas could only slowly
charge into the sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike Formation along
faults, without producing the overpressure transfer. Therefore,
only a low magnitude of overpressure was formed in the sub-salt
reservoirs of the Jidike Formation in this period, and the previously
formed low-magnitude structural oil-gas reservoirs were subject
to slow gas flushing by deep natural gas, thus remaining as low-
magnitude oil-gas reservoirs (Fig. 8b).
During denudation stage of the Kuqa Formation to the
Quaternary, the study area experienced intense tectonic
compression and episodic opening of faults. Deep source rock
formations generated even higher excess pressure due to gas

100
 F.Zhang et al./Petroleum Research (2016) 1,93-102

Gypsum salt rock

in this field, and rapid charge of deep overpressured-gas
transformed the pre-existing oil-gas reservoirs into the present
N1-2k
Source rock

N1j Normal-pressure Gas reservoir

Dina 2 gas reservoirs (Fig. 8c).
oil-gas reservoir

6 Conclusions
E 2-3 s Oil reservoir
E 1 - 2 km Oil-gas migration
K direction
Overpressure

(1) The major generation mechanisms of abnormal high pressure

J
Fault
T

in the Dina 2 Gas Field include disequilibrium compaction,

(a)
Excess pressure (MPa) tectonic stress, and overpressure transfer. The overpressure
0 20 40 60
N2k
transfer resulted from vertical opening of faults and folding are
N1-2k the primary causes for the abnormal high pressure in this gas
field with an estimated contribution of 65–90%.
Low-magnitude overpressure
N1j oil-gas reservoir
(2) The reservoirs of the Dina 2 Gas Field were a normal
E 2-3 s
E 1 - 2 km pressure system during the early oil-gas charge in the Kangcun
stage (17-5Ma). During the Kuqa stage (5-2Ma), a rapid
K
J
T
deposition caused compaction disequilibrium and formed
(b) an excess pressure of approximately 5–10 MPa. During
N2k
Excess pressure (MPa)
0
denudation stage of the Kuqa Formation to the Quaternary,
20 40 60
vertical overpressure transfer from episodic opening of faults,
Q
N1-2k
N2k
N1-2k the lateral overpressure transfer due to folding, and the lateral
N1j
s
E 2 -3 E 1
-2
k m
tectonic stress under an intense tectonic compression setting
K
J significantly increased magnitude of the abnormal pressure in
T
the sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike Formation and formed an
E 2-3 s
E 1-2km
K
J
T
excess pressure of approximately 40–50 MPa. This is the major
(c) overpressure generation period for the Dina 2 Gas Field.
Fig. 8 Hydrocarbon accumulation model of the Dina 2 Gas
Field from middle–late Kangcun stage (a), Kuqa stage (b) to (3) The present Dina 2 gas reservoirs were formed along with
denudation stage of Kuqa Formation–Quaternary (c) in the generation of ultra-high pressure in the reservoir formations, that
Kuqa Depression is, the two processes were synchronous. The field area formed
generation. The resulting overpressured natural gas was charged the normal pressure reservoirs in the low magnitude anticline
into the upper reservoirs with the lower excess pressure, and the during the late Kangcun stage (10-5Ma), the low overpressure
overpressure transfer led to increases in the excess pressure in reservoirs in the low magnitude anticline during the Kuqa stage,
the upper sub-salt reservoirs. As faults might have experienced and the ultra-high pressure natural gas reservoirs in the large
multi-stage openings, the vertical overpressure transfer would magnitude anticline during the denudation stage of the Kuqa
cause multiple-f luid pressurization in the upper sub-salt Formation to the Quaternary.
reservoirs. During this period, intense tectonic compression
resulted in stratigraphic deformation and folding, which caused
Acknowledgements
lateral overpressure transfer into the reservoirs. Additionally, the The authors would like to thank Yan Song, Mengjun Zhao,
lateral compaction of relatively large horizontal tectonic stress Shaobo Liu, Shihu Fang, Qingong Zhuo, Qingyang Meng,
enhanced the compaction disequilibrium. All above conditions Lin Jiang, and Xuesong Lu from PetroChina Exploration &
would increase magnitude of abnormal pressure in the sub-salt Development Research Institute for their guidance and advice,
reservoirs of the Jidike Formation. In summary, under action of and the Research Institute of Exploration and Development
intense tectonic compression, the vertical overpressure transfer of the Tarim Oilfield Company for research assistance and
formed by episodic opening of faults, the lateral overpressure logistic support. This work was funded by National Science and
transfer caused by folding, and the horizontal tectonic stress Technology Major Project of China (Grant No. 2008ZX05003,
significantly increased magnitude of abnormal pressure in 2011ZX05003001).
sub-salt reservoirs of the Jidike Formation during the Kuqa
Formation denudation stage to the Quaternary, and formed an
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