CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS PRINCIPLES

UNIT I-BASIC CONCEPTS

1. Define Thermodynamics.
• The science of thermodynamics deals with energy and its transformation.
• Also it the study of relationships between different forms of energy
.
2. Write the limitations of thermodynamics.
• Thermodynamics does not give information about the rate of any process.
• Thermodynamics is concerned only with final conditions and not the mechanism by which
final conditions are attained.

3. Define System and surrounding?

System is a region of space, under consideration for the analysis. Ex: A reaction vessel, a heat
engine, a distillation column.

4. Define Surroundings?
Anything outside the thermodynamic system is called the surroundings.

5. Define a boundary?
The system is separated from the surroundings by the boundary.

6. Define a process.
The change taking place within a system is a process.

7. How systems are classified?

• Open systems: Exchange of energy and matter takes place between system and surrounding.
Ex: A continuous reactor
• Closed systems : Exchange energy alone takes place between system and surrounding.
Ex: A Batch reactor
• Isolated systems: No exchange of energy and matter takes place between system and
surrounding. No system is completely isolated.
• Homogeneous systems: A system having single phase is a homogeneous system.
(system with uniform physical property and chemical composition) Ex:Sugar solution.
• Heterogeneous System: A system having more than one phase is a heterogeneous system.
Ex: Solution of water and oil

8. State property:
The conditions of a system are described using some measurable properties. They are called as state
properties. Ex: temperature, pressure, and volume.

9. State function or point functions.

State properties describe system’s present state and do not give the previous history. So state
properties are state functions and fixed for a particular state of a system. Ex: temperature, pressure,
and volume.

10. Path functions:

The functions or properties, depends on the path, followed by a system to attain the present state.
Ex: Heat, Work

11. Extensive properties:

Properties depend upon the quantity/size of matter contained in the system.
Ex. mass, volume, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy

12. Intensive properties:

Properties not depend upon the quantity/size of matter contained in the system.
Ex: temperature, density, specific heat, and boiling point.

13. Thermodynamic process:

A thermodynamic process has occurred when the system changes from one state (initial) to another
state (final). The operation by which this change of state occurs is called a process.

14. Types of thermodynamic processes:

Isothermal process: The temperature of the system is kept constant during a process.
Adiabatic process: No heat can flow from the system to the surroundings or vice versa.
Isochoric process: The volume of the system is kept constant during a process.
Isobaric process: The pressure of the system is kept constant during a process.
Isentropic process: The entropy of the system is kept constant during a process.

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15. What is quasi static process?
The infinitesimal or quasi-static process is the one which ensures that the system is always in equilibrium
so that the properties of the system are same throughout and change very slowly.

16. Force
‫ݕݐ݅ݒܽݎ݃ ݋ݐ ݁ݑ݀ ݊݋݅ݐܽݎ݈݁݁ܿܿܽ × ݏݏܽ݉ = ܽ݉ = ܨ‬
௠
= ݇݃. ௦మ = ܰ

17. Energy
• Energy is defined as capacity to do work.
• Energy is exchanged in form of Heat and work.
• Heat and work are called energy in transit, because they cannot be stored within the
system.

18. Heat
• The heat is the energy that flows from a body at higher temperature to one at lower
temperature due to the temperature difference.
• It is a path function.
• Unit of heat is expressed in Joules (J) or calories.

19. Pressure
୊୭୰ୡୣ ୊
P= =
୅୰ୣୟ ୅

ࡺ
= = Pa (Pascal)
࢓૛

20. Work / Work done

• Work is said to be done when a force applied against a load over a distance.
• ܹ‫ܼ݀ܨ = ݀݁ݒ݋݉ ݁ܿ݊ܽݐݏ݅݀ × ݁ܿݎ݋ܨ = ܹ݀ = ݁݊݋݀݇ݎ݋‬
= ܰ. ݉ (ܰ‫)݈݁ݑ݋݆( ܬ = )݁ݎݐ݁݉ ݊݋ݐ݁ݓ‬
• It is a path function.
ௗ௏
• If work done is expressed in terms of P and V, ‫ = ݖ݀ ݀݊ܽ ܣܲ = ܨ‬஺
ௗ௏ ௏
‫ݐ‬ℎ݁݊ ܹ݀ = ܲ‫ܣ‬. = ܲ. ܸ݀, ‫׬ = ܹ ݋ݏ‬௏ మ ܲ. ܸ݀
஺ భ
ே
= . ݉ ଷ = ܰ. ݉ = ‫ܬ‬
௠మ
21. Power
ௐ௢௥௞ ௗ௢௡௘ ௐ ௃
Work done per unit time is power, i.e. ்௜௠௘ = ௧ = ௦ = ܹܽ‫ݐݐ‬, ܹ
Power is sometimes expressed in horse power, 1 hp = 746 W
22. What are the general sign conventions used for heat and work?
Process Sign
Heat added to the System + ‫݁ݒ‬
Heat rejected by the system − ‫݁ݒ‬
Work done by the system + ‫݁ݒ‬
Work done on the system − ‫݁ݒ‬

23. Heat capacity

The ratio between the heat added (or removed) , and the corresponding rise (or decrease) in the
temperature of the material

24. What is temperature?

• Temperature is measure of heat. It measures Hotness or coldness of a body.” A
• Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance,
which is related to how hot or cold that substance is.

25. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics is a definition of thermodynamic equilibrium.
It states that if two systems, A and B are in thermal equilibrium and a third system C is in thermal
equilibrium with system A then systems B and C will also be in thermal equilibrium.
‫ܣ = ܥ ݂݅ ݀݊ܽ ܤ = ܣ ݂ܫ‬, ‫ݐ‬ℎ݁݊ ‫݋ݏ݈ܽ ܤ = ܥ‬.

26. Define equilibrium.

஽௥௜௩௜௡௚ ௙௢௥௖௘
The rate of a process = ோ௘௦௜௦௧௔௡௖௘
Equilibrium may be defined as a state wherein the net rate of the process is zero.

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27. Internal energy and enthalpy.
• Internal energy of a substance is the energy possessed by the molecules present in the substance.
• Heat change occurring in a system is called as enthalpy. (The heat supplied to a system at
constant pressure can be measured as the change in another thermodynamic property and is
known as enthalpy).

28. Thermodynamic equilibrium

In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium when it is
in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium.
• Two systems are in thermal equilibrium when their temperatures are the same.
• Two systems are in mechanical equilibrium when their pressures are the same.
• Two systems are in diffusive equilibrium when their chemical potentials are the same

Elaborate Answers
29. What do you understand by the term “Thermodynamics”?
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical properties of
the substances. This word consists of two words, “Thermo” meaning heat and “dynamics” means
motion, which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. But today the
same name is broadly interpreted and also includes all aspects of,
Energy and energy transformations
Relationships among the properties of ideal and non ideal systems
Phase and chemical equilibria in single and multiphase systems.

30. Define the terms Systems, Process and Surroundings.

Systems: In thermodynamics a substance or group of substances in which we have special
interest or under consideration is called as a system. It is that part of the universe which is set
apart for our special consideration. It may be a reaction vessel, a distillation column, or a heat
engine etc.
Process: The change taking place within the system is referred to as a process. So in
combustion of hydrocarbon fuel, the fuel and oxygen in a combustion chamber constitute the
system and the combustion of fuel to form water and carbon dioxide constitute a process.
Surroundings: The part of the universe outside the system and separated from the system by
boundaries is called surroundings. The boundaries may be either physical or imaginary; they may
be rigid or movable.
Note: But for practical reasons, the surroundings are usually restricted to that portion of the
universe which is in the immediate vicinity of the system and are affected by the changes
occurring in the system. For example, when the steam condensing in a shell and tube heat
exchanger is treated as the system, the cooling water to which the latent heat of vaporization is
transferred may be treated as the surroundings.

31. What are state functions and path functions?

State functions Or Point functions: Properties of a substance describes its present state and do
not give a record of its previous history. They are independent of the path through which the
current or he state under consideration and do not in any way depend upon the past history or the
path through which the state was arrived. When a system is considered in two different states, the
difference in property between two states depends only upon the states itself and not upon the
manner in which the system changes from one state to other. Ex: Internal energy, enthalpy,
entropy, free energy etc.
Path functions: These functions depend upon the path for a variation from an initial to final state.
The values of heat and work accompanying a given change in state vary with the path from the
initial to the final state. For example consider combustion of a mass of an hydrocarbon may be
completely burnt in presence of air in a combustion chamber. The following are the possibilities.
All the energy lost by the system appears as heat.
Otherwise a large part of the energy is converted to mechanical work and only the remainder into
heat in an internal combustion engine. That is the heat and work involved in a given change of
state are not solely determined by the initial and final state, but also depends on the manner in
which the change is carried out. Heat and work are not thermodynamic properties of the system,
but are the properties of the process and are called path functions.

32. How state functions are represented mathematically? (What are exact and inexact differentials?)
Mathematically a state function is an exact differential and path function is an inexact differential,
i.e. ‫ݔ( ݂ = ܼ ݂ܫ‬, ‫݈ܽ݅ݐ݊݁ݎ݂݂݁݅݀ ݐܿܽݔ݁ ݊ܽ ܾ݁ ݋ݐ ܼ ݀݊ܽ)ݕ‬, ‫ݐ‬ℎ݁ ݂‫ܽ݅ݎ݁ݐ݅ݎܿ ݃݊݅ݓ݋݈݈݋‬
ܽ‫݂݀݁݅ݏ݅ݐܽݏ ܾ݁ ݋ݐ ݁ݎ‬.
డ௓ డ௓
(݅ ) ܼ݀ = ቀ ቁ ݀‫ ݔ‬+ ቀ ቁ ݀‫ݕ‬
డ௫ ௬ డ௬ ௫
డ௓ డ௓
= ‫ ݔ݀ ܯ‬+ ܰ ݀‫ݓ ; ݕ‬ℎ݁‫ = ܯ ݁ݎ‬ቀడ௫ ቁ ܽ݊݀ ܰ = ቀడ௬ ቁ and
௬ ௫

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 డெ డே
(݅݅ ) ቀ ቁ = ቀ ቁ
డ௬ ௫డ௫ ௬

33. State some general properties of state and path functions.

State functions can be expressed as difference between two states while path functions
are absolute quantities. (Density or viscosity changes but not work or heat, a definite
quantity of hat is added or removed.
State functions are represented by a point on a graph so the name as point function while
path function is represented by an area.
For a cyclic process the change in state function are zero while it is no so for path
function.

34. Define and classify energy?

Energy could be classified as, (i) Accumulated energy and (ii) Transitory energy
Accumulated energy: This could be classified into two Microscopic energy or internal energy
and macroscopic energy or external energy.
The internal energy: In which a system posses by virtue of the molecular configuration and
motion of molecules is a thermodynamic property of a system. Ex: Transitional, rotational,
vibrational energies, nuclear energy etc.
The external energy: are not the thermodynamic properties of the system, they do not change
with the change in pressure or temperature. Ex: Potential energy (energy possessed by the system
due o its position above some orbitary reference, energy possessed by the water stored in a
overhead tank), Kinetic energy (energy possessed by the body by virtue of the motion, energy
possessed by a moving vehicle)
Transitory energy or energy in transit: The energy stored in a system could be exchanged
between the system and surroundings. The exchange of energy occurs either as heat or work and
called as energy in transit, they cannot be stored within the system.

35. Define work and enumerate the types of work.

Energy is expended in the form of work when a force acts through a distance.
ܹ݀ = ‫ܼ݀ ܨ‬, that is where ‘W’ is the work done, F is the force acting and Z is the
displacement. The unit of work is N m or joules.
Mechanical work: Consider a gas confined in a piston and cylinder arrangement. The work due
to the Movement of the piston is termed as mechanical work
Elastic work: A stretched spring carrying a load of 50 kg, is contracted if some load say 5 kg is
removed and contraction for a definite distance and the work is done by the system and his work
is called as elastic work.
Chemical work: This is the work that comes due to the vaporization of a liquid or due to a
chemical reaction.

36. Temperature Scales

• In SI units the reference temperature is triple point of water, i.e. the temperature at which the
solid, liquid and vapor phase of water coexist in equilibrium. The value is 273 K (actually
273.16 K), where K is Kelvin.
• 0°C = 273 K
• The Fahrenheit scale is widely used. On this scale the freezing point of water corresponds to 32
°F and the boiling point to 212 °F.
• The following conversion formulas may be used to convert between Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius
(C) temperature values:
5 9
° ‫( = ܥ‬°‫ ܨ‬− 32) ܽ݊݀ °‫ = ܨ‬°‫ ܥ‬+ 32
9 5
• °R (Rankin) = °F + 459.69
• The relation between various scales as follows;
0° ‫ = ܥ‬273.16 ‫ = ܭ‬32 °‫ = ܨ‬491.67 ܴ

37. Define true equilibrium.

The rate can be zero due to driving force being zero. This is called true equilibrium. They are of
three types.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no imbalance of forces in a system when it is isolated and
said to be in mechanical equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium: When there is no change in the thermal condition of a system when it is
isolated, it is said to be in a state of thermal equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium: If there is no change in the composition of a system due to the mass
transfer or chemical reaction when the system is isolated, then it is said to be in a stat of chemical
equilibrium.
A system which is simultaneously in a state of thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium is
said to be a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.

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38. What do you understand by the term “false equilibrium”?
஽௥௜௩௜௡௚ ௙௢௥௖௘
The rate of a process = ோ௘௦௜௦௧௔௡௖௘ , and the rate could be zero due to the resistance being
infinitely large. This is called false equilibrium.
Under ordinary conditions hydrogen and oxygen do not combine to give water even though the
chemical potentials (It is thermodynamic property widely used, I is used as an index of chemical
equilibrium in a similar manner as pressure and temperature are used as indices of mechanical
and thermal equilibrium. It is seen as contribution of the component to Gibbs free energy, which
is widely used in chemical reaction equilibria) of hydrogen and oxygen are greater than that of
water. This is because of an extremely large resistance, so hydrogen and oxygen are under false
equilibrium at ordinary conditions.

39. Write a note on Reversible and Irreversible processes:

A thermodynamic process occurs when there is a driving force for a change exists. This driving force
may be within a system or between and its surrounding.
• If this driving force infinitesimal (very very small) then it is a reversible process.
• If the driving force is finite then it is an irreversible process.
Properties of reversible process:
• This process is carried out infinitesimally and slowly, so that all changes occurring can be
exactly reversed.
• It can be reversed by any of the thermodynamic variables.
• The system remains almost in a state of equilibrium with the surroundings at every stage of
the process.
• Reversible processes are necessarily frictionless process
• It s a slow process.
• The work obtained is more.
• It is an unreal process.
Properties of Irreversible process:
• These processes are also called as natural process because all the processes occurring in the
nature are irreversible processes.
• The natural process occurs due to finite driving between the two states of the system.
Ex: heat flow between two bodies if there is a temperature difference between the two
bodies.
• In these processes the initial state of the system and surroundings cannot be restored from the
final state.
• During the process the various stages of the system on the path of change are not in
equilibrium with its surrounding.

40. Phase rule

Gibbs' phase rule was proposed by Gibbs is an equality,
, Where P (also written as π or Φ) is the number of phases in thermodynamic
equilibrium and C is the number of components.
• Typical phases are solids, liquids and gases.
• One-component system: A system involving one pure chemical. Ex: Water, oil
• Two-component systems: Mixtures of water and ethanol (have two chemically independent
components)
• F is the number of degrees of freedom, which means the number of intensive properties such
as temperature or pressure, which are independent of other intensive variables.

41. Some examples of nature of some common systems we encounter:

S No System Nature S No System Nature

1 Bike engine Open 9 Mix of air and water vapor Homogeneous
2 Liq. cooling system in a plant Closed 10 Sol. Of NH3 in water Homogeneous
3 Boiler in a power plant Open 11 Octane plus Heptane Homogeneous
4 Electric fan Open 12 Water + Steam Heterogeneous
5 Car battery Closed 13 Ice + Water Heterogeneous
6 Air compressor Open 14 Water + Oil Heterogeneous
7 Water pump Open 15 Water + Nitric acid Homogeneous
8 Pressure Cooker Closed 16 Thermometer surrounded Closed
by High temperature
medium

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42. Define energy.
Accord the first to the law of thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy
can only change form. Chemically, that usually means energy is converted to work, energy in the
form of heat moves from one place to another, or energy is stored up in the constituent chemicals.
You have seen how to calculate work. Heat is defined as that energy that is transferred as a result
of a temperature difference between a system and its surroundings. Mathematically, we can look
at the change in energy of a system as being a function of both heat and work:
∆E = q - w
Where:
∆E is the change in internal energy of a system
q is the heat flowing into the system
w is the work being done by the system
If q is positive, we say that the reaction is endothermic, that is, heat flows into the reaction from
the outside surroundings. If q is negative, then the reaction is exothermic, that is, heat is given off
to the external surroundings.

43. Write a note on some types of energy.

Look around you. Is anything moving? Can you hear, see or feel anything? Sure... this is
because something is making something happen, and most probably, there is some power at
work. This power or ability to make things happen is what we can call energy. It makes things
happen. It makes change possible.

Energy moves cars along the roads and makes

airplanes fly. It plays our music on the radio and
lights our homes. Energy is needed for our bodies,
together with plants to grow and move about. So
energy is capacity or ability to do work. Energy
can be (is) stored or transferred from place to
place, or object to object in different ways. There
are various types of energy.
Kinetic Energy
All moving things have kinetic energy. It is energy possessed by an object due to its motion
or movement. These include very large things, like planets, and very small ones, like atoms. The
heavier a thing is and the faster it moves the more kinetic energy it has. Now let's see this
illustration below. Let There is a small and large ball resting on a table. Let’s say both balls will
fall into the bucket of water. Let's see what is going to happen.
Both balls had potential energy as they rested on the table. By resting up on a high table, they
also had gravitational energy. By moving and falling off the table (movement), potential and
gravitational energy hanged to Kinetic Energy. Let's see another classic example. If you are in a
hot room and you turn on the fan, what do you begin to feel? Air (wind). The speedy movement
of the fan's blades has kinetic energy, which is then transferred into air (wind) that you now feel.
Other examples of Kinetic Energy include a moving car, moving water, moving wheel, and a
moving arrow.

b. Sound energy
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves.
Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate — the energy is
transferred through the substance in a wave. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than other
forms of energy.

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 A vibrating drum in a disco transfers
energy to the room as sound. Kinetic
energy from the moving air molecules
transfers the sound energy to your
dancers eardrums. Notice that Kinetic
(movement) energy in the sticks is
being transferred into sound energy.
Sound vibrations create sound waves
which move through mediums such as
air and water before reaching our
ears.

c. Heat (Thermal energy)

Thermal energy is what we call energy that comes from heat. A cup of hot tea has thermal
energy in the form of kinetic energy from its particles. Some of this energy is transferred to the
particles in cold milk, which you pour in to make the tea cooler.

d. Chemical energy Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds

of atoms and molecules. Batteries, biomass,
petroleum, natural gas, and coal are examples of
stored chemical energy. For example, when an
explosive goes off, chemical energy stored in it is
transferred to the surroundings as
thermal energy, sound energy and kinetic energy.
Let's see one good example in the illustration below.
The dry wood is a store of chemical energy. As it
burns in the fireplace, chemical energy is released
and converted to thermal energy (heat) and light
energy

Food is also a good example of stored chemical energy. This energy is released during digestion,
and the energy keeps us warm, maintains and repair bodies, and makes us able to move about.
Different foods store different amounts of energy. Energy in food is measured in kilocalories (or
Calories).
e. Electrical energy
A battery transfers stored chemical energy as charged particles called electrons, typically
moving through a wire. For example, electrical energy is transferred to the surroundings by the
lamp as light energy and thermal (heat) energy. Lightning is one good example of electrical
energy in nature, so powerful that it is not confined to a wire. Thunderclouds build up large
amounts of electrical energy. This is called static electricity. They are released during lightning
when the clouds strike against each other.

f. Gravitational Energy, Potential Energy

A rock on a mountain has stored energy because of

its position above the ground and the pull of gravity. It is
energy stored in an object's height. This is the energy it
would release if it fell. As the rock falls to the ground,
the gravitational potential energy is transferred as kinetic
energy. See the diagram. It is important to know the
difference between potential energy and gravitational
energy. Every object may have Potential energy but
Gravitational energy is only stored in the height of the
object. It is important to note that the heavier the object,
the more its potential energy.

Note: Remember the terms kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of
motion -- the amount of energy in an object that is moving. Potential energy is stationary, stored
energy. If you think of a ball sitting on the edge of a table, it has potential energy in the energy
possible if it falls off the table. Potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy if and
when the ball actually rolls off the table and is in motion. The total energy of the system is
defined as the sum of kinetic and potential energies

44. What is the difference between temperature and heat?

There is a fundamental difference between temperature and heat. Heat is the amount of
energy in a system. The SI units for heat are Joules. A Joule is a Newton times a meter. A

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 Newton is a kilogram-meter per second squared. Heat is transferred through radiation, conduction
and convection. The amount that molecules are vibrating, rotating or moving is a direct function
of the heat content. Energy is transported by conduction as molecules vibrate, rotate and/or
collide into each other. Heat is moved along similar to dominos knocking down their neighbors in
a chain reaction. An increase of electromagnetic radiation into a system causes the molecules to
vibrate, rotate and/or move faster. With convection, higher energy molecules are mixed with
lower energy molecules. When higher energy molecules are mixed with lower energy molecules
the molecular motion will come into equilibrium over time. The faster moving molecules will
slow down and the low moving molecules will speed up.
Temperature is the MEASURE of the AVERAGE molecular motions in a system and
simply has units of (degrees F, degrees C, or K). Notice that one primary difference between heat
and temperature is that heat has units of Joules and temperature has units of (degrees F, degrees
C, or K). Another primary difference is that energy can be transported without the temperature of
a substance changing (e.g. latent heat, ice water remains at the freezing point even as energy is
brought into the ice water to melt more ice). But, as a general statement (ignoring latent heat), as
heat energy increases, the temperature will increase. If molecules increase in vibration, rotation or
forward motion and pass that energy to neighboring molecules, the measured temperature of the
system will increase.

45. What is the difference between thermal energy and heat energy?
Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has related to its temperature, i.e., the energy
of moving or vibrating molecules. Atoms and molecules, the smallest particles of any substance,
are always in motion. The motion of thermal energy is usually not visible, but we can feel or see
its effects. We use thermal energy to cook our food and heat our homes, and we use it to generate
electricity.
Thermal energy is not the same as heat. Heat is energy transferred between substances or
systems due to a temperature difference between them. So it is correct to say that a system
contains thermal energy, but not that it "contains" heat, since heat means energy that is
transferred from one thing to another.
The amount of heat transferred by a substance depends on the speed and number of atoms or
molecules in motion. The faster the atoms or molecules move, the higher the temperature, and
the more atoms or molecules that are in motion, the greater the quantity of heat they transfer.
This could be explained by the following example. Consider a candle where the energy is stored
as light, thermal energy. When the candle is lit the stored thermal energy is converted to heat
energy, which could be felt when we move our finger near to it. Once we felt it is absorbed by our
body and converted to thermal energy.

46. Application of, “heat and thermodynamics”.

47. Elaborate heat and work?

Heat and work are both forms of energy. They are also related forms, in that one can be
transformed into the other. Heat energy (such as steam engines) can be used to do work (such as
pushing a train down the track). Work can be transformed into heat, such as might be experienced
by rubbing your hands together to warm them up.
Work and heat can both be described using the same unit of measure. Sometimes the calorie is the
unit of measure, and refers to the amount of heat required to raise one (1) gram of water one (1)
degree Celsius. Heat energy is measured in kilocalories, or 1000 calories. Typically, we use the
SI units of Joules (J) and kilojoules (kJ). One calorie of heat is equivalent to 4.187 J. You will
also encounter the term specific heat, the heat required to raise one (1) gram of a material one (1)

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 degree Celsius. Specific heat, normally referred at constant pressure, and represented by the
symbol "CP", is generally defined as:
‫ݍ‬
‫ܥ‬௉ =
݉∆ܶ

Where:
C P= specific heat in cal/g-°C
q = heat added in calories,
m = mass in grams
∆T = rise in temperature of the material in °C.
The value of CP for water is 1 cal/g-°C.

48. Explain heat capacity.

The specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid is defined as the heat required raising unit mass of substance
by one degree of temperature. This can be stated by the following equation:
∆ܳ = ݉ ‫ܶ∆ ܥ‬
where,
∆Q= Heat supplied to substance, m= Mass of the substance, c= Specific heat capacity, ∆T=
Temperature rise.

There are two definitions for vapors and gases:

Cp = Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, i.e.
߲ℎ
‫ܥ‬௉ = ൬ ൰
߲ܶ ௉

Cv = Specific heat capacity at constant volume, i.e.

߲‫ݑ‬
‫ܥ‬௏ = ൬ ൰
߲ܶ ௏

It can be shown that for a an ideal or perfect gas,

‫ܥ‬௉ − ‫ܥ‬௏ = ܴ, where R is the gas constant.
஼
The ratio, ஼ು , has been given symbol γ,
ೇ
‫ܥ‬௉
ߛ=
‫ܥ‬௏
and is always greater than unity. The approximate value of this ratio is 1.6 for monatomic gases
such as Ar and He. Diatomic gases (such as ‫ܪ‬ଶ , ܰଶ , ܱଶ , ‫ )ܱܥ‬have a g ratio about 1.4 and triatomic
(such asܱܵଶ , ‫ܱܥ‬ଷ ) 1.3

UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS

1. What do you mean by “Property”? Give examples for intensive and extensive property.
2. What is quasi static process?
3. Give some examples for point function and path function.
4. Define thermodynamic equilibrium.
5. Define enthalpy and heat capacity.
6. Distinguish between the following:
i. Closed system and open system
ii. Heat and work
iii. Point function and path function
iv. Enthalpy and Internal energy.
7. Delineate the system, surrounding and boundary schematically using a piston cylinder
assembly.
8. The phase rule variable are………………… Properties. The minimum number of degrees of
freedom for any system is……………….
ଵ
9. A non flow reversible process occurs for which ܲ = 3ܸ ଷ + ௏ , where P is in bar and V is in
m3. Calculate the work done when volume changes from 0.4 m3 to 1.2 m3.
10. A certain engine is supplied with 1.6 kg fuel per minute. The potential energy stored per kg of
fuel is equivalent to 24 000 kJ/kg. If 20% of the energy is supplied to the engine is converted
into mechanical energy. Calculate the rate at which the engine is developing power.
11. Write a note on ideal gas temperature scale.
12. A system undergoes a process 1-2 during which 50 kJ energy is added as heat while it does
30 kJ work. Then the system follows the process 2 – 3 during which 40 kJ is rejected as heat
while 50 kJ work is done on it. Then the system returns to the initial state by an adiabatic
process. Calculate the net work done by the system.

CH 1302 – Chemical Thermodynamics Principles, Unit-I, Compiled by R.Arul Kamalakumar Page 9

 13. An elevator with a mass of 3 tons rests at a level 15 m above the base of an elevator shaft. It
is raised to 125 m above the base of the shaft. The elevator falls freely to the base of the shaft
and strikes a spring and comes to rest. Calculate
i. The potential energy of the elevator in its initial and final position.
ii. Work required to raise the elevator.
iii. The velocity and kinetic energy of the elevator before it strikes the spring
iv. The potential energy of the compressed spring
v. If the elevator and spring is considered as a system, calculate the energy of
the systems at different conditions mentioned above.
State your assumptions and explain the inference.
14. Explain reversible and irreversible processes in detail with example.

CH 1302 – Chemical Thermodynamics Principles, Unit-I, Compiled by R.Arul Kamalakumar Page 10