WORLD PIPELINES COATINGS & CORROSION

2016 www.worldpipelines.com
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CHALLENGE CONVENTION
 petrolatum system and a concerted self-
amalgamating 3-ply PE/butyl tape provides long
lasting corrosion prevention and mechanical
protection.
The system also offers a good resistance
to salt-containing atmospheres and soils.
Nither of the system’s components contain
solvents, and needs no time for curing or drying.
Thus, if it enables a fast working progress,
a self-amaglamating PE/butyl tape – e.g.
DENSOLEN®-AS50 – will be utilised.
The coating system, DENSO® VivaxCoat, is
comprised of three components: first, a special
primer; second, a corrosion prevention tape;

25 30 and third, a mechanical protection based on a

concerted self-amalgamating PE/butyl tape.
The first component to apply is a corrosion
69

Contents
Figure 1. Application of DENSO-AQ primer. protection petrolatum primer. The primer helps
to avoid high costs for line disconnections
or long waiting times for rehabilitation
measurements. By applying the primer-mastic,
the moisture or moist substrate will be
displaced from the surface. At the same time,
the surface will be sealed against corrosive
media of all kinds. The primer is applied
manually to the surface and can be used for
permanent operating temperatures of up to 80°C
(176°F).
The second element of the system is a newly
developed petrolatum tape, which consists of

WORLD PIPELINES | COATINGS & CORROSION 2016 a robust and nonwoven polypropylene as well
as a corrosion prevention petrolatum-based
coating. It shows a high dripping point and
WP_C&C2016_69-72.indd 69 31/10/2016 15:38

good adhesive resistances at high temperatures.

Therefore, the tape is especially qualified for
high mechanical and thermal loads. Both the
petrolatum primer-mastic and the petrolatum
tape provide thorough corrosion prevention.
03. Guest comment CORROSION
Figure 2. Application of DENSO-MT petrolatum tape.
An additional high impact resistance is

Oliver Moghissi PhD, Former President, NACE International, and Vice achieved with the third element, a 1.1 mm thick,

President, Technology, DNV GL Americas Oil & Gas. 30. Pipelines and power lines: assessing AC
26
interference
COATINGS
World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
Charlie Hall, MESA, USA.

04. A microbiological approach to corrosion WP_C&C2016_25-29.indd 26

35. Controlling corrosion in cased crossings 31/10/2016 15:48

Emily M Hunt, Ph.D., Trent Kelly, Benton Allen and Paige Earl, Advanced Pavan K. Shukla, Ph.D., Southwest Research Institute, USA.
Nano Solutions, USA.
CORROSIVE & EROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
40. Corrosion protection for SCADA instrumentation
Klaus-Dieter Meyer, Intertec Instrumentation, Germany.

A microbiological 47. Polyurethane meets sensors

APPROACH C
orrosion is a leading cause of failure and maintenance costs in metallic pipelines. The susceptibility and
risk of pipelines associated with chemical corrosion and common wear has been widely decreased by the
use of coatings, which minimise these corrosion processes. However, a recurring type of corrosion that is
difficult to quantify and even more difficult to effectively prevent is microbiologically influenced corrosion
Michael Magerstaedt, ROSEN Group.
TO CORROSION
(MIC). This is caused by naturally occurring microbes in the environment (Figure 1).
Interestingly, MIC is the cause of pipeline breakdown in close to 40% of all failures. Common corrosion can be
effectively managed by the use of protective coatings. However, the damage evolution can be a critical factor when
MIC and different corrosion precursors are present in the environment. The soil surrounding the metallic asset is a
dynamic electrolyte that modifies its conditions with time. Climate variables, such as rainfall, temperature and CO2
concentration, also influence the soil properties. As a natural consequence, the dynamic threat of corrosion can

PIPELINE CLEANING
Emily M Hunt, Ph.D.,
initiate in any single or multiple locations and the buried structure might experience damage evolution due to the
Trent Kelly, Benton Allen environment or as a result of a third-party damage (mechanical damage during set up and operation).
and Paige Earl, Advanced Nano A very specific application of pipeline integrity occurs in facilities that transport hazardous gas or liquid
Solutions, USA, explore nano- products, such as buried oil and gas pipelines, where a pressurised metallic structure is exposed to different soil and
engineered coatings, designed environmental conditions. Corrosion conditions constitute a particular risk when corrosion and microbiologically
for microbiologically influenced influenced corrosion effects meet due to internal and external environmental conditions in pipelines. Since a coating
corrosion and pipeline corrosion
prevention.

51. Remediating waxy surfaces

Roland Reinhart and Luca Reinhart, Reinhart Hydrocleaning SA, Switzerland.

PAGE INLINE INSPECTION

WP_C&C2016_04-09.indd 4 31/10/2016 12:33 WP_C&C2016_04-09.indd 5

5

31/10/2016 15:34
04 56. Dawn of a new era
Andy Marwood, Online Electronics, UK.

61. Discarding dated tracking methods

10. Scoping CP Jim Hunter, PureHM, Canada.
Todd Hawkins, Dr. Jorma Virtanen and Joseph Davis, Tesla Nanocoatings,
USA. INTEGRITY
15. The ins and outs of spray coatings 65. CRAs – inspected
Alexander Voelkel, VIP Coatings International GmbH & Co. KG, Germany. Herbert Willems, NDT Global, Germany.

CONCRETE COATINGS 69. Detecting damaging holidays

Jim Campbell and Josh Miller, Pipeline Inspection Co., USA.
18. Concrete concepts
Adam Kopystynski, Shawcor, Pipeline Performance, UK.

SUBSEA COATINGS
25. The challenges of a wet surface
Dr. Martin Molberg, DENSO GmbH, Germany.
WORLD PIPELINES COATINGS & CORROSION 2016

ON THIS MONTH'S COVER Reader enquiries [www.worldpipelines.com]

DENSO GmbH produces high quality and forward-thinking 'made in Germany' solutions. For almost a
century, this is the promise the company's made to its customers for all of its corrosion prevention
ISSN 1472-7390

products and innovation. The group's expansion has been highly dynamic with consistent revenue
growth. DENSO offers high quality corrosion prevention. The company has always been faithful to one
clear concept: high product quality 'made in Germany'. This and a consistent commitment to service are
at the heart of the business. The quality and service values are evident in everything, from the material
selection processes and the production flows, to the company’s personal contact and close
relationships with its customers across the world. For more information please visit www.denso.de
www.worldpipelines.com

Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2016. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in
the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK. WP_C&C2016_OFC.indd 1 31/10/2016 15:09
Trenton offers three Wax-Tape brand ®

anticorrosion wrap systems.

High-quality, easy-to-apply wraps that protect irregularly
shaped fittings and require minimal surface preparation.

Wax-Tape® #1
Anticorrosion Wrap:
A very durable wrap that uses a thick, non-stitch bonded synthetic
fabric and has no clay fillers, so it stays conformed to irregular
profiles. The wrap requires no abrasion blasting, can be backfilled
immediately and is compatible with cathodic protection.

Belowground applications

Wax-Tape® #2
Self-Firming Anticorrosion Wrap:
A unique, microcystalline-wax-saturated wrap that slowly firms up to
provide excellent aboveground and belowground protection. Comes
in a variety of colors and usually requires no outerwrap.

Aboveground and belowground applications

Wax-Tape® HT-3000
High-Temperature Anticorrosion Wrap:
Designed for operating temperatures up to 230°F (110°C),
Wax-Tape® HT-3000 wrap can be used on high-temperature
oil and gas piping, on compressor status discharge piping,
beneath thermal insulation and in high ambient temperature
conditions.

High-temperature applications

Only Trenton offers Wax-Tape ®

brand anticorrosion wrap

systems, with primers, fillers,
wraps and outerwraps.
www.trentoncorp.com

Oliver Moghissi PhD,
Former President, NACE International,
and Vice President, Technology,
DNV GL Americas Oil & Gas
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Guest
Comment
I
mproving pipeline safety, including impact on the
environment, requires a shift from prescriptive and
towards performance-based regulations. Making this
shift successfully depends on the ability to measure
pipeline safety performance in a meaningful way.
Pipeline safety generally involves low frequency
events with high consequence, making performance
difficult to measure. This contrasts occupational safety,
where performance can be measured by the number of
incidents associated with relatively constant
consequence.
One way of avoiding this difficulty is through the
use of quantitative risk assessment (QRA). Traditional
QRA approaches, based on statistics of past failures, are
inadequate for predicting new modes of failure, which
points to a move towards hybrid regulations that include
prescriptive, performance-based and management
system requirements to produce the most benefits.
Pipeline
regulations differ in
their degrees of WHILE OCCUPATIONAL
balance between SAFETY HAS
prescriptive and SIGNIFICANTLY
performance
requirements.
IMPROVED OVER THE
Performance-based LAST 20 YEARS, PROCESS
regulations focus on SAFETY HAS NOT
desired, measurable SIMILARLY IMPROVED
outcomes, while
prescriptive focus on processes, techniques or
procedures that produce defined results.
Prescriptive regulatory regimes have many benefits.
They ensure adequate performance where existing
technologies work well. They facilitate compliance on
behalf of the operator and compliance monitoring and
enforcement on behalf of the regulator. On the other
hand, prescriptive regimes have the following
drawbacks: they do not accommodate or promote
innovation and do not allow flexibility (which could
improve performance and reduce costs). They promote
compliance with minimum requirements at the
expense of improved performance, while requiring
periodic review to ensure that prescriptive
requirements continue to be effective.
Contrastingly, performance-based regulatory
regimes enable innovation and goal setting for risk
management. They promote safety ownership and
accountability on behalf of operators. They also deliver
flexibility to find solutions that improve performance
and reduce costs. Performance-based regulatory
regimes have some drawbacks. They require maturity in
management systems, measurable goals and
organisational commitment to measure performance,
allowing for improvements. Some regulators are
suspicious that risk management is a means of
justifying doing less rather than what is right. This
incentivises prescriptive regulations.
While occupational safety has significantly
improved over the last 20 years, process safety has not
similarly improved. One reason is that occupational
safety can be better measured than process safety.
Occupational safety events are relatively frequent with
consequences, generally being confined to one
individual. Conversely, process safety events are
relatively infrequent and their consequences can affect
multiple people and/or cause significant environmental
damage. These events are sometimes classed as
catastrophic and are characteristically hard to predict
and mitigate.
Our industry has achieved several-fold and systemic
improvement in occupational safety due to a shift
towards performance-based regulation, improvements in
safety culture and the use of management systems that
are moving away from prescriptive requirements,
towards performance outcomes. Since occupational
safety events are relatively likely, measuring performance
is straightforward (e.g. incidents per number of work
hours). This allows operators to measure progress and
justify preventive actions.
Process safety requires a more complicated way of
measuring performance. The low frequency of process
safety events means they cannot be used as a metric
for judging performance,
especially without
consideration of leading
indicators. In addition,
high variability in
consequence makes the
use of frequency analysis
inadequate for measuring
performance. One way to
measure the combination
of low frequency and high
consequence is probabilistic risk assessment. The use of
this mature but sophisticated method is well correlated
with the degree of performance-based regulations.
There is no need to estimate risk if the safety goal is to
comply with prescriptive regulations. However,
performance-based regulations for process safety
cannot be effective without a measure of risk.
Risk is usually defined using three questions: what
can go wrong? how likely is it to occur, and what are
the possible consequences? Risk assessments are either
qualitative, quantitative, or semi-quantitative.
Qualitative analysis includes the familiar square
matrix with likelihood and consequence on the two
axes and coloured indicators of relative risk in addition
to indexing models. While these are easy to use and
provide effective visualisation priorities, they do not
provide measurement of benefits/success, can mask
threats and cannot be validated.
Quantitative analysis includes several methods to
calculate the likelihood and consequence of an event.
This approach allows change in risk to be used as a
performance metric, direct comparison of different
threats, incorporation of measured data (e.g. inspection
results), incorporation of uncertainty and high
resolution. One drawback is that criteria for adequacy
(e.g. maximum risk tolerance) needs to be set. This can
be addressed by replacing risk-based decisions where
risk is the sole driver with risk informed decision-
making, where the measure of risk is used as insight
along with other subjective and quantitative measures.
NACE is hosting an event around this topic at its
CORROSION 2017 conference. It has recently published
a study – NACE Impact – on how to implement
corrosion management as a replacement for
conventional (prescriptive) corrosion control.
A microbiological

APPROACH
TO CORROSION Emily M Hunt, Ph.D.,
Trent Kelly, Benton Allen
and Paige Earl, Advanced Nano
Solutions, USA, explore nano-
engineered coatings, designed
for microbiologically influenced
corrosion and pipeline corrosion
prevention.
C
orrosion is a leading cause of failure and maintenance costs in metallic pipelines. The susceptibility and
risk of pipelines associated with chemical corrosion and common wear has been widely decreased by the
use of coatings, which minimise these corrosion processes. However, a recurring type of corrosion that is
difficult to quantify and even more difficult to effectively prevent is microbiologically influenced corrosion
(MIC). This is caused by naturally occurring microbes in the environment (Figure 1).
Interestingly, MIC is the cause of pipeline breakdown in close to 40% of all failures. Common corrosion can be
effectively managed by the use of protective coatings. However, the damage evolution can be a critical factor when
MIC and different corrosion precursors are present in the environment. The soil surrounding the metallic asset is a
dynamic electrolyte that modifies its conditions with time. Climate variables, such as rainfall, temperature and CO2
concentration, also influence the soil properties. As a natural consequence, the dynamic threat of corrosion can
initiate in any single or multiple locations and the buried structure might experience damage evolution due to the
environment or as a result of a third-party damage (mechanical damage during set up and operation).
A very specific application of pipeline integrity occurs in facilities that transport hazardous gas or liquid
products, such as buried oil and gas pipelines, where a pressurised metallic structure is exposed to different soil and
environmental conditions. Corrosion conditions constitute a particular risk when corrosion and microbiologically
influenced corrosion effects meet due to internal and external environmental conditions in pipelines. Since a coating

5

Figure 1. MIC as demonstrated by pitting failure in steel pipe.
defect represents the bridge between soil and pipeline potential,
localised corrosion leading to failure can occur at such sites. The
coating defects are initiated by either chemical, electrochemical
or mechanical effects. These defects then jeopardise the coating’s
ability to prevent and mitigate corrosion.
ANA
Unlike other coatings or chemicals that are currently on the market
(research and commercial), the coating additive antimicrobial
nano alloy (ANA) is activated through combustion synthesis and
forms a chemically inert alloy that can then be incorporated into
traditional organic and inorganic matrix coating systems. Several
key outcomes from previous research conducted by the authors
have established a basis for the development of the material. The
most impactful of these is a method that creates highly porous
(high surface area), antibacterial solid materials through combustion
synthesis. By combining nanoscale particles into a reactant mixture
and providing an energy source for ignition, the reaction produces
a heatwave that will synthesise structures made of pores only
nanometres wide that inherently exhibit antibacterial properties.
The extraordinarily high surface areas these materials possess
serve as an excellent platform for the neutralisation of bacteria.
These newly synthesised alloy powders can be incorporated
directly into coatings, which can be applied to metal, ceramic,
plastic or composite surfaces. This type of coating system presents
a novel approach to corrosion prevention by creating a barrier
effect mechanism while providing long-term microbiological
neutralisation and fungi-influenced corrosion protection.
6 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
Some coatings utilise the antimicrobial properties of metals
such as silver and copper to control microbes. However, these
metal particles have limited abrasion resistance and relatively
low temperature thresholds. Additionally, the large scale of
these particles allows for extremely low ion release relative to
their mass, thus decreasing their antimicrobial efficacy. These
limitations have prevented the oil and gas, marine and defence
industries from adopting metal-based antimicrobial products.
The unique ceramic metallic (cermet) composition of ANA
allows it to overcome the limitations of traditional metal-based
antimicrobial coatings, while also giving it a large surface area
to mass ratio exponentially increasing its antimicrobial efficacy.
From an engineering standpoint, the performance of the coating
is determined either by mechanical deterioration or modification
of the chemical and physical properties of the nano-engineered
coating, relative to the original physical barrier placed between the
metallic substrate and the exposed environment.
Case study – preventing MIC on steel pipes
Advanced Nano Solutions (ANS) is currently working with
the National Corrosion Centre to test an epoxy-based nano
coating to be used in preventing MIC on pipeline grade steel. A
coating enhanced with the novel ANA material not only resists
microbiological growth and reproduction and actively kills
microbes that encounter the coating, but also assists the coating
in protection against localised electrochemical potential and
chemical and physical corrosion.
The case study presented here discusses the results of
exposing two different common pipeline coatings with a novel
coatings additive examined before, during and after exposure to
a microbe-rich, highly corrosive environment. This study included
the use of ANA as its additive in order to determine how it
behaved in industrial coating situations. The simulation was meant
to replicate the conditions that a buried pipeline may encounter
when transporting highly corrosive fluids in dynamic conditions.
Part one
The first part of this study provided insight into the coating’s
antimicrobial ability within a standard polyethylene coating
matrix on a steel substrate. Samples were coated in polyethylene
enhanced with ANA in concentrations of 0%, 2% and 3%. Standard
microbiological cultures were tested to represent the bacteria the
pipeline might encounter in the field. Each experiment consisted
of exposing the coated steel substrates to one million cultures of
Staphylococcus aureus and presenting them in an environment
ideal for bacterial growth. The samples were then swabbed and
plated every hour to determine colony count.
The coating enhanced with ANA resisted microbiological
growth and also actively killed microbes that encountered
the coating. Figure 2 shows the results of the ANA doped
polyethylene coatings in their corresponding inhibition of microbe
growth over time.
Each test run showed similar curves as Figure 2 with killing
over time increasing as the concentration of ANA within the
coating matrix increased. The ANA additive proved highly effective
in eliminating bacteria of several different strains when added to
all pipeline coatings tested.
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9,000 feet below the surface,
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conditions in our Simulation Service Vessel (SSV), we ensure your
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protective technologies protect the integrity
of your offshore assets at Shawcor.com.

Figure 2. Standard kill curve for ANA enhanced polyethylene coatings against
Staphylococcus aureus.
Figure 3. Depicts the Rp over time for steel coated samples
with FBE in different ANA concentrations.
Part two
The second half of this study was conducted in order to better
understand how the additive functions against non-MIC types of
corrosion. This step of the study was necessary to ensure that the
addition of ANA did not inhibit the ability of the host coatings
to prevent and mitigate traditional types of corrosion. Due to the
cermet composition of the ANA powder, it was hypothesised that
additional positive coating characteristics would be observed in
coatings enhanced with ANA.
Coating performance is analysed by quantifying physical
characteristics, such as porosity, adhesion, water uptake, corrosion coatings improves not only the coatings resistance to MIC, but
product evolution and low magnitude impedance regions.
The main parameters that influence the coating performance
and coating damage evolution are the coating thickness, the
porosity of coating layer and the chemical composition forming
cathodic protection (CP) sites. The porosity and water absorption
8 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
will influence the water uptake process and
accelerate the activation stage of the corrosion
process. Water uptake will have specific
penetration within the coating, and the presence
of active particles within the coating can create
a CP mechanism. The various evolution stages
can be detected from EIS results.
Pipeline grade steel was coated in separate
sections with fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) doped
with 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% ANA
by weight. The samples were then tested for
the qualities listed above to determine the
effectiveness of the ANA coating. The effective
polarisation resistance (Rp) is a parameter
extracted from the impedance at low frequency
0.01 Hz, which was used as the property to
compare the coating performance evolution
over immersion time (Figure 3).
From the Rp magnitude illustrated in
Figure 3, the FBE coating samples have a relatively high resistivity
magnitude when compared to uncoated samples. For samples
with 10% and 20% ANA addition, the water uptake mechanism
was significantly slower and the polarisation resistance
remained at high values during the 60 day trial. However, as
the concentration of ANA increased, higher capacitance was
observed. This suggests that pores are formed within the coating
as the ANA concentration reached up to 30%. Although the
addition of ANA at quantities above 30% increased the porosity
and influenced the water uptake mechanism, the activation
corrosion did not occur in four of six samples during 60 days
of exposure with the exception of sample I (30% ANA) and the
control sample A1 (0% ANA). From the ANA additive percent of
10 - 50%, the corrosion resistance remained steady; no induced
corrosion was observed.
Microgalvanic activation of steel was barely observed in the
five samples that include ANA. No microgalvanic activation of
ANA additive was observed in the amount from 0 - 50%. Overall,
the results from this portion of the case study strongly suggest
that the addition of ANA in amounts from 10 - 30% is ideal for
MIC and corrosion prevention, while having little to no impact
on porosity or mechanical properties of the base coating, and
without introducing any additional microgalvanic corrosion.
Conclusion
There are many industries calling for a long-term, non-toxic
solution to eliminate harmful microbes and fungi. These microbes
are especially destructive as they contribute to MIC. Although
coatings on their own can act as a helpful sacrificial barrier to
many of these corrosion methods, the addition of a nanoscale
antimicrobial additive has proven extremely beneficial. This case
study proved that the addition of ANA to standard pipeline
also its ability to withstand chemical and physical corrosion.
Overall, a pipeline coating enhanced with ANA in
concentrations between 3% and 10% has shown highly effective
in not only prohibiting MIC, but also assisting the coating in the
battle against chemical corrosion and mechanical wear.
 When high temperatures
and tough installations
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Find out more about Shawcor, Canusa-CPS and our GTS-PE, GTS-PP
and HBE coating technologies at Shawcor.com/field-applied-coating-systems
or call +1 416 743 7111.
 Scoping

CP
Todd Hawkins, Dr. Jorma Virtanen and
Joseph Davis, Tesla Nanocoatings, USA, explain how
macroscopic and microscopic cathodic protection can
be integrated to effectively protect pipe coatings.

10
T
he pipeline industry has had its share of challenges, from
creating low defect pipe material, to finding more efficient
ways of welding them together, to developing greater
methods of corrosion protection by blending organic
coatings and cathodic protection (CP).
In many industries it seems that improvements are born out of
the need to remediate a negative situation. However, the pipeline
industry, in as far back as the 1920s, recognised the need for a
barrier between the soil (an electrolyte) and the pipe. It seems that
in studies conducted in the 1940s and 1950s, the electrochemical
nature of corrosion was beginning to be understood and the use
of sacrificial anodes to provide CP was born.
The earliest use of a protective coating was the application
of coal tar and asphalt enamels; a messy way of achieving
protection, which also bought about negative health risks.
This was the method of choice until the 1960s - 1970s, when
polyethylene (both tape and extruded), alongside other
tapes and wraps, became the most popular protective
coating for many.

11
 In the late 1970s, fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings
began to surface. By the late 1980s, this had become the
norm until the development of three layer polyethylene and
FBE systems. The industry has evidently come a long way
from the early days of applying coal tar. However, this article
will demonstrate that further innovation is required and is on
the horizon.
Effective protection mechanism
It is generally agreed that a key pipeline protection method
is the use of an effective coating that minimises the amount
of corrosive agents, water, oxygen and chloride – as these
may permeate through to the surface of the pipeline.
However, pipe has inherent areas of anodes and cathodes,
which makes even the best applied coatings subject to
damage when laying and burying the pipeline into the
ground.
Anticipating this, pipelines that are located in the
ground or in water are often additionally protected
Figure 1. Simultaneous macroscopic and microscopic CP.
Figure 2. The three test panels upon removal from the IC CD
seawater chamber after 4200 hrs.
12 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
against corrosion by making them cathodes in an electric
circuit. Cathodes attract positive ions and convert them to
corresponding metals when the potential is strong enough
and the conditions are suitable. Conversely, the anode in
this circuit can be a sacrificial metal. Metal that has a more
negative redox potential or, in the case of an impressed
current protection system, a metal that is ‘forced’ to be more
electronegative through the DC power source that is being
connected via a conductive wire.
When the sacrificial metal is replaced or amplified by
an external current source, this is termed macroscopic CP.
In the latest breakthrough in liquid applied coatings, all of
the components of a CP circuit are included inside nano
and microscale protective coatings. Sacrificial metal may be
dispersed as microparticles and the metal wire connecting
sacrificial metal to the pipeline can be replaced by carbon
nanotubes (CNTs) that are also dispersed into the coating.
Ions that complete the circuit emanate from the sacrificial
metal particles as they corrode within the electrolyte that
is present in small amounts through permeation into the
coating or areas where the coating is partially damaged.
Macroscopic and microscopic CP can be easily integrated.
If macroscopic CP fails, microscopic CP is a reliable backup.
Notably, the terms macroscopic and microscopic refer to the
dimensions of protective systems rather than the efficacy.
This means that both are equally effective in protecting small
and large holidays or damaged areas.
While sacrificial metal particles have been used in
coating without CNTs for years, the concentration of
these particles had to be high in order to provide effective
conductivity. This, however, makes the coatings porous and
the coating barrier properties are sacrificed. Corrosive agents
penetrate this type of coating fairly easily meaning that the
first defense mechanism is compromised.
CNTs
CNTs are extremely effective electrical conductors at
ambient temperatures. Only a small concentration (less than
1%) of these is necessary for making the coating material an
effective electrical conductor. Through the use of CNTs, all
of the sacrificial metal particles are electrically connected
with the substrate, even while they are not in direct contact
with each other. Additionally, barrier properties can be
maintained and the first task of any coating is to isolate
corrosive agents on the outside of the coating, while
simultaneously providing effective CP.
The circuit shown in Figure 1 must be closed so that the
CP can work. All coatings vary in permeability and corrosive
agents penetrate into the interface. Therefore, nanoscopic
damage begins to occur. Unfortunately, macroscopic CP only
begins to protect the surface when the damage grows large
enough to induce microcracking in the coating, such that
there is an ionic connection between the soil and interface.
Conversely, microscopic CP that is engineered into coatings
is able to handle and prevent interfacial damage without any
need for ionic contact between the soil and interface. Ionic
contact is only needed by sacrificial metal particles inside
the coating and the interface.
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 In addition, macroscopic CP pulls the cations from the
surrounding milieu to the damaged site. There is very little
to no control on what these cations are. In many cases,
they are soluble cations, such as alkali or earth alkali metal
ions.
On the contrary, the microscopic CP method allows
for a choice of the cations that are pulled towards the
damaged site to be cations from sacrificial metal. It is also
possible to engineer other cations, which form a protective
deposit on the damaged area, into the coating.
If the coating is an electrical insulator, cathodic
shielding is problematic for traditional coatings. A blister
forming in an active corrosion cell area, should induce
some micro cracking in the coating so that ionic path to
the soil or electrolyte is created. If, however, the coating is
too elastic, these types of materials may not work in this
regard. On the other hand, while CNTs are extremely good
electronic conductors, they also make the coating a very
good ionic capacitor. Cations that are located outside the
coating will polarise the coating due to the presence of
CNTs. Cations that are already inside the coating may travel
to the damaged interface. Thus, the macroscopic CP will
also benefit from the CNTs without any need for micro
cracking of the coating.
A disadvantage of CP
Cathodic disbondment of protective coatings is one
disadvantage of CP. It is believed that it may be due to
hydrogen evolution that happens on the cathode. Another
reason that is being considered is that it may be a local
charging of dielectric coating that creates a repulsive force
between the substrate (cathode) and the coating, thus
causing cathodic disbondment.
CNTs alleviate both of these problems. When the
coating is electrically conducting, it has electrostatic
dissipation (ESD) properties. Charges are distributed
evenly in the coating and the interface has no special
role. Hydrogen evolution may also be distributed evenly,
both laterally and vertically. There will be no pockets of
hydrogen accumulation and it may be able to diffuse out of
the coating.
In order to demonstrate this principle, a two coat
system – comprised of a CNT zinc rich primer and a CNT
infused epoxy as a finish coat – was tested for cathodic
disbondment under the protocols prescribed in ISO 15711.
Table 1. Panel results depicting the summary of 39
measurements taken after the 4200 hr exposure
3890 (B1) 3891 (B2) 3892 (B3)
Visual exam:
No change No change No change
colour
Visual exam: 0(S0) 0(S0) 0(S0)
blistering (none) (none) (none)
Disbondment
1.14 1.24 1.83
distance (mm)
14 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
The system was applied to a surface prepared in accordance
to NACE 2/SSPC SP10 (Near White Metal Blast Cleaning).
An 11 mm holiday, almost twice the size of the 6 mm
ASTM prescribed holiday, was created and the test was
run under impressed current for 4200 hrs. ISO 20340
requirements states that the passing criteria must be less
than 20 mm of disbonded area. The two coat CNT system
outlined above passed this test, with an averaged result of
less than 2 mm of disbonded area.
Cathodic disbondment happens when the repulsive
force is are stronger than adhesive forces. Once again,
CNTs address this issue as the CNTs increase adhesion
forces, reduce repulsion forces and minimise cathodic
disbondment. Carbon and iron have strong interaction and,
although no strong heat is used when the coating is applied,
the CNTs’ coatings demonstrate extraordinary adhesion
forces, typically exceeding 4000 psi and occassionally in
excess of 7000 psi.
Seemingly, improving a specific aspect results in a zero
sum prospect. This means that improving one property
requires a sacrifice or loss of another. While CNTs seem to
help in many aspects of CP simultaneously, a question has
arisen regarding the perceived problem associated with the
use of carbon particles. Carbon has high redox potential
above that of platinum. This creates the argument that iron
(and other metals) may become sacrificial metals relative
to carbon. The presence of carbon materials may accelerate
corrosion. However, when engineering at an atomic level,
there are surprising differences between various forms of
carbon, which can render this argument’s premise false. For
example, the use of CNTs and graphene nanotubes has been
studied in fuel cells that require efficient electron transfer
from a fuel to oxygen. Graphene is an efficient electron
transfer agent, while CNTs are inefficient and require
some additional particles, such as metal nanoparticles or
graphene for an electron transfer. Respective studies show
that the primary reason for using CNTs in fuel cells is their
ability to conduct electricity, rather than their electron
transfer reactions. Their only task is to connect various
active components electrically, while the metal particles (or
graphene) take care of the electron transfer reactions.
This is exactly analogous to CP using sacrificial metal
particles and CNTs. Moreover, this is why the premise of
this argument has not been witnessed. Extensive testing
has confirmed the validity and usefulness of CNTs in
anticorrosive coatings.
It is an undisputed fact that over the past five decades
the pipeline industry has had a history of focusing on
reliability improvements. Looking ahead at upcoming
decades, as the market for pipe to transport materials
grows and the emphasis on pipeline integrity continues to
grow, it will be encouraging to see the pipeline industry
leading the way in its utilisation of carbon nanocoatings as
an innovative and effective solution to addressing pipeline
corrosion issues.
 Alexander Voelkel,
VIP Coatings
International GmbH
& Co. KG, Germany,
discusses the use of
spray coatings for
corrosion and abrasion

GS
protection of oil and

TIN
gas pipelines.

OA
The ins and outs of

PR
S UAY C sing pipes for oil transportation started
with the first oil well in 1859 by Colonel
Edwin Drake in Pennsylvania (USA).
As the pipeline business grew in the
1860s, quality control of pipe manufacture
began and, in turn, the quality and type of
metal used to create pipes improved from
wrought iron to steel. Since then, enhanced
technology continues to make better pipes
of superior steel, improves ways of installing
pipes in the ground and analyse its condition
once bedded. The global pipeline network
has now risen to around 3.6 million km of
pipe around the world. A fair proportion

15
 of this net is over 20 years old and requires substantial
renovation due to severe environmental conditions
combined with outdated, degraded or insufficient
corrosion protection of the pipes.
Despite a temporary slump of oil and gas prices over
the last two years, the pipeline industry is continuing
to grow. Due to the previously mentioned hostile
environmental and substrate conditions in many areas,
the pipeline protection market and rehabilitation is also
steadily increasing. The pipe coating market was valued
at approximately €8 billion in 2015, with industry insiders
expecting an increased volume of €11 billion - €12 billion
by 2020.
The highest demand for protective pipe coatings is
in Asia, with a 25% market share, followed by Europe
and the Americas, estimated at 18% each. The costs
incurred due to pipeline corrosion are estimated at
between €55 billion - €60 billion/y in the Gulf region
(GCC states) alone. For Saudi Arabia, the incurred costs
Figure 1. A corroded pipeline.
Figure 2. Application of QuickSpray Industrial with machinery.
16 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
due to pipeline corrosion is an estimated €25 billion/y,
followed by the United Arab Emirates with approximately
€15 billion/y. These figures stress the importance of the
oil and gas sector, as well as the growth potential for
reliable, cost efficient and durable protection solutions.
Corrosion protection of pipelines
Long-term exterior corrosion protection of buried
pipelines is a decisive factor for performance, cost
of pipeline operation and safety. In the majority of
applications, several corrosion barriers are used to
protect pipelines. Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique
used to control the corrosion of metal surfaces by
making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
However, for many reasons, coatings and wrappings are
the primary methods for protecting buried pipelines
from corrosion in both new pipelines and pipeline
rehabilitation.
Regardless of the type of soil, buried steel pipelines
are always exposed to corrosive attack. In most cases, CP
alone is insufficient for long term pipe protection. Issues
relating to the lack of maintenance of the electrical
system, insufficient equipment for replacing sacrificial
anodes and others lead to a reduction in the protective
effect of CP over time. Since the early days of modern
pipelaying, additional protection has been applied by
wrapping or coating the outside of the pipe with a
variety of different materials, such as bituminous wrap,
polyethylene wraps or coatings and various grades of
epoxies or polyethylene.
Today, many pipelines that are 20 - 40 years old tend
to show corrosion issues. This indicates that neither CP
nor the original coatings completely prevented corrosion.
The need to save pipelines from severe corrosion damage
alongside high demand for the extension of the original
design life of buried pipelines has led to a renewed push
to develop exterior pipe coatings. Innovative coatings,
which are designed to last 40 years or more when buried,
bind to the pipe surface strongly and can be applied to
existing pipelines after the original coating is removed.
Therefore, today’s coatings must provide more effective
protection than their predecessors, continue to function
under severe operating conditions and be applied under
less than ideal conditions.
Polyurea spray coatings, polyurethane spray coatings,
as well as hybrids of both materials, have been in the
market for many years. Polymeric coatings protect from
oxidation by preventing soil, water or air from coming
into contact with the steel pipe surface. Salt marsh
soil is a particularly challenging environment for buried
pipelines. Found in coastal areas, this soil is sandy with
high water and salt contents. In response to harsh soil
conditions, VIP Coatings International (VIP) has developed
its QuickSpray Industrial range, including its elastomeric
spray coatings.
These coatings possess a high resistance to harsh soil
conditions, strong bond to the substrate, have a very
short application and curing time and high abrasion advantage of the system is that the welded pipe joints
resistance. The elastomeric membrane can stretch can be sealed on site.
and return to its original shape. This makes it flexible,
resistant and insensitive to external influences. VIP’s Case study
protective membranes maintain their physical integrity, Polskie Górnictwo Naftowe i Gazownictwo SA (PGNiG
even under extreme temperature fluctuations and SA) was installing three layer polypropylene coated
repeated flexing and impact. steel pipes by thrust boring – or ‘jacking’ – the pipes
They have high impact, abrasion and corrosion into place under roads and buildings.
resistance and provide sound deadening and vibration The thrust boring procedure placed significant
absorption. Rapid application and return to service mechanical stresses – impact and abrasion – on
keeps shutdown times to a minimum. the original polypropylene external pipe coating.
Periodically installed pipes were removed for random
Thrust boring quality checking. The checks revealed fractures and
For road and river crossings, building tunnels for cracks in the polypropylene lining, which would have
pipelines has been widely replaced by thrust boring compromised the original linings performance against
or horizontal directional drilling (HDD). With this long-term corrosion if left unattended.
technology, pneumatically driven pipe ramming systems It became clear that the pipe jacking or thrust
are used for the dynamic installation of steel pipes boring installation process was creating mechanical
underneath roads, waterways, railway tracks etc. The stresses beyond the capabilities of the traditional three
traditional pipe ramming technique needs spirally layer outer coating system.
welded or seamless pipes, as ‘bore pipes’. The customer consulted with the company in an
The product pipe is welded to the backend of an attempt to find a solution to their problem, where the
installed bore pipe or is penetrated directly through the VIP team proposed a complete system solution that
bore pipe directly. The bore pipe limits the amount of incorporated the correct preparation procedures of the
stress placed on the product pipe but creates additional existing polypropylene coating, a specially formulated
working steps and costs. priming system and a final spray applied, seamless and
Thrust boring was designed to eliminate expensive instant curing protective membrane.
bore pipe operations and protect the product pipe in VIP provided a highly impact and abrasion resistant
a way that the pipe withstands the extreme impact solution that cured in minutes and could be put into
of dynamic traffic loads in tough soil conditions and operation within hours of being installed. The chosen
external soil pressure. system could be installed onsite and the customer
The pipe is pulled or pressed through the soil and could use the same protective coating system to seal
remains in place afterwards. To allow thrust boring pipes and protect the welded pipe joints.
to have a design life that matches the
rest of the pipeline, it is essential that
the pipe is protected from abrasion
by rocks during the pressing/pulling
process. A coating used in thrust
boring must also provide the best
possible corrosion protection.
Due to their high abrasion
resistance VIP’s elastomeric spray
coatings are ideal for thrust boring/
HDD, where pipes are directly pushed
through soil and can experience
strong abrasive forces by hard soil and
rocks. The spray applied elastomeric
membrane solution consists of a tough
and resilient 2K membrane. Being spray
applied with hot spray machinery, the
membrane is seamless and fast curing,
which improves turn around times.
VIP’s QuickSpray Industrial provides
a combination of abrasion resistance,
impact resistance and flexibility
to maintain total integrity during Figure 3. A pipe before drilling that is protected with an abrasion and impact
the thrust boring process. Another resistant coating.

COATINGS & CORROSION 2016 / World Pipelines 17

CONCRETE
concepts
 I
t is a common practice to use
concrete as a means of providing
negative buoyancy for submarine
pipelines. While concrete is
typically designed for
Adam Kopystynski, density, strength, water
absorption etc., less is
Shawcor, Pipeline said about the strain
Performance, UK, that can be developed in
explores novel bending such systems during the
installation phase and
methodology for concrete the degree of cracking
weight coating. or spalling (impacting
concrete integrity) that
can be expected upon
flexure.
All pipelines are installed with
some radius of curvature and when
testing requirements (bending
simulations) are driven by the project
installation requirements, such
testing is relatively rare and can be
mechanically difficult.
Shawcor had an opportunity to
perform a strain testing programme
to test a novel methodology for
simulating strain conditions in
concrete coated pipes, thus, testing
five similar concrete coated pipes in
bending to determine the relationship
(if any) between plain and slotted
concrete to the degree of installation
strain generated.

19
 A full scale bending test was performed using a free Test pipes
floating bend test concept. The test was to simulate axial The pipes to be tested were 44 in. outside diameter (OD)
bending during installation in an S-lay configuration. The x 24.6 mm wall thickness (WT) x 450 MPa steel, anti-
specified strain to be generated was 0.22% at the mid fibre corrosion coated with fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) and an
of the concrete (as referenced in DNV-OS-F101). This strain helically applied adhesive bead with concrete (Table 1).
would be generated by bend radii of the order of 300 m. The concrete density was 3040 kg/m3 (190 lbs/ft3) with
A common challenge for this type of testing is to a nominal strength of 40 MPa (5800 psi).
develop a testing methodology that can simulate real
world behaviour without introducing artefacts from the Testing configuration
test itself. Judgement would be made on installation As the pipe size was large and high loads were expected
performance and whether slotting of the concrete would during bending, in order not to influence local concrete
be introduced in order to minimise strain by providing the behaviour and to spread contact load in bearing (of the
pipe with discrete points of reticulation. order of 100 t), a four point, three pipe span arrangement
was determined (Heriot-Watt University). Loading would
be steel to steel in the area of the welds between pipes,
Table 1. Summary of tested pipe configurations
on saddles welded in place to provide flat surfaces to
Test CWC Type of reinforcement Pain/ Plant
push against. The required loads were generated by two
number thickness slotted
hydraulic rams.
Test 1 75 mm Cage reinforcement Plain A
Some of the bending arrangements for these types of
Test 2 110 mm Cage and wire mesh Plain A
tests can have a radius of bend in the vertical orientation,
Test 3 110 mm Cage and wire mesh Slotted A either with the ends anchored to the ground – rams
Test 4 75 mm Cage reinforcement Plain B pushing the test string up – or exceptionally, if the
Test 5 75 mm Cage reinforcement Slotted B test string is long enough to lift one end of the string
physically (by crane) to cause the test radius to have a
sag in the string. Also, particularly in the case of smaller
radii bends simulating reeling installation, the bend can be
in the horizontal orientation: typically, against a curved
former describing the required radius or by pushing the
test string with the ends fixed (and pinned) to the required
radius.
To generate the flexure with the present testing
methodology, it was determined:
)) To have the curvature in the horizontal orientation.

)) To have load points that were not fixed. Neither the

pinned ends nor the rams were fixed or anchored to
the ground or some rig substructure. In effect, this was
to be a free floating system with no restraints in the
horizontal plane.

The system was geometrically symmetrical (two pipe

Figure 1. Completed assembly, pinned at the ends of test
string and strongback.
strings of three pipes bending in opposition to each
other). In order to minimise relative movement between
the two strings, one had an increase in stiffness by filling
the bore with concrete and was designated as the
‘strongback’.

Monitoring/sensoring
It is typical to calculate the radius of curvature in
such a test from local positional information, either
simple positional data relative to a fixed datum (e.g.
absolute movement of the mid point of the central
span) or more complex positional data (e.g. the
position of several (fixed) points on the test string
measured by surveying level or theodolite from a
(fixed) position outside the system).
In the present discussion, the central span of
Figure 2. Fully welded test string (front) and strongback (rear).
the test string was subdivided symmetrically into

20 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016

nacecorrosion.org

March 26 to 30, 2017

Ernest N. Morial Convention Center | New Orleans, Louisiana

Showcase Your Company to the Corrosion Mitigation

Market in the CORROSION 2017 Final Program.
This guide is handed out at the NACE Annual Conference to more than 6,000 attendees.
CORROSION 2016 Quick Facts:
Top Company Functions: Architectural/Design — 5.1%
Coatings —10% Laboratory/Research — 3.6%
Engineer — 8.7% Material Selection & Design — 3.6%
Testing Services — 8.6% Surface Preparation/Blasting — 3.4%
Cathodic/Anodic Protection — 8.1% Onshore — 3.3%
Chemical Processing — 5.9% Offshore — 2.7%

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 approximately 1 m sections. The first and last sections
were <1 m as the concrete coating was less than exactly
12 m total length. Eyelets were screwed into the concrete
at each of these points and an exactly similar pattern was
established on a fixed datum, which was located outside of
the test and string. Linear voltage displacement transducers
(LVDTs) were attached to the datum, and the drawstrings
were located on the eyelets on the concrete coating.
Before the start of the test, the datum was positioned at
the approximate mid height of and aligned parallel to the
test string. The drawstrings were lined up to be at 90˚ to
the test string.
Although the complete test arrangement – test string
and ‘strongback’ – was free to move relative to each
element and the datum, motion was generally in the
line of the drawstrings. Thus, angular errors were limited
and, nonetheless, relative motion (between each of the
eyelets) determined the positional data. Plotting test
data onto ideal arcs of a circle became easier as radius
(and strain) increased, with a very good correlation being
established approaching the area of interest (strain of
0.22%).
Behaviour
The ‘DNV-OS-F101 Submarine Pipeline Systems, Section
13 Commentary, H. Installation’ explained: “… concrete
crushing may be assumed to occur when the strain in the
concrete (at the compressive fibre in the middle of the
concrete thickness) reaches 0.2%.”
Figure 3. Central span showing position of LVDTs (Heriot-Watt University).
Figure 4. Typical crack patterns for plain concrete pipe (Heriot-Watt
University).
22 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
The compression face of the concrete was video
monitored to determine the strain at which concrete
spalled. The observations from the tests showed that
of two equivalent concrete configurations (75 mm, but
from two different coating plants), one did indeed crush
at 0.20% strain. The second, however, crushed at 0.17%
strain. There can be no easy explanation for the difference,
particularly as the slotted configurations did not perform
differently to one another. It was observed that the shear
capacity was excellent, which limits the freedom of
concrete to slip over the anti-corrosion coating relieving
stress.
A 110 mm concrete configuration was strained to
0.23% before spalling. The obvious reason for this is that
the concrete was reinforced in two layers: a primary cage
reinforcement and a secondary wire mesh reinforcement
(used as an aid to application), some 20 mm below the
surface of the concrete.
In order to allow tighter radii/higher strains, forming
slots that interrupt the longitudinal continuity of the
reinforcement can reticulate the concrete. Typical slot
location would be at 1 - 2 m intervals: at 1 m spacing in
the case of the present discussion. This is sufficient to
eliminate all spalling in the range of strain being discussed,
with slots beginning to close up at around 0.27% strain.
It must be noted that all of the configurations tested
showed some circumferential cracking on the tension face
of the concrete, but with no associated loss (of mass) of
concrete due to cracking.
Discussion
Shear
The axial resistance to shear of the system –
concrete over anti-corrosion – was considered
to be very good. The anti-corrosion solution
was a FBE with an helical bead of Sikadur
glue locking the concrete in place. There
was no evidence of movement of concrete
relative to the FBE. However, visual inspection
at the cutback end of the concrete on the
compression face while the test was under
load/strain, showed a step in the cutback
face of the concrete some 5 mm above the
surface of the FBE, which was assumed to be
evidence of a failure plane. When ‘windows’
were sectioned in the concrete coating on
the compression face, the concrete could be
removed from the window relatively easily, the
failure plane being present some 3 m in from
the ends of the coating.
Spalling
The spalling was seen only on plain pipe,
always on the compression face of the test
string and the area of spalling did not increase
after first appearance within the strain range
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 Figure 5. Central span prepared for testing with LVDTS located on a fixed beam.
of the test. The degree of spalling was limited to <100 kg
of concrete per pipe. Notably, the coated pipe weight
approximately 17 500 - 23 300 kg.
The general pattern of appearance was symmetrical
about the vertical centre of the test string, and there was
spalling at the centre of the test string in each case.
Cracking
Circumferential cracking was seen on the tension faces
of the plain test strings, appearing to be related to the
position of the circumferential reinforcing wire.
)) Cage reinforcement: the typical positional frequency
was around 200 mm, about twice the spacing of the
circumferential reinforcing wires.
)) Cage and wire mesh reinforcement: the typical
positional frequency was around 325 mm, about twice
the pattern of the circumferential wire mesh width
minus overlap.
The circumferential crack pattern on the slotted pipes
was related not to the reinforcing placement as above,
but to the position of the slots, specifically there was one
crack in the approximate centre of each ring of concrete.
Strain
Mapping of the curvature of the pipe at any point in
the test (any radius) to perfect arcs of a circle was a
straightforward, if trigonometric, process. There were
minor non-conformities to circular geometry, but these can
be largely explained by:
)) Relative differences in stiffness of the concrete due
to variation in density, compaction strength, thickness,
shear performance etc. (seen as a random and changing
offset).
)) Re-alignment of some of the LVDT drawstring
connections to the eyelets in the concrete on
24 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
commencement of the test, seen as a permanent offset
for that LVDT position.
The key data here was the relative position of the
measurement points on the test string (their relationship
to each other), not the absolute (global) position. The
mathematics was proven on each test occasion.
Conclusion
The challenge of executing the test methodology was
met. There were no issues with hold up of the test string
or strong asymmetric behaviour, for example. The free
floating test arrangement concept was proven, with
very good correlation of the bent test string to ideal arc
geometry. From this positional data, test strains were
calculated, which were then related to the observed
instances of spalling. Axial resistance to shear of the
concrete over the anti-corrosion was excellent, there
was no movement of the concrete coating relative to
the pipe and anti-corrosion coating, although there
was post-test evidence that a shear plane within the
concrete had developed. The spalling was limited to plain
pipe only, with weight loss <100 kg per approximately
20 000 kg of coated pipe weight. The degree of variance
in recorded effects was within expectation across three
randomly selected pipes. Cracking in the concrete was
circumferential on the tension face and could be related
to reinforcing wire in all cases, and there was evidence
that reinforcement closer to the surface of the concrete
coating limited the depth of spalling.
The regularity of behaviour (no recorded spalling) in
the slotted pipes up to strains of 0.27% in both 75 mm and
110 mm concrete configurations was to be expected.
From the results of the testing, the decision was made
to install plain pipe, without slots being cut into the
concrete coating, as material loss of the order that was
measured in the test would not affect installability or
stability on the seabed.”
 Dr. Martin Molberg,
DENSO GmbH,
Germany, discusses
a new field-applied
anti-corrosion
system for pipelines
with moist surfaces.

O
ne of the biggest challenges for field coating
systems are pipelines that show a condensate
film on the metal substrate. Such moist surfaces
can be found on gas pipelines or coolant
lines that are under load or with high humidity in the
environment. As a result, DENSO GmbH Germany has
produced VivaxCoat®; a reliable and permanent corrosion
protection system for wet surfaces. The system is applied
directly to these surfaces without any need for special
tools.

25
 Many operators try to cope with the situation of
moist surfaces by regulating the pressure of the pipeline
or air drying of the surface in a acclimatised tent, but
without significant success. Until now, there have been no
corrosion prevention systems for moist surfaces available
that could be applied under nearly all conditions onsite.
When standard anti-corrosion coatings – such as PE/
butyl tapes, heat shrinkable sleeves or liquid coatings –
were used on moist surfaces, the results were often very
questionable. Over the last few years, only a number of
liquid epoxy systems were able to be applied on damp or
even wet surfaces. However, they all needed mandatory
grit blasting as a form of surface preparation, according to
Figure 1. Application of DENSO-AQ primer.
Figure 2. Application of DENSO-MT petrolatum tape.
26 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
SA 2 1/2. This is because not every grit blasting process
can be applied on pipelines that are under load.
A new approach
A new approach starts by accepting the circumstances.
In many cases, it is simply not possible to remove the
moisture from the surface. Therefore, it seems almost
impossible to reduce the costs of potential shutdowns or
pressure reductions.
DENSO GmbH’s new corrosion prevention system is
designed for the corrosion protection of wet and damp
surfaces, as well as for fittings on steel pipelines. It also
only needs minor pre-surface treatment, can be executed
under almost all conditions onsite, and can be
applied to pipes under load in order to avoid
shutdowns and maintain the pressure of the
lines. The combination of a water repellent
petrolatum system and a concerted self-
amalgamating 3-ply PE/butyl tape provides long
lasting corrosion prevention and mechanical
protection.
The system also offers a good resistance
to salt-containing atmospheres and soils.
Nither of the system’s components contain
solvents, and needs no time for curing or drying.
Thus, if it enables a fast working progress,
a self-amaglamating PE/butyl tape – e.g.
DENSOLEN®-AS50 – will be utilised.
The coating system, DENSO® VivaxCoat, is
comprised of three components: first, a special
primer; second, a corrosion prevention tape;
and third, a mechanical protection based on a
concerted self-amalgamating PE/butyl tape.
The first component to apply is a corrosion
protection petrolatum primer. The primer helps
to avoid high costs for line disconnections
or long waiting times for rehabilitation
measurements. By applying the primer-mastic,
the moisture or moist substrate will be
displaced from the surface. At the same time,
the surface will be sealed against corrosive
media of all kinds. The primer is applied
manually to the surface and can be used for
permanent operating temperatures of up to 80°C
(176°F).
The second element of the system is a newly
developed petrolatum tape, which consists of
a robust and nonwoven polypropylene as well
as a corrosion prevention petrolatum-based
coating. It shows a high dripping point and
good adhesive resistances at high temperatures.
Therefore, the tape is especially qualified for
high mechanical and thermal loads. Both the
petrolatum primer-mastic and the petrolatum
tape provide thorough corrosion prevention.
An additional high impact resistance is
achieved with the third element, a 1.1 mm thick,
 Figure 3. VivaxCoat is comprised of DENSO-AQ primer, DENSO-MT tape and mechanical protection with 3-ply DENSOLEN-AS 50
tape.
self-amalgamating PE/butyl tape. The amalgamation of
the butyl rubber layers not only creates a mechanical
protection, but also creates a hose-like coating or a
second barrier of corrosion prevention. This is because
there will be no chance for oxygen or vapour to get into
the system.
From a physical point of view, butyl rubber is more
fluid than a solid substance. Where the tape layers of the
PE/butyl tape do overlap, the molecules migrate from
one butyl rubber layer to the other, forming a hose-like
coating right after a short period of time.
As the petrolatum tape (the second element) is
especially modified, there will be a self-amalgamating
connection between the inner butyl layer of the PE/butyl
tape and the outer layer of the petrolatum tape. This feature
will provide a cohesive break during a peeling test. For the
first time, this high quality criterion could be achieved.
The VivaxCoat system is applied without any special
tools. Extensive and error-prone lamination, typically
needed for many glass fibre reinforced plastic systems
(GRP systems), is not required.
The combination of these three elements provides not
only a proven corrosion and mechanical protection for
lines with a condensate film on the substrate, but also an
easy application and long lasting protection for irregular
shaped geometries, such as tees, flanges and valves. It is
essential that field coating materials can be easily applied
under a wide variety of ambient conditions. This ease of
application reduces the risk of human mistakes. Thorough
quality corrosion prevention is the result, which provides
an economical and safe operation of the pipeline.
Case study
On 6 - 10 July 2015, the corrosion protection coating of
a gas pipeline located near Espenhain (eastern Germany),
belonging to the German operator ONTRAS Gastransport
GmbH, had to be rehabilitated (Figure 1 and 2).
28 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
The pipeline was constructed in 1994. It has a nominal
diameter of 900 mm (36 in.) and transports approximately
400 000 - 600 000 m3/hr of gas. The pressure of the
gas is roughly 55 bar. Special circumstances were given;
the surface of the pipeline was wet due to the cold gas
flow through the pipe in combination with relatively high
ambient temperatures. Hence, a corrosion prevention
system had to be chosen for wet surfaces. And what’s
more, the pipeline had to stay in operation.
The construction company VORWERK from Halle
(Germany) chose the VivaxCoat system with the self-
amalgamating PE/butyl tape, DENSOLEN-AS50, as the
outer mechanical protection layer. After the fast and easy
installation, both ONTRAS and VORWERK were satisfied
with the application and technical performance of the
system.
Conclusion
The evaluation of an appropriate rehabilitation system
for corrosion prevention on pipelines with moist surfaces
depends on many specific circumstances. They system
must be chosen in co-ordination with the material and
onsite requirements, and has to be suitable and tailored
specifically to the relevant and unique project conditions,
especially taking into account an easy and economical
way of applying the system.
The newly developed VivaxCoat system is designed
to combine ease of application, thorough mechanical
resistance and innovative corrosion prevention for small
and large scale rehabilitation projects. It is developed
specifically for application on wet surfaces and,
therefore, on pipelines that remain in service. Due to its
flexibility, the system can also be used for fittings that
are coated with a condensate film. With VivaxCoat, the
costs of rehabilitation are reduced to a minimum, as
shutdowns or pressure reductions of pipelines are no
longer required.
 E TO CARE!
DAR

Liquid Pipeline Coating Technology

 Charlie Hall, MESA, USA,
outlines the processes
involved when considering
pipeline integrity at AC ‘touch
points’ between pipelines and
power lines.

Pipelines and power lines:

ASSESSING AC
INTERFERENCE
P
ipelines and power lines are often found in the same right-of-way
(ROW) across the country. An unintended consequence of this
common ROW is the electromagnetic field (EMF) of power lines
trespassing onto the pipeline, which creates alternating current
(AC) interference. EMF presence can result in induced AC (shock hazard –
15 volts1), AC corrosion, or both.
This generally occurs on well coated pipelines. AC induction can
compromise the safety of the pipeline and company personnel who may be
subject to an adverse shock hazard. The general public may also be at risk
due to contact with aboveground components.
When the soil resistivity in the area around the pipeline is lower,
the pipeline segment may be at risk of AC corrosion. The low resistivity
associated with excellent coating can produce AC corrosion at very low
voltages, where the AC is able to return to ground.
Each pipeline should be evaluated by threat assessment if the
subject pipeline is in close proximity or ‘touch point’, with an
overhead AC power line. Figure 1 characterises the risk by
range of EMF and soil resistivity values.
31
Pipeline AC touch points
Pipeline operators need to quantify AC interference risk.
Throughout shared ROWs, where pipeline and power lines
co-exist, the two facilities will have touch points. These
shared pipeline/power line touch points define locations
where AC voltage can trespass onto the pipeline segment
through induction. The opportunities for induction require
investigation to quantify the risk and assess whether the threat
is ‘real’.
It is necessary to identify these power line and pipeline AC
touch points, define the zone(s), quantify the risk, and prioritise
the severity of the AC threat that is discovered. These are the
steps in defining where baseline assessment is required.
Table 1. Current density and likelihood
AC density Accelerated corrosion risk
Low – AC not likely to impact
Less than 20 amps/m2
corrosion.
Medium – AC has unpredictable
20 - 100 amps/m2
impact on corrosion.
Defining zones and buffers
Having identified the touch points, where the power line is at
risk to interfering with the pipeline, the first step is to define ‘AC
zones’.
A buffer is the distance of suspected AC influence around the
pipeline. This is then established where the influence of the EMF
may be at risk of trespass onto the pipeline. The purpose of this
step is to begin to clarify the AC influence scope. An example of
an ‘AC zone’ is shown in Figure 2.
Relative risk ranking
Step two is designed to identify the potential influencing factors.
Influencing factors must be understood along with the interactive
relationships. Through a risk ranking matrix, the severity of each
influencing factor is defined as minor, moderate or severe.
Category severity is weighted and rolled up by category into
a zone relative risk ranking. This relative risk ranking quantifies
priority through an estimated rating, which is calculated as a sum
of the influencing factors.
Some initial influencing factors to consider are:2
)) Separation distance between the pipeline and power line.

Greater than 100 amps/m2 High – AC accelerates corrosion. )) Power line load information or kV rating.

Source: NACE SP0177-2014 (Formerly RP177), ‘Mitigation Alternating )) Crossing angle.

Currents and Lightning Effects on Metallic Structures and Corrosion
Control Systems’. )) Pipeline diameter.

)) Length of colocation.

)) Coating type and condition.

)) Number of colocated power lines.

Depending on location, additional data that may be

incorporated may also be available. The more complete the data,
the more accurate the risk ranking by zone. Additional information
can more clearly define the next steps:
)) Inline inspection (ILI) anomalies defined by the ‘smart pig’
programme.

)) Soil resistivity.

)) AC voltages.

Figure 1. Amps/m2.
)) Calculating AC current density.

All data is integrated and assigned a preliminary threat risk

level. These preliminary results define whether there is a need
to conduct a field study or if no further action is required. This
determines whether there is a real risk or how real the risk is by
zone.

Assessing risk and prioritising

As more and more pipelines are being colocated with power
lines, threat assessment results help pipeline operators identify
where AC corrosion or safety hazards may occur and how to
prioritise the greatest risk. The impact of dynamic power line load
conditions should be given special consideration.
In areas where AC induction and corrosion risk have been
identified, a remote monitoring unit (RMU) should be installed to
Figure 2. AC zone. monitor AC voltages. Current densities can be monitored using

32 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016

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alarm triggers that are specified to particular current density
and voltage levels. This monitoring is essential for accurate and
consistent trending, identification of soil variation and power line
current load dynamics. Without consistent monitoring, the risk
may not be recognised or quantified with annual survey data.
AC potentials and soil resistivity
Field measured AC readings and soil resistivity improve AC risk
ranking. Figure 1 presents the estimated current density values in
a/m2, along with their importance.
This calculated current density is missing a key component.
In the absence of power line load knowledge, this preliminary
AC current density can be misleading and the AC current density
evaluation may not be understood. Knowledge of the average and
peak operating power line loads is necessary.
The dynamics of seasonal soil resistivity values also effect the
preliminary calculations. Variation in soil moisture impacts the soil
resistivity and effects the AC current density.
Visual presentation and phased approach
Identifying AC current densities from power line loads provides
a more complete picture. The objective is to establish a ‘go’ or
‘no go’ action recognition. However, perhaps this may present a
significant risk that has an ‘urgent’ need to push forward in field
data collection, modelling and remediation.
Visual communication simplifies and enhances the ability
to understand the risk presented by the AC interference threat.
Results need to be portable in order to import results to the
pipeline risk model. Defined results identify how ‘real’ the risk
factors are. Consideration of the load component is important for
deciding the corrective action.
Dynamic load consideration
Power line loads are not static. Depending on demand, the lines
will vary in their operational loads throughout the day. Peak
periods are typically in the early morning and after work.
Therefore, it is inaccurate to assume that the peak power
line load occurs when the technician is in the field obtaining AC
measurements.
Exceptions may occur when power lines are providing
electricity from wind energy sources because wind energy is
harnessed and managed by the power grid manager in order to
optimise this available power load first, while it is cheap and
continuous. In windy conditions, optimisation of the power grid
continues until the wind subsides.
When power line conductors are taken out of service for
maintenance, or for similar reasons, the power line load is
generally rerouted to another parallel circuit. This may place an
increased power load adjacent to the pipeline, which, in turn,
increases the trespass induction. This results in an abnormally
increased power line current load and further increases the
induction footprint on the pipeline.
These are often scheduled maintenance events and a good
relationship with the power line company can better manage and
create awareness of that risk.
Written process
When considering the pipeline’s AC threat, a written process
is necessary to ensure that the results are reproducible. As
34 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
the pipeline assessment matures, this process should be
defined by procedure and trained as part of the organisational
implementation through a management of change (MOC)
process.
Based on lessons learnt by application, threat assessment will
evolve to better define the field evaluation priority that culminates
with AC modelling. It may also define that no action is required
since little to no risk was identified.
When making decisions to ensure that adequate consideration
of the power line load factor has been given, it may become
necessary to make contact with the power line operator in order
to determine operating/design parameters.
In the absence of data, there are default values available
to compensate for this unknown or missing information. These
cases require a more conservative approach to be applied to
compensate for the lack of information.
AC threat assessment summary
When considering pipeline integrity at AC ‘touch points’ between
pipelines and power lines:
)) It is necessary to consider and access the AC threat of
induction or AC corrosion in locations where the pipeline and
power lines are in close proximity.
)) AC threat assessment for the pipeline system defines a power
line’s ‘zones’ or ‘zone of influences’. These identify where
the opportunity for the EMF to trespass onto the pipelines
generates, either an induction shock hazard or the risk for AC
corrosion.
)) Threat assessments are a more cost-effective method to assess
the system initially. This process will sort out any priority areas
needing evaluation or corrective action. Additional work may
or may not be required. It is a step towards deciding relative
risk and a ‘go’ or ‘no go’ action.
)) AC threat assessment will define the need and priority for AC
modelling.
)) Threat assessment is the initial method performed on
pipelines in order to determine additional work requirements.
)) Without a threat assessment documented, it is more difficult
to determine which site is a greater priority and to truly
ascertain if there is a legitimate need.
)) AC modelling will define the extent of remediation required.
AC threat assessment validates where action is required.
)) A written work process identifies the priority and assists in
identifying the level of priority of remediating the risk to the
pipeline.
)) A written work process has to be defined, consistent and
generate reproducible results.
)) The initial threat assessment identifies which touch points
have a greater likelihood of failure.
References
1. INGAA Report, ‘Criteria for Pipelines Co-Existing with Electric Power Lines’, prepared
by DNV GL; INGAA Foundation final report No. 2014-04.
2. NACE International Publication 35110, ‘AC Corrosion State of the Art: Corrosion Rate,
Mechanism and Mitigation Requirements’, prepared by NACE Task Group 327.
 rrosion
ng co
lli
Contr

C
o
AS E D
I N OSSI NGS
CR
O
il and gas transmission pipelines that crisscross the nation’s
landscape pass beneath critical infrastructure, such as
highways, railroads and
waterways. Since most
oil and gas transmission pipelines Pavan K. Shukla,
are buried underground, corrosion Ph.D., Southwest
prevention and related repairs are Research Institute,
increasingly important in order to avoid
pipeline failures that can lead to toxic
USA, analyses
spills or explosions, potentially leading corrosion risks
to loss of life. It is estimated that there in cased pipeline
are close to 1 million cased crossings
in the US. Approximately 40% may
crossings.
have degraded to the point of metallic
contact between pipelayers, and nearly all of the cased crossings have
electrolytic contact between the carrier and the casing pipe. These
conditions jeopardise pipeline integrity and increase risk to surrounding
populations and infrastructure.

35

Figure 1. A three dimensional perspective view of the model geometry.
Carbon steel is the most widely used material for
these transmission pipelines. A dielectric coating is
applied to pipelines before placing them underground
to create a barrier between the pipeline metal and soil
surrounding it, mitigating corrosion. In addition, cathodic
protection (CP) is used to reduce the risk of corrosion.
In simple terms, the CP technique is based on applying
an external electrical current to the pipeline through the
soil to supply an independent source of electrons for
cathodic reactions, such as oxygen and water reductions.
This external electron source reduces extraction of
electrons from the iron pipe, thus limiting or minimising
iron oxidation and dissolution, as well as associated
corrosion of the pipeline. Although a coating and CP
can be effective in preventing or mitigating corrosion
that can lead to pipeline failures, many complexities
and uncertainties related to as-installed conditions,
associated damage and evolving electrochemical
processes in the vicinity of the pipeline must be
considered in designing and deploying a CP system.
Detecting and inspecting corrosion
To monitor the risk of corrosion and corrosion-related
failure, pipelines are regularly inspected and assessed
to identify these risks. Inspection techniques include
aboveground surveys, pressure testing and direct
assessment (DA) techniques such as alternating current
voltage gradient (ACVG), pipeline current mapping (PCM)
and inline inspection (ILI) using a tubular, instrumented
device known as a ‘pig’.
Ironically, pipeline segments that lie beneath some
of the most sensitive areas are also among the most
difficult to inspect using inspection techniques such
as aboveground surveys. These difficult to inspect
segments need extra protection to avoid damage from
nearby excavation, settlement, traffic loads and erosion.
Encasing the carrier pipe in a carbon steel-based casing
pipe provides the extra protection.
These intervals, called cased pipeline segments or
cased crossings, are subject to not only the normal
corrosion caused by exposure to moisture and soil
36 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
chemistry, but also to electrolytic corrosion
caused by contact between the metal of the
carrier pipe and its metallic casing.
A number of factors can lead to external
corrosion of the carrier pipe, including general
atmospheric exposure at coating ‘holidays’
(areas of damaged or missing coating); a high
concentration of diffused oxygen in accumulated
condensation at coating holidays; coating holidays
in direct contact with an electrolyte such as
water, moist soil or other debris; the presence
of bacteria; and elevated temperatures, which
can accelerate an existing corrosion cell or cause
coating damage that can expose the surface of the
carrier pipe.
Furthermore, the presence of outer casings,
along with electrolyte within the annular space between
casing and the carrier pipe, can adversely affect CP
systems installed to reduce corrosion. In addition, the
presence of the casing pipe makes it difficult to expose
the inside carrier pipe for direct examination.
The inspection tools commonly used for examination
of uncased pipes may not be applicable for cased pipe
segments. For example, the casing pipe wall shields the
carrier pipe from aboveground examination, making it
challenging to interpret data collected by the technique.
The pipe to soil potentials measured on the ground
surface can be different from the actual potentials in
the annulus, due to the presence of the casing pipe
wall and the voltage drop in both the soil and coating.
Furthermore, unless a reference electrode has been pre-
installed in the casing annulus, the corrosion potential
of the carrier pipe generally cannot be measured in the
field.
An additional complication is that cased pipelines
often have a separating medium between the annular
space and end seals. Some casings are filled with wax
to mitigate the risk of corrosion. However, wax is not a
preferred medium because it is cumbersome to remove
from the casing when repairs are needed. Over time, the
end seal can break, allowing soil and water to invade the
space between the carrier and casing pipes. Furthermore,
the spacers that separate the carrier and casing pipe can
break down over time, creating metallic contact between
the carrier and casing pipes.
Inspection of a cased pipe segment requires
uncovering the segment, opening the space between
pipelayers and inserting an instrumented probe between
layers to inspect the inner pipe’s integrity. Inspection
by sending a pig through the carrier pipeline along with
the product requires no excavation, but it is expensive
and is usually done only once every two to five years.
Due to the complexity and cost of conducting required
inspections, pipeline operators need to focus attention
on the segments presenting the greatest risk of failure.
Thus, a tool was needed to provide a sound basis for
doing so.
 Cathodic

FarwestCorrosion.com
Cased pipeline corrosion model
Protection &
Southwest Research Institute® (SwRI) engineers have developed the CAsed
Pipeline COrrosion Model (CAPCOM®) to predict the corrosion condition
Corrosion
of these cased pipeline segments. CAPCOM uses a specialised application
of the finite element method (FEM) to arrive at a mathematical model
Control
of the pipeline’s condition in relation to corrosion. The key feature of
CAPCOM is the coupling equations between the carrier and casing pipe
Solutions
in cased crossing segments. Using the coupling equations, CAPCOM
explicitly accounts for electrolytic plus metallic contact between carrier
and casing pipe and the soil outside the cased crossing to determine the
corrosion condition of the carrier pipe. With CAPCOM, metallic contact C.P. Anodes
and electrolytic contact are accounted for by modelling a resistor and an
electrolyte, respectively, between the carrier and casing pipes. Power Supplies
For a coated pipeline under CP, the CP current will pass through the
cased crossing section when there is electrolytic or electrolytic plus
metallic contact. If there are coating defects (holidays) on the pipeline Test Stations
inside and outside the cased crossing, the distribution of CP current
will depend on the resistance to the CP current along the length of the Cable & Splicing
pipeline. There are several commercially available models1, 2 to determine
the distribution of the CP current without considering the cased crossing Instrumentation
sections. CAPCOM, though, is the first software to utilise coupling
equations between the carrier and casing pipe to determine distribution
of the CP current along the line. Reference
CAPCOM can provide valuable information on corrosion conditions Electrodes
both outside and inside the casing. By estimating the pipe to soil
electrical potential along the cased pipeline segment and possible Anode Backfill
corrosion rates on the carrier pipe, CAPCOM can help determine whether
the cased pipeline section is adequately protected, or if preventive
maintenance should be conducted. It also can identify the level of Remote
polarisation of the cased pipeline segment and the rest of the nearby Monitoring
pipeline when there is electrolytic contact between the carrier and
casing.
Coatings
Model implementation
CAPCOM employs the same basic mathematical input parameters used Isolators
in existing models of CP systems for uncased pipelines. However, it
adds inputs related to the casing pipe itself. For example, CAPCOM Inspection
inputs for both cased and uncased sections of the pipeline include their
dimensions, coating and soil properties, and any electrolytic properties Equipment
that may exist inside the space between the casing and carrier pipe.
CAPCOM analysis also includes the CP design used to protect cased and C.P. Installation
carrier pipes in its models (Figure 1).
CAPCOM’s FEM method solves the equations for predicting corrosion
conditions of the cased pipeline section. Using the FEM formulation, C.P. Engineering
CAPCOM also can represent varying conditions that affect the carrier
pipe, such as how the soil conducts or resists electrical conduction at
different locations near the cased portion of the pipeline. And More...
This capability sets CAPCOM apart from other CP models, which use
a different modelling approach known as the boundary element method
(BEM). BEM-based software works best when modelling a homogenous
medium, such as soil of uniform properties surrounding a pipeline,
but has limited ability to model how the surrounding soil or other fill 9 Locations
material with varying chemical composition and moisture content affects
Across the USA
www.

pipeline corrosion. This limitation precludes using BEM tools for complex
cased crossing conditions.
CAPCOM also has the ability to model coating holidays both
888-532-7937
inside and outside the cased pipeline section. After all parameters are
Use Your
Smart Phone
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 entered and limits are defined, CAPCOM models the
corrosion environment and presents its results as two and
three- dimensional plots. These plots include a pipe to
electrolyte potential for the cased and uncased carrier
pipeline sections, as well as the state of the electrical
current the CP system supplies to the carrier pipe. The
model reveals whether the CP current is diverted to the
casing pipe, and the extent of diversion of the CP current
from the carrier pipe under metallic plus electrolytic
contact between carrier and casing pipe. Thus, the level
of CP the carrier pipe will need and the ability to evaluate
the risk of external corrosion at holidays on the carrier
pipe inside the casing can be easily determined.
CAPCOM output includes current and potential
distribution along the carrier pipe for the entire length
that is covered by the CP system (Figure 2). The potential
distribution can be processed to determine which sections
of the pipeline meet a given CP criterion, such as 850 mV
on- and off-potential criteria and 100 mV polarisation
potential criterion. The current distribution calculated by
the model can be used to determine the extent of the
CP current diversion from the carrier pipe into the casing
pipe under electrolytic plus metallic coupling between
carrier and casing pipe. The current distribution can also
be used to estimate the risk of overprotection, which can
lead to hydrogen-induced embrittlement in the cased
crossing when a larger fraction of current is diverted to
the casing pipe.
Figure 2. False colour map of potential distribution output generated by CAPCOM.
38 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
Limitations
While CAPCOM is a cost-effective tool, it requires a large
number of input parameters to simulate the corrosion
conditions of a cased pipeline. These parameters are
determined by field measurements, which may not
always be available. However, the SwRI team addressed
this potential limitation by formulating CAPCOM so that
when a parameter value is unavailable, a nominal value
with a variability range can be substituted. Thus, pipeline
behaviour can be simulated for a range of parameters,
yielding a range of expected corrosion conditions and
electrode potentials of the pipeline casing.
Applications, current and future
As a modelling tool, CAPCOM has applications not only as
an alternative to direct pipeline inspection, but also to assess
corrosion inhibiting products used on pipelines. It enables
reliable inspection and life prediction of critical pipeline
segments that are, by their very nature, difficult to inspect.
CAPCOM cased pipeline corrosion models can
significantly improve the understanding of the CP current
distribution on the carrier pipe inside the casing, reducing
the risks of loss of life, economic consequences and
environmental damage associated with pipeline failures.
References
1. BEASY Software and Services, Southampton, United Kingdom: BEASY
Software and Services, 2008.
2. ELSYCA, Inc., Newnan, Georgia: ELSYCA, Inc., 2009.
 FASTER .
SAFER.
SMARTE R.

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 Corrosion protection for

SCADA
instrumentation
V
irtually all field-based process instrumentation
and control equipment needs protecting against
environmental factors, such as extreme heat or
cold, wind, rain, snow, dust and sand. However, if
the atmosphere is also corrosive due to either manmade
or natural chemicals, it is essential that the protective
enclosure is fabricated from a material that does not
contribute to its effect.
Corrosion involves the Protecting field instrumentation
progressive destruction against the effects of corrosive
of a material, especially
environments requires
metal, through a chemical
or electrochemical careful choice of enclosure
reaction with its materials. Klaus-Dieter Meyer,
environment. It is usually Intertec Instrumentation,
a gradual, diffusion-
controlled process and is Germany, outlines some key
particularly problematic considerations.
for long lifecycle
applications such as pipelines.
Offshore and coastal processing and pipeline facilities
are prime examples, where the salt-laden atmosphere
accelerates corrosion. The effect is exacerbated by
galvanic corrosion wherever dissimilar metals come into
contact, such as pipework entry ports in steel enclosures.
The presence of a sour or acid gas, such as hydrogen

41

Figure 1. Despite 40 years’ exposure to an atmosphere containing sulfuric acid,
after cleaning (bottom right), the surface of this GRP enclosure is unblemished.
Figure 2. The cross-section and surface of a GRP sheet after 15 years’ exposure to
the weather (courtesy of Kunstoffe Magazine: Schädigungsmechanismus an GFK-
Oberflächen bei Freibewitterung, Von Chem.-Ing. Dankmar Scholz).
sulfide (H2S) or carbon dioxide (CO2), further
compounds the problem by creating iron oxides that
flake off the surface, continually exposing fresh iron.
Metal instrumentation housings can degrade severely
in these conditions, leading designers to investigate
better enclosure fabrication materials for long
lifecycle projects.
Despite stringent fugitive emissions standards,
corrosive atmospheres are also an issue at
many oil refineries. An inevitable by-product of
‘cracking’ heavy oil by heating it to produce lighter
hydrocarbons is the production of large quantities
of sulfur dioxide (SO 2), which combines readily with
water vapour and oxygen to form highly corrosive
sulfuric acid (H 2SO4). Even though this problem is
well known, many pipeline and processing plants
still house field instrumentation in painted steel
enclosures, which are particularly susceptible to
rusting and H 2SO4 corrosion and can have a lifetime
of just a few years.
42 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
Better than metal
Recognising the limitations of metal
materials for field equipment housings
led to the founding of enclosure
specialist Intertec in 1965. From the
outset, the company based its products
on glass fibre reinforced polyester
(GRP), an inherently inert material that
is virtually immune to corrosion and
atmospheric pollutants, such as sodium
chloride or H2SO4. It is also resistant to a
wide range of petrochemicals, including
benzene, butylene, ethylene, napthalene,
propylene, toluene and xylene. Almost
as strong as stainless steel, but with only
a quarter of its weight, GRP has a much
higher thermal resistance – making it
easier to insulate against heat and cold
– and, being an electrical insulator, does
not contribute to galvanic corrosion.
Figure 1 shows a small
instrumentation enclosure containing
pressure regulation and temperature
monitoring instruments that had been in
continual service on the cracker furnace
at a refinery for more than 40 years. No
maintenance had been carried out on
the enclosure – nor was it needed –
during this time. Although some of the
pipework connections and mountings
have surface rust, the instruments are
clearly still functional and the lid seal
is intact. Aside from requiring a new
window seal, the enclosure itself has
suffered no degradation; the close-up
view shows that after cleaning, its
surface is free of blemishes.
Long-term protection
Research into the ageing effect of weather on GRP
has shown that any long-term degradation is usually
caused by mechanical forces rather than by chemical
interaction between the material and its environment.
Over time, the combined effect of UV-induced surface
embrittlement, water diffusion and erosion can expose
glass fibre bundles, rendering them susceptible to water
ingress. Repeated expansion and contraction of the
water then causes cracks, which eventually penetrate
into the material.
The scanning electron microscope images in Figure 2
show the cross-section and surface of a nominally
1 mm thick GRP sheet (of a type used by Intertec, but
without a protective coating) after 15 years of weather
exposure. Approximately 50 μm has been eroded from
the surface, which is further damaged to a depth of
20 - 30 μm. These results can be extrapolated linearly;
after 50 years, approximately 250 μm will have been
removed from the surface, with damage extending to
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 a depth of about 80 μm. In other words, the sheet’s
effective thickness will be reduced from 1 mm to
670 μm, with a proportionate loss in strength of about
30%. However, virtually all Intertec protective housings
utilise GRP sheeting that is at least 4 mm thick. Even
after 50 years, the sheeting’s effective thickness will still
be 3.67 mm, representing a negligible strength loss of
about 8%. This has no affect on the housing’s structural
integrity.
For maximum long-term protection, this marginal
erosion can be prevented by applying a UV resistant gel
coat to the GRP panels’ surfaces. Intertec uses a specially
developed gel coat of unsaturated polyester resin that
matches the properties of GRP, which is applied as a
spray before the panel is fully cured. The polyester
resins of the gel coat and panel form a chemical bond;
after curing, the coating provides an extremely durable,
but flexible, surface finish with a high resistance to
weathering and hydrolysis loads. It is also much more
resistant to UV than plastic materials, such as the acrylic
paints used by many metal cabinet manufacturers.
To maximise UV protection, Intertec applies a thick
gel coat layer of between 400 and 800 μm, depending
on the housing’s intended environment. In contrast, paint
sprayed on steel enclosures is typically only 50 - 70 μm
thick – an order of magnitude less. Even the acrylic paint
finish of cars and trucks is generally only 70 - 80 μm
thick.
The only degradation that occurs with this gel coat
is very slight thinning over time due to UV radiation –
typically about 100 μm over 30 years – which has no
effect on the housing’s structural integrity, stability or
function. Extremely hostile conditions combining very
high UV levels with sand or dust storms slightly increase
gel coat loss rate through abrasion, but again there is no
change in the performance of the underlying enclosure.
Figure 3. Passively-cooled shelter produced by Intertec for a pipeline in the Middle
East with corrosive environmental conditions.
44 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
For example, over the past few decades, Intertec
has supplied thousands of shelters for protecting
instrumentation at pipelines, oilfields and seawater
desalination plants in desert regions, such as the Middle
East. None of these have suffered material degradation,
other than a slight chalking of surface finish.
Middle East case study
GRP shelters that protect supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) systems for the control
infrastructure of a recent natural gas collection pipeline
on the coast of the Persian Gulf meet some of the most
demanding environmental and operational parameters.
At present, much of the gas in this part of the world
is burnt off as waste at the point of extraction. This
project improves resource management by collecting
and using the gas to power seawater desalination plants
that are currently fuelled by oil.
For this project, Intertec supplied three shelters,
of which two employed active cooling and the third
(Figure 3) used innovative passive cooling technology
because of its remote desert location.
Environmental conditions at the sites were severe.
Their coastal location meant that the atmosphere
contained corrosive salt and chlorine, as well as sulfur
from the natural gas. During the summer months,
additional factors include extremely high levels of UV
radiation and daytime temperatures that can reach 55˚C
in the shade. Protecting field instrumentation for long
lifecycle applications under such extreme conditions
thus requires specialist knowledge and materials.
Intertec constructed the shelters using a high
performance composite material: 85 mm thick walls
were employed, with 4 mm inner and outer skins of
GRP sheeting sandwiching a 77 mm layer of insulating
foam. The GRP material layers were inherently inert and
virtually immune to the corrosive effects
of salt and aggressive chemicals.
Intertec had additional large
machinery that allowed it to manufacture
the composite GRP sheets in large
panels, without introducing any metal
components that could create ‘thermal
short cuts’ and degrade insulation
efficiency. All external surfaces were
protected by a thick UV resistant gel coat.
The two shelters near to the
electricity grid used active cooling.
Each of these have a custom 3 kW air
conditioning system. A special corrosion-
resistant external heat exchanger was
developed for the application. Another
major design challenge involved
creating a cooling system based on a
CFC-free refrigerant, such as R-134A,
that could work efficiently in very high
temperatures.
looking ahead.
We plan for the future. More than one-third of ROSEN
employees work in research and development,
creating innovative products needed by the industry.
An investment we are proud of.

www.rosen-group.com
 The passively cooled shelter derives its power
from inverters, fed by batteries that are recharged by
a photovoltaic generator. This system’s strict power
budget means that even though the shelter has a very
large volume of 142 m 3, its cooling system is entirely
passive. This shelter is comprised of two adjacent walk-in
rooms with their own entry doors. One room contains
the rechargeable batteries, while the second houses the
system instrumentation and electronics including a PLC,
computer network, power inverters and a controller
for the external photovoltaic generator. The overall
dimensions of the contained area are 5.2 x 9.1 m, with
a floor to ceiling height of 3 m; the entire roof area is
covered by a heat exchanger and sunshade combination.
Intertec’s passive cooling technology is based on
thermo-siphoning using water, which is cooled and heated
by the natural swing of day and night temperatures. The
rear of the equipment room houses an 8000 l thermally
stratified water tank connected to two closed-loop
thermo-siphon systems formed by internal wall-mounted
and external roof mounted heat exchangers. Water
circulates entirely due to natural convection. No pumps are
involved and the process operates entirely automatically to
provide reliable, safe and energy-efficient cooling.
The passive cooling system is specified to
accommodate the maximum power dissipation of all
equipment in the shelter – amounting to 1080 W – under
worst case conditions, which is when the hottest day
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of the year follows the hottest night. In this part of the
Middle East, daytime temperatures during summer months
can reach 55˚C, while night time temperatures might only
sink to 30˚C. Even under these extremely demanding
conditions, the cooling system ensures that internal air
temperature never exceed 35˚C.
Further innovation
Continual development has enabled Intertec to
progressively extend the life and performance of its
products. Improvements in materials, such as stronger GRP
epoxy resins, foam insulation with lower heat transfer
coefficients and new formulations of gel coat with better
UV resistance, have been combined with advances in
production technology that ensure very tight control of
the manufacturing process. Intertec is also able to make
enclosures that have GRP hinges and clasps, for operation
in exceptionally hostile applications such as emissions
monitoring.
Instrumentation engineers seeking to extend
equipment lifecycles in corrosive environments can gain
a significant advantage by including GRP in their list of
preferred materials. As a result of its proven expertise
with GRP, Intertec is able to guarantee that all of its field
cabinets and shelters have a working lifetime of at least
30 years under normal industrial conditions, including
environments where salt, sour gas or H2SO4 are present in
the atmosphere.
POLYURETHANE
MEETS
SENSORS

Michael Magerstaedt,
ROSEN Group, discusses
polyurethane elastomers
that protect steel pipelines
from corrosion, erosion
and erosion corrosion.
P
olyurethane and polyurea elastomers are becoming
increasingly commonplace as materials for pipe
coatings in oil and gas pipelines. As external
corrosion protection coatings, these materials exhibit
outstanding resistance to wet and salty soils. In addition,
they possess abrasion resistance in applications such as thrust
boring, where pipes are pushed through rocky soil and must
then remain corrosion protected in the ground for decades.
As interior coatings, particularly in slurry pipelines,
polyurethane elastomers protect steel pipes from corrosion,
erosion and erosion corrosion. Lifetime extension by a factor
of ten or more in comparison to steel can be achieved.
The ‘building block’ chemistry of polyurethane and
polyurea allows custom design of a vast number of such
elastomers. Since two main components and four to six other
components are brought into the so-called polyaddition

47
 reaction, and for some of these components hundreds of
different substances can be used, experienced urethane
chemists can literally customise material properties. The
ROSEN Group, best known for inline inspection (ILI) of
pipelines, has also specialised in the development and
manufacture of products made from novel high performance
polyurethane elastomers. Having become a major
manufacturer of internally coated pipes for slurry pipelines,
particularly in Canadian oilsands, ROSEN has taken the
development of high performance polyurethane elastomer
several steps further.
A successful example of combining ROSEN’s material
expertise with its sensor expertise is instrumentation spools –
sensors embedded in a polyurethane coating, used to measure
coating wear and relay the data to the outside of the steel
pipe.
Challenges with internally coated or lined
steel pipelines
Metallic pipe condition monitoring is relatively easy.
Ultrasonic methods can locate and quantify internal wear
Figure 1. Robust and weatherproof electronic system
incorporating several data interfaces along the pipeline ring.
Figure 2. Portable outdoor tablet PC visualising all data.
48 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
of a steel slurry pipe from the outside of the pipe. This is
much more difficult for nonmetallic coatings and linings
of steel pipes. Methods such as ultrasound, eddy current,
electromagnetic acoustic transducers and others, will
generate signals in the pipe steel. However, those signals
will be much weaker in pipelines with internal polymer
coating, which impedes effective wear monitoring. ILI is
also ineffective with thicker interior coatings, such as those
typically used in slurry pipelines.
In high wear applications like oilsands and mining slurries,
the inability to measure elastomer wear through the steel
wall poses a significant threat. Operators need to know this
wear – particularly at or around the 6 o’clock position, where
abrasion and erosion corrosion are highest.
Despite the life extension by high performance
polyurethane interior coatings described above, the point
at which the wear limit is reached needs to be known. Until
very recently, the only way to determine wear was to shut
down the pipeline and physically inspect the inside.
A new method developed by ROSEN makes it possible
to determine internal coating wear from the outside of the
pipe. It involves sensors placed inside the polyurethane
coating, thereby rendering the coating ‘intelligent’. These
sensors do not require an opening in the pipe wall for
data transmission to the outside world. The first ROSEN
instrumentation spools in the market have been operating
in Alberta oilsands since April 2015; the system functions
well and is able to indicate coating wear into the millimetre
range.
The embedded sensors are placed against the inner
pipe wall. Each sensor is placed on top of a microchip,
which receives its power from an ultrasonic transceiver.
The ultrasonic impulse activates the sensors and provides
energy for sensor measurement and data transfer back to
the external ultrasound transceiver. This system can also
be automated by a firmly attached external ultrasound
transceiver in combination with a wireless transmitter.
Since the cost of a single pipeline shutdown can reach
the million dollar range, postponing a shutdown for as little
as two or three months can mean significant savings for the
company. With continuous or periodic monitoring by
instrumentation spools, shutdowns can be scheduled
when they are truly necessary. Calculations by operators
and engineering consultants estimate maintenance
savings of up to 25% or more using such a system.
The next step: polyurethane elastomer
sensors
Like most polymers, high performance polyurethane
elastomers are dielectric; they do not exhibit electrical
conductivity. Hence, they can be applied as dielectric
core layer of an electric capacitor.
It is possible to custom design polyurethane
elastomers that will quickly and completely revert back
to their original shape after mechanical deformation.
These polyurethane grades are particularly suited as a
dielectric layer in dielectric elastomer sensors (DESs).
After intensive research, the ROSEN team was able
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 to design polyurethane elastomers that ideally fit the
specification profile for DESs.
The resulting thin films with sensor capabilities can
easily be integrated into wear parts, exterior spray coatings
or other products made from polyurethane or polyurea.
In these cases, the sensor literally becomes part of the
urethane product. Alternatively, by placing/gluing the
sensor onto a substrate (steel, concrete etc.), strain (bending,
vibration, expansion), impact and other forces on that
substrate can be measured. Such flexible films have a high
degree of design freedom for their intended application.
DE sensors are extremely well suited for use as continuous
monitoring devices.
Figure 3. Graph showing the opposing signals from the sensors on the inside
and outside of the pipe bend.
Figure 4. Sensor signals of actual bending trial.
50 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
The film electrodes of individual DE sensors are connected
to wires or, in an even more versatile version, to printed
conductors that provide electrical power as well as transmit
the signal to an electronic data analyser.
The size of each single sensor can be chosen freely, as
required by the application. A sensor can have a surface
ranging from a few square centimetres to a square metre or
more.
A DES is a capacitor consisting of at least three layers of
thin films that are placed on top of each other like a sandwich,
with two outer films made of an electrically conductive
material that act as electrodes. The centre film must be made
of a dielectric material.
If a voltage is applied to the two electrode
layers and the centre film is elastomeric, any
distortion of this central layer will result in an
electrical current. This is caused by a reverse
electrostrictive effect.
Potential of DE sensors in mining
applications
While there are a number of applications in
which the company’s polyurethane DE sensors
have already been tested, their potential for
pipelines is just being explored. An example is
a pipe joint where two embedded DE sensors
have been integrated into the external coating
on opposite sides of the pipe (covered with a
sprayed on polyurea coating). Both a simulation
and sensor readings from an actual bending test
with such a pipe gave solid results, showing
reliable and reproducible strain measurement
with clear indication of bending angle and
location of the sensors.
Since DE sensors can measure pressure as
well as strain, they can easily deliver reliable
pipe bending measurements. This demonstrates
that DE sensors can indeed be used as strain or
distortion sensors on oil and gas pipelines.
Further possible applications in oil and gas
include:
)) Monitoring of subsea pipeline movement,
distortion and strain.
)) Monitoring of pipe supports and pressures
thereon.
)) Monitoring of vibration on offshore
structures.
)) Monitoring of geological movements.
In summary, DE sensors made from ROSEN’s
polyurethane elastomers are highly versatile,
easily adaptable to a variety of applications
and feature a high degree of design freedom.
The sensors are able to measure strain, pressure
and – by inference – temperature and other
parameters.
 WAXY
Remediating
surfaces
Roland Reinhart
and Luca Reinhart,
Reinhart Hydrocleaning SA,
Switzerland, offer
hydromechanical cleaning as a
more effective and efficient way
of removing wax deposits than
standard scrapers.
C
rude oil includes paraffin waxes. This wax
tends to crystalise and deposit on the
internal wall surfaces of pipelines during
production and transportation. The effect of
this depends on flowrate, the temperature difference
between the crude and pipe surface, the cooling rate
and surface properties. Issues relating to paraffin are
costing billions of dollars in losses each year to the
worldwide petroleum industry. Issues include the
cost of chemicals, reduced production, well shut-in,
smaller utilisation of capacity, choking of the flowlines,
equipment failure, extra horsepower requirements and
increased manpower attention.
51
 Paraffin deposits, sludge accumulation and water
separation can all lead to severe corrosion, typically at
the bottom of crude oil pipelines. In turn, these deposits
threaten pipelines’ integrity. With assets ageing and
reservoirs depleting, the presence of paraffins in crude
oil is generally increasing. Moreover, the problems listed
above illustrate the need for regular internal cleaning in
terms of pipeline integrity verification, flow assurance or
in preparation of an internal inspection campaign.
The removal of paraffin wax deposits in pipelines
requires the use of solvents or mechanical devices.
For mechanical cleaning, operators traditionally apply
simple scrapers consisting of a hard central body that
is suspended on polyurethane discs or cups, sometimes
equipped with brushes or other cleaning elements to
enhance the cleaning effect. The tools are propelled
by the product while the pipeline is kept in operation.
The paraffin wax is removed from the pipe wall and
accumulates in front of the tool. It is then transported
towards the end of the pipeline and can finally be
recovered from the receiver.
Particularly in the current economic climate, pipeline
operators have a key interest in removing a maximum
amount of deposits as quickly as possible and without any
disruption to the pipeline’s operation. This is even more
the case with offshore pipelines, as most of the cleaning
costs do not originate from the cleaning equipment
used, but the associated effort and equipment required
to facilitate the operation – including the provision of
subsea supply infrastructure in case of tool launch/
receive.
This article presents hydromechanical cleaning
technology as an alternative to traditional scrapers.
Hydromechanical cleaning tools are similarly propelled
by the product. However, they function with bypass and
use a combination of cleaning effects, including scraping,
flushing and vibration in order to increase cleaning
efficiency. Unlike traditional scrapers, the deposits
removed from the pipe wall do not accumulate entirely
in front of the tool. Instead, most of the debris is brought
in suspension after removal from the pipe wall. It is

Table 1. The 2011 dewaxing campaign

Amount of Wax quality*

Run Tool composition
wax (kg) In front On tool
1 BAT 150 S HHH
2 BAT + BAT 350 S HHH
3 BAT + BAT + BAT 400 HH HHH
4 BAT + BAT + BAT 550 HH HHH
5 BAT + BAT + BAT 350 HH HHH Figure 1. Basic tool (BAT).

6 SMT + SMT 300 HH HHH

7 SMT + SMT 100 HH HH/HHH
8 SMT + SMT 80 HH HH/HHH
9 TMT + TMT 450 HHH HH/HHH
10 TMT + TMT 200 HH/HHH HH/HHH
11 TMT + TMT 190 HH/HHH HH/HHH
12 TMT + TMT 50 H/HH HH/HHH
13 TMT + TMT 10 H HH/HHH
* Please refer to the sidebar for a key Figure 2. Scraping module tool (SMT).

Table 2. The 2015 dewaxing campaign

Amount of Wax quality*

Run Tool composition
wax (kg) In front On tool
1 BAT + SMT + SMT 300 H HHH
2 BAT + SMT + SMT 350 HH HHH
3 BAT + SMT + TMT 300 H HHH
4 BAT + SMT + TMT 150 S H
5 BAT + TMT + TMT 25 S S
6 BAT + TMT + TMT 65 HH HH
* Please refer to the sidebar for a key Figure 3. Tiger module tool (TMT).

52 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016

subsequently flushed towards the front of the cleaning It is also strong enough to break up thicker layers of
tool and is finally taken away by the product stream. paraffin wax. Behind, the tool is equipped with propulsion
The advantages of this technology will be described elements, which are designed to allow bypass for debris
by means of a case study, which is representative of many flushing purposes.
transport pipelines that are rich in paraffin wax. The scraping module tool (SMT) is designed to
remove hard wax from the pipe wall. It is equipped with
Hydromechanical cleaning oversized flat scraping springs, which remove the wax
Selecting the correct cleaning tools requires experience layers progressively. Different scraper designs are available
and must be made based on several different factors: the depending on a pipeline’s parameters. Propulsion elements
assumed type of debris,
the amount of debris to be
removed, pipeline design
parameters and operational
constraints. However, more
often than not, the amount
and type of debris present
in a pipeline is unknown You know it when you see it.™
in advance of the cleaning
operation. A poor choice of
cleaning tools means that
debris, such as wax or scale,
can build, in turn causing
a significant obstruction.
To prevent this situation,
Reinhart Hydrocleaning SA
has begun to use a progressive
cleaning technique. This
includes running tools with
increased bore passing
capabilities first. The tool
condition, alongside the
amount and type of debris
is carefully monitored with
In the toughest conditions,
each cleaning step. With an
increasing number of runs,
the tools can become more
HOLDTIGHT was there first. ®

articulated and mechanically

complex in order to enhance
cleaning efficiency.
For the purpose of
pipeline dewaxing, Reinhart
Hydrocleaning SA uses
three different types of
tool modules, which can
be combined in larger tool
trains to enhance cleaning
efficiency.
Reinhart’s basic tool
(BAT) is typically applied
at the start of the cleaning
campaign. It is composed
of a set of spring loaded
arms being located in front. NO SALT. NO RUST. ONE STEP.
The BAT has the ability
to collapse in order to
allow for the negotiation For more than a decade, HoldTight®102 salt
of diameter reductions. remover/flash rust preventer has set the
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Key for the characterisation of wax quality
) HHH – very hard; large lumps; cold plasticine consistency;
dry.
) HH – quite hard; large/medium lumps; cold butter
consistency; sticky; moldable between fingers.
) H – hard; medium lumps; margarine consistency; sticky;
can squash between fingers.
) S – quite soft; small lumps; soft butter consistency; easily
squashed between fingers; coats shovel/gloved hand.
) SS – soft; grainy but smooth; coats tools/gloved hand and
pours off slowly.
) SSS – very soft; very few small lumps; very smooth; pours
easily off shovel/gloved hand.
Figure 4. BAT after a run.
Figure 5. SMT after a run.
Figure 6. TMT after a run.
54 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
are installed at either side of each tool module to both
drive it and enable debris flushing across the tool train.
The tiger module tool (TMT) is designed to finalise
the cleaning campaign and remove the remaining thin,
hard layer of wax from the pipe wall. It is equipped
with a number of thinner oversized TMT springs so that
it is capable of cleaning any corrosion pits from debris
and the corrosion product.
All three of the tool modules can be configured
and adapted for particular requirements, such as dual
diameters and flexible jumpers/risers, without causing
harm to the internal pipeline surface.
Case study
In 2010, a client asked Reinhart Hydrocleaning SA to
clean a heavily waxed 16 in. onshore crude oil transport
pipeline located in the south of the UK. The distance
to be cleaned was 90 km at a flow of 0.16 - 0.21 m/sec.
The pipeline had previously undergone a cleaning
operation in 2002 using traditional standard scrapers.
An internal magnetic flux leakage (MFL) inspection
tool, which had been run subsequent to the cleaning
operation, came out of the pipeline severely
damaged. Large amounts of wax had accumulated in
the magnetiser section of the inspection tool, causing
sensors being ripped off. As a result, the data set
collected by the inspection tool was incomplete.
Reinhart Hydrocleaning SA was tasked with
providing a better cleaning quality and collecting a
complete set of high quality inspection data.
A first cleaning campaign took place in early 2011,
with a second in mid 2015. With a tool speed of
approximately 0.2 m/sec. each tool run took about
five days. In 2011, a total of 13 different tool runs was
needed, with approximately 3180 kg of wax paraffin
recovered from the receiver. In the 2015 campaign, a
total of 1190 kg of wax paraffin was collected with six
tool runs performed.
Tables 1 and 2 provide details of the operations,
including the number of tool runs, the tool
composition used and the cleaning results from each
run in terms of the amount and type of wax caught in
the receiver.
Figures 4, 5 and 6 give a visual impression of
the type and amount of debris received in the 2011
campaign.
Each cleaning tool type is designed to remove
a specific type of wax. This explains the dramatic
increase in wax quantities found in the receiver
of Run 9 compared to Run 8 in the 2011 cleaning
campaign. The SMT tool modules used during Runs 6
- 8 showed wax deposits, which are characterised as
being quite hard (type HH).
A change to the TMT tool modules from Run 9
onwards showed that even very hard encrustations
 Cathodic

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Figure 7. Collected wax amount comparison. Instrumentation

Reference
were removed (type HHH). Despite the client performing numerous Electrodes
standard scraper runs over years, the pipeline clearly had not been
thoroughly cleaned for a long time prior to the 2011 work. As a result, Anode Backfill
the TMT cleaning tool encountered substantial amounts of this
particular paraffin wax type.
The fact that the hard type HHH wax was effectively removed from Remote
the pipeline in the 2011 campaign also explains why fewer runs were Monitoring
needed in the 2015 operation as opposed to the one in 2011 – six rather
than 13. In 2015, using a combination of different tool module types
Coatings
in longer tool trains also enhanced the cleaning efficiency. This step
of optimisation was only possible with the experience gained in the
previous campaign. Isolators
In both cases, the overall success of the cleaning operation could
be confirmed with a complete set of inspection data, collected by a Inspection
high resolution internal UT inspection tool that is known to require a
spotlessly clean internal pipe surface for high quality inspection.
Equipment

Conclusion C.P. Installation

The case study demonstrates the effectiveness and the efficiency
of hydromechanical cleaning as opposed to standard scrapers. With
the presence of hard to remove debris, such as wax types H - HHH C.P. Engineering
and hard scale deposits, hydromechanical cleaning offers maximum
assurance for achieving pipe cleanliness. Hydromechanical cleaning
procedures with successful completion after 15 cleaning runs are rare,
And More...
even in cases of very ‘difficult to clean’ pipelines. This is in contrast
to standard scrapers, which often involve 20, 30 or even 50 cleaning
runs in similar circumstances – in many cases without achieving line

9 Locations
cleanliness. Therefore, hydromechanical cleaning helps to lower the
time required for the operation. This can translate into huge cost
savings for the pipeline operator, considering avoidance of loss of
Across the USA
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production, personnel costs, standby costs for auxiliary infrastructure

and equipment, as well as the internal inspection 888-532-7937
tool. 

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Dawn Andy Marwood,
Online Electronics,
UK, highlights how
advances in pig
signaller technology
could be better used to
of a new era

both detect pigs and

enhance understanding
of corrosion risk.

56
 he methods by which corrosion is
controlled and mitigated are wide,
including operational pigging for the distribution
of chemicals for corrosion management and the
removal of liquid in low points and any other kind of
deposit that could be corrosion enabling. Arguably, pig
signallers and corrosion are peculiar bedfellows. This article
distinguishes between intrusive and non-intrusive pig signallers and
explains how, in their current state, these assist operational pigging.
The article identifies new possibilities by introducing active beam
ultrasonic pig signallers in innovative ways, to act as pig signallers,
while also supporting corrosion mitigation activities.
The failure of a pig signaller during a pig run may require
operators to defer the next pig run. When pigs are run
operationally, it can be for either assurance pigging or flow
assurance. However, the primary reason tends to be to mitigate
corrosion.
Corrosion is often associated with metal loss in the pipe wall,
whether it be developing internally or externally. However, since
many other items are mechanically connected and pressurised,

57
 the corrosion risk is extended beyond the pipeline, to all of the
pressurised apparatus connected to it.
Distinguishing between signallers
Intrusive pig signallers, which have been specified over many years
for use on pipelines, are typically classed as instruments. They are
either welded to the pipeline or connected by a flange. As a result,
there is an additional weld added to the pipeline – either for direct
welding of the pig signaller nipolet or a full penetration ‘set in weld’
for a nozzle pup piece. Beyond that, there are sometimes welds in
the pig signaller itself – be that on the counter flange or the actual
signaller. These are not always full penetration butt welds, which
are the most effective for mitigating corrosion. There are, therefore,
many chances for corrosion and many potential leak paths.
Non-intrusive signallers have been slowly accepted into the
pipeline industry over the last decade. Non-intrusive signallers do
not ‘intrude’ into or through the pipe wall but they are still capable
of detecting the passage of a pig. This is meaningful for pigging as
often, intrusive pig signallers eventually fail to operate and detect
the passage of a pig. There can be many reasons for this, including
maintenance issues. However, maintaining intrusive signallers
when the pipeline is pressurised is a hazardous operation. Intrusive
signallers are often located in remote areas and to conduct a
maintenance operation to change a handful of seals and moving
parts, which requires small bore valves to hold back the entirety
of the pipeline volume, can be seen as prohibitively hazardous
and expensive. As such, in many instances the intrusive signallers
effectively become obsolete – meaning that detecting the passage
of a pig is not possible at that point – which is important for
corrosion.
Useful data points are lost when the passage of a pig is not
registered, including ensuring that the pig has left the launcher and
tracking the pig by time vs flow. The latter is key as it could tell us
the following:
)) The probable integrity of the sealing components.
)) That there is a layer of wax within the system (a restricted bore
at a given flowrate leads to a different pig velocity).
)) At a very rough level, the increase in velocity of any given pig in
a gas pipeline as it reaches the end of its run.
)) A comparison between bypass and non-bypass pigs to answer
question such as is the bypass being effective? And, is the pig
running slower than the flowrate would allow it?
)) Corroboration of data gathering ‘onboard’ a pig. If a data
gathering pig report identifies that it has run 25 km from launch
before seeing something of interest, the pig signaller data can
be used to corroborate the distances and locations involved.
Effective pig detecting and signalling can help the operator
confidently run pigs, gather data and ultimately provide information
as to what is happening within the pipeline.
More recently, non-intrusive signallers and their capabilities
have been augmented so that they can be used to detect more
than just pigs. Specifically, the use of ultrasonic technology that
is already used in so many ways in the industry has found a niche
in pig detection. More specifically, it has been used to learn
58 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
more about potential corrosion cells and ensuring safe pigging
operations.
Passive ultrasonic pig signallers
Passive ultrasonic pig signallers – used to detect the passage of
any type of pig – have been around for some time but that is all
they do. However, the recent use of an active ultrasonic beam has
been determined the specific location of pigs in pipelines after
they have passed a fixed point. Therefore, the sensors on the unit
can be ‘moved’ up and down the pipeline to look for a pig (or any
other mechanical tool) and determine its location in liquid filled
pipelines.
It has been proposed that by using this method, much more
could be seen. While more testing and data gathering is required,
wax deposition, wax agglomerates and scale deposition in pipelines
can be seen.
It has been demonstrated in pig receivers that wax deposition
and rough wax volumes that are in front of the pig can be seen.
This can be used to augment current operational pig reporting. The
wax tends to be weighed by filling receptacles of a known volume.
However, this is often imprecise and performed expediently such
that the receiver closure door can be closed. Formal data gathering
could be conducted prior to the opening of the door and could
include:
)) The position of pig.
)) The lock face position of wax directly in front of pig.
)) The extremity of this wax, including how far it extends.
It has also been shown to detect the passing of wax
agglomerates, providing information on the actual pig’s run and
performance and flow assurance, which is useful information for
corrosion mitigation. If the pigs are using bypass as a means of
transporting wax in front of the pig in a slurry form, rarely is there
any quantitative evidence that this is working. However, it is now
possible to visualise this in action.
Even more recently, pigs have been designed to use the bypass
action to spray chemicals onto the pipe wall. They also use the
bypass flow to the periphery of the pipe wall, thus acting as a
means of removing wax or other soft debris, assuming that the
pipeline is liquid filled. Again, while pigging techniques are present
to both remove wax and water, and to distribute chemicals for
mitigation of corrosion, the evidence that they did or did not
work can only be obtained from a full intelligent pig run or an
unexpected pipeline failure. Non-intrusive pig signallers using an
active beam technology can help to visualise the effect of pigs in
action.
The past and the future
Historically, pig signallers have been thought to be located at
the more pertinent position of pipelines in order to ensure the
safe passage of pigs and highlight their location. However, new
technology may cause this thinking to be refreshed. Instead of
being defensive in thinking, wanting to know that a pig is past
a valve or not under a road, the industry could be active in its
thinking, wanting to know whether the pig has passed a point and
what is happening at that point. This would require consideration
 of prior thinking. However, more could be gleaned about what In deepwater subsea liquid systems, where intervention is
is really happening and how the tools deployed in corrosion time consuming and expensive, knowing what is going on is
mitigation are functioning. key. Not only would the system work to say what (if any) wax
This could be done by the modification of existing systems, deposition there was, but that knowledge could provide valuable
such that they trigger alarms that are additional to the current corroboration of prior flow assurance models – in itself a valuable
set of pig detection parameters – a dual use system – which piece of information, such as wax deposition rates.
would allow for additional information. What operators could In some circumstances, much effort is put into designing
seek is integrity and flow assurance. For instance, monitoring any and developing specialist pigs to remove substances – such as
development of scale formation over time in high risk areas could wax and sand – in particular ways. However, determining what
lead to early mitigation and cost savings, or a simple modification has happened and precisely how the specialist pigs performed is
to current chemical dosing philosophies and processes. very difficult. If we could understand what was happening more
quantitatively, then, as with any
chemical led programme to
prevent scale formation, it could
be modified completely, changed
slightly or stamped as a success
long before an intelligent pig run
told us what the truth was.
Taking this a level up, gel
pigs that are deployed in liquid
pipeline have also been picked
up. Historically, there has been
concern over knowing where

lini
a gel pig was in the pipeline.
However, active beam technology

ng has been shown to be capable of

up
detecting gel pigs. Hence, when
specialist gel pigging operations
s
ion

are taking place in gas pipelines,

the addition of active beam
lut

non-intrusive pig signallers can

l so

augment the operation and

rfu

provide operation teams with pig

detection, such that pig launch
we

and pig receipt operations can be

po

conducted efficiently. Whilst not

common, the possibility of a gel
‘breaking up’ can cause concern
we’ve got you covered
with our cost-effective and the extended question ‘when
did it break up’ – if they could
Threat Assessment
Program (TAP) be detected at point ‘a’ but not
point ‘b’, there would be some
determine risk zones
between pipelines and semblance of a rudimentary
power lines answer; far better than where we
identify potential impact are today.
for AC interference To summarise, the advent
provide analysis with
ranked priority of non-intrusive signallers has
been good, with less welding,
leak paths and maintenance.
However, with active beam
technology in liquid systems, the
capability of technology exceeds
Please contact one of our team members. the application and it could
2016 MESA™ All Rights Reserved.

materially help with corrosion

management or mitigation. It is
Charlie Hall Jay Keldsen just that nobody knows about it
AC Mitigation Expert Director, Business Development
Phone: 801.824.2950 Phone: 330.283.0453 yet.
charlie.hall@mesaproducts.com jay.keldsen@mesaproducts.com

mesaproducts.com 1.888.800.MESA (6372)

Corrosion Supplement.indd 1 10/17/2016 11:26:11 AM

 Discarding dated

TRACKING
METHODS
Jim Hunter, PureHM, Canada, talks about developing new
ways of keeping pipelines safe with modern ILI tools.

E
nsuring the safe delivery of energy has long been a priority
for pipeline owners. Over the last decade, many pipelines
have had high profile leaks or ruptures, which have led to
litigation, increased regulation and large remediation bills.
In order to protect communities from these incidents, billions of
dollars are spent on pipeline integrity programmes that include a
wide variety of solutions every year.
The most common form of pipeline integrity since the 1990s,
inline inspection (ILI) tools were first developed in the 1960s. Since
these inline tools – known as pigs – traverse the pipeline and
have sensors directly on the pipewall, they provide very detailed
condition information, which can be used to identify high risk areas
and ultimately avoid pipe failures.
Initially used to locate areas of corrosion, the ILI industry is
constantly refining existing tools and developing new ways of
keeping pipelines safe. A modern ILI programme typically combines
tools that clean the pipeline with ones that identify small corrosion
pits, cracking and geotechnical factors, each of which could lead to
stress on the pipeline.

Pig tracking methods and ILI tools

While ILI tools consistently develop, aspects of inspection
programmes often fall below standard. An important but often
forgotten stage of an ILI programme involves tracking tools while
they are in the pipeline.
Tracking not only accounts for approximately 25% of the total
inspection cost, but losing a tool while it’s in the pipeline can
have major consequences for the pipeline owner. Lost pigs can
lodge in the pipeline and damage appurtenances, such as valves.

61
 Both lodging and damage can lead to lengthy service disruptions,
damage to the pipeline and lost revenue.
Dated tracking methods
Although the risk of losing an ILI pig is well-known in the industry,
many pipeline owners still track using archaic methods that rely
heavily on field staff and, arguably, not enough on defensible
technology.
In traditional pig tracking, field technicians drive to pre-
surveyed sites and wait for a pig to pass. In order to determine the
passage of a pig, technicians use a standard handheld geophone to
detect sound and a radio receiver to identify a transmitter within
the pig. Upon confirmation that the pig has passed, the time is
recorded and the field staff move onto the next tracking site.
While this was an acceptable method for tracking early pigs,
it no longer represents available tracking technology and pales
in comparison to the technical quality of the tools used within
the pipeline. Though still used in the industry, traditional tracking
methods have three key drawbacks that represent an unnecessary
risk for an ILI run.
While field staff are an integral part of any tracking job, the
responsibility of confirming a pig passage should not rely solely
on their word. Long hours, challenging conditions or human
error could cause a false negative or positive when determining
whether a pig has passed. Identifying a pig passage using a standard
geophone is challenging, even for experienced trackers. The fact
that the pig passage confirmation relies solely on one person’s
word opens the possibility of a pig being missed or falsely reported
as passed.
Ensuring the pig has passed
Alongside using outdated technology and relying heavily on the
word of field staff, traditional tracking doesn’t offer a defensible
record of the pig passing. Pipeline owners should know the exact
time that a pig has passed a tracking location and have a record
Figure 1. Remote tracking reduces the dependence on field
technicians to confirm pig passages, which significantly
increases the safety of an ILI run.
62 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
that shows the signal of a pig passing. This provides them with the
necessary data to make decisions if a pig gets lost in an inspection.
Without records, pipeline owners have no real data if a pig gets
lost and they would likely experience a longer service disruption
than necessary.
Increased staff safety
Pipelines often cross remote areas with ILI runs completed year
round, regardless of weather. With more emphasis than ever on
staff’s safety and rights, using traditional tracking methods may
result in unnecessary risk to staff. ILI runs often last longer than
a day and having technicians out during the winter is dangerous.
While it is impossible to eliminate field access, use of advanced
tracking methods can significantly reduce the risk of tracking pigs
by reducing the number of teams in the field.
The future of pig tracking
With a wide variety of inspection pigs available, pipeline owners
are beginning to develop advanced ILI programmes that feature
multiple tools, deployed one after another. These programmes
aim to identify a variety of problems, which could affect the safe
operation of the pipeline.
When it comes to tracking multiple pig runs, a lot of manpower
is required if traditional methods are used. Each pig typically
requires its own tracker depending on the length of time between
deployments. Moreover, at times, a second tracker is needed to
avoid ‘pig chasing’, which occurs when a single tracker is at risk and
staff rush from site to site to keep up with the pig.
An ILI deployment that features a cleaning pig, crack detection
tool, MFL tool and confirmation of containment tool, running in
succession, would require at least four technicians to safely track
the tools. Depending on the length of the run, the number of
trackers may double if the tracking shift surpasses 12 hours and
spillover teams are needed. Not only is this a huge cost in terms
of manpower, equipment and travel, it also carries a significant
environmental footprint in an industry that constantly battles
negative environmental publicity.
Remote tracking technology
While many pipeline owners still use traditional tracking methods,
leading companies are starting to leverage remote tracking
technology in their ILI programmes to increase reliability and
reduce cost. Remote tracking combines the use of above ground
markers (AGMs) and remote tracking units (RTUs) to allow several
pigs to be tracked at once from a central location. Depending
on the structure of the ILI programme, it can reduce the cost of
traditional tracking by up to 50%.
By ending the reliance on field staff to track the tools,
remote tracking can save money. Technician salaries, trucks,
lodging, subsistence and flights make up the bulk of tracking
costs, especially in multiple pig runs where several technicians
are required. These costs can quickly escalate when a project is
delayed, as staff assigned to the project need to be paid and their
expenses covered, even on off days. In a remote tracking run, a field
technician is only needed to deploy and retrieve the tracking units.
Therefore, as the number of pig runs increases, remote tracking
becomes more efficient compared to traditional tracking.
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 Reduced human error risk
Remote tracking significantly enhances reliability for pipeline
owners and ILI vendors. The traditional confirmation of pigs passing
– by the word of a field technician – is an unnecessary human error
risk and non-defensible information should something go wrong.
Using remote tracking, each pig passage is recorded using
multiple sensors. Project stakeholders get a snapshot to prove that
the pig has passed the location. In the event of a pig getting stuck,
this record becomes invaluable and allows the owner to determine
the pig’s location much more effectively. This record is also valuable
for ILI vendors, who can report the location of defects more
accurately and quickly using the snapshots.
A safer work environment
Another component of reliability is technician safety. A key driver
in the development of remote tracking technology was the need to
create a more reliable and safer work environment for pig trackers.
Pipelines running through remote areas that are challenging to
access can be dangerous for staff. Having technicians working long
hours in these remote areas has been a difficult burden to place on
staff, particularly on long runs during the night. Inclement weather
can also affect driving conditions, which places workers in an
undesirable work environment.
Remote tracking helps to eliminate these issues and places an
emphasis on technician safety. During a remote tracking run, each
site can be safely and carefully accessed prior to the pig launch.
This effectively eliminates rushed work and reckless driving, which
can take place when technicians race the pig.
Tracking remotely also eliminates the need for field technicians
during the run. A single remote tracker can be in several places at
once by activating the tracking boxes and remote communication
units. For long runs that span over multiple days, this creates a
much safer run that limits risk by reducing the dependence on field
staff.
Figure 2. During a remote tracking run, staff can track multiple
pigs from a central location using Armadillo AGMs and remote
communication units.
64 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
A pig’s tail in two parts
Any pig tracker will tell you to expect the unexpected. One crude
oil pipeline owner in western Canada found this out after tracking a
cleaning pig and ILI tool through a 200 mile stretch of their pipeline
using PureHM’s remote tracking solution. The tools were tracked
successfully at each site. However, when the trap was opened, the
rear section of the ILI pig was missing.
In order to locate the pig, PureHM collected the AGMs and
downloaded the pig passage information from every site. They then
looked for clues as to where the pig may have separated. Unlike
conventional AGMs, Armadillo AGMs record a continuous log for
the entire time they are deployed and active.
For redundancy purposes, Armadillo AGMs are equipped with
three 22 Hz sensors, three magnetic sensors and one geophone
channel. Through careful analysis of the recorded geophone data,
the acoustic sensor identified sound events that were eventually
used to determine where the pig had separated.
After reviewing the data, analysis showed normal pig passage
past the third valve. Closer examination revealed some acoustic
and magnetic activity approximately 3.5 mins after the initial 22 Hz
run.
As the box was running continually, the Armadillo AGM had
recorded another pig, minus a 22 Hz transmitter, a few minutes
later behind the inspection pig. This analysis was confirmed by
data collected from the magnetic sensors and confirmed that the
pig’s rear section was 3.5 mins behind the front drive section. By
calculating the difference in time, PureHM was able to calculate
speeds and extrapolate that the rear section probably never made
it through the next pump station.
That hunch proved right. The ILI vendor and pipeline owner
was able to use the data from the Armadillo AGM to track down
and retrieve the lost pig. This would not have been possible using
traditional tracking.
An efficient tracking programme
The consequences of a pipeline rupture will continue to be the
driver for ILI programmes. The emphasis on and requirements for ILI
are only expected to increase. For this reason, ensuring that energy
products are delivered safely and reliably is the top priority for
pipeline owners.
Each year, pipeline owners spend millions of dollars on
advanced integrity programmes that gather data from both inside
the pipeline and its surrounding environment. While pig tracking
is often an afterthought within an overall integrity budget worth
several hundred million dollars, it can account for as much as 25%
of an ILI budget and should be held to the same quality standards
as ILI. The way that pigs have been tracked historically is no
longer acceptable based on the visibility and scrutiny surrounding
pipelines.
Technological advancements now allow pigs to be tracked
without having anyone in the field during the runs. This method is
safer, more reliable and cheaper than traditional methods. In recent
years, several leading pipeline companies have begun to integrate
remote tracking into their ILI programme, which has allowed them
to run ILI programmes that emphasise safety, while also reducing
overall cost.
CRAs –
inspected
T
he use of corrosion resistant alloys
(CRA) is increasing in the pipeline
industry. Although, CRA clad Herbert Willems,
and lined pipes are less NDT Global,
expensive than solid CRA pipes,
their main advantage consists of a
Germany, explores
balance between good mechanical corrosion and cracking in
properties of the carbon steel corrosion resistant alloys
carrier pipe and the corrosion
that are used in the oil
resistance of the internal CRA layer.
Clad pipes consist of an internal and gas pipeline
CRA layer, which is metallurgically industry.
bonded to the backing carbon steel.
Different manufacturing processes (for example, hot
rolling or weld overlay) are used to bond the CRA layer to the
carbon steel. In contrast to clad pipes, lined pipes have a CRA
lining that is mechanically bonded to the carrier pipe.

65
 Corrosion in CRA pipes
Highly corrosive environments increase pipeline vulnerability
to corrosion attack. This has considerably increased with the
exploration of new oil and gas fields, higher levels of water cut
and concentration of CO2 and H2S and the higher temperatures
and pressures of deep sea exploration.
CRA materials are used to prevent corrosion, especially
in offshore applications. Nevertheless, under certain
conditions, severe corrosion processes may develop in such
pipes. The effectiveness of the corrosion resistance depends
on the selection of the proper alloy for the expected
operational conditions. Manufacturing related anomalies and
imperfections of the CRA pipes can also lead to corrosion
development. Furthermore, unfavourable handling during
transportation, storage and installation can significantly impair
the corrosion resistance characteristics.
In Nickel Institute’s 2011 ‘Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs)
in the oil and gas industry – selection guidelines update’,
Bruce D. Craig and Liane M. Smith explain a common factor
Figure 1. Cross section of a CRA lined pipe.
Figure 2. Example of wrinkling and buckling in a CRA lined
pipe.
66 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
behind corrosion development: “... a CRA selection method
that is not recommended but is often used, is to select a CRA
that is readily available or most economical, without regard
to its corrosion resistance in the intended environment.
Misapplication of CRAs is becoming more common for this
reason and has resulted in corrosion and cracking problems of
the inappropriately selected alloys.”
In addition to a stationary non-destructive testing (NDT)
for quality assurance during the manufacturing process, inline
inspection (ILI) of pipelines is essential in order to ensure the
integrity of the CRA material and, thus, the pipeline after
commissioning (baseline survey) and its operational life.
Improved corrosion resistance
CRA pipes offer improved corrosion resistance in pipelines
while introducing new challenges for ILI. For a wide range of
CRAs, pitting dimensions are smaller compared to carbon steel
pipe and are well below detection limits of low resolution
inspection tools.
The following are a few examples of CRA pipe corrosion:
)) Crevice corrosion: intensive localised electrochemical
corrosion that occurs within crevices when in contact with
a corrosive fluid.
)) Pitting corrosion: highly localised attack that eventually
may result in leaks in the metal.
)) Galvanic corrosion: when two dissimilar metals/materials
come into electrical contact with one another, causing
corrosion.
)) Stress corrosion: occurs in metal that is subject to both
stress and a corrosive environment, often starting at ‘stress
risers’.
Inspection of CRA pipes
The ultrasonic (UT) propagation and attenuation in solid CRA
pipes (e.g. duplex stainless steel or 13% Cr steel) is similar to
those in carbon steel. Therefore, the UT ILI tool performance
(detection and sizing capabilities) valid for carbon steel is also
valid for most solid CRA pipes.
As CRA cladded pipes are made of metallurgically-bonded
plates with a seam weld, the internal surface is typically quite
smooth and poses no limitations with regard to UT inspection.
Disbonding between both layers can be detected and sized
with high accuracy. Pipes constructed with internal cladding,
produced by orbital or longitudinal welding can also be
inspected by UT tools. Depending on the waviness of the weld
overlay, the data quality can be affected.
In this case of lined pipe, the pipe has a CRA inliner that is
mechanically bonded to the carrier pipe, such as by hydraulic
expansion. UT tools can only inspect the inner layer, as UT
pulses cannot propagate through this type of bonding.
As far as magnetic flux leakage (MFL) technology is
concerned, austenitic stainless steels and high nickle alloys
are not magnetisable and, therefore, they cannot be inspected
with MFL tools. Only the ferritic carrier pipe can be inspected.
 However, the actual combination of the ferritic carrier pipe
and austenitic cladding has to be taken into account.
Case study: girth weld cracking in CRA pipe
A new gas pipeline, operated by one of the largest gas
processing companies in the world, experienced a failure. The
16 in. pipeline was commissioned in 2013 and had only been
occasionally used prior to the incident. The failure consisted
of circumferential cracking in the girth weld at a pipe bend.
The pipeline has internal 3 mm (0.12 in.) stainless steel CRA
cladding. When inspecting a CRA pipeline, with complex
features the right technology must be selected to ensure
success.
A previously completed expert report, identified
circumferential cracking in the girth weld at a bend. The girth
weld root had been made with a ferritic weld consumable,
instead of an austenitic weld consumable. Given that this was
a new line, a decision was taken to inspect the other joints.
MFL technology was not suitable for identification of these
types of features and was not suitable for use with cladded
pipes due to the non-magnetic cladding.
Due to the importance of this pipeline, a sequence of two
inspection runs was selected. The first used the NDT Global
UT circumferential crack (UCc) tool to address the detection
of circumferential cracks and crack-like anomalies within base
material, girth welds and cladding. The second inspection run
used the UT metal loss with pitting resolution (UMp) tool to
detect metal loss anomalies (e.g. pitting) within base material
and cladding.
The crack detection run found crack-like weld anomalies,
which were independently verified by Bureau Veritas.
Figure 3. Metal loss feature classification according to POF and
API 1163.
68 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
Inspection performance was confirmed to be within the
specification as per guidance in API 1163. The crack-like
defects were only 1 mm (0.04 in.) deep, but were successfully
identified by the ILI.
Case study: lack of fusion between inner and
outer layer of cladded pipe
A baseline inspection was required for an offshore deepwater
pipeline (up to 2000 m or 6500 ft), flowline and riser systems.
This baseline inspection is part of this customer’s standard
practice, providing a blueprint of the pipeline documenting
the status (wall thickness, crack-like features) of the pipeline
before starting operation.
The riser system on this line was constructed using
cladded steel piping. To accurately inspect the complete line,
an advanced UT tool was selected for high resolution metal
loss inspection.
Previous inspections indicated a lack of fusion
(disbondment) between the inner layer of stainless steel 3 mm
(0.12 in.) and external carbon steel 15 mm (0.59 in.) risers. As
this is a metallurgical bonded clad pipe the UT tools can only
inspect the internal metal loss in the inner layer.
The pipeline characteristics suggested that this is most
likely a manufacturing related defect, which has resulted in
corrosion. Seam weld anomalies and disbondment are the
main types of manufacturing related anomalies detected in
this type of clad pipe. Corrosion pits with very small diameter
were also detected both in the base material and in the girth
welds.
For this project, the NDT Global UMp tool was used,
which gives a true high definition picture of the pipeline
wall thickness condition, including pinholes and pitting,
gouging, disbonding (lack of fusion) or mid wall flaws such as
laminations.
Conclusion
When selecting a CRA clad or lined pipe, it is essential that
the selection is based on the environment and medium
that the pipeline will be exposed to. Although not all, many
anomalies are a result of the original selection decision being
influenced by availability or cost.
CRAs offer improved corrosion resistance in pipelines, but
also pose new challenges for ILI. For a wide range of CRAs,
pitting dimensions are smaller than for carbon steel pipe
and are well below the detection limits of low resolution
inspection tools.
Both the inner CRA and the outer carbon steel need to be
inspected. Cross-contamination must be avoided to maintain
the CRA corrosion resistance, and no steel part of the tool
must be in direct contact with the pipes clad.
Deep pits and severe weld anomalies are sometimes
detected in CRA pipes, even before the pipeline is put
into service. Therefore, a baseline ILI survey before the
pipeline enters operation is highly recommended in order
to have a precise picture of the pipeline state from the
onset.
 Figure 1.
SPY holiday
detector in use
on a jobsite.

Detecting
DAMAGING
HOLIDAYS Jim Campbell
and Josh Miller,
Pipeline Inspection

DAMAGING
Co., USA, introduce

W
hile pipelines have served the world’s energy needs for over 150 years, it’s and outline holiday
fair to say that the industry has evolved immensely since the wrought iron
pipelines of the 1860s. Technological advancements have allowed pipelines detection; a method
to be made of better steel, efficient installation practices, coatings that of inspection to
perform in the harshest of environments and effective corrosion prevention techniques.
Therefore, today, pipelines are an efficient, safe and reliable way of transporting crude oil, locate coating
natural gas and refined petroleum products.
Pipeline companies are proactively taking steps throughout the planning, construction defects.
and operational phases of pipeline operations, to ensure that safety, reliability and
environmental concerns are addressed. One such step is the use of high performance 

69
 anti-corrosion coatings. Alongside cathodic protection (CP),
coatings are an effective barrier against corrosion. This is key as
corrosion can lead to catastrophic pipeline failure. Since coatings
are a primary defence against corrosion, they must be inspected
for defects and damage at various stages in the construction and
operation of a pipeline. This article will focus on one such method
of inspection. While the primary focus is on pipeline coatings,
similar methods are applicable to coatings applied to any substrate
that needs to be protected from corrosion – such as storage tanks
and ships’ hulls.
Holiday detectors
By definition, holiday detection is a method of inspection used to
locate coating defects, damage or other discontinuities in coatings.
Anecdotally, the term ‘holiday’ is synonymous with a break, defect,
void or hole in coatings, which may expose the substrate to
corrosive elements. The term is said to have originated in the early
days of sailing ships with large wooden masts, which were often
coated with tar to prevent the wood from rotting. In the case of a
failure due to a missing tar coating, it was said that the sailor must
have been on ‘holiday’, and thus the effective coating was missed.
Today, holiday detection is performed using specialised
equipment divided into two main groups – low and high voltage
detectors. The devices are used to detect bubble or blister type
voids, cracks, thin spots and foreign inclusions or contaminants
in the coating that are of such size, number or conductivity as to
significantly lower the electrical resistance or dielectric strength of
the coating.
Holiday detector and voltage setting standards
Holiday detectors are electrical devices that provide simple and
reliable detection of defects or damage in coatings. The basic
methodology is the application of measured high voltage to
the surface of the coating. At the precise location of a holiday,
a visible spark (electric arc) is generated as the high voltage
jumps the distance through the gap or defect in the coating. The
correct voltage setting is critical to detect holidays and this is
largely determined by the thickness of the coating. In general, the
minimum voltage setting is the one that will create a spark length
that is capable of traversing the coating thickness and reaching the
substrate.
There are two primary steps in determining proper inspection
voltage to ensure that holidays are detected and the coating will
not be damaged. The first step is to determine the minimum
Figure 2. SPY Jeepmeter used for checking detector voltage
output of pulse/DC holiday detectors.
70 World Pipelines / COATINGS & CORROSION 2016
voltage required using one of NACE’s recommended formulas,
which rely on the known coating thickness, as follows:
NACE SP0274-2011 covers high voltage testing on thicker
coatings, from approximately 20 - 750 mil. (such as coal tar).
With thick coatings, the minimum voltage setting is calculated
using the following equation: 1250√t , where ‘t’ is the thickness
in mils (1 mil. = 0.001 in.). For example, if you have coating that
is 50 - 60 mil. in thickness, the average thickness is 55 mil. The
equation 1250√55 = 9270 volts minimum on 55 mils average coating
thickness. A field calibration, as described below in step two, will
be used to fine tune and identify the precise voltage required to
detect holidays.
NACE SP0490-2007 covers high voltage testing on thin film
coatings, such as fusion bonded epoxy (FBE), from 10 - 30 mil. With
thin film coatings, the minimum voltage setting is calculated with
the following equation: 525√t, where ‘t’ is the thickness in mils.
For example, if you have coating that is 15 - 17 mil. in thickness,
the average thickness is 16 mil. The equation 525√16 = 2100 volts
minimum on 16 mils average coating thickness. A field calibration
will again be used to identify the precise voltage required to detect
holidays.
The second step is a quick and easy way to fine tune and
identify the voltage required to detect holidays on any coating
thickness. This approach is often referred to as a field calibration. A
field calibration can be done by finding or making a small holiday
in the coating. With the holiday detector properly grounded, set
the voltage to a minimum, as defined by the NACE formulas, and
then run the electrode over the holiday at normal rate of travel.
Continue to increase the voltage incrementally and run over
the holiday until the holiday detector detects the holiday every
time. Field calibrations should be performed often and whenever
environmental conditions change, such as a change in humidity or
temperature. A field calibration is also needed when you change to
a new thickness of protective coating, as may be found where field
joint coatings have been applied.
Voltage confirmation
Since the output voltage of a holiday detector is subject to
weather conditions, moisture on the pipe, improper grounding
and soil conditions, it is necessary to verify the voltage output.
To achieve the highest accuracy in verifying output voltage, it
is recommended that a meter, which is specifically designed
for this purpose, be used. In the case of pulse output holiday
detectors, a crest voltmeter, similar to SPY’s Jeepmeter and Pocket
Jeepmeter, should be used. These meters accurately and reliably
measure the crest value of high voltage pulse waveforms. Given
this unique waveform, use of conventional RMS voltmeters is
not recommended. In the case of DC output holiday detectors, a
crest voltmeter should be used. In both cases, the measurement
of output voltage should be done by hooking the ground of the
meter to the pipe and the positive lead to the electrode. This
method will accurately measure the voltage applied to the test
area. If there is a ground problem or other environmental factors
occur, the voltage reading will not match the built in voltage meter
of the holiday detector and it may require further investigation.
Grounding
The holiday detector ground cable must be clean. It must also be
properly grounded to the coated pipe that is under inspection in
order to complete the electrical circuit.
 GIRARD INDUSTRIES Toll Free: 800.231.2861
6531 N. Eldridge Pkwy Phone: 713.466.3100
Houston, TX 77041-3507, USA Fax: 713.466.8050
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Aegion Corporation 27

Applied Graphene Materials plc 63

Canusa-CPS 9
Figure 3. A few examples of SPY electrodes.
CRC-Evans 23

DeFelsko 71 There are three key methods of grounding; direct, indirect

DENSO GmbH
Denso North America, Inc.
Enduro Pipeline Services, Inc.
Farwest Corrosion Control Company
Girard Industries
Holdtight Solutions, Inc.
MESA
NACE International
Pipeline Inspection Company Ltd.
Polyguard Products
Precision Pigging
Quest Integrity
ROMSTAR Group
ROSEN Group
Seal for Life Industries
Selmers
Shawcor, Pipelines Performance
and capacitive grounding. Direct grounding is where the ground
OFC, 59 cable of the holiday detector is directly connected to the metal
of the pipe being tested. Indirect grounding requires the pipe
13 to be properly grounded to earth, then the holiday detector
can be grounded through the same or a different proper earth
IBC ground. The third method, advanced capacitive ground, is used
when a typical ground is not available. With pulse output holiday
37, 55 detectors, it is possible to use a conductive grounding pad, which
will capacitively couple to the pipe through the protective
71 dielectric coating. This method requires a higher voltage setting
because losses through the capacitive coupling can be significant.
53 A field calibration is critical to accurately determine the minimum
acceptable test voltage.
60
Electrodes
21
A variety of electrodes, which can be used to test external or
internal coatings, are available depending on testing requirements.
63
The most common is a spring electrode. The spring is wrapped
completely around the pipe and connected back to itself. It is
33
precisely calculated to be under tension and kept tight against
OBC
the pipe, while also keeping the spacing between each coil of the
spring at the tightest tolerances. This ensures maximum exposure
IFC to the pipe and that a minimum distance is kept between each
coil to prevent large spacing from missing a holiday. If the pipe is
67 excessively large, a spring electrode may not be optimal, as the
weight of the spring can cause sagging. In this case, a half circle
45 electrode may be ideal.
Half circle electrodes are rigid and can be precisely controlled
29 to test a specific section of pipe, without having to disconnect
and reconnect the electrode. Additionally, small 2 - 6 in. brass
49 brushes are good for getting into tight spots around valves and
fittings. Conductive neoprene is also an option as an electrode
7 and can be customised depending on the application.

STATS Group 43 Conclusion

Coatings, along with CP, are an effective barrier against corrosion
Trenton Corporation 2
on pipelines. Inspection of coatings for defects and damage
using high voltage electrical inspection – holiday detectors – is
Vacuworx Global 39
a critical step in any integrity management programme. When
conducted as part of a comprehensive and robust integrity
World Pipelines 46
management programme, steps such as electrical holiday
detection will help to ensure the safe operation of the world’s
pipeline infrastructure.
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