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Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Assumptions and Hypotheses
Significance or Importance of the Study
Definitions of Terms
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Conceptual Framework
The Introduction
There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific
questions or sub problems into which the general problem is broken up. These are already
formulated at the beginning of the study and so they should only be copied in this section.
(See the first section of the Statement of Problem, pp. 28-29, for further guidance in writing
the general problem and the specific questions pp. 29-30.)
Guidance in explaining the importance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and/or
relevance of the study to existing conditions must contain explanations or discussions of any
or all of the following:
Definition of Terms
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics
of the term defined. Thus, a house of light materials may be defined as
one with bamboo or small wooden posts, nipa, buri, or nipa walls; split
bamboo floor and cogon or nipa roof. This is also an operational
definition.
Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitations. The scope and delimitations should
include the following:
3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to
which the data belong.
5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years,
during which the data were gathered.
Example: This investigation was conducted to determine the status of the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A as perceived by the teachers and students
in science classes during the school year 1989-1990. the aspects looked into were
the qualifications of teachers, their methods and strategies, facilities forms of
supervisory assistance, problems and proposed solutions to problems.
Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of
the researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where the variables involved
are uncountable or continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent,
etc. The weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents.
For instance, library facilities may be rated as very adequate by 50 students, fairly adequate
by 30 students, inadequate by 20 students, and very inadequate by 15 students. Certainly,
with these ratings, not all of them could be correct in their assessment. Some could have
inaccurate if not entirely wrong perceptions.
Conceptual Framework
From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a
theoretical scheme for his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or
theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the
formulation research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework consists of the
investigator’s own position on a problem after his exposure to various theories that have
bearing on the problem. It is the researcher’s new model which has its roots on the previous
models which the researcher had studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15)
The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of
the study. It serves as a guide in conducting investigation. Briefly stated, the conceptual
framework for the teaching of science can be: The effectiveness of a science instructional
program depends upon the qualifications of the teachers, the effectiveness of their methods
and strategies of teaching, the adequacy of facilities, the adequacy of supervisory
assistance, and the elimination of the problems hampering the progress.
Example 1
Qualified
teachers Science Superior
science
Effective knowledge
methods
Instructional and
Adequate
facilities skills
Adequate Program of
Supervisory
assistance
The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should be
cited: (Repeated for emphasis)
4. Materials must not too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough
to give the researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. This is
especially a problem with pioneering studies. Naturally, there are few related materials or
even none at all. Ordinarily, from fifteen to twenty-five may do for a master’s thesis and
from twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation, depending upon their availability and
depth and length of discussions. The numbers, however, are only suggestive but not
imperative. These are only the usual numbers observed in theses and dissertations
surveyed. For an undergraduate thesis about ten may do.
The following are the ways of citing related literature and studies:
1. By author or writer. In this method the ideas, facts, or principles,
although they have the same meaning, are explained or discussed
separately and cited in the footnote with their respective authors or
writers.
1
Pedro Enriquez. The Dynamics of Teaching and Learning. Manila:
Canlaon Publishing Company, Inc., 1981, p. 102.
2
Juan Maglaque, “Factors Affecting Children’s Learning in Pag-asa
District,” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, San Gregorio College, San Gregorio City,
1984.)
Footnote:
1
Pedro Enriquez, The Dynamics of Teaching and Learning, Manila: Canlaon
Publishing Company, Inc., 1981, p. 102 and Juan Maglaque, “Factors Affecting Children’s
Learning in Pagasa District.” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis,” San Gregorio College, San
Gregorio City, 1984). (Note: These are fictitious names)
C. What to Cite
Footnote: Ibid.
Justification of the Study
It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present
inquiry may only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that in spite of
similar studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of studies in
other places are also true in the locale of the present study. There may also be a need to
continue with the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries
about the same research problem or topic so that generalization or principles may be
formulated. These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the present
investigation together with other studies to the fund of knowledge. This is one of the more
important purposes of research: the contribution that it can give to the fund of knowledge.
Generally, the research design is explained in this chapter. Among those topics
included in the research design which need to be given some kind of explanations are the
following:
Example: Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in the study of the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A. Briefly the discussion follows:
The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Descriptive method of
research is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation of the findings. It
describes what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions,
practices, situations, or any phenomena. Since the present study or investigation was
concerned with the present status of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province
A, the descriptive method of research was the most appropriate method to use. (This can be
elaborated further)
The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument for gathering
data must also be explained.
Example: the method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This is
concerned with looking into the commonality of some elements. Since the present research
is a status study, the normative survey was the most appropriate method to use in
gathering data.
The instrument used to collect data was the questionnaire. This was used because it
gathers data faster than any other method. Besides, the respondents were teachers and
students and so they are very literate. They could read and answer the questionnaire with
ease.
The copies of the questionnaire were then distributed personally by the researcher to
the respondents. After a few days, all the copies distributed were retrieved also personally
by the researcher. (The discussion may be extended)
The Sampling Design
Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of the
population to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the
sample must have been finished. So, what the researcher has to do here is to write about
the complete procedure he used in determining his sample. Among the things that he
should explain are:
The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be
able to show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used
the appropriate technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his
sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid
and reliable.
To be able to discuss and explain very well his sampling procedures, the researcher
must review sampling procedures in Chapter 12. Everything about sampling has been
discussed in that part of the book.
The last part of this chapter usually describes the statistical treatment of data. The
kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the specific
problems and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypotheses particularly
determine the kind of statistics to be used.
The role of statistics in research. With the advent of the computer age, statistics is
now playing a vital role in research. This is true especially in science and technological
research. What functions do statistics perform in research? Some are the following:
1. First of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the
following depending upon what is desired to be known or what is to be
computed: talligram (tabulation table), ordered arrangement of
scores, score distribution, class (grouped) frequency distribution, or
scattergram.
4. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that
they cannot be counted individually such as adequacy, efficiency,
excellence, extent, seriousness (of problems), and the like, the
weighted mean may be computed and used if the average is desired to
known. The variable is divided into categories of descending degree of
quality and then each degree of quality is given a weight. For instance,
the question is “How adequate are the facilities of the school?”
Adequacy may be divided into five degrees of quality such as “very
adequate” with a weight of 5, “adequate” with a weight of 4, “Fairly
adequate” with a weight of 3, “inadequate” with a weight of 2, and
“very inadequate” with a weight of 1. Then the weighted mean is
computed.
9. To determine how one variable varies with one another, the coefficient
of correlation is computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group
of students in English test. This is also used to determine the validity
of a test by correlating it with a test of known validity. When the
coefficient of correlation between two tests is known and a prediction
is to be made as to what score a student gets in a second test after
knowing his score in the first, the so-called regression equation is to
be utilized.
In this chapter, the researcher makes his analysis, presentation, and interpretation
of his data.
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of
categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to
bring out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually precedes
presentation.
Example: In the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A,
the whole study may be divided into its constituent parts as follows according to the specific
questions:
Each constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories. Example: The
educational qualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the following:
1. Bachelor of Arts
2. Bachelor of Science in Education
3. Master of Arts
4. Etc.
The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The data
are then grouped under the categories or parts to which they belong.
a. Qualitative (kind). Those having the same quality or are of the same
kind are grouped together. The grouping element in the examples
given under analysis is qualitative. See examples under analysis.
b. Quantitative. Data are grouped according to their quantity. In age, for
instance, people may be grouped into ages of 10-14, 15-19, 20-24,
25-29, etc.
d. Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last
those that occurred last or vice versa according to the purpose of
presentation. This is especially true in historical research. For instance,
data during the Spanish period should be treated first before the data
during the American Period.
The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method of collecting
data for research implies the study of groups. From the findings are formulated conclusions
in the form of generalizations that pertain to the particular group studied. These conclusions
are called group-derived generalizations designed to represent characteristics of groups and
are to be applied to groups rather than to individual cases one at a time. These are
applicable to all kinds of research, be they social, science or natural science research. There
are several types of these but are discussed under four categories by Good and Scates.
(Good and Scates, pp. 290-298) The key sentences are of this author.
1. Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One type of
generalization is that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the cases in a group,
often in the form of probability. When this type is used, we do not have enough information
about individual cases to make predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a
group of future observations. As to individual event, however, we can say nothing;
probability is distinctly a group concept and applies only to groups.
2. The average can be made to represent the whole group. A second type of
group-derived generalization results from using the average as a representation of the
group of cases and offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring the individuals comprising
the group or the variation existing in the group but the average represents the whole group.
Generally, the mean and the median are used to denote the averages of scale position but
other statistical measures such as the common measures of variation, correlation,
regression lines, etc. are also structurally considered as averages. These are group
functions conveying no sure knowledge about any individual case in the group.
Other group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition,
organization, specialization, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of emotions,
etc. which vanish in individual cases.
Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the form
of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram which may be called
talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The individual responses to a questionnaire or
interview schedule have to be tallied one by one.
1. Determine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their
respective numbers. For instance, in the study about science teaching
in the high schools of Province A, anent the qualifications of the
teachers, suppose there are four degrees earned by the teachers such
as AB (Bachelor of Arts), BSCE (Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineering), BSE (Bachelor of Science in Education) and MA (Master
of Arts with undergraduate courses). The subclasses are the
specializations or majors of the teachers. There are also four such as
English, History, Mathematics, and Science. The classes and their
subclasses are arranged alphabetically.
2. Make rows for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with appropriate
spaces between the lines and the number of the rows should be two
more than the number of classes. So in the example given in step no.
1, there should be six rows because there are four classes. The
uppermost row is for the labels of the subclasses, the bottom row is
for the totals, and the middle four rows are for the classes: AB, BSCE,
BSE, and MA.
Figure 1
f. Continue the process until all the data needed are entered.
When finished, the talligram will look exactly like Figure 2.
Figure 2
Figure 2 may now e\be converted into a statistical table for data presentation.
Generally, all quantified data are tallied first in talligram which are then converted into
statistical tables for data presentation using Hindu-Arabic numerals in the cells in place of
tallies.
Presentation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful
categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation. Analysis
and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that
are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific
questions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of
presenting data; textual, tabular, and graphical.
The disadvantage, especially if its too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader
may not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The
reader may even skip some statements.
Example: The following refers to the degrees earned by 59 science teachers in the
hypothetical study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A:
According to government regulations, all the teachers are qualified to teach in the
high school. (This is already a finding, interpretation, or inference)
Tabular Presentation of Data
2. Data are more easily read, understood and compared because of their
systematic and logical arrangement into rows and columns. The reader
can understand and interpret a great bulk of data rapidly because he
can see significant relationships of data at once.
The major functional parts of a statistical table. The names of the functional parts of
a statistical table are shown in the following diagrams: (Bacani, et. Al, p. 55)
Table Number
Title
(Head note)
Footnote:
Source Note:
The above illustration of a table is only a simple one. There are tables that are very
complicated. For instance, the column captions may further be subdivided into sub-column
captions which in turn may still be subdivided. This happens when the subject matter of the
table is classified, then the first classifications are further sub classified, and so on.
1. Table Number. Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic, for
reference purposes. This is because only the table numbers are cited. The number is written
above the title of the table. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the thesis
report. If there is only one table the number is unnecessary. See table 1 for illustration.
Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the title, and
occasionally only the subject matter. This is possible if the time period of the study as well
as the locale and respondents are well discussed in the scope and delimitation of the study.
Only the beginning letters of the important words in the title are capitalized. If the title
contains more than one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid. See Table 1
below.
Table 1
In the example, Table 1, the subject matter is “degrees and specializations,” and the
entities from whom the data of from whom the data were gathered are the teachers. The
period of the inquiry was school year 1989-1990 but that was already mentioned in the
scope and delimitation of the study and it does not need to be included in all tables
anymore. “How the data are classified” need not be included in the title because the table is
only a simple one and the classifications of the data are clear enough. If the title is
“Distribution of Teachers According to Degrees and Specializations.” The way the teachers
are classified is already indicated.
3. Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written below the title and it is usually
enclosed in parentheses. It explains some things in the table that are not clear. Suppose a
table entitled “Monetary Values or Properties of the High Schools in Province A” is to be
constructed and the entries in the table are in rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to
be entered is six million pesos, the entry is only 6, instead of entering 8,000,000 the entry
is only 8, etc. The Headnote that should be written below the title should be written below
the title should be “Millions of Pesos.” So, the entry of 6 is read six million pesos, the entry
of 8 should be read eight million pesos, etc.
4. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells
what the stub contains, the row labels. Each row label describes the data contained in that
row. In the table given as example, Table 1, Degrees is the stub head and below it are the
degrees which are the row label: AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. In the AB row all the teachers
listed there are AB graduates, in the BSCE row all BSCE graduates, in the BSE row, all BSE
graduates, and in the MA row, all MA graduates. Totals may be considered as part of the
stub.
5. Box Head. The box head contains the master caption, the column captions,
and the column sub captions. The master caption describes the column captions and the
column captions in turn describe the sub column captions. In Table 1, the master caption is
Specializations (Majors). The column captions are English, History, Mathematics, Science,
and Totals. The sub captions are F (frequency), and % (percent). The F indicates the
number of teachers under it and the symbol % indicates the proportion of the number under
F to the total, 59.
6. Main body, field or text. The main body, field or text of the table contains all
the quantitative and/or proportional information presented in the table in rows and in
columns. Each numerical datum is entered in the cell which is the intersection of the row
and the column of the datum. For instance, the 14 teachers who are BSE graduates and
who majored in mathematics are centered in the cell which is the intersection of the BSE
row and the mathematics column.
7. Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line of
the table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in the table which are not readily
understandable or are missing. Proper symbols are used o indicate the items that are
clarified or explained. In Table 1, a is used to indicate that all the teachers have enough
education units, b is used to indicate that all percents were computed with 59 as the base,
and c is used to indicate that the total percent does not equal 100.00 due to the rounding
off of the partial percents to two decimal places.
The footnote is not necessary everything in the table is clear and there is nothing to
clarify or explain.
8. Source note. The source note which is generally written below the footnote
indicates the origin or source of the data presented in the table. In Table 1, the sources of
the data are the Principals’ Offices. The purposes of placing the source note are:
Ruling and spacing in tables. Ruling is done in a table to emphasize or make clear
relationships. There are no fixed standard rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables.
Emphasis and clarity are the determining factors. However, the following guidelines are
generally followed in the construction of tables for a thesis report:
1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is written
two spaces above the title.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line placed
two spaces below the lowest line of the title.
4. The rows and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups,
however, are separated by single lines. For purposes of clarity, rows
are separated by a double space and the columns are separated by as
wide a space as possible.
Unity in a table. There should always be unity in a table. To achieve this, presenting
too many ideas in a single table should be avoided. One subject matter is enough, one that
can be divided into categories which in turn can be divided into common classifications. In
Table 1, for instance, the subject matter is degrees and majors. Degrees are divided into
similar categories such as AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. The sub classes such as English, History,
Mathematics, and Science are common to the degree categories.
1. All the items in the table are textually presented. This manner enables
the reader to comprehend the totality of the data even without
consulting the table. This is alright if the data are not so many.
However, if the data are so numerous, reading becomes boring and
the reader may even skip some of the items.
(Complete) Table 1 shows that there were 59 science teachers in the high schools of
Province A. of this number, 21 or 35.59 percent were AB graduates. Of the AB graduates,
one or 1.69 percent majored in English, two or 3.39 percent in History, six or 10.17 percent
in Mathematics, and 12 or 30.34 percent in Science.
There were only four or 6.78 percent who were BSCE graduates, all majoring in
Mathematics.
There were 31 or 52.54 percent who were BSE graduates and of this number, two or
3.39 percent majored in English, the same number in History, 14 or 23.73 percent in
Mathematics, and 13 or 22.03 percent in Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78
percent in History, 25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78
percent in History, 25 or 42.37 percent in mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.
(Only the highlights) Of the 59 teachers, the AB and BSE graduates constituted the
most number. Twenty-one or 35.39 percent were AB graduates and 31 or 52.54 percent
had BSE degrees or a total of 52 or 88.13 percent. Of the majors, 27 or 45.76 percent of
the teachers were majors in Science, 25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and three or 5.08
percent in English and four or 6.78 percent in History.
Findings. Findings are the original data, quantitative or otherwise, derived taken
from the original sources and which are results of questionnaires, interviews, experiments,
tests, observations and other data gathering instruments. Data presented in tables and their
textual presentations are examples of findings. Findings do not directly answer the specific
questions asked at the beginning of the investigation or the explicit hypotheses but the
findings provide the bases for making the answers. Hence, the main functions of the
findings are to provide bases for making the conclusions.
(3) Probable effects of the condition. Usually, also every condition has an
effect, either bad or good. However, there must also be a logical and
valid relationship between the condition and its effect and this must be
clearly given.
The interpretation of Table 1 and its textual presentation is as follows: All the science
teachers were qualified to teach in the high school as per regulation. Unfortunately, more
than half of them were not science majors and therefore cannot teach science. Taking all
other things equal, a teacher with a science major can teach better than one with a non-
science major. Consequently, it can be assumed that the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A is weak. As a result, the students and the whole country will suffer
and the whole consequences will be far-reaching. There is a need to encourage the teachers
who are non-science majors to increase their science units by attending evening or summer
courses or by attending more science seminars.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative,
geographical, or chronological attributes. For instance, if the number of teachers teaching
science in the high schools of Province A is graphed according to their degrees, the graphing
is qualitative; if their number is graphed according to their assignments in the towns where
the high schools are located, the graphing is geographical; and if their number is graphed
according to school year, the graphing is chronological.
Advantages of the graphic method. (Bacani, et al., pp. 54-55) According to Bacani,
et al. the following are the advantages of the graphical method:
Limitations of graphs. (Bacani, et al., pp. 55) If there are advantages there are also
disadvantages of the graph. Some of these are:
3. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare
than tables.
5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.
Types of graphs or charts. Graphs may be classified into the following types:
1. Bar Graphs
2. Linear Graphs
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts
Comparison in bar graphs is linear. It is the length of each bar that determines the
size of a magnitude it represents and the relative position of that magnitude in a series of
like and related magnitudes.
a. The single vertical graph. In the single vertical graph, the bars are
constructed vertically and they portray the magnitudes of the
categories into which data have been classified. See figure 3 as an
example of bar graph. Vertical bars are usually used to depict time
series data.
b. Single horizontal bar graph. In this graph, the bars are constructed
horizontally and are used to compare magnitudes of the different
categories into which the data are classified. The horizontal bar graph
is usually used to compare magnitudes of categories.
The vertical line is called ordinate or Y-axis. It represents the quantities of the
variables involved or the classes or categories of a variable involved. The Y-axis is divided
into unit distances with each unit distance represents 4,2 unit distances represent 8,3 unit
distances represents 12, etc. This is called the scale.
The distance measured to any point parallel to the X-axis from the Y-axis is called
the abscissa of the point and the distance of that point parallel to the Y-axis from the X-axis
is the ordinate of the point. The abscissa and the ordinate of a point are called the
coordinates of the point.
Plotting the graph means locating the meeting point of the abscissa and the ordinate.
2. Title. The same price principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title is
usually written above the graph.
3. Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that represents a
certain amount of the variable which is the subject of the graph. The
scale enables the reader to interpret the significance of a number of
length or height units. Thus, if a length or height unit is equal to 2,
two lengths or height units’ equal 4, 3 length or height units equal to
6, etc. The Y-axis represents the scale.
5. Classes, categories, or time series are indicated at the X-axis and the
scale units are indicated at the Y-axis.
An example of a vertical bar graph is figure 3, the data of which are taken from the
following table, Table 2.
Table 2
Enrollment of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)
School Years
Curricular 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990 Total
Years F % F % F % F % F % F %
I 85 36 144 46 173 41 192 38 221 34 815 38
II 57 24 77 24 132 32 148 29 179 28 593 28
III 53 23 49 16 69 16 114 22 138 22 423 20
IV 40 17 45 14 46 11 56 11 102 16 289 14
Total 235 100 315 100 420 100 510 100 640 100 2120 100
Number of
Students
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Figure 3
Curricular
Year
IV
III
II
Figure 4
c. Grouped (Multiple or Composite) Bar graph. The grouped bar graph is used in
comparing two or more categories of a variable during a specified period or over successive
periods of time when the subgroups of the categories have common attributes. Figure 5
shows the comparison of the enrolments over five successive years of the curricular years of
the students of Pagasa High School, Table 2.
Number of
Students
Figure 5
Table 3
Financial Operations of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
(In Thousands of Pesos)
Profits 60 60 90 210
Loss 40 40
Thousands
Of Pesos
90
60
30
-30
-60
-90
Figure 6
e. Subdivided (or Component) bar graph. Subdivided bar graphs are used to
show the variations or changes of the component parts of a whole and the whole itself.
Cross-comparison of the proportionate distribution of the different parts can be made easily.
Figure 7 is an example of a subdivided bar graph showing the earnings, expenses, and
profits and loss of the Pagasa High School for a number of years.
Financial Operations of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
Thousands
Of Pesos
Figure 7
Table 4
Age Distribution of Pagasa High School Students
School Year 1989-1990
Cumulative Cumulative
Age Groups Frequency Frequency Frequency
Upward Downward
20-21 53 640 53
18-19 162 587 215
16-17 211 425 426
14-15 150 214 576
12-13 64 64 640
________
N = 640
Number of
Students
250
200
150
100
50
0
12-13 14-15 16-17 18-19 20-21
Age in Years
Figure 8
2. Linear graphs. Linear graphs are good devices to show variations of values
over successive periods of time. Changes in the data are indicated by the linear curves.
Advantages of linear graphs or charts. The advantages of the linear graph or chart
are the following: (Bacani, et al., p. 67)
a. The curve shows data as continuous line; hence, it is continuous in its effect.
b. The wandering line of the curve tells the whole story. At a glance one can
see just what the situation is and what is likely to happen.
Construction. Linear graphs are constructed in much the same way as many other
graphs are. A slight difference lies in the process of locating the intersections of the abscissa
representing a class or category of a variable and the ordinate representing the magnitudes
of the classes or categories of the variable. The intersections of the abscissa and the
ordinate are marked by bold dots and then joined successively by either straight lines or
curved lines to show the variations of a variable or the variable in relation to that of
another.
a. Time series linear charts. (single line) Time series linear single line charts
depict the variations of a variable over a period of time. Generally, the abscissa represents
the periods of time and the Y-axis represents quantitative values of the variable. The
intersections of the X-axis representing time and the Y-axis representing magnitude are
located and marked and then joined successively by straight or curved lines. The resulting
line, a broken straight line or a curved line, shows the variations of the variable. An
example of this chart is Figure 9 which shows the enrolment of Pagasa High School for five
school years. See table 2 for exact data.
Enrolment of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990
Figure 9
b. Time series composite or multilinear charts. These charts are used when
comparisons are made between or among categories of the same variables or variations of
two or more variables over periods of time. Figure 10 is an example comparing the
enrolments of the curricular years over a period of five years in the Pagasa High School.
Exact data are found in Table 2.
Enrolment of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)
Number of
Students
200
150
100
50
0
1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990
Figure 10
Number of
Students
250
200
150
100
50
0
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Ages in Years
Figure 11
d. The ogive. The ogive is used to graph cumulative frequencies (partial sums of
frequencies), either cumulative frequencies upward (from lower
classes to upper classes) or cumulative Frequencies downward (from
upper classes to lower classes). The items graphed may be absolute
frequencies or derived frequencies (percents). Figure 12 gives examples
of ogives showing the cumulative frequencies of students classified
according to age. Data are taken from Table 4.
Cumulative Frequencies of the Students of Pagasa High School
During the School Year 1989-1990
(Distribution by Age)
Number of
Students
700
600
Ogive
Upward
500
400
300
200
100
Ogive
Downward
0
12 14 16 18 20 22
Ages in Years
Source: Principal’s Office
Figure 12
e. Band Chart. A band chart is form of line graph of the time series variety. It
shows the proportional variations of the component parts of a whole
over a period of time. The percent equivalents of the components are the
ones plotted but absolute values may be used through rarely. The bands
representing the proportional changes may be colored or cross-
hatched differently to increase the clarity of the variations. Figure 13 is
an example which is based on data in Table 2. It shows the proportional or
percent changes of the students in the four curricular years.
In constructing the band chart, the largest component at the beginning of the period
is placed at the bottom, followed by the second largest component, etc. If percents are used
the band chart is a rectangle. If actual values are used, the upper line boundary of the chart
will be irregular.
Figure 13
3. One hundred percent graphs or charts. One hundred percent graphs or charts
show the comparison of the proportional sizes of the component parts that make up the
whole, the whole being made equivalent to 100%. It is the percent equivalent of the
component parts that are portrayed in the graph. The percent equivalent of each component
part is found by dividing it by the total of the component parts and multiplying the result by
100%. There are two types or kinds of 100% charts: a.) the 100% bar or rectangular chart
and b.) The pie chart or circle graph. These are to graph budgets, enrolments, sales, etc.
a. The 100% bar graph or rectangular chart. Usually, the bar graph is erected
vertically and the whole height is equivalent to 100%. The bar is
subdivided into segments whose number is equal to the number of
component parts. The size of each segment is proportional to the percent of
the component part it represents. The segments are arranged according
to size with the largest segment at the bottom. Each segment is labeled
by the value and percent it represents, the percent inside and the value
outside. See example below, Figure 14.
Suppose the following are the expenditures of the Pagasa High School
during the school year 1987-1988: (see Table 3)
7.84% Miscellaneous
P40,000.00
11.76%
Administration (Salaries)
P60,000.00
Instruction (Salaries)
60.79% P310,000.00
Figure 14
b. The Pie Chart or circle Graph. The circle graphs has the same principles and
functions as the rectangular chart. It is also equated to 100% and because the circle has
3600, 1% is equated to 3.6 so that 60% must be equal to 216 0 (3.6 x 60). Graphing again
0
the expenses of Pagasa High School in 1987-1988 using the circle graph, it is done as in
Figure 15 below.
7.84%
11.76%
19.60%
60.79%
Construction. First, make a scale, that is, each picture or symbol must represent a
definite number of units. So, to find the number of pictures or symbols to represent a
magnitude, divide the magnitude by the number of units’ represented by each picture or
symbol. The pictures and symbols must be of the same size and arranged in a row of rows.
The symbols should suggest the nature of the subject matter of the data being presented.
For instance, an army may be presented by pictures of soldiers; population by pictures of
persons; Car registration by pictures of automobiles; money in circulation by pictures of
money bills or peso coins; etc. Figure 16 is an example showing the enrolment of Pagasa
High School from 1985-1986 to 1989-1990. The graph is based on Table 2.
1985-1986 Legend: = 50
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Source:
Principal’s
Office, Table 2
Figure 16
Implications of the Findings
It is the general practice of thesis writers to discuss the summary of the implications
of their findings at the end of Chapter 4 or elsewhere in the thesis. From observations, it
appears that as far as research reporting is concerned, an implication consists of at least
five elements, namely:
3. The probable effect of the condition. Most likely, there is also a probable
effect of the condition and there must be a logical relationship between the
condition and its probable effect. The logical effect of the lack of enough
qualified teachers to teach science is that, taking all other things equal, the
science teachers in the high schools of Province A are not as effective as when
all the science teachers are fully qualified. It is understandable that a fully
qualified science teacher has more science knowledge and skills to impart to
his students than a non-qualified science teacher. Hence, the students would
suffer adversely.
5. The entity or area involved or affected. In the example cited above, it is the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A that is affected. Hence,
the topic for discussion must be entitled “Implications of the Findings to the
Teaching of Science.” Some researchers use the title “Implications to
Education” which is too broad and vague. The area directly affected by the
unfavorable or favorable conditions discovered in the study should be cited
more specifically.
Ages Frequency
10.14 24
15.19 30
20.24 35
25.29 45
30.34 40
35.39 32
40.44 26
Chapter 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
This is the last chapter of the thesis and the most important part because it is here
where the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations in
the form of conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution of problems
discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned.
Summary of Findings
1. There should be e brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the
population or respondents, the period of the study, method of research used,
the research instrument, and the sampling design. There should be no
explanations made.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each
specific question under the statement of the problem must be written first to
followed by the findings that would answer it. The specific questions should
follow the order they are given under the statement of the problem.
Example. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high
schools of province A?
4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in
the summary, especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.
5. Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be
stated as concisely as possible.
6. No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.
Conclusions
Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2
under the summary of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach
in the high school but the majority of them were not qualified to teach
science.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects
of the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were
non-science majors and the facilities were less than the needs of the
students, what have been factually learned are that the majority of the
teachers were not qualified to teach science and the science facilities
were inadequate.
If there is a specific question which runs this way “How strong science
instruction in the high schools of Province A as is perceived by the
teachers and students?”, then a conclusion to answer this question
should be drawn. However, the respondents should have been asked
how they perceived the degree of strength of the science instruction
whether it is very strong, strong, fairly strong, weak or very weak. The
conclusion should be based upon the responses to the question.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, ye they
convey all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by
the specific questions.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study.
Take for instance, the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of
Province A, all conclusions about the faculty, facilities, methods, problems,
etc. refer only to the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.
There are some pitfalls to avoid in the use of quantitative data. (Bacani, et al., pp.
48-52) researchers should not accept nor utilize quantitative data without questions or
analysis even if they are presented in authoritative-looking forms. This is so because in
some instances quantitative data are either inaccurate or misleading either unwittingly or by
design. The data should be analyzed very critically to avoid misleading interpretations and
conclusions. Among the factors that a researcher should guard against are the following:
6. Limited information furnished by any one ratio. A ratio shows only a partial
picture in most analytical work. Suppose the only information that we
have about a certain establishment is that the ratio does not show the kinds
of employees leaving and why they are leaving. We do not know whether
the losses of employees are caused by death, retirement, resignations, or
dismissals. We can only surmise but we cannot conclude with
definiteness that the causes of the 20% employee turnover are death,
retirement, poor working conditions, poor salary, etc. Avoid as much as
possible making conclusions not sufficiently and adequately supported by
facts.
V. Recommendations
1. Are the recommendations based upon the findings and conclusions?
2. Are they feasible, practical, and attainable?
3. Are they action-oriented? (They recommend action to remedy unfavorable
condition discovered)
4. Are they limited only to the subject of the study but recommend further
research on the same subject?
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
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