THE TECHNOLOGY OF ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS Volume 2a Introduction of Artificial Litt Systems Beam Pumping: Design and Analysis Gas Lift Kermit E. Brown The University of Tulsa 1 contributing authors John J. Day Joe P. Byrd Joe Mach Pennyell Books PennWell Publishing Company “Tulsa, Oklahoma ve ebh |. LIBRARYInn Yaa ons seewtanere Precedent w een Ice ‘omonsse11 194085 Conyeant © 1980 by PennWell Publishing Company Box 1250, Tulsa. Ox LUbrary of Congress Cataloging In Publication Data (Revised) Brome, Kermit ‘Th technology of arial metas, Includes bibiogrepticalrelarencas. CONTENTS: v. 1. lnlow parformance, muliphase ow in pipes, the owing wal.—y. 2. Inroducton ‘of aril it systems beam pumping 1. Oiwals, 2 Ppo—Flud dynamics. |. Til rNeviesis eez.sde 7659201 SBN 0-87814.091-X (vt) ‘Al rights reserved. No pat of this book may be ‘eproduced, stored na retieval system, oF lranseived in any frm or by any means, sleavoni oF mecnancal. including photocopying and recoding, ‘itnou te price writen parission ofthe pubisher. Incomationst Standard Book Number: O-87614-119-7 Print inthe United States of Amariea 29450899 eatI dedicate this book to my four children and three grandchildren. They are in the order in which God created them: Stephen Wesley, Sandra Kay, Robert Michael, David Earl, Stephen William, Bryan Scott end Robert Wade.Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Contents Introduction of artificial lift systems 1 Introduction 1 441 Purpose of ati lit 2 4112 Usizasion of mutiphese flow correlations for artificial it systems 3 1.121 Introduction 3 4.122 Use of multiphase flow corelations 3 4.1221 Viscosity 3 4.1222 Etfect of slippage of fell-back § 4.129. Summary of multiphase flow 6 Beam pumping: design and analysis, by John J. Day and Joe P. Byr' 2a 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Introduction 9 General considerations © ‘Subsurfece pumps 11 231 Tubing pumps 12 2.311, Tubing pumps classified according to type of working barrel 12 2.312 Tubing pumps classified according to type of standing valve 12 2313 Tubing pumps classified according fo type of plunger 12 232 Inset pumps 13 233 Casing pumps 14 234 The pumping cycle 14 235 API pump classifications 15 236 Pump size selection 15 ‘The sucker rod string—general considerations 20 2.44 Design ofthe sucker rod sting 23 2442 Modiied Goodman diagram 26 Pumping motion 27 2.51 Simple harmonic motion (SHMA) 27 252 Crank and pitman motion 29 253. The influence of pumping motion on the rod and structural loading of @ beam-type unit 29 ‘The effect of erankcto-pitman ratio on class land class il geometries 32 Effective plunger stroke 33 2.71 Rod and tubing stretch—single rod size 33 2.72 Rod etretch—tapered stings 35 2.73 Plunger overtavel 35 2731 Coberiey's method 35 Calculations for surface equipment 97 2.81 Counlerbalance 38 2.82 Torque considerations 39 2821 Torque factors 40 2.622 An important aspect of energy conservation in a beam and sucker rod pumping system 41 2.83 Prime movers 42 2.84 Prime mover horsepower requirements 43 2edt Neti 43 2.842 Frictional horsepower 44 viivii Contents Chapter 3 p28 2843 Cyctc load factor 44 2.644 Surface offciency in a beam and sucker rod pumping system 45 2.845 Approximate horsepower formulas 47 285 Speed reduction and engine sheave size 50 288 APlunit ratings 50 ‘API recommended design procedure $2 2.10 Dynamometers and dynagraphs 59 2101 The dynamometer card (dynagraph) 60 2102 Limitation of visual interpretation 63 2.103 Loads from dynamometer cards 85 2104 Courterbalance effect from dynamometer cards 65 2.105 Polished rod horsepower irom dynamometer cards 65 2108 Torque from dynamometer cards 69 2.107 Factors infuencing the shape of dynamometer cards 75 2.108 Permissible oad diagrams 78 2.11 Non-synchronous pumping speeds In a beam and sucker rod system 78 2.12 Beam pumping geometry and Its effect on rod and unit loading and pump travel 79 2.13 Modem predictive methods 80 2.191. Precieting polished rod dynamometer card shapes 84 2.14 The diagnostic technique 86 2.16 tnortial torque In a beam and sucker rod pumping system 85 2.151 Aperformence comparison between two beam and sucker rod pumping units of Cssimilar geometry consicaring the influence of inertial torque 68 Nomenclature 91 Roterences 94 Gas lift 34 32 Introduction 95 3.11 Defnitons 95 valve characteristies 96 321 lnraduction 96 322 Gas it valve nomenclature $6 3.23. Design considerations 97 3231 Continuous flow 97 3.232 Intermitent it 97 3.24 Pressure, area, and force relationships 97 3.25 Casing pressure operated valve 98 3.251 Unbalanced belows valve with pressure charged dome as loading clement 98 3.2511 Opening pressure of valve under operating conditions $8 3.2512 Closing pressure of valve under operating conditions 101 32513 Spread 102 3.2514 Gas pressure at depth 103, 3.2515 Test rack opening pressure 104 3.2516 Standard pressure operated gas lit valve summary example 105 3.252 Unbalanced bellows valve with pressure charged dame and spring as loading element 105 32521 Opening pressure of valve under operating conditions 106 3.2522 Closing pressure of valve under operating conditions 105 32523 Spread 107 3.2524 Summary examples 107 9.253. Balanced pressure valve 109 3.258 Pilot valves 110 3.255 Gas passage 111 3.28 Throtting pressure valve 111 327 Fluid operated valve 112 3.271 Opening pressure of fuid valve under operating concitions 112 3.272 Closing pressure of valve under operating conditions 114 9.273 Test rack opening pressure 114Contents "ix 9.274 Summary examples - fd valve _ 116 3275 Gas passage characteristics 117 3276 Dillerential valve 117 3.2761 Opening pressure of ciferentia valve under actual operating conditions 117 3.2762 Closing pressure of differential valve under operating conditions 118 32763. Test rack seting procedure for difarental valve 118, 228 Combination valves 118 3.29 Dynamic considerations 119 3291 Bellows travel and protection 119 3.292 Boliows load rato 119 15.293 Pressure valves 121 3.210 Ciass problems 121 ‘Types of gos litt Installations 123 331 Inoduction 123, 3.82 Open installation 123 333 Semiclosed installations (Fig. 932) 124 3.34 Closed installations (Fig. 3.8) 124 385 Chamber installations 124 2.351 Introduction 128 3.852. Standard two-packer chamber (Fig. 2.25) 125 3.353 Insert chamber (Fig. 896) 125 3.354 Reverse flow chamber instaliaion 125 3.355 Special chamber to save gas for long pay interval 125 12.356 Special chamber instalation for sand removal 126 3.357 Open hole chamber installation 127 3.358 Special chambers for bad casing and/or long perforate or fong epen hole interval 127 3.859 Chamber above packer 128 3.8570 Automatic veni chamber system 128 3.95 Macaroni instatations 128 337 Dual installations 192 338 Packol!instafations 133 3.39 Amular tow 135, 3.310 Installations to backwash injection wells. 135 Design of gas lft installations 137 3.41 Introduction 137 3.42 Continuous flow design 137 3421 Introduction 137 3422 Factors to consider in the design of a continuous flow gas it instalation 128 24221 Requirements of continuous flow valves 138 34222 Separator pressure and wellhead flowing pressure 198, 34223. Location of the top valve 198, 3.4224 Injection gas pressure and volume 199 3.4225 Bottom hole temperature (BHT) and flowing temperatu 3.42251 Invoduetion 139 8.42252 Kirkpatrick's solution 140 2.42254 Shiu's correlations 140 3.4226. Unloading gradients and spacing of gas ift valves 143 34227, Flow configuration sizes and procuction rates 143, 3.4228 Valve settings 144 3.4228. Approximations to be used in continuous fow installations 144 8.42210 Types of instalations 144 3.42211 Use of muliphaco flow correlations 144 9.423. Design procedure for a continuous flow instalation 144 34231 Determining the point of gas injection. 144 ‘3.4232 Determining tow rates possible by gas lt, by Pedro Regnault 147 8.42321 Introduction 147 = 8.42922 Solution for a constant welhead pressure 148 aay 3.428221 Pressure-iow rate Giagram procedure 148 3.423222 Equilibrium cuve procedure 149 3.42928 Solution fora variable welhead pressure, by Hugo Marin 155 3.423231 Wellhead pressure-low rate diagram procedure 155 3.423232 Flowing botiom-hole prassure-fow rate diagram procedure 187 139x Contents 4.424 An sono uty fa continuous How ges Ih wel by Pac Regnauk 162 Steet modseton 162 Bacsz. Earnie problem 162 s.aes Bea of contra tw gos it sialatons based onthe os! econo oui ol gs be beta by Maar cel an sus Pacha 168 Sezst neoascon 68 4282 Gatrnnabn of he met corel toa gas ue fr onan totnece peso” 168 Seater recede fer ho most sxoromial gas tt dein 166 S2ER2. Shonen mabe tor determining the men economia S6- Tul at to 2.12509 Barge problem Hustle the est economical ga it sean 70 ; 214283 eteminaton otha mos! econo! astra ovale wand pressure 179 Ses50 tuoducton 173 S42582.Desotpton ofthe economical spe matad_174 SSS Baten of promt on atv cat of gs ected metiod 178 RSE Gente pobloe ore mont ears gen oagn— tl woead pes 178, | Sasa "Ceenomaal slope meod 178 Side Prof on ol vant of as ected mahod 181 / 4250s teat of veri 108 S425" eet of Poin length 180 Siczecee tet of fowine comet’ 104 4.42506. Danusin of asl 185 SA2507 Consuons, 83 4.426 Opting coun few go stems, by Vicor Gomex and Hay Hong. 198 Beast hrosucion 18 ‘ $1282. Comuacs low ga it design fr pinizakon based on i rman le S87 saan Cont elhead procedure 187 S250 Desurpton of cure fing and opmizaton procedure. 188 Sas oducton 8 Ses Gave tery Teo Sa2s3'3. Optinzato pronto 108 ou2sse Fate rampie 103 4.4064 arate wetheadsoiton | 121 Suzee Computational procewure 181 32602. Decsipon of he opimizabon pocedue 189 S20" ivoauclon 190 SSE) Guns mepolaing scheme 104 aa5t23.Optmissbon procedure 198 2142643, Eaoe ol vanes in epimiaton of vanabla wolnead gat itsytene. Tot Sa26tSTInewuton 194 SGeG2 Etec of ing siz and fowin sie 184 $2005 Elect ol separ prs 198 Sisse.efect of wr ul 13, S:28405 Eft of evalu econ pressure 198 Sete Efecto pocuctiy don T88 Sees? surmeany 198 34285 Concuson ana econmaratons 192 34258 Flu cece of economia optnizaton 190 Sizeet invoctan 160 Sazee2 Oniieebon ge 198 3.603 Examplo provem 200 S.ca00e_ Summa 202 7 2.4ar_Slecton ot gas pura 202 S107! nteducton 202 Sara Michel's procedure 200 S4a73. Spec ago make sdlecton of parameas in coninoue fow gut aor Sever troducion 207 32782. Dean pecedua 207343 Contents "xi 9.42783. Selecting parameters 200 3.42734 Example problem 209 3.428 A new gas lif concept-—"two-step gas fit instalation,” by Juan Faustineli 214 3.4281 Inroducton 211 24282 Description of the two-step gas lit method 211 34283 Proposed well bre completion fora two-step gas iit instalation 214 3.42881 Parallel two-step completion for walls of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela 214 3.42832 Concenivis two-step completion 214 34284 Tworstep gas it examples 214 3.4285 Summary and conclusions 223, 3.429. Spacing of continuous flow gas it valves 223 3.4291 Introduction 223 3.4292 Universal design and spacing for alltypes of continuous flow gas it valves 224 3.42921 Introduction 228 3.42922 Standard pressure operated valves—constant surtace opening pressure 224 3.4299. Design procedure for pressure operated valves—taking 10-20 psi drop in surface closing pressures between valves. 230 9.4294 Spacing and design procedure for uid operated valves (oressure charged dome)—universal design 232 3.4295 Spacing and design procedure for combination pressure closed, fuid opened valves 233 8.4286 Design example for fluid operated, spring loaded gas lit valves 233 3.4297 Additional spacing procedures 236 ‘3.42971 Intreduction 236 2.42972 Common procedure for analytical spacing of pressure operated asi vaves 236 3.42973 Graphical spacing of pressure operated valves—(26 pel drop in pressure between valves) 230 84298 Discussion on spacing 238 ‘3.4299 Continuous flow design for ciferenial valves, 241 ‘3.42991 Introduction 241 '3.42992 Design procedure for diferential valves (continuous flow) 241 3.42983. Design exernple for differential valves (continuous flow) 241 3.42994. Analyteal procedure for spacing diferentil valves 242 3.42910 Spacing of completely belanced continuous fow valves 242 3.42911 Proportional response sysiem 244 3429111 Invoduction 244 3.429112 Transfer operation 248 34291121 Transfer point selection 246 3.429112 Gas requirements 246 34291123 Gas supply 247 2.429143 Design example—detalled information available 247 34291191 Preliminary wel analysis 248, ‘34291132 Gas it valve spacing and selection 248 3.429114 Compuler designed example 251 2.4210 Continuous flow gas-iting directionally diled wells 253 342101 Introduction 253 342102 Methods for calculating pressure loss in deviated wells 254 3.42103 Design of gas lit instalations 255 3.42104 Example problems and discussion 256 3.42105 Summary 257 3.4211 Summary and logical sequence in continuous flow gas lt design 257 ‘9.4212 Ciass problems "258 Design of intermittent ow installations 260, 8.431 Introduction 260 ~ 3.432. Intermitint gas fit cycle 261 3.433. Analysis of pressure recoicings during intermitent ges lit cycles 261 3.434 Factors to consider Inthe design of an intermitent instalation 264 34341 Type of inctalations 264 34342 Location of top valve depth 265, . 3.4343 Avalable pressures and valve setings 266 24946 Unloading gradients and spacing 257xii Contents 3.435 3.4345. Ditferential between valve pressure and tubing load to lit 267 3.4946 Gasiit valve por size 263, 34947 Percent recovery 272 8.4343. Gas volume requirements for intermitont lit 279 3.4349 Cycle requency and pressure stabilzain time 273 3.43410 Types of valves for intermittent lit 274 8.49411 Single point vs. mulipoint injection for itermttant it 275 3.43412 Summary of design considerations in intermittent it 275 ‘sign and spacing procedures for inlermittent gas it installalons 275 94951 Introduction 275 3.4952 Design procedure for intermittant gas Ht well 276 34953 Graphical procedure—pressure operated valves (ime cycle control at the surface) 279 9.4954 Analytical pracedure—pressure operated valves (lime-cycla control at the surtace) (25 psi drop in presaure bedween valves) 281 3.4955. Graphical procedure—pressure operated valves (choke control at the surface) (25 psi drop in surtace opening pressure between valves) 262 3.4358 Pressure operated valves-—graphical pracedure, constant valve closing pressure (time cycle control and choke control) 264 3.4357 Design procedure, fluid operated valves for multipoint injection 286 3.49571 Nivogen charged fluid valve 287 3.49572 Design example for multipoint intermittent it—spring charged valve 268 9.4958 Intermitent optitlow design procedure 290 34358 Dasign for combination Mid oponed, pressure closed valves 292 3.49591 Introduction 292 ‘9.43592 Ossign procedure | for the combination pressure closad tubing ‘pressure opened valve (choke contol or time cycie contol) 293 3.49593 Design procedure Il for combination pressure clasad tubing Pressure opened valves 294 3.49510 Design procedure for complataly batanced valves 298 3.435101 Graphical procedure for designing a low productivity intermittent instalation for balanced valves 298, 3.49511 Design example in which the static ld lave is fw inthe well and the well hhas not been loaded with “ki” fhuid—balanced valves 298 ‘3.49512 Designing chamber gas Iitinstafations for intermittent it 298 3495421 Introduction 298 3.495122 Procedure for designing standard chamber installations 298 3.4951221 Example problem No. 1 299 3.498122 Example problem No. 2 301 3.495129 Example problem for insert chamber S03 3.435124 Special chamber design for deep wells and fow surface gas operating pressure 304 34951241 introduction 904 3.4351262 Design procedure—intermiter contral (chamber valve to be operating valve) 305 3.4951249 Desion procedure—chamber choke control— chamber vaive to be oparating valve 306 9.4951244 Special design 308 3.4951246 Fisid example of deep chamber for low operating pressure 307 3.4351246 Field case no. 2—chamber it (chamber valve = ‘operating valve) 308, 34951247 Summary 309 9.498 Detailed design for intermittent fow—a method for determining the production rate 309 3.4961 Introduction 309 3.4962 Caloulatng the weighted average BHP 310 3.43621 Example 1—calculating the minimum BHP that occurs for one cele of intermittent it 310 9.49622 Example 2—calcuialing the weighted average BHP for one ‘completo cycle (without standing valve) 311 3.438221 Reducing the weighted average BHP 312 3.49623, Example 3—caiculating the weighled average BHP for one Complete cycia (with stancing valve) 3133437 3.498 Contents xiii 19.4983 Detalled design of intermittent instalation 919 Effect of variables in intermitent bk 316 3.4971 Detailed design for intermittent flow—etfect of variables 316 343711 Effect of differential between valve pressure end tubing load 316 3.43712 Eflect of Pl 316 3.4372. Computer solution to the problem 316 3.43721. Efiect of ctferental and Pl 317 3.43722 Ettect of depth 317 3.43723. Prediction of BHPS 318 Class problems, intermittent design probloms 318 8.44 Comparisons of continuous, slandard intermittent and chamber gas lit methods, by Folx Eslat 320 341 3449 Introduction 320, Ettect of changing static pressure 320 Ettect of wellhead pressure 321 Effect of productviy index $22 Etfect of tubing size 322 Etfect of the slippage 924 Etfect of surface injection pressure 924 Etiect of pressure cifferntial across the valve 925 Effect of eiferential and cycle time 825 3.4410 Summary 325 ‘3.45 Multiple completions, by Jeny B. Davis and Kermit E. Brown 326 3.451 3.452 3.453 3.454 3.485, 3.456 3.457 Introduction ° 326 ‘Types of instalations 326 34521 Introduction 325 3.4522. Paralll tubing sting installations 926 3.4823. Concentric tubing string installations 327 3.4524 Commingling of zones. 327 Valve salecton for a dual installation producing both zones by continuous lit 327 3.4531 Introduction 327 3.4582 Two strings of combination fluid opened and pressure ofuid closed valves 327 3.4533, Two strings of fuid operated valves (open and close on tubing tid pressure) 327 3.4534 ‘Two strings of pressure operated valves 327 3.4835. One string of fluid operatad valves (open and close on tubing fig pressure) and one siring of pressure operated valves 927 Valve selection for a dual installation producing both zones by intermittent it $28 3.4541 Introduction 328 3.4542 Two strings of combination fui opened and pressure closed valves, 928 3.4543 Two stings of plot operated valves $26 3.4564 Two strings of standard pressure operated betows valves 829, 3.4545 Two stings of fuid Valve selection for a dual installation producing one zone by continuous lit and one zone by intermittent I 329 3.2551 Two strings of combination fi opened and pressure closed valves 929 3.4552 One string pressure operated bollows continuous fit valves and one sting of pict operated intermittent valves, 823 3.4853 Two strings of pressure operated betiows valves $30 ‘3.4554 One string of fd operated valves (opened and closed by tubing luis pressure) and one string of pressure operated belows valves 330 3.4585 Two strings of Tuld-operated valves (opened and closed by tubing id pressure) 390 Design of dual gas lit installations 930 Example designs 330 3.4871 Example set #1 220 3.4872 Example sat #2 339 9.4573. Example set #3 (mandrels in piace) 299 35 Compressor systems 338 351 Introduction 336 3.52. Classification of compressor systems 996 ‘353. Design of the compressor system 337 3.sat 3.532 Inoduction 837 Factors fo consider when designing a compressor system 998xiv Contents ‘88321 Location of alllease equipment 338 3.5922. The individual gas it valve design for each wel 308 35329 Gas volume needed 339 35924 Injection gas pressure 339 38925 Separator pressure and suction pressure 908 25926 Distibution system 339 38327 Low-pressurea gatnoring system 341 35328 Availability of make-up gas 942 35223. Avalabilly of a gas sales outlet 342 259210 Freezing conditions (nydrates) 242 9.593 Compressor selection 344 35331 Inveduction 344 3.5332. Sizing the compressor 344 8.54 Design ofa rotative compressor system 351 8.85 Summary 954 355 Problems 365, 3.6 Gas lift operation, analysis, and trouble shooting 355 3.61 Introduction’ 355 3.62 Operation of gas i systems 356 3.621 Unloading processes 356 3.6211 Continuous flow unioading process 356 36212 Intermittent fow unloading process 387 8.622 Types of gas injection contol 356 36221" Choke contro! 358 8.6222 Regulator control in conjunction with a choke intermitent flow 959 3.6223. Time cycle controler 359 3.63 Analysis and trouble shooting 350 3.631 Introduction 360 3.632 Pressure surveys—continuous llow 981 38921 Introduction 361 3.6322 Hypothetical case of owing prassures surveys 262 3.6323. Field cases of flowing prasaure surveys 265 3.633. Flowing temperature surveys—continuous fow wells 967 8.694 Combination fowing pressure and flowing tamperature surveys (for continuous fow wets) 369 3.635 Pressure survays—intemmittent it 372 3.6951 introduction 372 3.8952 Hypothetical pressure surveys 973 3.6353. Field cases of intermittent pressure surveys 973, 3.696 Well sounding devices 376 9.6961 Introduction 976 3.6362 Field cases of acoustic surveys 977 8.637 Surtace recordings of casing and tubing pressures 378 36971 Introduction 378 3.6372 Continuous tow recorder charts 979 363721 Hypothetical charts 379 3.63722 Field cases of two-pen surtace recorder charts for continuous flow 363 3.6373. Intermitent low recorder charts 38 3.63731 Hypothetical charts 363 3.69782 Field cases of two-pon recorder chars for intermittent flow 999 3.698 Surface wethead pressure 435 3.6381 Intreducton 435 9.6982 Effect of back-pressure for continuous How 435 8.6383 _Eifect of back-pressure for intermittent fow 437 3.639 Injection gas pressure 439 3.6310 Injection gas volumes 441 3.6311 Total output gas volumes 443 3.6312 Total lid recovery 443 3.6313 Tomperature of the fowine and Christmas tree 443 3.6314 Miscellaneous 443, 3.6315 Field case of improved operations 444 3.6316 Summary 444 AppendixPreface For the first time, all the artifical lift methods are presented in one volume. Volume 2 is published in two Separate books, Vol. 2A and Vol. 2B, and is complete ‘with sufficient charts, curves, etc. to plan, design, ana- Iyze, and compare all artificial lift methods. Volume 1, published in 1977, gives all the preliminary informa. Hon needed to use Vol. 2. Volume 1 includes (1) the inflow ability of the well, (2) multiphase flow in pipes, ‘and (8) the flowing well. Although not absolutely neces- sary, Volume 1 should be studied and used in con- junction with Volume 2. Volume 3, which is also available, includes over 2,200 flowing pressure traverse curves for multiphase vertical fiow and horizontal flow, {as production, gas injection and water injection curves. T want to thank the many individuals that helped write this text. I Iso want to thank their companies that relinquished time for them to do so. These indi viduals and their respective companies are listed below: Jokn J. Dey Joe P. Byrd Joe Mach Jerry B, Davis Bill Richards Ed DeMoss Gene Riling Clarence Dunbar Satish Goel Don Rhosds Phil M. Wilson Hal L. Petrie Bolling A. Abercrombie Phil Patillo ©. R Canalizo RH, Gault George Thompson Bill Waters KC. McBride Forrest. E. Chancellor W.G. Skinner LAS: Hank Arendt Rusty Johnston ‘Tom Doll J.T, Dewan Purvis J. Thrash Luiz Couto The University of Tulsa Latkin Industries, Ine Tohnston Maceo Schtumberger Otis Engineering Corp Teledyne Merle Teledyne Merle TRW-REDA TRWREDA OILINE KOBE Centrtif, Ine. KOBE KOBE ‘MeMurry-Hughes ‘Amnoco Research Otis Bagineering Corp. Bethlehem Ste! Corporation TEC Of Field Pomp Hydrogas-Lift Systera EI Paso Neturel Gas Co, Chancellor Oi! Tots, Inc. Mid-Continent Supply Mid-Continent Suppl Otis Boaineerng to. Otis Engineering Corp. Louisiana Land and Exploration Tiinko, Lindaht! & Schwetkhardt, Ine. Otis Engineering Corp. Petrobras ‘There are numerous other individuals that I want to thank for their assistance and contributions: Spencer Duke, Victor Gomez, Harry Hong, Hugo Marin, Felix Eslait, Juan Faustinelli, Victor Mitchell, Pedro Ragnault, Jesus Pacheco, Carlos Woyno, Luis Menezes, Gustavo Lopes, Mario Sanchez, Nelson Velloso, Frank ~xvi Preface Zarvinal, Roman Omana, Humberto Calderon, Edgar LaFuentes, Celio Fonseca, Abad Loreto, Mohammed Yousaf, Cesar Camacho, Nelson Cordozo, Alvaro Fuentes and Carlos Ney. Thanks is due to the following companies for per- mission to reproduce certain art work: Centrilit, Inc., Otis Engineering Corp., Lufkin Industries, Inc., TRW-REDA, KOBE, Fluid’ Packed Pumps United States Steel and Johnston MaccoSchlumberger. Volume II offers sufficient flexibility to be used as a text or to be used by the engineer in industry in designing installations. Example problems are worked and numerous class problems are included. Eventually, an answer guide will be available. I want to thank The University of Tulsa for the ‘opportunity to publish this text. Also, thanks is due to Evelyn Washburn, Nelda Whipple and Betty Finnegan for their help in typing the manuscript. Finally, I want to thank my wife, Katherine, for her patience, love and understanding while I com- pleted this text. Kermit B. BrownChapter 1 Artificial lift systems 1.4 INTRODUCTION This text will discuss the various types of artificial lift systems available today. More and more wells in the world are being placed on artifical lift, and the number will contioue to increase. The selection of the ‘most suitable type of artificial lift for a well or group of wells ean be dificult or easy, depending upon the conditions, Generally, more than one method of lift can be used, Each method of lift may be classified from excellent to poor in accomplishing the objective. Depending upon the economic considerations, two types of lift (one used later) may possibly be prescribed for a group of wells. For example, in a “depletion” type reservoir, high initial production rates may be needed, but decreasing pressures and declining inflow capability may require a low rate in the future. In this case, an initial instal lation of continuous flow gas lift or electrical submers- ible pumping may be changed to intermittent gas lift, sucker rod pumping, or hydraulic pumping at a later date, or vice versa. ‘The following list probably represents the relative standing of lft systems based on the number of instal- Jations throughout the world. This differs from field to field, state to state, and country to country. (1) Sucker rod pumping (beam pumping) (2) Gas lit, 3) Electrical submersible pumping () Hydraulic pumping (8) Jet pumping (6) Plunger (Gree piston) lift (7) Other methods ‘As these methods are discussed, complete design procedures wil be given along with numerous example problems. In addition, other methods are continually being developed and tested. A short discussion on the ball pump and the gasactuated pump are also given. The ball pump was tried many years ago, and new interest hasrecently sparked additional development of this it method. The ball pump uses spherical flexible balls that pass down one tubing string and return through ‘another in order to eliminate the slippage of gas past the liquids. Gas is used as the source of power. ‘The ges pump has been in the experimental stage for many Years. Several field trials have been performed and are installed at the present time, The pump uses gas to actuate a downhole pump and can be used in conjunction with gas lit. In particular, gas lit unload- ing valves may be used to reach the pump. Rothrock presented Table 1.1, showing the distribu- tion of 518,867 oil wells based on a 7% sampling from 200 operators with information on 37,100 wells.! TABLE 14 CGAUDE PRODUCING WELLS (JAN, 187) Calegory Number Pescert od pumping 40997 e521 Gas it 51,964 1080 Eleccal submersble 3708 Hydric “Tolal US. aii US. towing of wals ‘Tots! LS. procucing ll wes ion00% Of the 518,867 wells, 481,146 or 92.7% are being lifted artificially. These are further broken down into 85.2% rod pump, 10.8% gas lift, 2% submersible, and 2e hydraulic. Approximately 383,000 of the artificial wells are strippers (producing less than 10 B/D). Assuming that 100% of the stripper wells are on rod pump, then Table 1.2 shows a redistribution of the remaining wells TABLE 12 ARTIFICIAL LIFT WELLS (LESS STRIPPER WELLS) catepoy Number Percent Rod pumping esr 28 Gas it B16 Electrica! sutmersiole yoraute "Tolal wets Table 12 shows that the largest percentage of the wells are on gas lift after eliminating stripper wells. Gas lift predominates on offshore wells but, according to Rothrock, isnot keeping pace with other lit methods in areas other than offshore. ‘Submersible pump use is inereasing rapidly in West ‘Texas and in some Rocky Mountain areas. noted that hydraulic pumping is not growing at the rate of other methods. However, jet pumping is now taking 50% of the hydraulic market, and its popularity will probably continue to grow.2 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a Table 13 breaks down total maintenance cost into failures, failure rates, cost per failure, total cost, and percent of each failure spent for well servicing. Also included are costs and rates for well workover. ‘Two main types of downhole equipment failures are pumps and rods. Each pumping well has a 57% chance of pump failure and a 44% chance of rod failure each year. These rates are additive so each wel will average 1.01 failuresyear. Costs to maintain these wells total $346,000,000, including $230,000,000 for well servicing. Remaining expenditures translate to approximately 34,000,000 fect of rods and 31,000 bottomhole pumps needed for replacement of worn out equipment plus an additional repair of 180,000 purnps. Submersible pump failure rates apparently are decreasing based on the 7% sample. Repairs to submnersibles by manufacturers are running considera~ bly less than in previous years. ‘The survey indicates that failure incidence in hydraulic pumps is increasing. Again, this may be due to the small number of hydraulic pumps contained in the survey. In any event, the growth of the hydraulic piston pump market appears to be declining and jet pumping is on the increase. Gas lift failure rate is the lowest of any form of arti- ficial lift (21%) but costs of individual failures are high compared to the average of all failures. A high portion of these costs, however, is attributable to high cost of service units, crows, and related equipment. Various lift methods are compared in Chapter 9. Comparisons are quite difficult, but some choices of lift methods are obvious. One example is high volume wells where either electrical submersible pumping or continuous flow gas lit should be considered. Very deep lit must look at hydraulic pumping with installa- tions presently pumping from 15,000 to 18,000 feet, with rates of 300 to 500 B/D. Although these pumps are set at these depths, the effective lift depth may be less. Effective lift refers to that depth to which the flowing bottom hole pressure will support the producing fluids. For example, ifthe flowing bottom hole pressure is 700, psi and the average fluid gradient is 0.30 psift, the 700, psi will support the fluid 700/.90 = 2933 ft. Therefore, if the pump is set ala total depth of 16,000 fit is really only lifting feom 16,000-2,383 = 12,667 ft and theoret- ically could be set at that depth and produce the same amount of fuids (neglects tubing well-head back pres- sure). ‘Availability of certain power sources will influence the decision on type of lif. All these factors are diseussed in detail in Chapter 8. 4.11 Purpose of artificial ‘The purpose of artifical lift is to maintain a reduced producing bottom hole pressure so the formation can, give up the desired reservoir fluids. A well may be capable of performing this task under its own power. In ite latter stages of flowing life, a well is capable of producing only a portion of the desired fluids. During this stage of a well’ flowing life and particularly after the well dies, a suitable means of artificial lift must be installed so the required flowing bottom hole pressure can be maintained. ‘Maintaining the required flowing bottom hole pres- sure is the basis for the design of any artificial lift installation; if a predetermined drawdown in pressure can be maintained, the well will produce the desired fluids, This is true regardless of the type of lift installed. : Tn gas lift operations, @ well may be placed on contin- uous or intermittent lif. In continuous flow, the flow- ing bottom hole pressure will remain constant for a particular set of conditions, while in intermittent flow the flowing bottom hole pressure will vary with the particular operation time of one cyele of production. In this latter case, a weighted average flowing bottom hole pressure must be determined for one cycle and, hence, for a day's production. Economics enters into the design of any lift installation, Many types of artificial lift methods are available: beam-type sucker rod pumps, piston-type sucker rod pumps, hydraulic oil well pumps, electrical submerg- ible centrifugal pumps, rotating rod pumps, plunger Tit, gas lit, and others. The advantages and disadvan- TABLE 13 DOVINHOLE COSTS TO MAINTAIN US. PRODUCING Ol. WELLS (YEAR 1977) Face ‘Number of ‘Average Percent wel ‘a0 tales cos, 8 Total cost, S sonicing Subeuriace od pumps 3 210277 1078 226857,000, 6 ‘Sucka ross 4s 162.118 729 119,685,000 cy Submersible pumps 35 3.390 7873 6,030,000, 5 Hysraute pumps 1.86 41,411,000 0 as itt 21 47713,000 7m using 12 115,027,000 3 Cesing coat 176,742,000 st Total 2 753,285,000 et falces Wiorkovers 20 10.888 1.128.532,000 58 Total maitonanco cost 1.376.777,000, 9tages of all types of artificial lift are discussed in Chap- ‘ter 9. 41.42. Utiization of multiphase flow correlations for artifical tft systems 1.921 Introduction All if. systems can be designed better if the proper use of multiphase flow correlations is utilized. Numer- ous references, including Volume 1 of this series "Inflow Performance, Multiphase Flow in Pipes, and the Flow- ing Well,” give excellent discussions on vertical, hori- zontal, and inclined multiphase flow correlations. The best correlations for vertical multiphase flow are those of Ros," Hagedorn? Orkiszewski, and Beggs and Brill? ‘Some of these correlations are better in some ranges of flow conditions than others, as was discussed in 2 paper by Lawson and Brill The best horizontal flow correla- tions are those of Dukler,? Eaton,* Lockhart and Mar- tinelli Baker,'* and Beggs and Brill The Beggs and Brill correlation has proven to be excellent for horizon- tal flow, and some designers are using the Dukler pro- cedure with the Eaton hold-up correlation. For inclined flow applicable to the directional well problem, the best solution appears to be the use of a vertical multiphase flow correlation by calculating frictional loss over the ‘measured tubing length and calculating the static den- sity loss over the vertical distance only. The kinetic energy term is calculated over the total tubing length, also. For the surface hilly terrain problem the Beggs and Brill correlation is widely used. The Flanigan solution as well as modifications to the Flanigan solution are also used." For example, use of the Flanigan procedure to determine pressure loss over the hills in eonjunction ‘with either the Dukler or Baton procedure for frictional Joss is commonly used. For a complete discussion on multiphase flow, refer to Volume 1 of this series." Also, the productive ability of wells is discussed in Volume 1, along with a complete analysis of the flowing well. 4.122. Use of multiphase flow correlations ‘The use of multiphase flow correlations is very iroportant in the design of artificial lift installations. ‘This subject is discusced in detail in Volume 1, Refer to it for discussions on the various correlations, their range of applicability, and those that are best for verti- cal, horizontal, inclined, and directional flow. ‘he poblication of gradient curves (working curves) has made this technology readily available for the field man who dees not always have computer available for immediate calculations. Most energy companies and arlificial lift companies have 2 computer, program available for the calculation of pressure losses. for multiphase fiow in pipes. Refer to Volume 3 of this series for a complete set of curves that have been prepared for both the Hagedorn and Beggs correlations. Others are available, such as the curves used by the Shell companies, that were prepared from the Duns and Ros correlation. In the future it will be necessary to lift more heavy and viseous crude oils. Present-day correlations show 2 great deal of discrepancy in handling viscous effects, Artificial lift systems ©. 3 Hagedorn and Ros were two investigators who varied the viscosities in their experimental work, yet their Predictions of pressure loss for viscous crudes do not 1.1221 Viscosity Increases in viscosity are expected to couse increases in pressure drop since frictional pressure loss is directly Proportional to viscosity, The pressure traverse is ‘expected to move to the right for increasing values of | cil viscosity. A plot of well bottom hole pressure vs, viscosity will show increasing bottom hole pressure with increasing viscosity. During two-phase flow in a well where both gas and liquid are present, the resultant frictional pressure rop depends on both the gas and liquid viscosities. Different multiphase flow correlations handle this combination of ges and liguid viscosities differently, eg. Beggs and Brill and Hagedom and Brown define a mixture viscosity as followe: Hm = HAL t He(1— Ar) fae nia ae wher Beggs and Brill Hagedorn and Brown Hp ™ mixture viscosity liguid viscosity iquid holdup no slip holdup or input liquid content Duns and Ros use only the liquid viscosity in the slug and bubble flow regimes and correct the Moody friction factor thus obtained by means of dimensionless factors, These factors are funetfons of the Moody fric- tion factor, in situ gas and liquid velocity, and pipe diameter number, Gas viscosity only is used in the mist flow regime. Orkiszewski also uses liguid viscosity in bubble'and slug flow and the gas visesity in mist iow. ‘To study how each correlation handles increasing viscosity, a typical well was chosen and, with all other data held constant, the pressure traverses were caleu- lated for increasing values of viscosity. Since it was necessary tovhold the oil API constant, the Chew and Connally correlation was used to predict oil viscosity.” Dead cil viscosities (Jap) were chosen and the actual live oil viscosities (u,) Were calculated as follows: Be = Alao(D where: Hap = deal oil viscosity (stock tank oil) i = live oil viscosity (oil containing dissolved gas) Aand B are factors given by Chew and Connally,” ‘Hep(T) is the dead oil viscosity at the required tem- perature end is found using an interpolation scheme given by Brill and Boggs as follows sO = esse EED tere X= 1945 tf BAMBLOED eee [stor] For calculating the viscosity above the bubble point pressure, it was necessary to interpolate the plotof rate4 The Technology of Arti of increase of viscosity above the bubble point pressure given by Beal."* Gas viscosity was calculated using the Lee correlation. ‘The following well data were used in calculating the pressure traverses: Well depth 8000 fe ‘Tubing diameter 1.995 in. (LD.) Gas-liquid ratio 500 seftbbl Water-cut 0 Wellhead pressure 100 psia Bottom hole temperature 200°F. Wellhead temperature 150°. Refer to Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 for comparisons of the Hagedorn, Ros, Orkizewski, and Beggs and Brill correlation for oil viscosities of 10,0, 100.0, and 1000.0, ep.at 100°, Figure 1.4 shows plots of bottom hole pressure vs. viscosity for each correlation tested, The results show the following: (2) For all correlations tested, pressure drop in- creases with increasing viscosity. (2) Increases in viscosity within the range of 6 ep to 100 cp (at 100°F,) ease rapid changes in pressure drop for the Hagedorn, Beggs, and Ros correla~ tions. Beyond 100 cp’ (at 100°F.) the rate of increase in pressure drop decreases until approx- imately 500 op, after which increases in viscosity have negligible effects on pressure drop. The Orkiszewski correlation shows an initial decrease in pressure drop as viscosity increases from 5 ep to 10 cp (at 10°F). Beyond 10 cp, the pressure drop increases rapidly until 100 cp as with the other corre- lations. Beyond 100 op, pressure drop increases with increased viscosity. However, the rate of increase decreases with increasing viscosity. ‘The differences in bottom hole pressures predicted 3009} 009} peptH (et) s00c 700% 00 ficial Lift Methods—Volume 2a ie viscosity = 100 ¢P BEGGS AND ROS ARE APPROXIMATELY THE aE SAME far Zak Bot ee 7h 1 S10 S20 25 PRESSURE (100 PSI? Fig. 12 Comparison of Correlavons for Viscasy Etects viscosity =1000 cP ROS, BEGGS, AND ORKISZEWSK: GIVE APPROXIMATELY SAME RESULTS. ‘os00 66508 8006 Pressure (esi) tions rr Viscosity Etects Be Fig 11 Cemparisen of Cu 1 i015 20—«S, PRESSURE(IOOPSI) Fig. 1.2 Comparison of Coraatons fr Viscosity Elects 5/ 1009) BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE (PSIA) 500 00 #00 “so 8081005 viscosity tcp.) Fig, 14 Comparison ef Gonelasens for Vecosiy Etecte for each correlation between 5 cp and 1000 ep (at. 100°F.) are as follows: Hagedorn 1,204 pia Ros 702 psia Orkiszewski 1,000 psia Beggs 487 psia ‘The Hagedorn correlation has the largest spread in pressure drop between the highest and lowest viscosi- ties tested, indicating that this correlation is the most sensitive to viscosity changes, followed by the Orkis- zewski, Ros, and Beggs. This indicates that all the correlations predict changes in pressure drop differently for changes in viscosity. However, they all show rapid increases for viscosity increases between 5 ep and 100 cp (at 100°F.) This information shows the need for additional research in the area of viscous and heavy crudes. The effect of emulsions is an entirely different problem and is being investigated presently at The University of Tulsa. 4.1222 Etfect of slippage or fall-back Another area where correlations tend to differ considerably is in the case of flow rate for a particular flow configuration size where the fall-back of liquids becomes excessive. Field experience has shown that in some cases the oil production rate may be increased by replacing the tubing with tubing of a smaller diame- ter, Tn many cases, a dying well can be brought back to flowing conditions by reducing the tubing diameter, and the rate can be increased on artificial lit wells. Low flow velocities up the tubing string result in increased fall-back of liquids and high pressure losses, The flow velocity is increased by reducing the pipe Artificial lift systems 5 wage Fo. 1.5. Pressure Flow Rate Diagram Showing Rate for Minimum Flowing Pressure Giameter, hence fall-beck and pressure loss is reduced. Figure 1.5 shows the expected performance from a flowing well. For a given flow configuration, the bottom hole pressure decreases as flow rate decreases down to a point below which any further decrease in flow rate increases bottom hole pressure. Reducing the tubing size reduces the flow rate required before this limiting flow rate is reached. During multiphase flow in a vertical or inelined well, density differences cause the heavier liquids to fall back and the lighter gas to slip by up the well. Hence, in a given section of pipe during upward flow, the frac. tional volume of liquid present is normally greater than the input fractional volume of liquid, The lower the flow rate, the greater the effect of fall-back. One fallacy with present multiphase flow correla- tions is that they fail to correctly predict fall-back. A study was conducted to show how this phenomena of fall-back is handled by each of the following correla- tions: (Q) Hagedorn and Brown (2) Duns and Ros @) Orkiszewski (4) Beggs and Brill For this study a typical well was chosen and the flow. ing bottom hole pressures were calculated by each of the four correlations for decreasing flow retes. Both tubing and annulus flow were considered. The well data are as follows: ‘Total depth ‘9500 ft Flowing gas-oil ratio 500 scffbbl Wellhead pressure 150 psia API gravity oil 35° Specific gravity of 0.65: gas Water-cut. 0. Tubing LD. (in—for 1.995, 2.441, 2.959, tubing flow) 3.548, Annulus (in.—for 1h, Th 9%, annulus flow) 5K 2%, 526 Bottom hole 20°F, temperature Wellhead 50°F. temperature6 — The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a i i Fig. 18. Beets of Sippage or Faoack All of the correlations show the expected reduction of bottom hole pressures with decreasing flow rates up to 4 point where the flowing pressure increases, Figure 18 shows the results predicted by the original and modified Hagedorn and Brown correlation for tubing flow. The bottom hole pressure reduces for decreasing flow rates. The original correlation failed to predict the uptum of increased flowing pressure with the lower rates. The present modified correlation does make this prediction, ‘This difference is due to the inaccuracies contained in the original Hagedorn and Brown correlation for predicting pressure drop in the bulible flow regime. ‘The original Hagedorn and Brown correlation was modified to account for this limitation by including the Griffith correlation for bubble flow. A comparison of results predicted by the different correlations shows a few similarities and many differ- ences (see Figure 1.7 and Table 1.4). The differences are: (D For a given tubing size the limiting flow rates below which the bottom hole pressure increases with decreasing flow rate are different for each correlation. This is illustrated in Table 1.1. (2) The Orkiscewski correlation shows the bottom hole pressures at the limiting flow rates decrease Fig, 1.7 Comparisons of Faltsack of Liuids lor Dievont Corelax TABLE LS LIMITING FLOW RATES (B/D) FOR THE VARIOUS CORRELATIONS ‘ANO PIPE SIZES TESTED Tubinglannulss Hagedorn Fes __Orkisawshd Baggs 2 15040 00 400 ™ 250500 00 500 4 40015001000, 900 4 450 20001900, 1500 7x2 100 soco gan 5000 aR 900 4000300, ‘3000 Sanam 100015008000, +2000 err 20001000500 8000 with reducing tubing diameter. All of the others show the opposite trend. (B) The Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs and Brill correlations show rapid increase of bottom hole pressure from the limiting flow rate, The Orkis- ‘zewski and the Ros correlations show a more gradual rise. Points of similarity are as follows: (1) All the correlations predict the expected limiting flow rates below which the bottom hole pressures increase with decreasing flow rates, (2) Allof the correlations indicate limiting flow rates decrease as tubing size decreases, Apparently, the predicted rates for full-back effect are too low for the Hagedorn correlation and possibly too high for the Ros. Additional research is needed to determine the correct values. ‘The previous discussions concerning comparison of correlations for predicting effects of viscosity and fall- back are also discussed to a limited extent in Volume. 1 1.123 Summary of multiphase flow ‘The multiphase flow correlations should be used for the design ofall types of artificial lift In particular, gas, ify, electrical pumping, and jet pumping are probably the’ most critical, and industry is readily using the available correlations for these three methods of lift. Piston hydraulic pumping and sucker rod pumping are less critical but could also benefit from the use of such correlations in the future. ‘Therefore, two areas of flow exist where multiphase flow correlations may give questionable results: (1) low flow rates whereby slippage becomes excessive and (2) heavy viscous crudes where the visoosity is excessive. Unless specifically stated, the working curves avail- able should not be used for crude viscosities above 10 op. REFERENCES 4. Rothrock, Renn, J, "Ogantole Maintenance Costs Approach $2 Bition” Tha Patooum Enginoer (duly 4977) 2. os. N.C.J, "Simultaneous Fiow of Gas and Liquid as Encountared in Well Tubing” Jour, Pat. Toch (Qstobor 196%), p. 1037. 23. Hagatom, A.B. and Brown, KE. tal Sted of Prossure Gradient’ Occuring Ounng Continuous Two-Phase Flow in Small ‘ameter Varical Concuts," Jour Pet. Teh (Apr 1963), pp. 47S. 4344. Okiszewshi J, "Pucicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Vertical Pipes," deur. Pot. Tech, (June 1087), pp. 829-53, 45, Beggs, FD. ard Bil, JB. "A Susy ol Two-Phase Fowia Ineined Pipes."lour. Pot Tech. (May 1973), pp. 607-617. 6, Lawson, 4. D. and Bri, Py "A Staetieal Evaluation of Methods Used a Preset Pressure Losses for Mullphase Flow ht Verical O2 Wel Tubing Trans. AIME (1674), pp. 903.914, 7. Dulles, AE. Wicks, M. and Clevelena, FG. "Ficiona Pressure ‘A—Comparison of Exting Canlaon for Holdup. B=An Approach Through Simlarly Analysis" ALCKE dum, January 1864), pp. 301 18. Eston, B.A, Andrews, D-E, Knowl, © ©, Sibergrg, H, and Brown, KE, "The Pradiaion of Flow Petia, Ligue Holdup end Prossure Losses Occuring During Continuous Two-Phase Flom Horaontal Pipes,” Trans. AIME (1867) 815 8. Locinan RW, and Matinel, RC, "Proposes Comelaon of Data Artificial lift systems 7 ftom Torco em Sean Samay ates wo Reena no oe Reco aee + REE Ee reves oepnmema Tyg ese Caneng Sys” Oi end Ges sore (res 1, : 12 HENGE ene nea fant are FSSA ena cet eto re CA. dea Viscosty Coralation for Gas Saluraied Crude Ois,” Trans AME (1959. p23, 14, Beal, Ceiton, “Te Viscosty ofA, Watay, Natural Gas, Crude Ot and ts Associated Gases at Ol Field Terperaures anc Pressures" Trans AIME, Vol. 765 (1848), p. 94, 16, L00, A. Lot al, "The Vscosty of Netural Gases," rans AIME (1368), 907,Chapter 2 Beam pumping by John J. Day and J. P. Byrd 2A. INTRODUCTION 80.90% of all artificial lift wells are being produced by sucker rod pumping; the most common is the beam pumping system. Although the beam sucker rod System is mechanically simple and has proven to be Tong-lived and economical in operation, many factors must be considered in the design of a proper system. ‘The design engineer must be thoroughly familiar with the function and complicating features of each part of the overall cystem if optimum performance is to be expected. Although it appears simple, in field practice the behavior of the beam and sucker rod system is surprisingly complex. ‘There are basic formulas for calculating the various factors affecting the selection ofa suitable system, and this chapter will present those calculations and explore some of the problems involved in the design and anel- ysis of a beam pumping installation. Note, however, that the formulas are inexact, and any analysis or Gesign must be tempered with local experience. 22 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS il well pumping methods can be divided into two main groups:* (2) Rod systems. Those in which the motion of the ‘subsurface pumping equipment originates at the surface and is transtaitted to the pump by means of a rod string (2) Rod-less systems, Those in which the pumping ‘motion of the subsurface pump is produced by means other than sucker rods. Of these two groups, the first is represented by the beam pumping system and the second is represented by hydraulic and centrifugal pumping systems. ‘The beam pumping system consists essentially of five parts: (i) The subsurface sucker rod-driven pump @)The sucker rod string which transmits the : design and analysis surface pumping motion and power to the sub- surface pump. Also included is the necessary string of tubing andlor casing within which the sucker rods operate and which conducts the pumped fluid from the pump to the surface (3) The surface pumping equipment which changes the rotating motion ofthe prime mover into oscil- lating linear pumping motion (4) The power transmission unit or speed reducer () The prime mover which furnishes the necessary power to the system Figure 2.1 illustrates the various components of a ‘complete beam pumping system. Items 3 and 4 are esignated the beam pumping unit. ‘All beam type pumping unit geometries fall into two distinct classes: (1) the Class I lever system whieh has its speed (gear) reducer rear-mounted with the fulerum ‘at mid beam, represented by the conventional unit and (2) the Class IIT lever system, a push-up geometry with its speed reducer front-mounted, represented by the air balance and Lufkin Mark IT units, where the faleram is located at the rear of the beam. Figure 2.2 illustrates schematically these different pumping unit types. ‘Figure 2.3 shows the arrangement ofthe surface equip- ment for a typical conventional unit. ‘The rotary motion ofthe crank arm is converted into oscillating motion by means of the walking beam. The crank arm is connected to the walking beam by means of the Pitman arm, and the walking beam is supported by the Sampson post and the saddle bearing. ‘The horse's head and the bridle—or the hanger cable arrangement—are used to ensure that the pull on the sucker rod string is vertical atall times so thatno bend ing moment is applied to that part of the sucker rod string above the stuffing box. The polished rod and stuffing box combination is used to maintain a good liquid seal at the surface. ‘Sach beam pumping units are available in a wide range of sizes. Stroke lengtbs vary from 12 to 240 §nches. The stroke length for any particular unit can be varied with three or more different lengths being pos-10 PumeiN UNIT POLISH ROD CLAMPS. IPE AND FITTINGS. couBINATION TUBING HEAD, PUMPING TEE B WOBBLER STUFFING 30x Tues suceen os Powe: casing: SHOES © Fig. 2.1 Beam Pumping System sible, These different strokes can be achieved by vary- ing the position of the Pitman connection to the crank. Rod and structural ratings are expressed in terms of maximum allowable polished rod loads, which can vary from about 3,000 to over 42,000 Ibs. One of the most important aspects of pumping-instal- lation design is the selection of counterbalance to reduce the size and torque requirements of the prime mover and goar reducer. For conventional beam units, counterbalance is accomplished by placing weights directly on the walking beam (this is usually done for the smaller units), or by attaching counterweights to the rotating crank’arm, or by a combination of the two methods in the larger pumping units. In more recent designs, the rotary counterbalance can be adjusted by shifting the position of the counterweights on the crank arms, Another important consideration in a pumping installation is the prime mover; two basic types are in widespread use today: electri¢ motors and internal combustion engines. The main advantages of electric motors over gas ‘engines are their lower initial cost and lower mainte- nance costs, Electric motors also provide dependable all-weather service and ean be more easily fitted into an automatic system. (On the other hand, gas engines have the advantage of more flexible speed control and can operate over & wider range of load conditions. Fuel costs for gas engines may be lower than comparable energy costs for The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a : | counree. seanee waar CLASSE LEVER SYSTEM - LUFKIN MARK ZL ruccnus. CLASSI LEVER SYSTEM ~ AIR BALANCED SYSTEM. Fig 2.2 (afer Ret. 22) electric motors, although as fuel power costs increase this condition may be reversed. "The selection of one type of prime mover over another may well depend upon local availability, fuel supply, Tocal conditions, availability of maintenance, and personal experience or preference.Beam pumping: design and analysis 11 — sate nae lees nea apts 4 ae re “4 Fig.2.9. The Surface Equipment ots Beam Pumping instakaion (ater Ret. §) Another important aspect of the surface transmis sion equipment is reducing the speed of the prime mover to & suitable pamping speed. This speed reduc- tion is accomplished by means of the gear (or chain) reducer. ‘Any complete installation design must consider the behavior of all elements of the system. However, there are still some aspects of the engineering analysis of this, method of pumping which have not been fully solved. In spite ofthis, thereisan even greater need today for a better understanding of the pumping behavior because of the trend towards greater pumping depths. ‘The minimum amount of information which must be known, or assumed, to determine even approximate Toads and pump displacements for sucker rod pumping unit installation design must include:* () Fluid level (net lift, ) @) Pump depth, ft (3) Pumping speed, strokes per minute (@) Length of surface stroke, in. (5) Pump plunger diameter, in. ©) Specific gravity of the fui (@ The nominal tubing diameter and whether it is anchored or tunanchored (8) Sucker rod size and design (@) Unit geometry With these fectors, the designer should be able to calculate, with some degree of reliability, the follow- ing: (1) Plunger stroke, in. (2) Pump displacement, (B/D) () Peak polished red load, Tb (4) Minirmum polished rod load, 1b (6) Peak (crank) torque, in-Ib or f-Ib, (when the unit's torque factor schedule is known) (6) Polished rod horsepower (7) Counterweight required, Ib ‘The final solution to the design problem is reached, to a great extent, through trial end error methods? Generally, three Steps are required in designing an installation. (2)A preliminary selection of components for the installation must be made. (2) The operating characteristics of the preliminary selection are calculated by use of the basic formulas, tables, and figures to be presented. (@) The calculated pump displacement and loads are compared with the volumes, load ratings, stress- es, and other limitations of the preliminary selec- tion, It may then be necessary to make other selections and calculations to bring the limitations ofthe various ‘components of the installation into agreement. Often, more than one selection of equipment and calculation of operating conditions is necessary before the opti- mum selection is made. It is important to observe each of the elements of a pumping installation and tie them together into an operable system. 23. SUBSURFACE PUMPS When reservoir pressure is too low to permit well to flow by its own energy, some artificial means of supple- menting that energy is required to lift the fluid to the surface. This can be accomplished through the use of subsurface pumps, which ean be divided into four designs: (1) Rod-drawn pumps (2) Hydraulic subsurface pumps (3) Submerged centrifugal pumps 4) Sonie pumps Rod-drawn pumps can be divided into three basic types: @) Tubing pumps (2) Insert (rod) pumps (3) Casing pumps (a larger version of insert pumps) All of these pumps are actuated by a sucker rod string and a surface pumping unit. Any rod-drawn pump consists of four essential elements: (1) A working barrel (2) A plunger (3) An intake valve (standing valve) (4) An exhaust valve (traveling valve) The basic difference between a tubing pump and an insert pump is the manner in which the working barrel is installed. With tubing pumps, the working barrel is connected to the bottom of the tubing and is run into the well as an integral part of the tubing string. With12 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a insert pumps, the working barrel is an integral part of the entire subsurface pump assembly and is run as a unit on the sucker ro string inside ofthe tubing (or casing) string. 231 Tubing pumps One basic advantage of tubing pumps is that they have a greater displacement than insert types because larger plunger diameters can be used within the larger working barrels of tubing pumps. However, tubing pumps have the disadvantage that the entire tubing string must be pulled from the well in order to service the working barrel, For this reason, tubing pumps are generally used only when the production desired cannot be obtained with an insert pump at the avail- able stroke and speed combinations on the pumping unit selected. Obviously, the entire unit ‘selected depends on economics and operating efficiency. Figure 2.4 is a schematic of a typical tubing pump. ibe different types of tubing pumps can be classi (D In relation to the type of working barrel used (2) In relation to the standing valve arrangement (3) In relation to the type of plunger used Obviously, a lange number of different types of these three classification is possible, For example, a tubing pump with a particular type of working barrel could have any one of several different standing valve arrangements or types of plungers. Ten SUEKER. ROD ons eaRREL TRAVELING VLE STANDING vaLYE oe. Fommarion Fue as ancuon % Fig. 24 The Sutsutace Tubing Pump (ater Rot. 3) 2311 Tubing pumps classified according to type ot working barrat From the standpoint of the type of working barrel used, the tubing pumps can be subdivided into three groups: @) Common working barrel pumps. The barrel is made of cold-drawn seamless steel, cast iron, or corro- sion-resisting alloys. With this type of pump, alength of cold-drawn tubing is polished on the inside to smooth the walls. The maximum diameter of the barrel is usually about 4 inch less than the inside diameter of the tubing string to allow enough clearance for the plunger when lowered through the tubing string. The ‘working barrel is eonnected to the bottom of the tubing string, These types of barrels are designated by the API as heavy-wall barrel design. (@) Fulbliner working barrel pump. This type of pump consists of a single hardened-steel tube (or cor- rosfon-resistant alloy) which is machined and honed in ‘one piace (not APD. (3) Sectional liner pump. The barrel of this type of pump consists of an outside steel jacket with short ma- chined and accurately honed liners assembled end to ‘end inside of the jacket. The various sections are made of hard steel, cast iron, or alloy steel and are held in position by the compressive force exerted by clamping collars at the ends of the jacket (not APD. 2.312 Tubing pumps classified according to type of standing valve From the standpoint of standing valve arrangement, the tubing pumps may have: (DA fixed standing valve (2) A removable standing valve ‘The fixed-type standing valve is attached to the bottom of the tubing; in order to service the standing valve the tubing rust be pulled from the well. This type of valve can be made oversize and can be quite effective in wells of low fluid levels, with viscous fluids, or when the working barrel does rot fill completely. The removable-type standing valve is placed in the working barrel before the barrel is run into the well or when the valve is dropped down the tubing from the surface and is pushed into place by the plunger. These valves are held in place by any one of several types of anchoring arrangements which employ special seating cups and frietional Bt. 2.13. Tubing pumps classified according to type of lungs From the standpoint of the type of plunger used, the most convenient method of classification is to divide the tubing pumps into groups according to the type of plunger seal used: (Pumps with eup-equipped plungers (soft-packed plungers). This type is the oldest form of plunger seal for oit well sucker rod pumps (see Fig. 2.5). The cups are usually made of leather or rubber-impregnated canvas. However, new types of synthetic materials for cups and cup rings are becoming available each year, and many of them have excellent corrosion resistance. On the upstroke, pressure exerted by the fluid column forces the cups to expand and form a seal between the lip of the cup and the wall ofthe barrel. On the downstroke,A. CUP TYPE B. RING TYPE Fig. 25 SofPackes Pungers (ater Ret 16) pressure is equalized on both sides of the cup and the cup collapses inward, allowing the plunger to fall free- ly. Soft-packed plungers can be used with all types of rod and tubing pumps but normally not below 5000 feet under most circumstances."* (2) Pumps with metal plungers. Metal plungers may bbe made of cast iron or steel and are made with a smooth sealing surface called a “plain” metal plunger or with # grooved surface called a “grooved” metal plunger (see Fig. 2.6). The metal-to-metal plungers depend upon an extremely close clearance (depending upon fluid viseosity) to provide the fluid seal. These plungers ean be made from a single piece of tubing, or short sections of tubing can be assembled on a core tube to the desired length. These plungers generally wear better than cup types and are used in deeper wells (greater than about 7,000 f). (8) Purmps with concentrie tubes. This group includes pumps which depend upon both the fluid seal and an Unusually long distance that the fluid would have to travel in order to slip past the plunger. This type utilizes three tubes, as illustrated in Figure 2.7. One advantage of this arrangement is that the great length of the fluid seal eliminates the necessity of a very close plunger fit. Beam pumping: design and analysis. 13 C, COMBINATION CUP AND RING TYPE ss I Z Ceol S a Ld Che j = Sy i {| ah ob ou Fig. 25. Plain & Grooved Metal Plungers (tier Rel. 16)14 The Technology of Artif ig. 27. Schematic of Cancenirc Type of Plunger 2.32 Insert pumps ‘The advantage of insert pumps is that they connect to the sucker rod string, and the entire assembly can be removed from the well merely by pulling the rod string. With this type of pump, the working barrel is lowered on rods; consequently, some means must be provided to secure the barrel into the bottom of the tubing in order to provide fluid packoff and to facilitate the relative motion of the working barrel and plunger. Several arrangements are used for this purpose. Seating cups canbe provided on the working barrel, ora special seat- ing housing may be provided on the bottom of the tubing, Hold-down anchors ean also be used at the top cor bottom of the barrel. From the standpoint of operation, insert pumps can be divided into two groups: (D) Inverted pump (traveling pumps). In this type of pap, the plunger assembly is stationary, and the working barrel is the moving part. The advantage of this arrangement is that the moving barrel gives sand less chance to settle between the working barrel and the tubing. However, frictional wear can be consider- able. (2) Stationary insert pump. In this type of pump the working barrel is stationary and the plunger is the moving part. From the standpoint of working barrel and plunger used, most of the considerations already discussed for tubing pumps also apply to insert pumps. ‘Advantages and disadvantages of thin and heavy- wall (one-piece) barrels and liner barrel construction are (liner barrel construction is no longer APY: ial Lift Methods—Volume 2a () With the same length barrel, a thin well barrel pump will produce a greater volume of fuid than a liner barrel pump of the same outside diameter because it can be made with a larger inside diam- eter. (2) Because ofits simpler construction, the one-piece barrel is lower in price than a liner barrel of the same length and outside diameter. (3) Maintenance costs are lower with @ one-piece barrel pump than with a liner pump due to fewer parts and easier servicing. (4) Where a top-anchored rod pump is desirable, a pump equipped with a one-piece barrel ean be used in deeper wells than is considered safe with a liner pump. The one-piece barrel can stretch ‘under the load of the fluid column without hurt- ing the pump; the jacket used in @ liner pump stretches under the fluid-column load in deep wells, and the liners become loose and mis- aligned. A “locked-liner” construction overcomes this disadvantage and can be used with a top anchor in deep wells. (6) Liner and one-piece heavy wall barrels are not limited in length as are one-piece thin wall barrels, and they can be used with center connect- ing collars. (6) Sections, from a sectional-iner barrel (often of ‘cast material), can be rebored and reused to reduce replacement cost. (DA closer tolerance between the barrel and the plunger ean be achieved with a sectional-liner barrel than with a one-piete barrel or liner. This is an important consideration in wells with high bottom-hole pressures where an accurate fit is necessary to reduce the plunger-slippage rate. In addition te posites send pockets are ess: (8) Special corrosive and abrasive metals that cannot stand the stresses imposed. upon them in long, solid one-piece barrel construction, or those that become distorted when formed in great lengths, ‘can be made into short liners and used in section: al-liner construction, 233. Casing pumps ‘This group of pumps includes all pumps which use casing instead of tubing through which fiuid is pumped to the surface. A casing pump is run into the well on, sucker rods, and a packer, either on the top or bottom of the working barrel, provides the fluid packoff between the working barrel and the casing, No tubing is used in this type of installation. Generally, the casing pump isjusta larger version of the insert pump and is set and operated in essentially the same manner. The casing pump is a large-volume, shallow-depth pump and is particularly suitable for installations where high production rates are re- quired. 2.34 The pumping cycle Figure 2.8 is a schematic of the various stages in a pumping oycle. The eysle can be applicable to tubing, Insert, or casing pumps. ‘in Figure 2.8 (a) the plunger is moving down near the bottom of the stroke.” Fluid is meving up through theoe Beam pumping: design and analysis 15 © @ al Fig.2.8 The pumping cycle: (a) plunger moving down, near bottom of stoke; (2) unger ‘moving up, near botem of stoke: (c) plunger moving up, near top of stoke; {@ plunger moving down, near tap of svoke. (ater Ft. 6) open traveling valve, while the weight of the fluid column in the tubing is supported by the standing valve, which is consequently closed. ‘in () the plunger is moving up near the bottom of the stroke. The traveling valve is now closed; consequent- ly, the load due to the fluid column hes been trans- ferred from the tubing to the rod string. ‘in (©) the plunger is moving up, near the tap of the stroke. The traveling valve is closed and the standing valve is open if there is any production at all from the well. As the fluid column is lifted, the pump barrel is evacuated, permitting the inflow of new fluid tn (@) the plunger is moving down near the top of the stroke. The standing valve is closed by the increased pressure resulting from the compression of the fuids in the volume between the standing and traveling valves. ‘The traveling valve is open. ‘After the plunger reaches the bottom of the stroke, the cycle is repeated. 2.35 API pump classifications ‘The American Petroleum Institute has adopted a classification system for subsurface pumps. These.clas- sifications, taken from API Recommended Practice LIAR, are ‘shown in Figure 28. ‘The types of pumps are as follows: (2) Tubing type with or without extension shoe and nipple (2) Rod type, stationary barrel, with top hold-down (3) Rod type, stationary barrel, with bottom hold- down (4) Rod type, traveling barrel Complete pump designations are given in Figure 1 2.36 Pump size selection For a given pumping depth and volume of fiuid to be produced, there is an optimum size of pump bore which, will result in effective pump plunger travel and main- tain moderate speed of operation. If the plunger is too large, unnecessarily high loads will be imposed upon the equipment and plunger undertravel can result in inefficient operations. On the other hand, ifthe plunger is too small, pumping speeds become too high and the increased acceleration (inertial) effects can result in increased peak loads on the equipment, The basic factor in the selection of a suitable pump size is the volume of fluid displaced by the pump per inch of each stroke. ‘This volume displacement will Gepend upon the disme- ter of the pump bore, ‘The total theoretical pump displacement can be de- termined by: PD =A,(in.*) x S,(in /stroke) x N(strokes/min.) x $702 inebl 1484 ASN en where: PD = Total pump displacement, BD ‘A,~ The cross-sectional area of the pump plunger in square inches 8, = The effective plunger stroke, in, N= The pumping speed in number of strokes per minute ‘A pump constant, K, for any given plunger size is deter- mined fro K= 0.1484 A, 22) ‘Thus, the pump displacement for a given plunger size and for a given combination of pamping speed and stroke can be determined from: PD=KS,N (23)16 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a @, @ % m ey @ @ Mtoe a ar RSA RSE RST () RHA: Rod, Stationary Heavy Wall Barral, Top Anchor Pump © BWA: Rod, Stationary Thin Wall Barve, Top Anchor Purp RSA: Hod! Stationary Thin Wall Barrel, Top Anchor, SofePacked Plunger Pump () REB: Rod, Stationery Heavy Wall Bare, Bottom Anchor Pump (@ RWB: Rod, Stationary Thin Wall Barre, Bottom Anchor Bu BSB: Rod, Stationary Thin Wall Barrel Bottom Anchor, SaPacked Plunger Pump (8) RET: Rod, Traveling Heavy Wall Barrel, Bottom Anchor Pump (6) RWT: Rod, Traveling Phin Wall Barrel, Botiom Anckor Pur RST: Rod; Traveling Thin Wall Barrel Bottom Anchor, Sef Packed Plunger Pump (1 Te Tubing, Heavy Wall Barret Pump (TP Tubing, Heavy Wall Barrel Sof-Pasked Plunger Pump Fig. 29 41 Purp Classilation far Pol. 15) 3 TABLE 2.1 ater Rat. 2) ‘Table 2.1 shows plunger areas and pump constants for ‘TABLE OF PUMP CONSTANTS various pump sizes, aaa aaa unger diam plunger Constant Pungeréam plunger Consent EXAMPLE PROBLEM #1 amy UK) ama) Calculate the pump constant, K, for a 1% in, plunger. inser ticanee etayaetie asa taser sate 4s 9086 Baa 037 — nee Des o.t02 Buz 0.65 0.1484 A, 07s 037 3278 0590 en - in? 065 0132 4909 0728 Ay = (IA) (L.5 = 1.767 Saat amas ee Thus tear 9182 11085 1.640 1767 ose irra 2630 K 0.1484 (1.767) = 0.262 B/D/in./spmBeam pumping: design and analysis 17 ‘The base types of pumps and letter designation covered by this epecifcetion are as fllows: eter Designation Wal Pings Pans Sofpaaied Paar [ "bones eee Tage Twa Taqwa awa “Type of Pap Boat "Biel “iene "eae ie, Fry 35h ‘iadortry Barel, op Archer a = ‘Slatgnar} Borel, Bator Anghar ier Bsr ‘Traveling Barrel otom Antes ie et ‘obing Pups ee puny designations iad: noni aio se, base bre amet, pe of por cutng (Geel IRRSSGT ope aetna, GEAR ae She a Fane ag ‘Shes tsed fla x tu og ofexasins, whole feet an lenger length fet, MOK KE EY Barre eng fee ester mtn gO, at EERE pe Location of seat ssembly tT oe ‘SBbam ‘FoBouam, eavling are Tope ret —Rerorezt rere ares pemgs SCTSS | recstget ner pgs ps Rad, = Pump bere (basic 161% m8 = FIDE fe GL mm) Tebing sn; 361.09 in, OD. 488 p=? fis ae en BO. (65 a} BER OD fsa m SOB Asam Bungle 4% in, 2.8 my bore rod pe pomp with OTR (dads ny heay al area Pe TOLD) etn, 00 ip per ad ‘rm Wing, would be designated 3 folowes ‘plas RHBC 1042 Fig. 210 Pump Designation fatter Re. 8) ‘The actual production rate at the surface, Q, may be less than the total theoretical pump displacement because of volumetric efficiency, Ey, of the pump. E, = QIPD or Q=,PD. 2A) Volumetric efficiencies can vary over a wide range but are commonly 70-80%. Volumetric efficiencies are affected by pump slippage and fluid properties such as gas content and foaming characteristics of the fuid spongy” fluids). These are difficult properties to determine. An important consideration in many beam : pumped wells is fluid shrinkage between the bottom- i hole pump and the wellhead. As the fluid is elevated and gas breeks out of solution, there is a significant In adtion te the pon deigrasinn dcete ahovn e “stb patave ts provide Ue flown seed ileus Piero, § Hanger eran i) a Vane maeral 1 Lang af erch etansog difference between the volumetric displacement of the bottombole pump and the volume ofthe fuid delivered to the surface, This effect is denoted by a chrinkege factor greater than 1.0—indicating that the bottomhole Pump must displace more fluid by some additional Percentage than the volume delivered to the surface. For example a shrinkage factor of 1.15 means that the bottomhole purap must displace 118 barrels of fiid to deliver 100 barrels of fluid to the surface, Local experience will generally give the best estimete of volumetric pump efficiency. EXAMPLE PROBLEM #2 A well is equipped with # 1 in, plunger. The pump- ing speed is 20 spm and the effective plunger stroke18 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a is 55 in. Production at the surface is 210 B/D of fiuid of specific gravity 0.85. Calculate the total pump displacement and the volu- metric efficiency of the pump. Solution PD =Total pump displacement, B/D KS,N From Table 2.1, K ‘Thus, PD = (0.262) (65) (20) 188 B/D at the pump Volumetric efficiency, B,, is: BE, 210/288) 100 EXAMPLE PROBLEM #3 .262 for 14 inch plunger ‘The theoretical pump displacement is 250 B/D and pump efficiency is 75%. Calculate the surface produe- tion rate. Solution E,=QPD or Q=PDE, = (250)(0.75) 187.5 B/D Merely considering a pump size, speed, and stroke combination will not necessarily ensure that the prop- fer size pump has been selected for a given pumping installation. The selection of the optimum size plunger for a desired production rate from some given depth is important in obtaining high efficiencies and in pre- venting unnecessarily high loads on the rod string and the surface equipment. ‘As an example, Table 2.2 can be used as @ guide in determining pump plunger sizes for “optimum” condi- tions when surface stroke is less than 74 inches Such a table should be used only for preliminary selec- tions. "Table 2.3 gives other pump data, and Table 2.4 gives tubing data, ‘TABLE 22 (ator Rot. 2) PUMP PLUNGER SIZES RECOMMENDED FOR “OPTIMUM CONDITIONS: | __ anna pae ott op eae [SP aT [0 90 1% | 14 2 | 2M | 244 | 2% 2000 ee 4) 24 234 | 234 | 234 | 214 U4 | 14 | 1% | 2 | 2K | 246 16 | 1% | 2 | 2 | 234 | 246 | 23g | 234 | 28 | 284 sn0| 14/14 | 194 | 2 | 2M | 2% | 25 1M] 14 | 2 | 2% | 2K | 2 | 2K Ba) | a0 |i] 2 | 2 | | 14 | 1K | 2 2 | 2 | 2 sooo "| 94 | 14 | 1K | 14 | 2 L 1 1% | 1% 6000 Mile WK | 14 | 14 | ' | roo lise CST ali Sapa” | | “ 8000 7 T U4 | lo:Beam pumping: design and analysis 19 TABLE 23 (efter Rel 2) D,* = plunger diameter squared, sq in, PUMP CONSTANTS “ PD) 1 2 3 4 *~ F165) OFS N 1072 (PD) 26 Punger—Pgr iam ‘id oa SN : ameter, squared toner Pump is in sain pert fcr Where: D, oe (0300 xD8) (0.1168 xD4!) S= surface stroke, in. he 13208 0384 ose ‘Once the square of the plunger diameter has been te 13625 sat 0182 calculated from Equation 26, find the plunger dieme- te 22500 0765 0282 ter from Table 2.3 which has @ value of D,? just nm 3.0828 yon bys larger than the calculated value. That would be the 2 prcod 1 0468 indicated required pump size. a soo Ho na ‘Afler the pump size and type have been determined, a 75825 aan Cas: _be certain that the maximum cize for the given tubing mm 40625 a7 640 size is not exceeded. Maximum pump size and type are o 22.5625 ren 2520 given in Table 2.6. “For tus wih specie gravy 01.00, TABLE 2.5 (efter of. 22) MAXIMUM PUMP SIZE AND TYPE ‘TABLE 24 (ater Ret. 3) ‘TUBING DATA Pomp pe Tabing 820 1 2 a ‘ 5 1800 Enaste Tubing ono piece, rr rr ouside inside ata) —eonsian, teva bare! (TW) using damotoy, ameter, ato8, per R Tubing enepicer, t momo size "5 in ean & hess bart (TH) Tubingtnerborel (TL) Ta 800900 vero cao osmox7o" yeast te neceteecttten 2 2375 $905 1304 osorx1o~+ Palme pe 2 2075 24st «20221 Redoneplece,heawy =the THOR a 3500 2o02 2500 sax roe Mare ners ’ “4000 24% «807730 10" verte eerie etawet ete an Bass a6ot_aara ioe Roster Darel (Rl) 2 EXAMPLE PROBLEM #4 ‘A pump is to be set in a well at the working fluid level of 4000 feet. Ibis desired to produce 400 B/D of fluid at the surface. If local experience indicates that pump efficiency is 80% what size pump would you recommend for this well? Solution The net lift for thie well is 4000 ft. Thus, from Table 2.2 the suggested pump size to be installed is 2 in, oF 2% in. The exact size will depend upon other Factors and other considerations to be discussed. For example, pumping speed and effective plunger stroke will be important determining factors. More pre- cise methods will be dealt with later. One could also make an initial sélection of the pump plunger diameter froma Equation 2.3, which can be writ- ten in the form: PD = 0.1484 AyS,N=KS,N 1484) (7) 0,9 8,N =0.1166 Dz §,N 25) The effective plunger stroke should be about 80% or more of the surface stroke (S,/S = 0.80). Thus, Equation 2.5 could be written: Figures 2.11, 2.12, and 2.13 ean be used to estimate the maximum practical pumping speed for conven- tional, air balanced, and Mark II units, respectively * In most cases maximum free-fall of the rod string is primarily controlled by forces of retardation in the well rather than by pumping unit. geometry. In some wells ‘maximum free-fall pumping speeds may be consider- ably greater than these curves would indicate, while in others the maximum pumping speeds may be less than shown, For instance, on a shallow well in Vene- zucla the maximum pumping speed for a 120-in. stroke Mark II unit predicted 19.1 spm, In actual practice, however, the Merk II unit operated satisfactorily for years at 20 spm, nearly 50% faster than predicted CLASS PROBLEMS (2) Re-work Example Problem #4 for a conventional unit with a surface stroke of 64 in. (2) Do the same for an air balanced unit, (8) Do the seme for a Mark II unit. (4) Repeat these problems for all three units for a sur- face stroke of 64 in. (6) Repeat for all three units for a surface stroke of Tain. (© Repeat for all three units for a surface stroke of 240 in.20 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a ExaMPLE— GIVEN: STROKE LENGTH = 64” DETERMINE: MAX. SPEED PERMITTED aY ROD FALL RESULT: Sem [STROKE LENGTH IN INCHES 10 1% m2 0 450 60 70 Bo 9D 100 MaxIMUM SPEEO PERMITTED BY AOD FALL IN SPM Fig. 217 Maximum Practica! Pumping Speed, Conventional Uni ter el. 22) 24 THE SUCKER AOD STRING—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The sucker rod string is a complex vibratory system which transmits energy from the surface equipment to the subsurface pump. The design ofa pumping installa- tion, including the surface and subsurface equipment, requires the selection of a suitable sucker rod string. Before this subjectis discussed, let us review some gen- tral aspects of sucker rods. ‘The main constituent ofall sucker rods is icon. Most steel rods contain over 90% iron in the composition of the rods. Pure iron, however, is soft and weak, and other elements must be added tothe composition to provide the necessary strength (and other properties) ‘The various materials which may be added to make1000 ‘900 700 EXAMPLE ~ Beam pumping: design and analysis 21 00 GIVEN: STROKE LENGTH = 240" DETERMINE: MAX. SPEED PERMITTED BY ROD FALL RESULT: 105°M 00 400 300 200 150 109 20 20 2 60 STROKE LENGTH IN INCHES. 6 10 4 5 6 7800 6 2 25 20 40 § 60 70 8090 100 MAXIMUM SPEED PEREATTED BY ROD FALL IN SPM Fig, 2.12 Maximum Practical Pumping Speed, Air Balances Unit (ake Rel. 22) up these alloy steels and the effects ofthe various addi- tivies are summarized as follows:* Carbon is an essential ingredient of all stecls and is added (or inereased in content) to increase strength, hardness, and susceptibility to heat-treatment. How: ever, as the carbon content increases, the corrosion- resistance, the ductility, and the impact-resistance tend to decrease, although the magnitude of these effects can be controlled somewhat by heat-treat- ment, The main advantage of other additives is to ‘permit the carbon content to be reduced without re- Gucing the strength of the steel ‘Manganese combines with sulphur to make the steel less brittle, and it also acts as @ deoxidizer to reduce the formation of iron oxides which tend to weaken the alloy. Some sucker rods containing over 1% manganese have higher strength than can be ob- tained with the same carbon content alone. Silicon, much like manganese, is useful as a deoxi- dizer in refining high-grade steels. Most sucker rods contain about 0.15 to 0.25% of this element. Nickel is added to combat. corrosive conditions en- ‘countered in ol wells resulting from hydrogen sul-22 The Technology of Artificial Litt Methods—Volume 2a EXAMPLE — GIVEN: STROKE LENGTH = 240! an DETERMINE: MAX. SPEED PERMITTED BY ROD FALL RESULT: 9.3 SP 00 250 200 150 STROKE LENGTH IN INCHES 5 10 4s 67890 15 7 304050 60 70.8990 100 MAXIMUM SPEEO PERMITTED BY ROO FALLIN SPM Fig, 213, Maximum Practical Pumping Speed, Matk i! Unit fatter Ret. 22) fide or other corrosive gases. Nickel also has a hard- ening effect on steel by dissolving in ferrite, Vanadium increases the hardenability of steel even when present in small amounts. It promotes a fine- grained structure and retards softening during tem- ering. Copper is generally added for resistance to atmo- spheric and other corrosive environments. Steels con- taining more than 0.6% copper have a pronounced tendency toward precipitation-hardening. Boron is used in alloy steel for one purpose—to increase hardenability. It is powerful, and only a few thousandths of 1% is ordinarily added. Chromium forms a stable carbide and contributes considerably to the hardenability of steels. It also improves the corrosion-resistance of steels in air and other environments. Chromium is found in high per- centages in all stainless type steels, For oil well ser- vice, chromium appears to be less effective than nickel in resisting hydrogen sulfide corrosion, Molybdenum is one of the most powerful handening agents among the alloying elements, although it is not as effective as carbon. It strengthens sucker rods by improving their response to heat-treatment. In general, maximum allowable working stresses should not be higher than about 30,000 to 40,000 psi, although some sucker rods, such aa the newer "Elec-tra” series manufactured by Oilwell Division of United States Steel, are rated at 40,000 to 50,000 psi maxi- mum, In corrosive fluids, the maximum allowable stress must be decreased accordingly. ‘Sucker rods are available in several standard sizes: 4%, %, %, % 1.0, and 14-inch diameters. Table 2.6 gives typical sucker rod data. TABLE 25 (Attor Ret 3) SUCKER ROD DATA 7 2 3 « Roa Elastic Metal weight constant Rod ares, mar, in peribh sre qin —_pertt & % 0388 O72 «1990x107 oan) x33, z70x10* 04s? 183 Ose x10 % ogo 222 eta x10 1 0788-290 Oaa7 x10 Me 0903870303104 Complete API specifications for sucker rods can be found in API Standard 11-B, "API Sucker Rod Specifi- cations.” 2.41 Design of the sucker rod string For depths greater than about 9500 feet, itis usually desirable to use a tapered rod string which consists of different lengths of rods of different sizes, The smallest rods would be placed at the bottom of the string; the largest rods would be placed at the top of the string where the load on the string is the greatest, The maxi- mum and minimum leads expected during the pumping cycle for any given rod string must be determined es securately as possible to design or select suitable sur- face equipment to handle these loads. There are two general methods of designing a tapered sucker rod string* (2) Assign to each of the graduated sections of the string its maximum stress. In other words, a point in the string is determined at which the stress in the rod eguale the arbitrarily selected maximum safe working stress; from this point up a larger size rod is used. (2) Design the string so the unit stresses are equal in the top rod of each of the different-sized sections of the string. ‘The second method is usually safer, since it provides a greater safety margin as far as corrosion pitting is concerned. However, some people prefer the first meth- od, in which the maximum allowable stress is placed in the top rod of the smallest Cowest) size. With this meth- od, rod breaks would occur in the smallest rod and ‘would prevent any potential buckling of rods that could ‘oceur from breaks farther up the hole. ‘The percentage of each size rod in a tapered string ean be determined from Table 2.7 which is reproduced from API RP 11L? Se ‘As mentioned previously, the sucker rod string is a complex system for transmitting the power from the surface equipment to the downhole pump. In the design Beam pumping: design and analysis 23 of an “optimum” sucker rod string, the entire pumping system, including surfece and subsurface equipment, must be considered. To save unnecessary weight and to distribute the loading to better advantage on long rod strings, tapered rod strings are often used. Several sizes of rods may be used in the total string, depending upon the well depth and operating conditions. The problem is to determine the length of each rod size which should be used in the total string. ‘Asa final step in designing a tapered rod string, the maximum enticipated stress must be checked to certify that it does not exceed the safe allowable working stress. The maximum stress at the top of the entire rod string will be the peek polished rod load (to be dis- cussed in a following section) divided by the eross-see- tional area of the top section of rods. Stressatthe top = Yam en The stress caleulated from Equation 2.7 must never be greater than the allowable working stress (usually 80,600 psi. IP itis, he rod string must be re-designed. EXAMPLE PROBLEM # 5 A pump with a 2-in, plunger is to be set at, 6050 f using a three-way taper consisting of &i-in., Yein., and in. rods. Sucker rods are available in 25 ft lengths, Determine the length of each section of the tapered rod string. Solution From Table 2.7 (rod no. 86); R, = 32.8% of 1-in, rods Ry = 33.2% of Yin. rods Ry = 38.9% of in. rods ‘Then 050 (0.928) = 1984.4 ft 1 = 6050 (0.332) = 2008.6 ft 1L = 6050 (0.339) = 2051 ft ‘Thus, in 25-f increments, Note: These values may have to be adjusted. Check maximum anticipated stress against allowable working stress for the particular string of rods used. This will involve the peak polished rod load, tobe discussed later. CLASS PROBLEM A pump with a 1%-in. plunger is set at 5050 ft using a three-way taper (API Rod No. 75) rod string. Fluid lev- el is 4975 ft and fiuid specific gravity is 0.976. Pumping speed is 21 spm and stroke length is 64 in. The tubing size (anchored) is 2.375 in. Obtain a pump displace: ment of 206 bffd. If the plunger stroke is 84% of sur- face stroke and pump volumetric efficiency is 80%, determine the following: ‘() Percentage of each size rod in the string (2) Length of each size rod, if rods are available in 25- lengths24 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a Table 27 (ter Ret 3) OO AND PUMP OATA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ° oH Eiaste Pringor Rod ‘constant, Froquancy Fd sting, 8 of each sxe Rost am, weight «=n perlbh acter, ro. inches tbpart é Fe ™ 4 eo * * “ a ons 1asxto* 4.000 — 000 st ome esx 10" 8 st 5% os Nex 1OH no | sos 5 0357 wr eas 54 0.380 we te 5 027 tos oe 5 087 1391 10" 1.063 => = = = aa iss s ving 13a to" = soxs ss ss a wags aro to# top et 6 1.06 nase saa to# np ms et 125 san sgioxto* nis rs 28 6 150 127s imax tot tee aes tT PI 175 tartare ns es 6 1.08 i907 18x10 ose mw es 125 1321127 10 we = OD Dl gs az 3s 150 1369 1.110 10 noo ase Ss 11s v3e9 toto te gg gw 6 200 13 torox to na gw 6 225 142 tous to nto eat 6 250 4460 toe 10 = gg ese 6 275 497 0990x104 se 65 325 usr ogo 1 ogy gt 6s al 16040863 104 1.000 tt 7s 108 1505 ose7 x10" 4.491 — — 20 mA eh 75 125 veos 7a 1" = ts9 eB 75 150 teed asso gw 75 175 tye ogee tot ma rg 75 200 1e03 ge? TO 15 = > ew 4 te 75 225 1875 Oat #1424 = SS ws we 72 7 1.08 1902 osx 1 rts 75 125 so oeiex w+ = tor? mw 78 150 ves ceux e+ toe wk % 175 1955 O7OSx X ioe ots es 6 200 sae o7asx10* tos ws 6 225, 1909 o7”ex1o* tous ss 76 250 isa vor uw 1 275 1.967 noe ss 7 375 2039 1078 — 2 ww nm = 78 378 ang 1087 — = wow SS ” au ce a a as 1.06 19830873 10- 1261 — Be et tO as 125 roig gat x 10" 129 kw 85 150 zoe ayetx t+ = tase Tard 85 175 2198 0720x 10" = 1.201 — 3s ws 3s ws — 28 1.08 2058 o7ax 104 1.151 — 2s mo ow — 5 125 2087 072% 10% 1158 a eS ee 66 150) zis o7i7xto* = st82 ser 86 175 215 oseaxto* tes ge 86 200 227 agra tO 1461 — me me ms 96 225 235 08sxtO* ts) Oa 86 250 295 stax to* = is ang 877 86 275 ess ostaxto* tts aaaBeam pumping: design and analysis 25 ‘uote 27 (ater Ro.) (Cont) ROD AND PUM DATA 1 2 3 4 3 . 7 @ 8 0 © Ease Purge Rnd_—cantan, Frequency Fog sing, % of 80h size Roi ‘am, woight In pertbh Faron, m_themes pert z fe ot * sw e708 =~=SCSSSCoe w= ts SCSCSC«SSS SCC sr 1252309 asx wos tose ag e150 2ans_ wets tose rpg s7 178 2a oes sos = toes | sw 87 200 aso ostexats tar) mew Uigeseteet —stesset.--suiga Cot ovestad ( sgecese=™edeusat~-V esd °¥-Sazeewenecd ssmntezeries Ce ee erties tetfeano tire see x metieteeinoner tetera tf ee etter cease 8 335 2TH = 4088 we S875 aot aseex os toms am 475 a7 oseex tos mss mast cy Al 20 oar 4000 ee se 108 osrxi+ 3222 eo ieee 135 oessx 10+ tae 0S =f % 150 osm t0* 1223 aaa as a % 135 asset 42) oe % 200 osrexio* 4398s re Hen aoe Bas Osexto* hve 298307 2 7408 osx 10s 408 wows 7 (135 osx w+ taeda Oe 7 450 osx MSDS 7 48 osmxtos anys 7 200 cswxtt it 8B tae] 7 2as ss cams | sez te 2s basis ws tyes ee sr ams 2mm osue ts = tnas ae) Sw 7825s cars o* tata t2 se 108 30a tk $128 Borate tot ose B 9 160 ces care tos = tows ewe #175 aoa = tos) 87S 200 aoe 10+ toss ry es se aus somes toe aw 250357 ees xaos toes 8 278 3am oaeo xno = tosses se aus ban oases ton ee se 878 3m) ows tom? os 475 gana ozs t0* soe esp ws *° a PT VSSEEIET ENEEEEE SEEIEEE PEEEEE ODER wor ~=«8SS*«RTY~—~=CeaWO™ ae ~SCNS SCC wr 128301 Osevo =) ted) wr 5085s TOM ste tet wr 375358 oma so tte? sor op sass oaso tO test? BT ee sor 2253385 one 14 TBO B80 wa 25D 8488 aT OH IM Bar? tt wr 278 asa? ogo sett 2S toe 108328 serio 07g 1p 125335 ats to sor datas g2 foe 60338 nose wT te 178 Banat aN aaata gr? we 200 sae ata a BS woe 225 sama to Sk SDS joe 250 asus atts sae ansrz weg jo 275 3m oats tage oars gt 18825 ar oat to es sB ve -8% BTS oe 10 30a 826 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a Table 27 (tar Ret 3) (Cont) "ROD ANO PUMP DATA 1 2 3 4 5 nL oct Hattie Biste Pungee —od_——=—constant,—Frquncy Fo sting, % of eaeh sia fos dam, weight, eperbit Far, ro. otes perk e Fe “1 * % & woo «105=*«C«SSDSCex WO os fs 12538501 =k fs 1803855 Orrx 0 = toma? 3 i 17s 367x308 i 200 3880S tos tsar SS so 2253898 oarex to us 28k MB io 25031 ogee tot os B a9 «2733900 oat = tos} kB fs 325 a7 oDerx io" = nosy az BO i975 4000s to tosses to 475 420s tO tos StS aS “Rad No, shown fist column relrs toa gest end smallest od sie i eights ofan inch. For example, Rod No. 76s atwo-way taper of 7/8 and rods. Rod No, 85is four-way taper o BB, 78, I, and 58rd, Rog No, 108s two-way lar ol and 1A rods, Rd No, 771s a sragh sting 01778 ods, ec (3) Effective plunger stroke, inches (4) If this pumping combination will produce the desired pump displacement (8) Surface production rate CLASS PROBLEM Repeat the previous class problem for a 1'%-in. plung- ex and pumping speed of 14.6 spm. Plunger stroke is 15% of surface stroke. CLASS PROBLEM Repeat the previous class problem for a 1¥4-in, plung- erand pumping speed of 19 spm. Plunger stroke is 81% of surface stroke. Which of these three situations would you recom- mend? 242, Modified Goodman diagram Equation 2.7 gives the actual maximum stress in the top rod, based upon the peak polished rod load and cross-sectional area of the top rod. This stress must never exceed the maximum allowable stress for the particular grade of rod being used, nor should the allowable stress range be exceeded. The API RP 11BR (6th edition, March 1969) discusses the modified Good- man diagram and its construction. Figure 2.14 illus- trates its components. Figures 2.15 and 2.16 are di grams for API Grade C rods (90,000 psi minimum ten- sile strength) and Grade D rods (115,000 psi minimum tensile strength), respectively.** For API Grade C rods, the maximum allowable stress, is given by the relationship: Sy-(F + M San) «SE. (22922 +-0:5625 Sia) x SF. or, Sq = (22,500 + 0.5625 Sau.) x SF. 28) For API Grade D rods, the relationship ist S.=(F + MSan) «SF (335028 4. + 0.5825 Sa) x SF or, Sq = (28,750 + 0.5625 Syyq) x SP. whe (29) ‘S, = maximum allowable stress, psi ‘Sui minimum rod stress (either calculated or mea- sured), psi ‘SF. = service factor (see table 2.8) by wy es +] ee ee £ ore a 4 ge oma ses. i aoreet scares ass sailor ico ca Fig.2.14 Mocifed Goodman Oingram (rom API RPTIBR)Beam pumping: design and analysis 27 MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH ! rt 7 Aaa pa "A." ALLOWABLE STRESS PSI; STRESS 1000 PS! ‘MIN MINIMUM STRESS PSI Sa 22.500 + 0.5625 S ung SF WHERE: Si = MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS, PS! ian "i ul = Met ‘Suny MINIMUM STRESS, PSI (CALCULATED OR MEASURED) = prlPRL ‘St = SEAVICE FACTOR MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM FOR ALLOWABLE STAESS AND RANGE (OF STAESS FOR API GRADE G SUCKER AODS, ‘SERVICE FACTOR = 1.0 Fig. 218 Moaiied Goocrman Diagram, Grade C Sucker Rods (ater Ret. 22) TABLE 2S 18, =S1—San 210) SERVICE FACTORS eee where: biticd APLC _APID ‘AS, = maximum allowable range of stress, psi Ne rrosive 1,00 4.00 Sym = calculated or measured MPRL divided by Satwato ass Oe cross-sectional area of top red, psi. = Hydrogen sutide 0500.70 Grade D rods are susceptible to hydrogen embrittle- ment and normally should not be used in HS service. ‘The maximum allowable range of stress must also bbe determined for any rod string design. according to the relationship: 25 PUMPING MOTION Beam and sucker rod pumping motion ean be under- stood by visualizing two besic theoretical motions: (1) simple harmonic motion and (2) crank and pitman ‘motion. Pumping motion is important because it con- trols plished vod velocities and accelerations whieh, im turn, influence rod and structural Toads, load range, and bottomhole pump dispiacement.28 — The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a MInmMUM TENSILE STRENGTH us 10 BEE 100 [STRESS 1000 PS! 40 20 0 "GA = ALLOWABLE STRESS Pt int = winitauM STRESS PS ° SA = (28,750+0.5625 Sin SF Were: SA = MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS, PS! eae 'SMIN * MINIMUM STRESS, PSI [CALCULATED OR MEASUREO! » “ROD ARER SF + SEAVICE FACTOR (+1,0) MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM FOR ALLOWABLE STRESS AND RANGE (OF STAESS FOR APt GRAOE O SUCKER RODS. ‘SERVICE FACTOR = 1.0 Fig. 216 Mesitea Goodman Oiagram, Grade O Sucker Rode (ater Rol. 22) 251 Simple harmonic motion (SHM) Simple harmonic motion is a uniform, periodic motion, illustrated by the erank eircle of Figure 2.17, Suppose a perpendicular projection P’ -P is drawn from the vertical axis D-B to the circumference, where it terminates at point P. If P travels around the crank circle with constant angular velocity (assumed as @ reference), then point P’ moves up and down the vert cal axis D-B periodically with simple harmonic motion, (SEM. With this type of motion, P” starts downward off-top and upward off-bottom with the same value of maxi- mum acceleration. The 2c nn of P” as it reaches position 0 at the mid-point of the vertical axis is zero because it is changing from acceleration to decelera- tion. ‘The velocity of P’ is zero at both the top and bottom of its travel (points B and D), but at mid-point 0 itis m imum at the same position where its acceleration is aro. In this basic, theoretical systom, ifthe top of a sucker rod string were attached to point P’ it would be recip- rocated up and down with simple harmonic motion,Fig. 2.17 Simple Harmenic Motion 252. Crank and pltman motion In practice, however, the crank is connected by means of a crank pin (Fig. 2.18) to a rigid member called the pitman, which in turn drives the walking beam to effect the pumping motion. For convenience, the upper pitman connection (V), called the cross yoke or equalizer, is assumed to move vertically up and down a etraight line; it actually travels along an are whose center is the fulerum, or Sampson post bearing, of the walking beam. The motion of the upper pitmen connection, oF crass yoke, is not simple harmonic motion, even though the crank is rotated with constant angular velocity. | ‘As point P continues to move uniformly around its crank circle, the cross yoke (V) describes a reciprocat- ing motion that may differ substantially from the sim- ple harmonic motion of point P’. This is due to the Angularity of the pitman-crank mechanism. The small- er the angle between crank and pitman when the erank CROSS YOKE (EQUALIZER) Fig. 2.18 Crank Plman Moton Beam pumping: design and analysis . 29 is horizontal, the greater the divergence of the motion of the eross yoke (V) from that ofthe simple harmonic motion described by point P’. An infinitely long pitman would develop true simple harmonic motion at its cross yoke (V). In Figure 2.18, when the crankpin (P) moves around the circle from A to B to C, the eross yoke (V) moves vertically from a’ to b’ and back to c’. This distance is greater than the distance from c’ to d’ and back to a’, which corresponds to the travel of the crankpin (P) from C to D and back to A. This is because the cross ‘yoke (V) travel is e function of the vertical components of the erank (OP) and the pitman (PV). In the two upper quadrants of the erank circle, the vertical components oferank and pitman travel aré additive; in the two low er quadrants they are subtractive. This crank-pitman modification of simple harmonic motion can have a dramatic effect upon the velocity and acceleration characteristics of the cross yoke (V) driving the walking beam. Because point P travels the circle with constant angular velocity, the time required to sweep through each of the four quadrants is the same. Since the di tance the cross yoke (V) traverses from b’ to a” is eon. siderably longer than from a’ to d’, and since the over- bottom and over-top velocities are zero, the aocelera- tion is substantially greater from b’ to a’ than from &° toa’ This kinematic onomaly has important conse- ‘avences. As the crankpin (P) sweeps across the two upper quadrants of the crank circle (A to B to C), the cross yoke (V) moves into the top of its stroke with a relatively high maximum deceleration and starts downward offtop with an equally high relative maxi- mum acceleration. But as the crankpin (P) sweeps across the two lower quadrants (C to D to A), the cross yoke (V) decelerates into the bottom of the stroke with a relatively lower maximum value while likewise accelerating upward with a similar, reduced maximum acceleration. This differential cross yoke acceleration pattern plays a major role in determining rod, structur- al, and rod load range velues in different pumping geo- metres. 2.53 The Influence of pumping motion on the rod and structural loading of a beam-typo unit Ina beam and sucker rod pumping system, to lift the load the polished rod must exerf'an upward force great- ethan the "dead weight” of rods and fluid. This force is known as the peak polished rod load (PPRL) and con- sists of two components: (1) the static weight of rods ¢ and fluid, and (2) an additional force, component. This additional force is often expressed as a percentage ory. fraction of the static weight of rods and fluid and is © referred to as the “impulse” or “acceleration” factor— more precisely, the inertial component. For a given static weight of rods and fluid, the greater the inertial component, the faster the rod and fluid load is acceler- ated upward; the lower the inertial component, the slower the load is lifted. The greatest force (peak polished rod load) is required near the beginning of the upstroke when the Momentarily assuming « fistionless, inelactie, rod, and Aid toad,30 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a maximum static load (rods plus fnid) is being elevated ith maximum acceleration, ‘The minimum polished rod toad (MPRL) results from the maximum downward inertial force component being subtracted from the static weight of the rods. ‘Minimum loed occurs near the top of the stroke just as, the rods are starting down, because this is the point of maximum downward acceleration. The greater’ the~ “downward acveleration; the greater the inertial force component and, when subtracted from the static ‘weight of the rods, results in the minimum polished rod load. 2 Lifting maximum mass (weight of rods and fluid) ‘The term (1 + a) is sometimes referred to as the “im- pulse factor.” Mills applies this factor only to the static ‘weight ofthe rods and not tothe fluid, as was done with the equations in Table 29. Note that the factor applies only for simple harmonic motion and must be modified by the crank-pitman ratio for either Class f or Class {11 lever systems, For comparison with the relationships given in Table 2.8, Mills’ equations for peak polished rod load (PPRL) and minimum polished rod load (MPRL) are given by the followin; ‘For conventional units: with high acceleration results in a greater rod and | PPRL=W,+W,+ Wat structural load, producing larger rod stresses, Lifting =We Wea) (12a) th taxi Jad of ods and Guido bottom with py = wc ~ a) -| SRG] 1) reduced acceleration results in lower structural loads = We a) =| 90 and rod stresses. In this basic, inelastic system the bot- tom reversal loads the rod string while the tap reversal» unloads it, MPRL=W, (1- a~0.127G) 14a) ‘Table 2.9 shows the basic equations for determining ssaximam acaorations inertial fee, peak and rain: WHE ‘ mum polish in these two, frictionless, G = fuid specie gravity inelastic systems: (1) simple harmonic motion and (2) W-= static weight of rods in air, Ib (see Table crank and pitman motion. 26027) ‘The relationships in Table 2.9 attempt to account for 490 = density of steel rods, Ib/t? the fact that but rods and uid must be accelerated ‘W,= weight of fui, ‘They are based upon the assumption that the rods and ; : fluid can be represented asa concentrated mess and are ©” For air balance units: ea accelerated simultaneously. In practice this does not always happen, but no other relationship presented heretofore has dealt satisfactorily with the problem of fluid acceleration. In fact, most traditional approaches have also neglected such factors as frictional and har- monious forces, damping, etc, in the derivation of equations for caloulating’ polished rod loads. These loads must, of course, be predicted in the selection of equipment for a pumping installation and for design- ing and selecting a suitable sucker rod string. ie most commonly used method for calculating peak and minimum polished rod loads is that of Mills, which (incorrectly) assumes simple.harmanie motion of the rod string and which neglects fluid acceleration." PPRL= W, + W,(1+0.7a) ‘The 0.7 factor simply considers that the air balance unit makes its bottom polished rod reversal with only 70% of the acceleration of a comparable conventional wunit* MPRL= W,(1- 132~0.127G) (2.14) ‘The air balance unit makes its bottom reversal ap- proximately 30% slower than the comparable conyen- ional unit, but its top reversal is about 30% faster; hence, 30% must be added to the acceleration factor to obtain a more accurate minimum load." Many industry “calculation sheets” actually use the -For Mark I units: Mills method, probably because it presupposes that in an elastic rod string, the rods move before the fluid does, Actually, the method does give fairly reasonable results, and many satisfactory pumping installations hhave been designed using this approach. Milis' method is applicable only for simple harmonic motion and does not account for the effect of the crank- pitman ratio (elp)—even for conventional pumping ‘units—upon the acceleration factor. The crank-pitman ratio (e/p) can alter simple harmonic acceleration as much as 80% and perhaps even more. A summary of the (e/p) influence on polished rod acceleration is shown {n Table 2.10. The Mill acceleration factor is given ny: 41) where: 8 = length of stroke, inches N= pumping speed, strokes per minute (spm) PPRL = W,+ W,(1+ 0.64) (2.120 ‘The 0.6 factor considers that the Mari II makes its bottom polished rod reversal with but 60% of the ac- celeration of a comparable conventional unit.** MPRL = W, (1 ~ 14a~ 0.1276) 140 ‘The Mark II makes its bottom reversal 40% slower than the comparable conventional unit, but its top re- versal is 40% faster, hence, 40% must be added to the acceleration factor to obtain an accurate minimum load.* ‘The fluid load, W, is the weight of the fluid column supported by the net plunger area: Wy = 0.493 GL(A, ~ A) where: L = length of rod string, & A= gross plunger area, sq. in. ‘Ay = rod average cross-sectional area, sq. in. (2.15)Beam pumping: design and analysis 31 TABLE 29 FORCES AND ACCELERATIONS FOR THREE TYPES OF PUMPINS MOTION CINELASTIC, CONCENTRATED MASS SYSTENS) ‘SIMPLE HARMONIC CRANK AND PITMAN MOTION CRANK AND PITMAN MOTION MOTION (CLASS I LEVER) (CLASS ITT LEVER) CONVENTIONAL | MABE ain ont Pp P P Crank/Pitman Ratios Crank/Pitman Ratios +32, 64" ~~ 22 133 mar 2 333 ast | 13 100" = ; 27 120" -. 126 age - ee 168" ige" 216 raxcina ¢. Off-Bottom sn2 Anaxy = S82 (1 - Accelergtion 2169 ae pase) (F/sece) Naxtnan 2 £ OFf-Top 2 xy = SN (1 - su? (1+ §) Acceleration Foax * $y foary = apy Po foarg = SELL + BD t/Sec Inertial Polished Rod 2 prtibe west aS Fore 7 wes tf fine F Component Sy a (OFf-Bottom) 70,500 ee (Lbs.) Inertial 2 fovea reer My xsu@ fy Wx sexe $) tt Hy x sn? x (1 +S) ‘orce Fos Fo Fo Component. 70,500 705500 0500 (orf=Top) Peak 2 Polished Rod = Wy (iv! +My x sn@x (1+) 2 fg pois PPRL n( FU) | ppp =H * MX - £ Pippa « Mat Mx : x Hintrun ; : osx? Wg - Wp x si® x (1 - ig = My x Sn? x (1+ Polished Rod | pay = welt oy | wae 82 > 82 (= Bog, = He > Me arp Load 10 0, oe HERES = Stroke Length (tn.) N = Strokes Per Minute (SPH) oar £ = crank-Pitnan Ratio = Wy © Height of Rods and Fluid = Wp * hp Wg = Weight of Buoyant Rods = Wy (1 - 0.1276)32 ~The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a qaste 210 (From Lukin ty porizin) IMLS AOGELERAFION FACTOR" Tovah of potshed ea woken sok Por wile 10 26m 90 gosh m0 mA Taso tot ooo aco 1009 1990 1000 tani voor 1.00 1001 1062 1.002 160 1003 1.003 4.000 2 Lom toon tose tee too 1000 1009 100s Neot ta5 Toe tor oo 1010 tot 1OrB 101s 3 {Ome 103 eos }oos tons 1008 oor Loos tee for toi tors tote teat 1025 1938 1031 2 fone tos toor tons toro tort tore L013 sew 1o2D 1909 ter 4009 109 NOM 1089 1058 3 too tooo tort 1018 tors {oes teas ast tox8 toe 10st 1009. 1950 OPP 85 8 oe tore tows oe to2t Yous tame toss ost toot hors 1865 4009 10 1128 7 ott torr teat tees 1929 Noes test 1080 oro 00a 100 ar? 4199. 1350.67 3 tots tows tae7 1000 1038 1950 oer tore tom top iar Liss tare 1498 1216 3 tole toes teog ton tot Lore 1005 tog ats ise es 1is9 1za1 288 A276 fo tme3 tose 1089 fast 1960 $e biog 1aaa iz imo 120e zm tere 1308 1300 ti times tos tose tase 1072 Timo tar tie tare 1208 1267 1288 1929 1371 tare te tas toe toot tere 1908 Cogn bast (ae tame nats tens tae 1aee teat i toes 058 tore tees. 108 Ciso tare ta0s te taee 1365 109 14850 Ne tois host toes 400 C17 Civo aor 1209 tare tes 4402 1469 1553 'S fost torr toe tans 148 205 Tare 10s. tase te toe hoor too tar C53 120 sa 1406 120 17 Loss Looe tas taay tive tar aay 1282 aio tase 1 fore to tea tas 19 1221 1240 ae aso 1382 10° tome ea tase taae 121 1206 1277 1328 ie 2 tom toe 1470 tzoe 1233 1272 1306 1369 Ser 21 1400 1150 4109 1.225 1.259 1300 1.398 1.400 1825 yg acceleration factor «1 + « 0.433DGA, (2.20) where: D~ depth of working fluid level in the casing an- ulus, (net Hf), feet