Chapter – III

Mahabalipuram – A World
Cultural Heritage Site
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 CHAPTER III

MAHABALIPURAM – A WORLD CULTURAL HERITAGE SITE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Tamilnadu has 1050 km of the coastline which is 14 per cent of India‘s coastline.

This coast is unique with diverse habitats and a variety of natural resources with

immeasurable benefits for human existence. The potential of tourism in Tamilnadu

coastline is immense and has many tourist destinations such as Chennai, Mahabalipuram,

Pitchavaram, Velankanni, Nagore, Poompuhar, Rameshwaram, Kanniyakumari and

Tiruchendur for its natural beauty and historical significance. Of these Mahabalipuram is

the most prominent tourist destination and historical pilgrim centre along the coast.

Considering the historical and cultural importance of Mahabalipuram and the Seashore

temple, this site was declared as World Cultural Heritage in 1985 by UNESCO.

Rich culture and historical significance of Tamilnadu has plenty of cultural

heritage destinations. Airavateswara Temple near Kumbakonam, Brihadeeswarar Temple

(Big Temple) at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple at Jayakondam were

named as Great Living Chola Temples in World Heritage List which proves the wealth of

cultural heritage properties in Tamilnadu. Tourism development in WHS has obtained

rapid achievements in recent decades (Su & Li, 2012)

. Cultural tourism is gaining more popularity in the contemporary tourism industry

& acts as a magnet to attract both domestic and foreign tourists. It permits destinations to

enlarge the interest of the tourists, lengthen their stays and reduce seasonality (Patuelli et

al., 2013). Unlike other cultural and heritage attractions in Tamilnadu, Mahabalipuram is

the most populous tourism destination in the State which attracts maximum tourists every

year in the state next to Chennai.

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3.2 LOCATION

Mahabalipuram is located at the geographical location of 12°37′35‘‘N

80°10′19‘‘E and elevation above sea level is 11m. It is situated 58 km south of Chennai

on the Bay of Bengal coastline, Buckingham Canal in the west and Muttukadu Lake in

the North. It can be reached from Chennai mainly by road along the sea coast via the East

Coast Road and also by Old Mahabalipuram Road. The location of Mahabalipuram is

presented in Figure 3.1

Figure: 3.1 Location of Mahabalipuram

Source: www.mapsofindia.com

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3.3 HISTORY OF MAHABALIPURAM

The history of Mahabalipuram dates back to two thousand years ago. This place

was known by the name Mallai or Kadalmallai where Vaishnava saint Boothath Azhwar

was born. Mamallapuram as a seaport is older than Mamallapuram as a site of historical

monument. The first definite evidence of a port comes only from the Tirumangai Azhvar

in his Peria Tirumozhi (eight century A.D). It outlined that Kadalmallai ships rode at

anchor bent to the point of breaking laden as they were with wealth, big trunked

elephants, and gems of nine varieties in heaps. Nevertheless, there are far earlier, though

tantalizing reference to a port in the area, possibly this port was Mamallapuram itself, but

there is no way of being certain.

Saint Thirumangai Azhvar devotes twenty-six verses in hymning Lord

Sthalasayanam in Peria Tirumozhi and the fact that ―Kadalmallai‖ and ―Nirpeyarru‖ were

the older names of this site derived from Tamil literature. M. Raghava Iyengar suggests

Nirpeyarru might be Mahabalipuram to receive the showers of the sea (ie) the city which

abounds in sea-borne goods (Ramaswami, 1989). P.L Samy supports the identification

but on different grounds in the ―Water cult at Makapalipuram‖ in the Journal of Tamil

Culture, Madras. He says that the name Nirpeyaru should be considered as referring to the

water cascade that was falling on the massive rock and the extensive water cult that

existed in Mahabalipuram.

Scholar like Coombes (1914) described about the origin of Mahabalipuram

through a Brahmanical story in which he mentioned that the Lord Vishnu had slain

Hiranyakasipu, placed Prahlada on his father‘s throne. After Prahlada, Virochana came to

the throne and followed by Bali, founder of the magnificent city of Mahabalipuram. He

further writes about Banasura, the son of Bali, who had thousand hands. Aniruddha, the

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grandson of Lord Krishna, involved in a war with Banasura for marrying his daughter.

But Aniruddha was taken to the prison by Banasura at the end.

Lord Krishna came from Dwarka to Mahabalipuram and fought against Banasura

to release Aniruddha. Although Lord Shiva supported Banasura, Lord Krishna was

victorious in the end of the war. He cut off all the hands of Banasura except two hands so

that he can pay homage to Krishna till his life. There was no mention of this place for a

long time till a prince arose, named Malecheren. He went to Lord Indra‘s court in

disguise with two heavenly nymphs. Later, he executed the same what he viewed in

Amravati, Lord Indra‘s heavenly city. This made Mahabalipuram similar to Amravati

which was later destroyed by the samudra (―Mahabalipuram – The Workshop‖, 2010a).

Chamber (1778) seems to be the first writer of recent researches, who has visited

the Mahabalipuram in the year 1772 and 1776. On his writings, he had mentioned that he

came across a village neighboring the monuments. This village had residents of

many Brahmanas and they had good knowledge of the sculptures. He also expressed

about the tale of Bali and its connection with the name of this town, which he came to

know from the villagers. Mahabalipuram is an attractive name based on a stirring incident

in the puranas and it is represented in a magnificent relief in the Varaha Mandapa.

Though it leads to some misconception, Jouveau Dubreuil and other eminent scholars

asserted that Mahabalipuram existed long before Mamalla (Ramaswami, 1989).

3.4 PALLAVA‟S REIGN IN MAHABALIPURAM

Starting from the 6th century AD, the Pallava dynasty ruled over parts of northern

Tamilnadu for about 400 years. They were the pioneers of stone structures in Tamilnadu.

Their capital city was Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram was their seaports. The

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monuments and the temples of Mamallapuram were designed by the Pallava rulers during

the 7th and 8th century AD. In the development of architecture and sculpture, the

contribution of the Pallava kings is noteworthy. Mahendra Varman I (580 – 629CE) was

the initiator of cave architecture and stone temple at Tamilnadu, his illustrious son

Mamallan Narasimha Varman I (629 – 668CE) continued the patronage towards art and

architecture, and proved him as a good warrior at many occasions. The name

Mamallapuram itself is derived from the title Mamallan (the Great Wrestler) of

Narasimha Varman. Mahabalipuram was essentially a victory memorial city. Mamallan

Narasimha Varman defeated Chalukya king Pulakesin II in 642 AD and sacked his capital

Vatapi. With the enormous fortune that he brought from his conquest, he embellished the

city of Mahabalipuram with several beautiful buildings and Monuments. The majority of

the monuments belong to the times of his period.

Mahendra Varman II (668 – 670 CE) contribution towards art was comparatively

very less perhaps due to the short term of his regime. His name was inscribed at the

inscriptions of Adi-Varaha cave temple. Parameshwara Varman (670 – 690 CE) built

Ganesha Ratha which is one of the most important monuments. Narasimha Varman II

also called as Rajasimha (690 – 728 CE) constructed Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram

and tremendous growth in temple architecture took place during his reign.

After Pallavas, ―Chola rulers like Rajaraja Chola (985-1015 AD) and his grandson

Rajendra Chola visited Mahabalipuram and left their inscriptions at Adi-Varaha and

Shore Temple. It came under Vijayanagara Empire in fifteenth century and art and

architecture were revived during the period. They repaired the monuments and extended

some with mandapas like Adi-Varaha and Krishna‘s relief (Mahabalipuram – The

Workshop, 2010a).

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3.5 MAHABALUPURAM & ITS OVERSEAS TRADE

Mahabalipuram was a seaport even at the beginning of the Christian era. The

epigraphical sources confirm that Pallava kings had active contacts with Ceylon, China

and the Southeast Asian countries (Vora and Sundaresh, 2003). There were other

references to it from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the Greek work of the first

century AD and also by Ptolemy, the Greek geographer of the second century. The

Chinese Traveller of the seventh century Hiuen Tsang mentioned that this was the seaport

of the Pallavas. Many Indian Colonists had traveled to South-East Asia from this port

town. It was also a port for the spread of Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture in

South-East Asia. Roman coins of Theodosius (4th century AD) found from the region

suggest that Mababalipuram also had trade contact with the Roman world around

Christian era (Vora and Sundaresh, 2003).

3.6 UNIQUE FEATURES OF MAHABALIPURAM

Mahabalipuram is considered as the practicum of Indian architectural styles and

sculptures. The monuments at Mahabalipuram can be categorized into four different kinds

such as Rock-cut shrines, Monolith structures, Bas-relief and Stuctural temple. Figure 3.2

presents the Mahabalipuram tourism map in which the monuments are depicted.

3.6.1 Rock-cut Shrines

In this type, a rock face is excavated to make place for temple elements like

sanctum, mandapa etc. Adi-Varaha Perumal cave temple is one of the examples of this

style. This temple is constructed on the lines of the Vaishnava Agamic text, Marichi-

Samhita. Based on this kind of style, Goddesses Durga and Lakshmi, Lord

Brahma and Gangadhara should be placed to the right and left of the sanctum

(―Mahabalipuram- the Workshop‖, 2010b). Mahishasurmardini Cave Temple,

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Ramanuja Mandapa, Koneri Mandapa, Kotikal Mandapa, Trimurti Cave Temple,

Varaha Mandapa, Pancha Pandava Cave and Dharmaraja Mandapa are other

instances of the monuments of rock-cut shrines.

3.6.2 Monolith Structures

This style is otherwise called as ‗Rathas‘ which are the free-standing temples cut

out of a solid rock. A Ratha is literally meant a chariot. In the ancient period, the temples

utilized chariots during processions for their main deities. However, these carved Rathas

do not appear like a chariot but a full blown temple itself. The sculptors started designing

from the top of a rock which can be detected from their incomplete state at the bottom.

There are a total of ten such Rathas at Mahabalipuram like Pancha Pandava Ratha

(Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Dharmaraja Ratha and Sahadeva Ratha),

Ganesh Ratha, Pidari Rathas, Valaiyankuttai Ratha etc

3.6.3 Bas-relief

This unique relief can be found only in Mahabalipuram. A rock-face is engraved

extensively with figures illustrating some mythological scene. Arjuna Penance is the

monument of great importance at Mahabalipuram. ―It is a 90 feet by 30 feet canvas to

showcase the best from the Pallavas. It is where we see amalgamation of chisels and

expressions as such the expressions of the artists started to take shape in crude stone and

what resulted is one of the best and unparalleled pieces of fine art. This kind of art was

never tried before or later in the history of Indian architecture‖ (―Mahabalipuram – The

Workshop‖, 2010c).

Krishna Mandapa is another example of bas relief in Mahabalipuram. This is 29

feet wide and 12 feet high, located south of Arjuna Penance and faces towards east. There

is a pillared mandapa constructed in front of it during Vaishnava resurgence, however in

its original construction it was an open air relief like Arjuna Penance. In contrast

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to Arjuna Penance, where we see a lot of celestial figures, this relief depicts a pastoral

scene of an Indian village in the times of Krishna, which is somewhat relevant to current

times as well (Mahabalipuram – The Workshop, 2010c).

Figure 3.2: Mahabalipuram Tourist Map

Source: Mamallapuram Tourist Office

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3.6.4 Structural Temples

This was the latest examples of temples constructed at Mahabalipuram. These are

built-up by stones rather than wood or other perishable material which was then used by

ancient India for building temples. There are three structural temples at Mahabalipuram

which were built during the period of Narasima Varman II. As this temple is positioned

at the sea shore, it is named as Shore Temple. It would have acted as a landmark for the

ships to get the right directions to safely dock at nearby shore. The architectural style of

this temple is similar to that of Dharmaraja Ratha style, but larger in dimensions.

Mukunda Nayanar Temple is a small temple which is very similar

to Dharmaraja Ratha in its architecture and design, which was buried under 12 feet of

sand and was excavated later (Mahabalipuram – The Workshop, 2010d).

Olakkanneshvara Temple is located above the hill of Mahishamardini cave.

Longhurst (1930) writes that before the stone lighthouse was built in 1900 CE, the

Olakkanneshvara temple roof was used as the lighthouse. These notable monuments at

Mahabalipuram attracted many of the finest scholars of Indian art, both from indigenous

and foreign countries in addition to the large number of domestic and foreign tourists as

well.

3.7 SRI STHALASAYNA PERUMAL TEMPLE

This is an age old Hindu Temple. It is known for its rich heritage. It is a small

temple with two major shrines for Lord Sthalasayana Perumal and Nilamangai Thayaar. It

is believed that this is the birth place of the 2nd Azhwar –Boothath Azhwar. Historians

say that the architecture depicts the Pallava style and thus, it was built by Pallava Kings.

It is one of the 108 Divayadesams. This temple is under the control of the Hindu

Religious and Charitable Endowments Department, Government of Tamilnadu, as per the

provisions of The Tamilnadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1959.

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The Central Government planned to declare it as an ancient monument, which is of

national importance and shall be protected under the maintenance of ASI. However, it

was dropped due to the strong opposition from the people.

3.8 MAHABALIPURAM- A PLACE OF SEVEN PAGODAS

Europeans gave name as ―Seven Pagodas‖ as they were sailing along the

Coromandel Coast where they noticed from a few miles away on the sea. It is believed

that there stood seven pagodas topped with copper roofs helped as a landmark for the

mariners as the sun-rays used to reflect from those roofs. It is generally believed that out

of a total of seven temples originally constructed, all have submerged in the sea over a

period of time except the Shore Temple (Sundaresh et al., 2004). Recent findings from

Rajani and Kasturirangan (2013) provide new explanation to ―Seven Pagodas‖ by

identifying seven temples using Dutch Portolan chart or navigation map of 17 th Century

(1670) from the archives of Royal Geographical Society, London (Figure 3.3). Seven

Pagodas refer to freestanding temples. Rajani and Kasturirangan (2013) found including

Shore temple at present there are twelve freestanding monuments dotted around

Mahabalipuram (Figure 3.4).

Rajani and Kasturirangan (2013) pointed that ―the port city built in 7th to 9th

century was much larger than what can be observed on shore at present and at that time

the name Seven Pagoda didn‘t exist‖. Their findings also suggested that at the time of

portolan chart was made the famous five monolithic shrines called Five Rathas must have

been submerged underwater and probably under sand too (Rajani and Kasturirangan,

2013).

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Figure 3.3: Seven Identified temples using Dutch Portolan Chart, 1670

Source: Rajani and Kasturirangan (2013)

Figure 3.4: Seven Identified temples using GIS Map

Source: Rajani and Kasturirangan (2013)

1-Shore Temple, 2-Olakkanatha or Light House Temple, 3- Ganesha Ratha,

4-Mukunda Nayanar Temple, 5-Valiyankuttai Ratha, 6 & 7 – Two Pidari Rathas, X- Five

Rathas.

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3.9 TEMPLES BENEATH THE SEA

The belief of local lore that Mahabalipuram once possessed seven splendid

temples of which only the seventh temple still available and rest were swallowed by the

sea. These were to some extent witnessed during the Tsunami 2004 which struck the

coast of Mahabalipuram, washed the sand near the beach in Mahabalipuram and

uncovered belonging to the old port city (Rajani and Kasturirangan, 2013).

Indeed, the studies conducted by Great Britain‘s Scientific Exploration Society

(SES) and India‘s National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) confirmed the presence of

the temples during their study in April 2002. Figure 3.5 & 3.6 shows the map of

underwater survey & its structures plan from site I.

Figure 3.5: Map of Underwater Survey

Source: Sundaresh et al., (2004)

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Figure 3.6: Under Water Structures Plan from Site I

Source: Sundaresh et al., (2004)

Graham Hancock and his expedition team discovered a complex of submerged

ruins off the coast of Mahabalipuram. These structures are made up of locally available

granite stone. Kamlesh Vora, Marine archaeologist in NIO mentioned that they found the

foundation of walls, broken pillars, steps and many scattered stone blocks as man-made

structures. He accepts that they have to make extensive explorations for several square

miles to confirm the observed man-made structures are of the complex of same temple.

Figure 3.7 presents underwater remains off Mahabalipuram covered with huge marine

organisms.

Expedition leader Monty Halls expressed that the real questions such as

―How old is it? How extensive is it? What artifacts remain hidden in the ruins?‖ requires

scientific and disciplined investigation in this wonderful site. If the ruins are confirmed of

the same complex then it would give credits to the local belief and tales (Handwerk,

2010).

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Figure 3.7: Photographs of Underwater Remains off Mahabalipuram Covered with
Huge Marine Organisms

Source: Sundaresh et al., (2004)

3.10 PHYSICAL FEATURES

3.10.1 Climate

Mahabalipuram has warm and humid climate slightly similar to Chennai. The

Maximum day time temperature varies from 38.2° C in June to 28.4°C in December.

While minimum temperature varies from 20.5° C in January to 27.7°C in May. It receives

an average annual rainfall of around 1100mm. Months of October, November and

December accounts for more than 60 per cent of total rainfall. The sea breeze gives a

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pleasant and cool temperature which attracts the visitors to stay for a longer while in the

beach.

3.10.2 Topography and Geology

Mahabalipuram and its environs form part of coastal belt that forms a continuous

stretch of the country, relieved here and there by small rock outcrops. The

Thirukalukundram hills, nearly 17 km to the west of Mahabalipuram and about 17 km to

the south of Mahabalipuram the river Palar enters the sea. There is also a rivulet 12 km

South of Mahabalipuram. The region surrounding Mahabalipuram is liberally dotted with

rain-fed tanks. The environs of Mahabalipuram present a better prospect with larger

stretch of land combined with dry and grazing lands.

3.10.3 Soil and Vegetation

Mahabalipuram has a varied effect of sandy soil along the coastal region. The

beach resorts that give greenery mark to the coastal stretch of the Mamallapuram. The

either side of Buckingham canal helps for the agricultural activities that mainly consist of

alluvial soil.

3.10.4 Ground Water Potential

The ground water potential is the important gift of nature that makes the

surveillance of Mamallapuram town in a steady manner. The ground water is the main

source of water supply for both the local people and the commercial activities that are

catering the tourist people. Presence of running Buckingham canal in the town also

improved the ground water sources by detaining the incursion of sea water.

3.10.5 Coastal Area

The coastal area acts as a buffer-zone between the marine and the terrestrial

realms, soaking up a major portion of the impact and energy of waves and storms. The

coastal zone is covered with a wide range of ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves,

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sea grasses, sand dunes, salt marshes and estuaries. The following are the species which

the researcher has encountered during the field work.

3.10.5.1 Ipomoea pes-caprae

The goat‘s foot convolulus is a prostrate, perennial herbaccous plant with leaves

shaped like the footprints of a goat‘s foot. The succulent runners produce a milky sap.
Figure 3.8 Flower of Ipomoea pes-capcaprae
Leaves are alternating in venation and have a notch at

the end. Tap roots reach deep into the sand. They

produce purplish pink bell-shaped flower (Figure 3.8)

and the globular seed capsule is about 10-12 cm long.

They are salt tolerant and the initial colonizers of the seaward slopes of dunes. Its

common name is Goat‘s Foot Convolulus/ Rail Road Vine and vernacular name is

Attukkaal.

Figure 3.9: Ipomoea pes-caprae from Mahabalipuram Coast

Source: Fieldwork

3.10.5.2 Casuarina equisetifolia

Casuarina are fast growing pine like trees reaching up to 10 m height. They

produce needles which are long, joined green branches with minute scale-leaves. These

trees are highly adapted to growth in a variety of ecosystems especially in dry and arid

regions. Its common name is Horsetail she-oak and vernacular name is Savukku maram.

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The slender green branches that replace leaves are specialized adaptations to permit them

to minimize moisture loss. Its aggressive root system enables it to survive in usually dry

and impoverished substrate. It is a native of Australia and was introduced to different

parts of the world as a wind break and as a source for wood. It is now considered an

invasive species as it outcompetes native species, acting as a serious threat to local

biodiversity.

Figure 3.10: Casuarina equisetifolia from Mahabalipuram

Source: Fieldwork

3.10.5.3 Presence of Coral Reefs

Research studies spotted out the existence of Coral reef bed from Ennore to

Mahabalipuram during 1930‘s. However, no research had been conducted on it after

1940‘s. Later in 2009, the officials from Geological Survey of India (GSI) confirmed the

existence of Coral reefs near Mahabalipuram (Oppili, 2010). In addition to the

underground survey, the fishing nets of Mahabalipuram fishermen in the coast also

proved its presence. Figure 3.11 depicts presence of reefs in the fishing net on the

Mahabalipuram coast.

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Figure 3.11: Presence of Reefs in the Fishing Net on the Mahabalipuram Coast

Source: Field Work

3.10.5.4 Sand Crabs in Intertidal Sandy Beach of Mahabalipuram

The sand crabs or mole crabs belong to the genus of Emerita. These sand crabs are

very small and contains very little flesh. This is abundantly available in the inter-tidal

sandy beaches of Mamallapuram and other places like Kovalam, Kalpakkam etc. It is

otherwise called as Elli Poochi or Nai Eluppa Poochi in Tamil (Figure 3.12 & Figure

3.13).

Figure 3.12: Sand Crab From Mahabalipuram Beach

Source: Field Work

Fisherwomen and tribal people used to collect sand crabs by handpicking during

the low tide period after locating the animals by inserting their feet in the loose sand of

90
the inter-tidal region and were sold at very low price. After the destruction of fishing

crafts and gears by the Tsunami 2004, fisherman could not resume fishing for nearly three

months. They resorted to fishing for sand crabs without venturing into the sea during

January – March 2005 (Lakshmi Pillai & Thirumilu, 2005). Figure 3.14 presents

Photograph of Tribal People catching Sand Crabs in Mahabalipuram beach.

Figure 3.13: Collection of Sand Crabs/ Mole Crabs with its Front and Rear side

Source: http://trade.indiamart.com/details.mp?offer=4819381888

Figure 3.14: Tribal People Catching Sand Crabs in Mahabalipuram Beach

Source: Field Work

3.10.5.5 Sand Dunes

Coastal sand dunes are formed by sand particles carried by the winds from the

beach. The dune height ranges from 0.5 to 10 metres. These are highly dynamic

topographic features, and may undergo rapid changes when not anchored by vegetations.

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Depending on the wind direction, vegetation cover, disturbance etc., the size and shape of

the dune system can change or even be completely destroyed in a short period of time,

despite the relatively longer period taken in the formation and stabilization of a dune

system (Namboothri et al., 2008). These are important in protecting the land against

potential ravages of the sea. Coastal dunes of the Chennai region are wide and a long

stretch of well developed coastal sand dunes lies between Mahabalipuram and

Marakanam and the dunes are used for coconut and Casuarina plantation. Figure 3.15

presents the sandunes formation near Mahabalipuram.

Figure 3.15 Map of Coastal Sand Dunes Formation Near Mahabalipuram

Source: Namboothri et al.,(2008) (Red dots in the map indicates presence of sand dunes)

3.11 Trends of Development in Mahabalipuram

The evolution of Mahabalipuram with human settlements, plotted development

and tourism activities may be referred from Figure 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18 in the form of GIS

maps.

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Figure 3.16: Evolution of Mahabalipuam I

Source: Ravi Shankar (2005)

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Figure 3.17: Evolution of Mahabalipuram II

Source: Ravi Shankar (2005)

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Figure 3.18: Evolution of Mahabalipuram III

Source: Ravi Shankar (2005)

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3.12 TOWN PROFILE

Mamallapuram the ancient name of Mahabalipuram was changed through a

Government Order in 1957. Later in 1964, Mamallapuram was notified as a village

Panchayat and it was upgraded to a special grade town Panchayat with an administrative

area of 1256.8 ha in 1994. Of these, 848.51 ha of land are under private ownership and

the rest are under government as Monumental areas, Schools, Health centre, Roads and

open spaces. It has got two revenue villages under its control: Mamallapuram and

Punjeri/Poonjeri. As per Census 2011, it has a population of 15,172 persons where

Mamallapuram and Punjeri villages itself contain 9125 persons and 2630 persons

respectively. Apart from Mamallapuram Special Grade Town Panchayat, Mamallapuram

New Town Development Authority is created exclusively for Mamallapuram Township,

comprising of Mamallapuram and Punjeri Revenue Village.

3.12.1 Demographic Features of Mahabalipuram

Mamallapuram Special Grade Town Panchayat contains 5 villages such as Punjeri

(Ward No. 1), Pavalakkaara Sathiram (Ward No. 2), Devaneri (Ward No. 3),

Mamallapuram (Ward No. 4 to 13) and Venpursham (Ward No. 14 & 15) within it. Table

3.1 presents the population census data of villages in 2001 & 2011. Mamallapuram

village is densely populated with the population of 9,125 with 2,296 households (2011

Census). While comparing the population of Census 2011 with the Census 2001, the data

are in the increasing trend except the village Venpurusham. This may be due to the fact

that the people of Venpursham may be migrated to nearby villages after Tsunami 2004

with the reduction of 266 households (Ward No. 14 (129 houses) & Ward No. 15 (137

houses) in Census 2011) from 315 households (Ward No. 14 (127 houses) & 15 (188

houses) in Census 2001).

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Table 3.1: Population Census Data of Villages 2001 & 2011

Pavalakkaara
Punjeri Devaneri Mamallapuram Venpursham
Sathiram
Parameter
Census Census Census Census Census Census Census Census Census Census
2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011
House Holds 193 437 211 333 155 252 1867 2296 315 266
Population 953 2630 932 1312 749 1022 8268 9125 1443 1636
Population<6yrs 145 211 99 125 88 120 1066 1017 177 99
Male 513 1538 482 688 389 514 4329 4729 749 565
Female 440 1092 450 624 360 508 3939 4396 694 516
Literates 574 1907 665 1000 505 755 5984 7179 1026 790
Main workers 262 661 373 290 315 253 2644 3048 426 428
Main Cultivators 0 3 9 2 15 0 14 8 20 4
Main Agricultural
61 6 214 2 3 0 33 12 33 12
Labourers
Marginal workers 0 34 4 198 31 110 120 315 15 205
Marginal
0 0 4 1 0 2 0 3 0 5
Cultivators
Marginal
Agricultural 0 9 0 29 4 2 1 14 4 21
Labourers

Source: Census of India website

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Table 3.2: Population Census Data 2011 for Ward No. 4 to 13

Sl.No. Parameter 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 Total Households 252 214 221 208 405 103 254 189 103 347
2 Total Population 1004 853 941 821 1591 434 1023 723 408 1327
3 Population<6yrs 114 125 105 80 174 46 124 83 27 139
4 Male 528 427 492 408 829 228 567 376 201 673
5 Female 476 426 449 413 762 206 456 347 207 654
6 Literates Population 806 702 754 672 1256 349 735 571 318 1016
7 Main Working Population 323 175 333 280 569 139 384 224 160 461
8 Main Cultivator Population 1 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
9 Main Agricultural Labourers Population 1 0 1 2 3 0 0 1 0 4
10 Marginal Worker Population 41 130 12 24 79 4 0 2 4 19
11 Marginal Cultivator Population 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
12 Marginal Agriculture Labourers
13 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Population

Source: Census of India website

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 Table 3.2 presents population census data 2011 for Ward No. 4 to 13. The

distribution of population in Mamallapuram town is uneven and highly concentrated in

Mamallapuram village in which Ward No. 8 is densely populated with the population of

1591 and 405 households.

3.12.2 Land Use Distribution

As per distribution of land use in GIS Map (refer map 5.1 in chapter V), the new

town area which includes Mamallapuram and Punjeri villages spreads over an area of

1304 ha. Out of which only 17 per cent was covered by various developments such as

houses, shops, educational etc. The major area comes under agricultural use and water

courses. The land use map clearly shows that development is concentrated in the core

area of the town and part of Punjeri village. Table 3.3 presents the distribution of land use

in hectares. Undeveloped areas including agricultural fields are located in the southern

and north western side of the town. Being a heritage town, the establishment of

commercial areas agglomerated along the major roads leading to the monuments shows

the typical nature of development. The major zone of concentration is all along the major

roads like Kovalam road, Thirukalukundram road, East Raja Street and Othavadai Street.

Table 3.3: Distribution of Land Use

Sl.No. Land Use Extent in Hectares Percentage

1 Residential 69.52 5.33
2 Commercial 80.99 6.21
3 Educational 21.44 0.95
4 Public and Semi Public Land 29.45 2.26
5 Traffic and Transportation 33.99 2.61
6 Water Bodies 295.40 22.65
7 Total Area under Agriculture 782.21 59.99
(i) Dry land 470.61 36.09
(ii) Wet land 311.60 23.90
Source: Ravi Shankar (2005)

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3.12.3 Infrastructure

3.12.3.1 Road

Land occupied by the road and other uses are about 33.99 ha which constitutes

15.01 per cent of developmental area and about 2.61 per cent of the total town area. Table

3.4 presents types of road with its length across the Mahabalipuram heritage town. All

the roads except the East Coast Road are maintained by the Town Panchayat. These roads

are mostly of concrete and black topped roads.

Table 3.4: Types of Road and its Length

Sl.
Types of Road Length in Km
No.

1 Mud road and Gravel Road 2.15

2 Metal Road 1.23
3 Tar Road 3.75
4 Concrete Road 7.99
5 Bitumen Road 5.99
Source: DTCP Report

Road Network

Mahabalipuram contains well connected road network system from Chennai,

Chengalpattu and other parts of the district and state. The major routes to it from other

places are as follows.

Chennai – Kovalam – Mahabalipuram (East Coast Road)

Chennai – Navalur- Thirupporur – Mahabalipuram (Old Mamallapuram Road)

Chengalpattu – Thirukalukundram – Poonjeri – Mahabalipuram

Puducherry – Markkanam – Kalpakkam – Mahabalipuram (East Coast Road)

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 Apart from major routes to Mahabalipuram there is an access from the Atomic

Power Station at Kalpakkam. The major commercial spines are Kovalam road,

Thirukalukundram (TKM) road, East Raja Street, Othavadai Street, Sea Shore Temple

Road and Five Rathas Road whose brief description are as follows.

Kovalam Road

This forms the main approach road from the ECR to Mahabalipuram characterized

by heavy traffic. It comprises star hotels, beach resorts with huge and lavish frontages. It

gives a prelude to the tourist activity inside the town. The public market acts as the higher

order market to the adjoining villages.

TKM Road

It is an approach road from Chengalpattu which is also characterized by heavy

traffic. This road is lined with provisional and petty shops which cater the needs of local

population.

East Raja Street

This is the main arterial street inside the city and carries the accumulated traffic

load from both the TKM and the Kovalam road. Exclusive tourist boutiques, sculpture

shops, handicraft showrooms and various service shops like photo studios, foreign

exchanges etc are located both the sides of street.

Othavadai Street

This street is very popular among the tourists. Sea view restaurants are located

near the sea coast. The street is characterized by minimal vehicular traffic and large

pedestrian flow. All the mediocre range hospitality centers like lodges and restaurants are

lined along this road with massage centers, small sculpture shops which produces fashion

goods etc.,

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Five Rathas Road

It is one of the roads leading to the five rathas. All along its stretch stone carving

works draws the attention of pedestrians.

Seashore Temple Road

This road is thoroughly pedestrianised due to the efforts of ASI. It consists of a

continuous organized stretch of boutiques and sculpture shops in a planned and

landscaped area dignifying and adding grandeur to the shore temple.

3.12.3.2 Road Traffic

Traffic is mainly due to the tourist vehicles and public buses. The Passenger Car

Unit (PCU) observed in the ECR at Mahabalipuram is 8358 PCU/Day. This clearly

demarks the vehicles entering into the Mamallapuram during 2009. Table 3.5 and Table

3.6 present passenger car unit in the ECR and number of bus trips to Mahabalipuram

respectively.

Table 3.5: Passenger Car Unit in the ECR

SL.No.
Location PCU/Day

1
Thiruvanmiyur 27036
2
Kovalam 9788

3
Mahabalipuram 8358

4
Cheyyar 4102

Source: Tamilnadu Road Development Company Ltd.

The present fleets of buses are inadequate during peak season on several routes

and require more buses in holidays and special occasions.

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Table 3.6: Number of Bus Trips to Mahabalipuram
Sl. No. of No. of
No Route No. Route Service Singles
Chennai to Mahabalipuram (Via) Kovalam
1 188V Chennai to Marakkanam 1 4
2 188A Cut Chennai to Marakkanam 1 4
3 119A Chennai to Kalpakkam 4 20
4 188A Chennai to Pondy 3 10
5 188 Chennai to Anaicut 1 4
6 188B Chennai to Ozhitiyapattu 1 4
7 19C Chennai to Mahabalipuram (Via) Kovalam 4 24
Chennai to Mahabalipuram (Via) Kelambakkam
8 119 Chennai to Kalpakkam 4 20
9 19A Chennai to Mahabalipuram 4 24
Chennai to Mahabalipuram (Via) Mahabalipuram, Thirukalukundram,
Chengalpattu
10 108B Kalpakkam to Chennai 4 8
11 108K Kalpakkam to Chennai 1 2
12 108B cut Kalpakkam to Chengalpattu 1 2
Kalpakkam to Kancheepuram (Via) Mahabalipuram, Chengalpattu
13 212A Kalpakkam to Kancheepuram 1 4
Mahabalipuram to Vandavasi (Via) Chengalpattu, Kancheepuram
14 157M Mahabalipuram to Vandavasi 1 4
Mahabalipuram to Tirupathi (Via) Chengalpattu, Tirutani
15 212H Mahabalipuram to Tirupathi 2 6
16 212H cut Mahabalipuram to Chengalpattu 1 1
Source: Ravi Shankar (2005)

3.12.3.3 Street lights

All the streets are provided with street lights. The town Panchayat has a total of

577 street lights. Focus lights are provided near Shore temple, Arjuna‘s Penance and

Light House. Table 3.7 presents number of street lights available in Mahabalipuram.

Table 3.7: Number of Street Lights in Mahabalipuram

Sl.No Types of Lights Numbers

1 Sodium Vapor Lamps 282
2 4 Nos -Tube Lights 276
3 Halogen Lamps 18
4 High Mast Light 1
5 Focus Light 4

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3.12.3.4 Water Supply

The people of Mahabalipuram town are provided water by ground water sources.

Water is tapped and stored in the over head tank. The water is supplied during 6 a.m to 8

a.m in the morning to the public and water is chlorinated once in two days. There are

2000 service connections in the town. Out of which 1570 are house services connections

(as per 2005 status) and the rest are commercial. At present the town Panchayat supplies

water at the rate of Rs 50/month for the households and Rs 100/month for the commercial

services. It has one 30,000 litres capacity sump opposite to Motel Mamalla along the

Kovalam – ECR road. Ground water table in Mahabalipuram is at a depth of 15 – 20 feet.

Table 3.8: presents infiltration wells installed and maintained by local body.

Table 3.8: Infiltration wells installed and maintained by local body

S.No. Location No. of Pump Power details

wells Room
1 Pavalakkaara Sathiram 1 1 3 hp submersible pump
2 Devaneri 1 1 3 hp submersible pump
and 7.5 submersible
pump
3 Opposite to Motel Mamalla 4 1 5 hp submersible pump
and 7.5 submersible
pump
4 East Raja Street 1 1 5 hp submersible pump
5 Venpurusham Village 1 1 3 hp submersible pump
6 Venpurusham Fisherman 1
Colony
Total 9 5
Source: Mamallapuram Special Grade Town Panchayat

The water sources are contaminated by sea water due to Tsunami in 2004 and

temporary water resource has been tapped near Venpurusham for the town. The

distribution of water supply for the people in the town and tourism related activities are

satisfactory. Table 3.9 presents the location of over head tank & its capacity.

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Table 3.9: Location of Over Head Tank & its Capacity

Sl. No. Location Capacity No

1 Pavalakkaara Sathiram 30,000 Litres 1
2 Poonjeri 30,000 Litres 1
3 Nearer to Kovalam Road Mandapam 1,50,000 Litres 1
4 East Raja Street 50,000 Litres 1
5 Venpurusham Village 30,000 Litres 1
Total 2,90,000 Litres 5
Source: Mamallapuram Special Grade Town Panchayat

3.12.3.5 Electricity Consumption

The Electricity Board of Mamallapuram has divided Mamallapuram village into

Mamallapuram 1 and Mamallapuram 2 for its maintenance purpose from Melakuppam to

Manamai to provide around 7500 services. The annual electricity consumption of

Mamallapuram electricity board for the period 2009-2011 is given in Table 3.10. It

presents the consumption units calculated once in two months ie six times a year.

Mamallapuram 1 covers Tourism Zone where more commercial services are

provided. It provides maximum revenue to the Board. However, the decreasing trend of

power consumption shows the reduction in power supply due to the deficit in the

production of electricity similar to other regions of Tamilnadu.

From the year 2010 onwards, this region has experienced three hours power cut

daily and it is even extended to six hours during August 2011 to December 2011. Later

from January 2012, it was increased to nine hours per day which was further extended to

eleven to twelve- hour power cut daily till March 2013 due to the deficit in the production

and distribution of electric energy. This paves the way for transforming towards solar

energy and other efficient electric appliances into practice.

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Table 3.10: Electricity Consumption in Mamallapuram

2009 2010 2011

Total Total Total Total Total
Month Place Total consumed
services services consumed unit services consumed unit
unit (in Kwh)
(in nos.) (in nos.) (in Kwh) (in nos.) (in Kwh)
1 Mamallapuram1 1352 671802.7 1407 559982.2 1471 541033.7
Mamallapuram2 1185 428159.9 1255 517675.7 1336 468648
2 Mamallapuram1 1354 500067 1405 577644.3 1473 525947.6
Mamallapuram2 1192 373888 1248 507242 1340 395815
3 Mamallapuram1 1361 550708 1415 649864.6 1474 715123.4
Mamallapuram2 1215 489707 1273 519458 1349 616095
4 Mamallapuram1 1388 574440 1429 475164.2 1473 672963.3
Mamallapuram2 1217 501207 1298 477410 1355 608752
5 Mamallapuram1 1399 579015 1462 676417.7 1473 701884.2
Mamallapuram2 1237 557323 1331 559838.1 1363 641941
6 Mamallapuram1 1404 556595.9 1470 636916 1475 661911.8
Mamallapuram2 1245 479888 1336 559118 1363 563633
Source: Mamallapuram Electricity Board

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3.12.4 Health and Sanitation

Mahabalipuram has one primary health centre and one maternity centre for the

town people. In addition, three private clinics are available. There is no inpatient facility

in the health centre. On an average 80 to 100 patients are treated per day in the health

centre as out-patients. In case of emergencies, patients are taken to Chennai or

Chengalpattu Medical College.

There are three public toilets of Pay and Use type at Seashore Road, Bus Stand

and Near Five Rathas for facilitating the visitors. These are maintained by Panchayat

through private agencies in a contract basis. These toilets are not properly maintained and

sullage gets deposited in the nearby water bodies. This town doesn‘t have underground

sewerage system. Around 40 per cent of the roads and streets within the town are

provided with storm water drains. Nearly all the drains are connected to nearby ponds.

Hence, the environs of the town seem to be dangerous by letting out all the waste from

the houses and nearby lodges into the ponds.

3.12.5 Education

Mahabalipuram being a Museum for showcasing Indian architecture, it contains

the Government college of Architecture and Sculpture established in 1957. It offers

courses like B.F.A in Traditional Architecture, Traditional Drawing and Painting and

B.Tech in Traditional Architecture. It also has an Engineering College. Moreover, with

respect to school, this town has one Government Higher Secondary School, two

Government Panchayat Middle Schools, three Noon Meal Schools and private schools.

3.12.6 Solid waste Management

Since the town is a tourist place, the amount of solid waste generated is more. In

the year 2009, a MOU is signed between Mamallapuram Special Grade Town Panchayat

and Hand in Hand, NGO. They estimated that about five tones of waste/day is collected

113
from households, hotels etc. of which two tones of waste per day is collected from hotels,

resorts, restaurant, guest house and lodges alone. About 1 ½ tones of food waste are used

for electricity generation of 10 KW and the rest of organic waste are used for organic

manure.

About 400 kg of non-biodegradable wastes per day is sold and some of non-

segregated waste is dumped in a dumping yard at 4th Kovalam Street located outer area of

the town. Green friends are SHG members involved in door to door garbage collection

with the focus of segregating it at the source itself. Consequently, Hand in Hand India‘s

Solid Waste Management Programme has won the runner-up prize in the BBC for

converting its waste into energy project at Mahabalipuram in the Down to Business

World Challenge Series 2011 among nearly 640 nominations across the world. It is the

only one energy project from India in the World Challenge Series 2011.

3.13 ASI MANAGEMENT IN MAHABALIPURAM

The ASI took over the preservation measures for protecting the monuments from

1900 onwards. It had constructed a small wall between the temple and the sea to protect it

against high tide sea waves, lashing the structure.

Figure 3.19: Seashore Temple with Background of Casuarina Plantation

Source:Fieldwork

114
 It was further toughened by piling up boulders in 1940. Figure 3.19 shows the

photograph of Seashore Temple with background of Casuarina Plantation for preserving

the monuments from winds. Later, in 1970s a ―Groyne Wall‖ was constructed into the sea

with boulders piled and packed closely together (Sathyabhama Badrinath, Superintending

Archaeologist of Chennai Circle). Figure 3.20 shows the structures of Groyne Wall with

boulders in the Mahabalipuram beach.

Figure 3.20: Structures of Groyne Wall in the Mahabalipuram Beach

Source: Fieldwork

Seashore temple and other monuments at Mahabalipuram are under regular care

of the ASI with Paper Pulp Treatment regularly to remove the deposited salt in it. After

thorough washing and drying, the surface of the monuments is coated with 1 per cent of

sodium pentacholorophenate followed by two coatings of 3 per cent Acrypol_P 876 G in

toluene which protects the monuments for years. It is also suggested to grow some

Casuarina tree around the temple area to reduce the velocity of winds striking the

monuments.

3.14 MAHABALIPURAM DANCE FESTIVAL

Mahabalipuram Dance festival is celebrated every year in the month of December

to January. The Dance Festival was started on 25th December 2009 with the background

115
of Arjuna Penance, the most photographed monument in India. This event is marked as

the important milestone in promoting the Indian Cultural Heritage in the world stage. It

hosts all sorts of traditional dance, cultural displays and classical music from various parts

of India like Odisha, Nagaland, Gujarat, Sikkim, West Bengal etc. Thus this event

evolved as the versatile tool for Indian fine arts. Figure 3.21 presents the performance of

dancers in the festival.

Figure 3.21: Dance Performance with the Background of Arjuna Penance

Source: Tamilnadu Tourism Website

3.15 OTHER TOURIST PLACES

The Coromandel Coast in ECR possesses blue beaches and sunny skies with

numerous ideal locations for visitors and tourists. The sandy and sunny beaches are dotted

with palm, coconut and casuarinas trees. The most popular beaches include

Covelong/Kovalam and Mahabalipuram beach. There are various attractions other than

Mahabalipuram. Figure 3.22 presents the tourist map dotting the places of tourist

importance around Mahabalipuram.

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Figure 3.22: Tourist Places around Mahabalipuram

Source: Ravi Shankar (2005)

117
Backwater in Muttukadu

It is an exclusive tourist spot for water sport lovers and youngsters. It is a unique

destination for the tourists to enjoy seafood. The visitors in the boat house get thrilled by

experiencing the stunning effects originated by a rocking bridge over the backwaters. Due

to the more number of visitors or tourist arrivals in weekend, the water scooter rider is in

great demand.

MGM Dizee World

This is one of the most excellent amusement parks. It offers various exciting rides

and water sports to entertain the tourists and visitors of all categories from children to

adult. The park provides various facilities to entertain along with a private beach strip for

tourists to have sun bathing and other beach activities.

VGP Golden Beach

VGP is an amusement park which provides innumerable options to the tourists

coming for pleasure to relax. The tourists and visitors can have a pleasant time at the

VGP‘s Golden Beach Resort by choosing the categories of rooms and indoor activities of

their interest within the premises of VGP. It also provides cultural programs and much

more to the tourists and visitors coming to the VGP.

Mayajaal

It is a one-stop entertainment spot for the youngsters where they can have

innumerous fun-filled activities, bowling alleys, shopping, food court, restaurant and a

movie theater complex. These amenities make one of the most required destinations for

pleasure and recreation.

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Dolphin City

This amusement park was once marked a great success with an exciting

performance of four dolphins. However, all dolphins died within six months due to the

lack of surviving capacity of dolphin in new habitat. This paves the way for the opening

of sea lions to Dolphin city, which continues to amuse people with various other

attractions.

Crocodile Bank

This is a park famous for more than 6000 reptiles, including various species of

Indian, African crocodile and alligators. This park is a well-known place for numerous

marine and zoological researches. It was originally established to preserve the endangered

Indian crocodile species. The crocodile bank provides an opportunity to the visitors to

take a photograph with the baby crocodile/python by having them on their hands.

Dakshina Chitra

It is a destination for the living ethnicity of art, craft, folk performances and

architecture of India with an emphasis on the indigenous lifestyle of South India.

Everyone can experience an unforgettable and an authentic insight of the South Indians

culture and can purchase some products of their choice.

Apart from the fun and frolic activities, various temples like Tiruvidandai Nithya

Kalyana Perumal temple, Thirukalukundram temple etc., also attract tourists/ pilgrims to

Mahabalipuram.

3.16 TOURIST ARRIVALS IN MAHABALIPURAM

Mahabalipuram is unique in exhibiting the art and sculpture through its entire

region of sculptural marvel. Such a fascinating ―Poetry in Stone‖ is visited by tourists

round the year. Figure 3.23 presents the trend of tourist arrivals in Mahabalipuram.

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Figure 3.23: Trend of Tourist Arrivals in Mahabalipuram

1800000

1600000

1400000

1200000
Tourist Growth

Indian
1000000
Foreigners
800000

600000 Total

400000

200000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Year (1993 - 2011)

Source: Tamilnadu Tourism Development Corporation (TTDC), Chennai.

It is evident from Figure 3.16 that the total tourist arrivals to Mahabalipuram have

shown an upward trend from 1993 to 2011, excepting the decline in the year 2005 and

2008 due to the natural disastrous Tsunami and the global Economic Recession

respectively.

120