+ - + - + -

2. Dielectrics
+ - + - + -
2.1 Definitions and General Relations
+ - + - + -
Dielectrics are materials that are used primarily to isolate E≠0
components electrically from each other or ground or to act as
capacitive elements in devices, circuits, and systems. Fig. 2.1. Dipoles in electric field
The term dipole is used for atoms or groups of atoms that effectively
have a positive charge and a negative charge separated by a distance.
Dipoles may be permanent or induced.
Whatever the origin of the dipoles, when an electric field is
applied they will endeavor to line up with the field direction - + - +
(Fig2.1) When the dipoles line up the material is said to be
polarized.
E=0 E≠0
Electronic, ionic, orientation, and piezoelectric polarization are
the main mechanisms by which polarization can be produced in a Fig.2.2. Electronic polarization
dielectric.

+ - + - + - + -

E=0 E≠0
Fig.2.3. Ionic polarization E=0 E≠0

Fig. 2.4. Orientation polarization

1
Piezoelectricity (from:
pressure electricity) is a F
F
property of certain classes of
crystalline materials. When
mechanical pressure is
applied to one of these
materials, the crystalline
structure produces a voltage
proportional to the pressure. a b c
Conversely, when an electric
field is applied, the structure
changes shape producing
dimensional changes in the
material. These effects are
shown greatly exaggerated in
Fig. 2.5. In all cases, the
deformations are very small
when amplification by
mechanical resonance is not
involved. The maximum a b c
displacements are on the
order of a few micrometers.
Fig. 2.5. Piezoelectric polarization

2
 2.2 Properties of Dielectrics
2.2.1 The dielectric “constant” (permittivity)
With a vacuum between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor
D  0  E (2.1)
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space, having the value of 8,85 · 10-12 F/m .
If there is a dielectric between the plates
D  0  E  P (2.2)
P is called polarization and has units in C/m2
D  0 r  E (2.3)

where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric, then

P
r  1  1  
0  E (2.4)
where χε is called dielectric susceptibility.
Relative permittivity of commonly used materials vary from about one to thousands, though for many the
values tends to be in the region 2 to 10.
A material's polarization does not respond instantaneously to an applied field. For this reason permittivity is
often treated as a complex function of the frequency of the applied field.
D
r    r  j   r
0  E (2.5)

where j =  1 is the imaginary unit.

3
The imaginary part of permittivity describes the energy loss from an AC signal as it passes through
the dielectric. The real part of permittivity, is also called dielectric constant and relative permittivity.
Relative permittivity ε’r= Cp / C0 where Cp is capacitance of dielectric between two parallel plates and C0 is
capacitance of the same thickness of air (vacuum) between the same two parallel plates.

The admittance of the capacitor is

Y  j    C  j     ' r C0     r  C0 (2.6)

Where C represents the measured capacitance in F and C0 is the equivalent capacitance in vacuum,
which is calculated for the same specimen geometry.

It is observed that admittance of the real capacitor with dielectric materials between plates is
equivalent with capacitance Cp=ε’rC0 in parallel with resistance Rp=1/ωε”rC0.

I I
ICp IRp
U ~
~ U
Cp Rp

Fig. 2.6. Equivalent circuit for a dielectric

4
ε’ r ε’r

T=ct
T=ct

f f
a b

Permittivity εr’ – frequency curves for

a) electronic and ionic polarization dielectric b) orientation
polarization dielectric

electronic ε’r
ε’r low frequency
polarization
f=ct medium f=ct
frequency
high frequency
ionic polarization
T T
c d
Permittivity ε’ – temperature curves for
c) electroni cand ionic polarization dielectric
d) orientation polarization dielectric
Fig. 2.7.

5
2.2.2 Dielectric losses

There is no ideal, practical dielectric available, so a current flow always, resulting in “leakage current” for
the dielectric. The time in which the charge leaks away to 36.8% of its initial value is given by RC time
constant., When a dielectric material is used in an alternating electric field a fraction of the energy is
“lost” each time the field is reversed. The loss factor of dielectric is defined as the ratio of the,
energy dissipated to the energy stored in the dielectric material. This is generally expressed as the
tangent of an angle tgδ.

I URs I
I Cs Rs (2.7)
ICp IRp I δε
U ICp UCs
Cp Rp U UCs URs U
δε
IRp U
Fig. 2.9. Equivalent series circuit and phasor
Fig. 2.8. Equivalent parallel circuit and phasor diagram for a dielectric
diagram for a dielectric

Pa
tg    where δε is called loss angle (2.7)
Pr
Pa U  I Rp I Rp U / Rp 1 (2.8)
tg      
Pr U  I Cp I Cp U    Cp   Cp  Rp
Pa I U Rs U Rs I  Rs
tg         Cs  Rs (2.9)
Pr I U Cs U Cs I /(  Cs)
For small loss angle Cp≈Cs and Rs<<Rp. 6
The loss factor will appear as functions of frequency as delineated schematically in Fig.2.10

tg δε tg δε

T=ct T=ct

a f b f

Loss factor tgδ –frequency curves for

a) electronic and ionic polarization dielectric b) orientation
polarization dielectric

tg δε tg δε

f=ct f=ct

c T d T
Loss factor tgδ – temperature curves for
c) electronic and ionic polarization dielectric d) orientation
polarization dielectric
Fig. 2.10.

A very good dielectric would have a loss factor of the order of 10-5 with a poor one about 0.1.
7
2.2.3 Dielectric strength

In an insulator or dielectric, the valence electrons are tightly bound so that no free electrons are
available to conduct current. But when a potential or voltage is applied to the material, there comes
a point where these electrons may break away and the material could loose its insulating properties.

Breakdown voltage is the maximum voltage which a unit of thickness of a dielectric can withstand
without being ruptured.

The critical magnitude of electric field at which the breakdown of a material takes place is called the
dielectric strength of the material.

U str (2.10)
E str  [V / m]
d
Breakdown in Gases Breakdown in Liquids Breakdown in Solids

Typical dielectric strength values are 3MV/m for air, 16MV/m for dry paper, 20MV/m for polystyrene.

8
2.3 Technical Materials
2.3.1 Dielectrics for capacitors
Paper for capacitors Ceramics for capacitors Plastic for capacitors Aluminum oxide and tantalum oxide

plate
plate dielectric dielectric

wire
dielectric lead plates
a b

Fig. 2.12 Ceramic capacitor a) single layer b) multilayer

Fig. 2.11 Paper foil

capacitor
CATHODE

ANODE
aluminum foil electrolyte
(highly etched) aluminum
foil 1 – tantalum ANODE
anode ≈ 60-100μm 2 – Ta2O4 dielectric
paper ≈50-200μm layer
cathode ≈10μm 3 – MnO2 solid
anode
electrolyte
4 – graphite layer
5 – silver layer
cathode 3 2 1 4 5

Fig. 2.14 Tantalum electrolytic capacitor

Al2O3 dielectric electrolyte
layer absorbing paper
Fig. 2.13 Aluminum electrolytic capacitor
9
The capacitor is a passive electronic component designed to achieve a capacitive impedance. It
consists constructively by a dielectric placed between two conductive plates. The fundamental
parameter is the electrical capacity C defined as the ratio of the electrical charge Q accumulated on
the plates and the applied electrical voltage

C = Q / U (2.11)

For a planar capacitor having the plates area S and the dielectric thickness d, as in Figure 2.15, or for
a cylindrical capacitor of length l and having a and b radius of the inner and outer cylinder respectively,
the capacitance can be calculated with the relations (2.12)

S  0 r' S
d
C plan 
d
2a l 20  r' l
C cilindric 
a) 2b b)

Fig. 2.15 a) plan b) cylindrical b

ln (2.12)
a
10
The essential property of a capacitor is the ability to store electrical energy.
For an ideal capacitor powered by a U voltage source, the accumulated
energy is

W=CU2/2

In sinusoidal mode, the current is leading the voltage by 90 °.

Ccapacitors can be with fixed capacity or with variable capacity, and from a
dielectric point of view, the main types used in practice are ceramic
capacitors, paper capacitors, film capacitors and electrolytic capacitors.

11
The main parameters of the capacitors are:

Nominal capacitance Cn and capacitance tolerance t. Cn is the capacitance for which the
capacitor is designed. It's value is typically measured at a temperature of 20 °C. The capacitance
tolerance indicates the acceptable deviation from the rated capacitance at 20 °C.
The manufacturers datasheets state the frequency and temperature at which Cn is measured. For Cn
values <1μF, nominal capacities are with standardized values, corresponding to series of tolerances
as for resistors. For Cn>1μF nominal capacities are specific to each manufacturer.

Rated voltage Ur(n). The rated voltage is the voltage for which the capacitor is
designed. It is defined as the maximum DC or AC voltage or the pulse voltage that may continuously
be applied to the terminals of a capacitor. The rated voltage is dependent upon the property of the
dielectric material, the dielectric
thickness and the operating temperature. The usual values are between 6 şi 1000V.

Dissipation factor (tan δ) The dissipation factor (tan δ) is the ratio of the active power to the reactive
power at a sinusoidal voltage of a specified frequency. It depends on both the dielectric material and
the capacitor technology.

Temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficient is the average capacitance change over a
specified temperature range. It indicates how
much the capacitance changes referred to 20 °C, if the temperature changes by 1 °C. The TC is
typically expressed in ppm/°C (parts per million per °C). Depending upon the dielectric material the
TC can either be positive, or negative.
1 dC  ppm 
C  C 
C d  (2.13)
12
The rated power Pr(n) is the maximum power that the capacitor can dissipate in
long-term operation.

The rated current Ir(n) is the maximum current that can pass through the
capacitor in long-term operation.

Insulation resistance Ris is given by the ratio between the continuous voltage
applied to the capacitor and the current to be determined by it, 1 minute after
applying the voltage. It can vary between 100MΩ and 100GΩ. The insulation
resistance is determined by the property and the quality of the dielectric material
and the capacitor’s construction. The Ris decreases with increasing temperature.
A high relative humidity may decrease the insulation resistance.

Time constant τ. This parameter is usually indicated for capacitors with Cn>
0.1μF instead of insulation resistance,τ = Cn·Riz. It can be a few minutes for
aluminum electrolytic capacitors, up to a few days for polystyrene or
polypropylene capacitors.

Leakage current IL is the DC current flowing through a capacitor when a DC

voltage is. It is dependent on voltage, temperature and time. It is measured after
a time interval of 1 to 5 minutes. This parameter is important for electrolytic
capacitors. 13
The capacitor can not be used at rated parameters for any frequency.

At low frequencies, the dielectric strength limits the maximum voltage that can be applied to the capacitor, this being equal to
Ur(n). Because the current through the capacitor is
I=U·ωC,
with increasing frequency, the current through the capacitor will increase. The dissipated power is
Pd=UI·tgδ,
so if the effective voltage applied remains constant, increasing frequency increases the power dissipation. Consequently,
starting at a certain critical frequency fC1, maintaining the rated capacitor voltage, it is possible that the power dissipated
exceeds the rated power. From this frequency, the voltage across the capacitor must be reduced so that with the increase of the
frequency Pd≤Pn. For frequencies f> fC1, the current will increase with a lower slope than in the frequency range f <fC1.
However, starting from a certain critical frequency fC2, there is a possibility that I> In. Therefore, for frequencies f> fC2
maintaining a constant current through capacitor I = In, the voltage applied to the capacitor will decrease significantly with
increasing the frequency. Figure 2.16 shows graphically the maximum allowable electrical demand for a capacitor, depending on
the frequency.
U/Un I / In
It is noted that there are three distinct areas:
- for low frequencies the capacitor the voltage must be 1
limited
- for medium frequencies the dissipated power on the
capacitor must be limited
- for high frequencies, the current through the capacitor f
must be limited
fC1 fC2
In conclusion, a capacitor can not be used simultaneously at Un,
Pn and In. Fig 2.16 Limiting the
electrical parameters of a
capacitor depending by
the frequency range

14
Compared to the ideal capacitor with a purely capacitive reactance, the real capacitor is also characterized by
certain parasitic elements, as in the equivalent scheme in Figure 2.17. Because of the different resistivity of
the materials from which the terminals and the fittings are made, there are losses that can be equated by a
series resistor Rs. Dielectric losses can be modeled by the Rp resistance in parallel with capacitor
capacitance. The current flow through dielectric-armature terminals also produces a magnetic field, so an
inductive effect that becomes important with increasing frequency. The phenomenon can be equated by a
series inductance Ls. Since equivalent capacitance and inductance appear in the equivalent scheme, it
means that there is a certain resonance frequency of the component itself. Only for frequencies f << fr the
capacitor has a predominantly capacitive impedance. Because the parasitic elements depend heavily on the
capacitor design, it is important to know the main types of capacitors in order to make the correct choice of a
capacitor for the frequency range in which it is used.

Rp
Rs Ls

C
Fig 2.17 The capacitor equivalent circuit

15
The resonant frequency is a function of the capacitance and the inductance of a capacitor. At resonant frequency the
capacitive reactance equals the inductive reactance (l/ωC = ωL). At its lowest point of the resonant curve only the ohmic
value is effective. Above the resonate frequency the inductive part of
the capacitor prevails.

Both a capacitor and an inductor are frequency-dependent impedances.

This parameter is called either capacitive or inductive reactance.

The capacitive reactance XC is calculated with the formula: XC = 1 / 2πfC

When frequency increases for a given ideal capacitor (C-value constant) the XC decreases approaching zero.
The inductive reactance XL is calculated with the formula: XL = 2πfL
When frequency is zero, XL is zero, and when frequency increases, the XL increases.

Normally, the inductance in capacitors is small ( 1– 20 nH), and its influence can generally be seen only at high
frequencies. The frequency at which the capacitance and inductance of a capacitor cause equally large but
opposite reactance is called the self-resonance frequency. At the self-resonance frequency, the capacitive and
inductive reactance cancels each other out, and the impedance seen by the circuit is due only to the purely resistive parts
of the capacitor.

Fig. 2.18 At self-resonance, the impedance is equal with the equivalent 16

resistance
 RC Charging Circuit

The capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully open.
These are the initial conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0.
When the switch is closed the time begins at t = 0 and current begins to flow into the capacitor via the
resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) the capacitor appears to be a short circuit to
the external circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit restricted only by the resistor R.
 RC Charging Circuit Curves

RC Time Constant, Tau

This RC time constant only specifies a rate of

charge where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.

• Where:
• Vc is the voltage across the capacitor
• Vs is the supply voltage
• t is the elapsed time since the application of
the supply voltage
• RC is the time constant of the RC charging
circuit
 RC Discharging Circuit

When a voltage source is removed from a fully charged RC circuit, the capacitor, C will discharge
back through the resistance, R. As the capacitor discharges its current through the series resistor the
stored energy inside the capacitor is extracted with the voltage Vc across the capacitor decaying to
zero. At the start of discharge the initial conditions of the circuit, are t = 0, i = 0 and q = Q. The
voltage across the capacitors plates is equal to the supply voltage and Vc = Vs. As the voltage
across the plates is at its highest value maximum discharge current flows around the circuit.
 RC Discharging Circuit Curves

Where:
Vc is the voltage across the capacitor
Vs is the supply voltage
t is the elapsed time since the removal of
the supply voltage
RC is the time constant of the RC
discharging circuit
The RC Integrator

The RC integrator is a series connected RC network that produces an output signal which corresponds to the mathematical process of
integration.
For a passive RC integrator circuit, the input is connected to a resistance while the output voltage is taken from across a capacitor. The
capacitor charges up when the input is high and discharges when the input is low.
The integration of the input step function produces an output that resembles a triangular ramp function with an amplitude smaller than that
of the original pulse input with the amount of attenuation being determined by the time constant. Thus the shape of the output waveform
depends on the relationship between the time constant of the circuit and the frequency (period) of the input pulse.

An RC integrators time constant is always compared to the period, T of the input, so a long RC time constant will produce a triangular wave
shape with a low amplitude compared to the input signal as the capacitor has less time to fully charge or discharge. A short time constant
allows the capacitor more time to charge and discharge producing a more typical rounded shape.

By connecting two RC integrator circuits together in parallel has the effect of a double integration on the input pulse. The result of this
double integration is that the first integrator circuit converts the step voltage pulse into a triangular waveform and the second integrator
circuit converts the triangular waveform shape by rounding off the points of the triangular waveform producing a sine wave output waveform
with a greatly reduced amplitude.
RC Differentiator

For an RC differentiator circuit, the input signal is applied to

one side of the capacitor with the output taken across the
resistor, then VOUT equals VR
A differentiator circuit is used to produce
trigger or spiked typed pulses for timing circuit
applications.
When a square wave step input is applied to
this RC circuit, it produces a completely 0.1RC
different wave shape at the output. The shape
of the output waveform depending on the t
periodic time, T (an therefore the frequency,
ƒ) of the input square wave and on the
circuit’s RC time constant value.
1RC
When the periodic time of the input waveform
is similar too, or shorter than, (higher t
frequency) the circuits RC time constant, the
output waveform resembles the input
waveform, that is a square wave profile. 2RC
When the periodic time of the input waveform
is much longer than, (lower frequency) the t
circuits RC time constant, the output
waveform resembles narrow positive and
negative spikes. 10RC
The positive spike at the output is produced
by the leading-edge of the input square wave, t
while the negative spike at the output is
produced by the falling-edge of the input
square wave. Then the output of an RC
differentiator circuit depends on the rate of
change of the input voltage as the effect is
very similar to the mathematical function of
differentiation.
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
 quartz
2.3.2 Piezoelectric materials thin gold film
crystal

1
Quartz crystal is a typical piezoelectric material. v=fλ L n
2
The maximum amplitude of the mechanical vibrations of the crystal faces occurs when the
L
applied alternating potential difference frequency is in resonance with the mechanical
vibration. Fig. 2.15a
Quartz crystal
The two major advantages of quartz crystals are very good frequency stability over
temperature and the high quality of the oscillation, i.e. the sharpness of the
resonance.

The mechanical oscillation, piezo-electrically excited by an alternating

electrical field of suitable frequency, corresponds with the above
equivalent circuit, which consists of a series resonant circuit together
with a capacitance in parallel. Usual parameters are the motional
capacitance Cs, the motional inductance Ls, the motional resistance Rs,
representing the so-called motional (dynamic) branch, and the shunt
(static) capacitance Cp.
The motional capacitance Cs represents the mechanical elasticity and
the motional inductance Ls corresponds to the mechanical mass. The
motional resistance Rs combines losses of internal friction, dampening
effects of the surrounding atmosphere and the mounting arrangement.
Finally, the electrode areas on the crystal surface are responsible for
most of the static capacitance Cp.
On the basis of this equivalent circuit the series resistance fs of the
motional branch with Cs and Ls can be defined, as well as the so-called
parallel resonance fp of the circuit consisting of Cp and, in this case, the
inductive branch of Cs and Ls.
Fig. 2.15b
Equivalent circuit of a quartz crystal

31
The slope of the crystals impedance above shows that as the frequency increases across its terminals. At a particular
frequency, the interaction of between the series capacitor Cs and the inductor Ls creates a series resonance circuit
reducing the crystals impedance to a minimum and equal to Rs. This frequency point is called the crystals series
resonant frequency ƒs and below ƒs the crystal is capacitive.
As the frequency increases above this series resonance point, the crystal behaves like an inductor until the
frequency reaches its parallel resonant frequency ƒp. At this frequency point the interaction between the series
inductor, Ls and parallel capacitor, Cp creates a parallel tuned LC tank circuit and as such the impedance across the
crystal reaches its maximum value.
Then we can see that a quartz crystal is a combination of a series and parallel tuned resonance circuits, oscillating at
two different frequencies with the very small difference between the two depending upon the cut of the crystal. Also,
since the crystal can operate at either its series or parallel resonance frequencies, a crystal oscillator circuit needs to
be tuned to one or the other frequency as you cannot use both together.
So depending upon the circuit characteristics, a quartz crystal can act as either a capacitor, an inductor, a series
resonance circuit or as a parallel resonance circuit and to demonstrate this more clearly, we can also plot the crystals
reactance against frequency as shown. 32
The slope of the reactance against frequency above, shows that the
series reactance at frequency ƒs is inversely proportional to Cs because
below ƒs and above ƒp the crystal appears capacitive. Between
frequencies ƒs and ƒp, the crystal appears inductive as the two parallel
capacitances cancel out.

33
34
Quartz Resonators for Wristwatches

Requirements:

•Small size
•Low power dissipation (including the oscillator)
•Low cost
•High stability (temperature, aging, shock, attitude)
These requirements can be met with 32,768 Hz quartz tuning
forks

35
Ferroelectrics

Ferroelectricity is only maintained for a specific material to a

particular temperature, called Currie point (250-400 ˚C for PZT
materials).

(PZT)- (plumbum) zirconate titanate

a b E c

Fig. 2.16. The ferroelectric

hysteresis Fig.2.17 Electric dipoles in domains; (1) unpoled
ferroelectric ceramic, (2) during and
(3) after poling (piezoelectric ceramic)

36
 The ceramic multilayer actuators (CMA)
They consist of thin piezoceramic layers separated by metal
electrode, see Fig.2.18.

Fig. 2.18. PZT stack actuator

1 In -feed tray vibration plate

2 Out -feed tray CMA
3 Black cartridge
4 Colour cartridge
5 Nozzle
6 Ink droplets droplet
7 Ink reservoir
8 CMA
ink

Ink supply
Fig 2.19. Inkjet piezoelectric technology

37
38
2.3.3 Liquid-Crystals
Materials classed as liquid crystals are typically liquid at high temperatures and solid at low temperatures,
but in the intermediate temperature range they display characteristics of both.
Solid container, surface
microscopically grooved

Liquid crystal molecules align parallel to

grooves and to each other

Fig. 2.20 Liquid-crystal/grooved interface: (a) with no field Fig. 2.21. Practical effect of an
applied, and (b) with an electric field e > a critical value. electric field on a liquid crystal

39
For the electric field parallel to the molecular alignment, εr = εrII, and for a perpendicular field, εr = εr┴. In a
“positive” liquid crystal, εrII> εr┴ and the molecules align parallel to the field in order to minimize the
system’s potential energy. The principle of the twisted nematic cell is illustrated in Fig.2.22. The contrast
ratio can be further enhanced by the use of the super twisted nematic crystal, where the molecular
orientation is rotated through 270 degrees rather than 90 degrees.

Polarizer Mirror
Polarizer
No 2
No 1

Unpolarized
light
Plain
polarized light Plain
polarized light

Fig. 2.22. Liquid crystal display

40
41
 ITO Indium tin oxide
-electrical conductivity

-optical transparency

Resistive touch panel use use serveral
layers but 2 layers are important in
resistive touch screen. They both stand
together with very thin space between
with them. When a stylus or finger press
outer layer its touch the inner layer and
then they register the point location and
perform the given task.
Capacitive touch panel use an insulator
such as glass covered with a
transparent conductor. Human body also
work as electric conductor. Electric
current can easily pass away from our
body. When a human finger touch the
screen its distract the electric field of
touch screen that point register as touch
point and perform action according to 42
that.
Capacitive sensing is an old technology (room lamps that could be turned on by
touching a “growing plant”, capacitive elevator buttons) These capacitive-sensing
applications typically used a solid-state timer (NE555 integrated circuit, first
available in 1971) that “clicked” at a steady rate as determined by the time
constant of an external resistor-capacitor (RC) network. A microcontroller was then
programmed to monitor the clicks from the timer and when the rate increased or
decreased, it would react. A wire (or piece of ivy, in the case of the lamp) was
routed to a touch point and when a human touched it, additional body capacitance
was added to the RC network which, in turn, altered the click rate and caused a
touch to be detected.
Now, over years later, the same function is typically accomplished by using a
simple capacitive switch IC.

43
Mutual capacitance makes use of the fact that
most conductive objects are able to hold a charge
if they are very close together. If another
conductive object, such as a finger, comes close
to two conductive objects, the charge field
(capacitance) between the two objects changes
because the human-body capacitance “steals”
some of the charge.

In a mutual-capacitance touch screen, trans-

parent conductors are always patterned into
spatially separated electrodes in two layers,
usually arranged as rows and columns.
Because the intersections of each row and
column produce unique touch-coordinate
pairs, the controller in a mutual-capacitance
touch screen measures each intersection indi-
vidually. This produces one of the major
advantages of mutual-capacitance touch screens
– the ability to sense a touch at every electrode
intersection on the screen.
The touch screens are “scanned,” meaning that each
electrode intersection is measured one-by-one in an
endless cycle. Scanning rates range from approximately
20 to 200 Hz; a typical smart-phone touch screen may
have 9-10 columns and 15-16 rows. The values from
electrode intersections are used to interpolate the exact
touch coordinates. The results are extremely precise
and the resolution is usually at least 1024 ×1024 (10
bits).

44
In the short time since the introduction of touch screens in smartphones, a myriad of construction methods
have been developed. All touch-screen designs have two key features in common: (1) the sensing mecha-
nism is underneath the touch surface and (2) there are no moving parts. The most common design
incorporates the simple concept shown in next figure. Patterning ITO on glass with line widths of 20 µm and
resistivity of 150 Ω/ is commonly accomplished using photolithographic methods. ITO layers in touch
screens can be etched in several different patterns. The pattern used in the first smartphones is one of the
simplest, consisting of 10 columns of 1-mm-wide ITO spaced 5 mm apart on one side of a sheet of glass and
15 rows of 5-mm-high ITO with 37-µm deletions between them. The space between the 10 columns is filled
with unconnected (floating) ITO in order to maintain uniform optical appearance.

45