Technical Standards and Commentaries For Port and Harbour Facilties in Japan 2009 PDF

Ports and Harbours Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, MLIT

Port and Airport Research Institute
TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND

COMMENTARIES FOR
PORT AND HARBOUR FACILITIES
IN JAPAN
THE OVERSEAS COASTAL AREA
DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE OF JAPAN
2009
Copyright © 2009 by
Authors and Editors
Translator and Publisher
The Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan, Tokyo, Japan
All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval systems,
transmitted in any form or by any means, electric, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the authors, editors and publisher.
TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND

COMMENTARIES FOR
PORT AND HARBOUR FACILITIES
IN JAPAN
2009
FOREWORD
Foreword
This book is a translation of “the Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and Harbour Facilities
in Japan” (hereinafter called “the Technical Standards”), which summarizes the ministerial ordinance and
public notice articles as well as the related commentaries and technical notes in connection with the “Technical
Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities” established by Japan’s Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism (MLIT) based on the provisions of the Port and Harbour Law. This translation has been made
with the approval of the authors including the Ports and Harbours Bureau of MLIT, National Institute for Land
and Infrastructure Management (NILIM; also a part of MLIT), and the Port and Airport Research Institute
(PARI; an Independent Administrative Institution).
Japan is an island nation with few underground resources. The country comprises approximately 6,800
islands, and has an area of 380,000 square kilometers and a total coastline of 34,000 km. For this reason,
industry, which supports the nation’s economy, has been located in coastal areas with ports and harbors for
convenience in importing raw materials and exporting products. Given these conditions, Japan has constructed,
improved and modernized approximately 1,100 ports and harbors as well as approximately 3,000 fishing ports
during the past one and a half centuries. Because 99% of trade now depends on ports and harbors, they play
a particularly important role in Japan.
Japan was a closed country for about 220 years, from the early 17th century until the mid-19th century.
Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, modernization progressed rapidly. During the modernization period,
young Japanese engineers learned from experienced engineers invited to Japan from abroad, and constructed
modern ports and harbors, such as the Ports of Yokohama and Kobe.
The first Japanese manual on port and harbor technology was released in 1943 and was subsequently
revised a number of times. Under the 1974 revision of the Ports and Harbours Law, “the Technical Standards
for Port and Harbour Facilities” are provided in the form of ministerial ordinances. The first edition of the
present “Technical Standards” was published by the Japan Port and Harbour Association in 1979 and it has
been revised three times as of this writing. An English-language edition of the “Technical Standards” was
first published in 1980, and was revised and reissued in 1991 and 2002 corresponding to the revisions of the
Japanese “Technical Standards.”
Because many ports and harbors in Japan face the open sea, a considerable number of ports are exposed
to waves with heights exceeding 10m. Furthermore, many Japanese ports and harbors have been constructed
on thick strata of cohesive soil deposited on the sea bottom. Because Japan is also one of the world’s most
earthquake-prone nations, the facilities of ports and harbors are exposed to severe natural disasters of
earthquakes and tsunamis. Many efforts for technical development have been undertaken to enable construction
of port and harbor facilities that are both safe and economical under these difficult natural conditions. As a
result of these efforts, it is fair to say that Japan possesses the world’s most advanced level of technology for
wave-resistant design, earthquake-resistant design of port and harbor facilities, and countermeasures for soft
ground.
The 2007 edition of “the Technical Standards,” in addition to incorporating the most advanced technology,
has fully incorporated the approach based on “performance-based design” in response to worldwide demands
that the national standards be based on “performance criteria,” as advocated in the TBT Agreement (Agreement
on Technical Barriers to Trade). “The Technical Standards” are consistent with the following international
standards, and represent a compilation of Japan’s world-class knowledge in connection with technology for
ports and harbors:
TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND COMMENTARIES FOR PORT AND HARBOUR FACILITIES IN JAPAN
ISO2394 General principles on reliability for structures,

ISO23469 Bases for design of structures – Seismic actions for designing geotechnical works,
ISO21650 Actions from waves and currents on coastal structures.
The system of technical standards in Japan is structured with “ministerial ordinances” and “public notices”
which specify concrete methods in connection with “the Technical Standards” that port and harbor facilities
must satisfy based on the Ports and Harbours Law. They are supplemented with the “commentaries” and
“technical notes” on those ordinances and public notices. Basically, this structure is followed in the English
edition. Although there are duplications in various parts of the explanation, the reader is asked to understand
that such duplications reflect the structure of the Standards in the Japanese version. "Some description on the
performance-based design and the partial factor and system reliability" are included in Annexes as an aid for
the reader’s understanding.
Because technology in respective countries has been developed to conform to the conditions in each
country, there may be aspects of the content of “the Technical Standards” which are difficult for persons from
other countries to understand. For parts which can not be clearly understand, we recommend that the reader
refer to the reference literature for a more detailed explanation of the contents. Those with a keen interest in the
subject may also inquire of the relevant offices of the above-mentioned Ports and Harbours Bureau (MLIT),
NILIM, and PARI.
It is our sincere hope that “the Technical Standards” will contribute to the development of ports and
harbors worldwide and to progress in port and harbor technology.
October 2009
Dr. GODA Yoshimi, Dr. TAKAHASHI Shigeo, Dr. YAGYU Tadahiko, and Dr. YAMAMOTO Shuji
Supervisors for Editorial Works of the English Edition
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement
The publisher, Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan, sincerely appreciates the persons listed below
for their contributions in editing, translating and publishing this Technical Standards.
Members of the Editing Committee for the Japanese version of the Technical Standards published in 2007
Messrs. :
GODA Yoshimi*, KONDOU Kosuke, SHIRAISHI Satoru,
HASHIMOTO Noriaki, KOYAMA Akira, TAKAHASHI Shigeo,
HORII Osami, KUSAKABE Osamu, TAKAYAMA Tomotsuka,
IAI Susumu, MAEDA Susumu TANAKA Hiroyuki,
ISOSHIMA Shigeo, MIZOUCHI Toshikazu, UEDA Shigeru,
KAZAMA Toru, NAGAI Toshihiko, USHIJIMA Ryuichiro,
KITAZAWA Sosuke, ODANI Hiraku, YAMAMOTO Shuji,
KIYOMIYA Osamu, SAHARA Koichi, YOKOTA Hiroshi,
KOMATSU Akira,
The authors of the Japanese version of the Technical Standards published in 2007
Messrs. :
ENDO Kimihiko, KOYAMA Akira, OZAKI Ryuzo,
FUJIMORI Shugo, KOZAWA Keiji, SAHARA Koichi,
FUJIMURA Kiminori, KUNITA Atsushi, SAKAI Yoichi,
FURUKAWA Keita, KURIYAMA Yoshiaki, SAKAMOTO Akira,
GESHI Hiroyuki, MAKITO Taketo, SASSA Shinji,
HACHIYA Yoshitaka, MATSUMOTO Hideo, SATO Hidemasa,
HAMADA Hidenori, MATSUNAGA Yasushi, SHIGA Masao,
HAMAGUCHI Nobuhiko, MIYAJIMA Shogo, SHIMOSAKO Ken-ichiro,
HASHIMOTO Noriaki, MIYASHITA Ken-ichiro, SHIRAISHI Tetsuya,
HASHIZUME Tomoyoshi, MIYATA Masafumi, SUGANO Takahiro,
HIGASHISHIMA Michio, MIYAWAKI Shusaku, SUMIYA Keiichi,
HIRAISHI Tetsuya, MIZUTANI Masahiro, TAKAHASHI Hironao,
ICHII Koji, MORISHITA Noriaki, TAKANO Seiki,
ISHII Ichiro, MORIYA Yoichi, TOMITA Takashi,
ITO Akira, MOROBOSHI Kazunobu, UOZUMI Satoru,
IWANAMI Mitsuyasu, MURAOKA Takeshi, WATABE Kazushige,
IWATA Naoki, NAGAI Toshihiko, WATABE Yoichi
KASUGAI Yasuo, NAGAO Takashi, YAMADA Masao,
KATASE Makoto, NAKAMICHI Masato, YAMAJI Toru,
KAWAI Hiroyasu, NAKAMURA Satoshi, YAMAZAKI Hiroyuki,
KAWAKAMI Taiji, NARUSE Eiji, YOKOTA Hiroshi,
KAWANA Futoshi, NISHIZONO Katsuhide, YONEYAMA Haruo,
KIKUCHI Yoshiaki, NODA Iwao, YOSHIDA Hideki,
KITADUME Masaki, NOZU Atsushi, YOSHINAGA Hiroshi,
KITAZAWA Sosuke, ODA Katsuya, YOSHIOKA Takeshi,
KOHAMA Eiji, OKAMA Tatsuo,
Members of the Editing Committee for this Technical Standards (publishing in 2009)
Messrs. :
GODA Yoshimi*, MURAOKA Takeshi, YAMANE Takayuki,
MATSUMOTO Seiji, TAKAHASHI Shigeo,
Members of the Editing Sub-Committee for this Technical Standards (publishing in 2009)
Messrs. :
ITO Hironobu NAGAI Toshihiko, YAGYU Tadahiko*,
MIYAJIMA Syogo, NAGAO Takashi, YAMAMOTO Shuji,
MIYATA Masafumi, TUBOKAWA Yukitomo,
Other contributors
Messrs. :
HIRANO Masayoshi, OKUMURA Tatsuro, TANIMOTO Katsutoshi,
KATOH Kazumasa, OUCHI Hisao, TSUGANE Masanori,
KIHARA Tsutomu, REID Shane UEDA Hiroshi,
KOBUNE Koji SHIOZAWA Toshihiko, YAMASAKI Tsuyoshi
NODA Setsuo, TAKAHASHI Kunio, YOSHIMURA Yasuo,
OHTSU Kohei,
* indicates chiefs of committees.

ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations
Abbreviations English term

ANSI American National Standards Institute
API American Petroleum Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CD Consolidated Drained
CDL Chart Datum Level
CIQ Customs, Immigration and Quarantine
CU Consolidated Undrained
DOL Deviation of Out Liar
DT Displacement Tonnage
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage
FCL Full Container Load
FLIP Finite Element Analysis Program for Liquefaction Process
FRP Fiber Reinforced Plastic
GPS Global Positioning System
HWOST High Water of Ordinary Spring Tide
HWL Mean Monthly-highest Water Level
IHO International Hydrographic Organization
IMO International Maritime Organization
IPCC International Panel on Climate Change
ISO International Organization for Standardization

JPI Japan Petroleum Institute
JSCE Japan Society of Civil Engineers
LCL Less than Container Load
LWL Mean monthly-lowest Water Level
LWOST Low Water of Ordinary Spring Tide
MIR Minimum Rate of Residual Correction Coefficient
MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
MRI Meteorological Research Institute
MSL Mean Sea Level
NILIM National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
NOWPHAS National Ocean Wave Information Network for Ports and Harbours
OCDI Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan
PARI Port and Airport Research Institute
PC Prestressed Concrete
PHC Prestressed Hightension Concrete
PHRI Port and Harbour Research Institute
–v–
PIANC World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure
RC Reinforced Concrete
REC Residue of Correlation Coefficient
RI Radio Isotope
RWL Residual Water Level
SALM Single Anchor Leg Moring
SCP Sand Compaction Pile
SI International System of Unit
SRC Steel Framed Reinforced Concrete
SMB Sverdrup-Munk-Bretshneider
TP Mean Sea Level of Tokyo Bay, Tokyo Peil
UU Unconsolidated Undrained
VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier
WTO World Trade Organization
– vi –
SYMBOLS
Symbols
Symbols Definitions
A sectional area (m 2)
Ap sectional area of pile points (m 2)
As total surface area of a pile (m2)
B width (m), ship breadth (m)
C wind coefficient, center of buoyancy
Cc compression index
CD drag coefficient
CL lift coefficient
CM coefficient of inertia force
Cm coefficient of virtual mass
Cu undrained shearing strength (kN/m 2)
Cv coefficient of consolidation (cm 2/min)
c cohesive force (kN/m 2)
c0 undrained shearing strength of original ground (kN/m 2)
cd design value of soil cohesive force (kN/m 2)
D embedded depth of a foundation (m), pile diameter (mm), depth of waterway (m)
De effective diameter of a drain pile (mm)
Dr relative density
Dw diameter of a drain pile (mm)
d load draft (m), grain size of soil particle (mm)
E Young's modulus of a pile (kN/m 2)
Ef berthing energy of a ship (kN · m)
EI flexural rigidity (kN · m 2)
e void ratio
f coefficient of friction, frequency (Hz)
f'c compressive strength of concrete (N/mm 2)
fd design value of angle of shearing resistance (°)
G shearing rigidity (kN · m 2)
GT Gross Tonnage (t)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
H wave height (m), wall height (m)
H0 deepwater wave height (m)
H’0 equivalent deepwater wave height (m)
H1/10 highest one-tenth wave height (m)
H1/3 significant wave height (m)
Hb breaking wave height criterion (m)
HD wave height for design verification (m)
– vii –
Hi incident wave height (m)
Ht transmitted wave height (m)
Hmax maximum wave height (m)
h water depth (m), thickness of layer (m)
hc crown height of breakwater above water level (m)
I moment of inertia of pile sectional area (m4)
K coefficient of earth pressure
Ka coefficient of active earth pressure
K0 coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Kd diffraction coefficient
Kr refraction coefficient
KP coefficient of passive earth pressure
Ks shoaling coefficient
Kt coefficient of wave transmission
k seismic coefficient, coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
k’ equivalent seismic coefficient
kCH coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction (N/cm3)
kh seismic coefficient for design verification
L wave length (m), embedded length of a pile (m)
L0 deepwater wave length (m)
Lpp perpendicular length (m)
M moment (kN · m), metacenter
mv coefficient of volume compressibility (m 2/kN)
N N value (Number of blows in 30cm thick of soil by Standard Penatration Test), number of waves
Nq, Nr coefficient of bearing capacity
NS stability number of armor blocks
n stress sharing ratio, ratio of Young's modulus
P acting force (kN)
PB buoyancy (kN)
PH horizontal wave force (kN)
PU uplift pressure (kN)
PV vertical force (kN)
p0 overburden pressure (kN/m 2)
p1, p2, p3 intensity of wave pressure (kN/m 2)
pu uplift pressure acting underneath bottom of vertical wall (kN)
Q longshore sediment transport rate (m3/s)
q surcharge load (kN/m 2), water volume (cm3/s), sediment transport rate per unit width (m3/m/s)
qu unconfined compression strength (kN/m 2)
rs density of soil particle (t/m3)
Rfk characteristic value of circumference resistance of a pile (kN)
– viii –
SYMBOLS
S settlement (cm)
Smax parameter representing the degree of directional spreading of wave energy
S(f) frequency spectrum of waves
Sr relative density of rubble stone against water
t time (s,m,h,d,y), thickness (mm)
T period (s), tensile strength (kN), tractive force (kN)
T1/3 significant wave period (s)
U consolidation rate (%), wind velocity (m/s), current velocity (m/s)
V volume (m3), velocity (m/s), vertical force (kN)
Vp divergent wave velocity (m/s)
Vs transverse wave velocity (m/s)
W weight of wall body (kN), width of waterway (m)
w unit weight of soil (kN/m3), width of crack (mm)
wl tide level (m)
Z section modulus (m3)
α sensitivity factor
β angle of incident wave (°), inverse of distance between virtual ground surface and virtual fixed point (m-1)
δ friction angle on a wall (°)
Δp increment of pressure (kN/m 2)
φ angle of shearing resistance (°)
γ partial factor, unit weight (kN/m3)
γ' unit weight in water (kN/m3)
γb member factor
γi structure factor
γw unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
η* height of 0 wave pressure above water level (m)
λ1, λ2 coefficient of wave pressure correction
μ static friction coefficient
θ angle of a slope (°), slope angle of slip failure (°)
ρ density (t/m3)
ρa air density (t/m3)
ρd dry density (t/m3)
ρ0, ρw density of sea water (t/m3)
σy bending yield stress of steel member (N/mm 2)
τ shearing stress (kN/m 2)
ψ perimeter length of a pile (mm)
– ix –
–x–
CONTENTS
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgement
Abbreviations
Symbols
Part I General
Chapter 1 General Rules. .......................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Scope of Application................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Definition of Terms...................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Performance-based Design. ..................................................................................................... 8
1.3.1
Performance-based Design Systems................................................................................ 8
1.3.2
Classification of Performance Requirements.................................................................... 8
1.3.3
Performance Requirements............................................................................................... 9
1.3.4
Actions............................................................................................................................. 10
1.3.5
Design Situation................................................................................................................11
1.4 Performance Criteria................................................................................................................ 12
1.5 Performance Verification. ........................................................................................................ 13
1.6 Reliability-based Design Method............................................................................................ 21
1.6.1 Outline of Reliability-based Design Method..................................................................... 21
1.6.2 Level 1 Reliability-based Design Method (Partial Factor Method).................................. 21
1.6.3 Methods of Setting Partial Factors................................................................................... 22
1.6.4 Setting of Target Safety Level and Target Reliability Index/Partial Factors.................... 23
ANNEX 1 Reliability-based Design Method. .............................................................................. 27
ANNEX 2 Partial Factor and System Reliability......................................................................... 36
Chapter 2 Construction, Improvement, or Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the Technical
Standards. ................................................................................................................................................ 39
1 Design of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards............................................................... 39
1.1 Design Working Life.................................................................................................................. 39
2 Construction of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards..................................................... 40
2.1 General. ...................................................................................................................................... 40
2.2 Substance Set as Construction Plans................................................................................... 40
2.3 Substance Set as Construction Methods.............................................................................. 40
2.4 Content of Construction Management................................................................................... 41
2.5 Substance Set as Construction Safety Management......................................................... 41
2.6 Structural Stability during Construction................................................................................. 41
3 Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards..................................................... 42
3.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 43
3.2 Maintenance Programs............................................................................................................ 44
3.2.1 Maintenance Programs.................................................................................................... 45
3.2.2 Inspection and Diagnosis Programs................................................................................ 47
3.3 Measures Regarding Prevention of Danger. ........................................................................ 48
3.4 Measures Dealing with Out-of-Service Facilities................................................................. 48
4 Environmental Consideration............................................................................................................ 49
4.1 General. ...................................................................................................................................... 49
– xi –
Part II Actions and Material Strength Requirements
Chapter 1 General ..................................................................................................................................................... 55

1 General. ................................................................................................................................................ 55
2 Other Needs to be Considered......................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 2 Meteorology and Oceanography....................................................................................................... 57
1 Meteorology and Oceanography Items to be Considered for Performance Verification......... 57
1.1 General. ...................................................................................................................................... 57
2 Winds..................................................................................................................................................... 58
2.1 General. ...................................................................................................................................... 58
2.2 Characteristic Values of Wind Velocity ................................................................................. 60
2.3 Wind Pressure. .......................................................................................................................... 61
3 Tidal Level............................................................................................................................................. 68
3.1 Astronomical Tides. .................................................................................................................. 68
3.2 Storm Surge............................................................................................................................... 69
3.3 Harbor Resonance.................................................................................................................... 71
3.4 Abnormal Tidal Levels.............................................................................................................. 74
3.5 Long-term Variation in the Mean Sea Level. ........................................................................ 74
3.6 Underground Water Level and Seepage............................................................................... 75
4 Waves.................................................................................................................................................... 79
4.1 Basic Matters Relating to Waves............................................................................................ 80
4.2 Generation, Propagation and Attenuation of Waves........................................................... 84
4.3 Wave Transformations.............................................................................................................. 88
4.3.1 Wave Refraction............................................................................................................... 88
4.3.2 Wave Diffraction............................................................................................................... 91
4.3.3 Combination of Diffraction and Refraction....................................................................... 93
4.3.4 Wave Reflection............................................................................................................... 93
[1] General....................................................................................................................... 93
[2] Calculation of Reflection Coefficient.......................................................................... 96
[3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners near the Heads of Breakwaters
and around Detached Breakwaters............................................................................ 96
4.3.5 Wave Shaoling................................................................................................................. 98
4.3.6 Wave Breaking................................................................................................................. 99
4.3.7 Wave Runup Height, Wave Overtopping and Transmitted Waves................................ 105
[1] Wave Runup Height.................................................................................................. 105
[2] Wave Overtopping Quantity..................................................................................... 109
[3] Transmitted Waves....................................................................................................116
4.3.8 Rise of Mean Water Level due to Waves and Surf Beats...............................................117
[1] Wave Setup...............................................................................................................117
[2] Surf Beats..................................................................................................................119
4.4 Long-period Waves................................................................................................................. 120
4.5 Concept of Harbor Calmness................................................................................................ 122
4.6 Ship Waves. ............................................................................................................................. 124
4.7 Wave Pressure and Wave Force.......................................................................................... 128
4.7.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 128
4.7.2 Wave Force on Upright Walls ....................................................................................... 129
4.7.3 Wave Force Acting on Submersed Members and Isolated Structures.......................... 144
4.7.4 Wave Force Acting on Structures near the Water Surface............................................ 148
4.8 Design Wave Conditions........................................................................................................ 152
4.8.1 Setting of the Design Wave Conditions for Verification of Stability of Facilities
and the Ultimate Limit State of Structural Members...................................................... 152
4.8.2 Setting of Wave Conditions for Verification of Harbor Calmness.................................. 154
4.8.3 Setting of Wave Conditions for Verification of Durability, Serviceability Limit State,
of the Structural Members............................................................................................. 155
4.8.4 Conditions of Design Waves in Shallow Waters............................................................ 155
4.9 Actions on Floating Body and its Motions........................................................................... 156
4.9.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 156
– xii –
CONTENTS
4.9.2 Actions on Floating Body............................................................................................... 157
4.9.3 Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force................................................................ 160
5 Tsunamis............................................................................................................................................. 172
6 Water Currents................................................................................................................................... 178
6.1 The Flow of Sea Water in Coastal Zone. ............................................................................ 178
6.2 Estuarine Hydraulics............................................................................................................... 178
6.3 Littoral Drift .............................................................................................................................. 180
6.3.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 180
6.3.2 Scouring around Structures........................................................................................... 189
6.4 Prediction of Beach Deformation.......................................................................................... 193
6.5 Fluid Force due to Current .................................................................................................... 196
7 Other Meteorology Items to be Considered.................................................................................. 200
7.1 Items to be Considered.......................................................................................................... 200
8 Meteorological and Marine Observations and Investigations.................................................... 201
8.1 Meteorological Observations and Investigations............................................................... 201
8.2 Tide Level Observations and Investigation......................................................................... 201
8.3 Wave Observations and Investigation................................................................................. 202
Chapter 3 Geotechnical Conditions.................................................................................................................... 207
1 Ground Investigation......................................................................................................................... 207
1.1 Methods of Determining Geotechnical Conditions............................................................ 207
1.2 Position, Spacing, and Depth of Ground Investigation Locations................................... 207
1.3 Selection of Investigation Methods. ..................................................................................... 208
2 Ground Constants............................................................................................................................. 210
2.1 Estimation of Ground Constants .......................................................................................... 210
2.2 Physical Properties of Soils................................................................................................... 214
2.2.1 Unit Weight of Soil.......................................................................................................... 214
2.2.2 Classification of Soils..................................................................................................... 216
2.2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil.........................................................................................217
2.3 Mechanical Properties of Soil. .............................................................................................. 218
2.3.1 Elastic Constants........................................................................................................... 218
2.3.2 Compression and Consolidation Characteristics.......................................................... 218
2.3.3 Shear Characteristics..................................................................................................... 223
2.3.4 Interpretation Method for N Values................................................................................ 228
2.4 Dynamic Analysis.................................................................................................................... 230
2.4.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation.................................................................................. 230
2.4.2 Dynamic Strength Properties......................................................................................... 233
Chapter 4 Earthquakes........................................................................................................................................... 235

1 Ground Motion................................................................................................................................... 235
1.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 235
1.1.1
Source Effects................................................................................................................ 236
1.1.2
Propagation Path Effects............................................................................................... 237
1.1.3
Site Effects..................................................................................................................... 237
1.1.4
Nonlinear Behavior of Local Soil Deposit...................................................................... 238
1.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of Facilities... 238
1.3 Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of Facilities... 238
1.3.1 Outline............................................................................................................................ 238
1.3.2 Scenario Earthquakes for the Level 2 Ground Motion ................................................. 239
1.3.3 Setting the Source Parameters...................................................................................... 240
1.3.4 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors........................................................................ 243
2 Seismic Action. .................................................................................................................................. 244
2.1 Modeling and Seismic Action of the Ground - Structure System.................................... 244
2.2 Seismic Action in the Seismic Coefficient Method ........................................................... 244
2.3 Seismic Action in the Modified Seismic Coefficient Method ........................................... 246
2.4 Seismic Action in the Seismic Deformation Method . ....................................................... 246
2.5 Seismic Action in the Seismic Response Analysis of Ground - Structure Systems. ... 247
ANNEX 3 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors.................................................................. 248
1 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors................................................................... 248
2 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis..................................................................... 252
ANNEX 4 Analysis of Seismic Motion. ...................................................................................... 255
– xiii –
1 Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit................................................... 255
ANNEX 5 Evaluation of Ground Motion. ................................................................................... 261
1 Evaluation of Strong Ground Motion........................................................................ 261
2 Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit................................................... 265
3 Spatial Variations in the Ground Motion Considered in Performance
Verification of Facilities............................................................................................. 265
Chapter 5 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure.............................................................................................. 271

1 Earth Pressure................................................................................................................................... 271
1.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 271
1.2 Earth Pressure at Permanent Situation............................................................................... 271
1.2.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil......................................................................................... 271
1.2.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil.................................................................................... 273
1.3 Earth Pressure during Earthquake....................................................................................... 274
1.3.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil......................................................................................... 274
1.3.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil.................................................................................... 277
1.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient......................................................................................... 277
2 Water Pressure.................................................................................................................................. 279
2.1 Residual Water Pressure....................................................................................................... 279
2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure....................................................................................................... 280
Chapter 6 Ground Liquefaction............................................................................................................................ 282
1 General. .............................................................................................................................................. 282
2 Prediction and Judgment of Liquefaction...................................................................................... 282
Chapter 7 Ground Subsidence............................................................................................................................. 288
1.1.1 Ground Subsidence....................................................................................................... 288
Chapter 8 Ships......................................................................................................................................................... 289

1 Principal Dimensions of Design Ships........................................................................................... 289
2 Actions Caused by Ships................................................................................................................. 297
2.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 297
2.1.1
Ship Berthing................................................................................................................. 297
2.1.2
Ship Motions.................................................................................................................. 297
2.2 Actions Caused by Ship Berthing......................................................................................... 297
2.3 Actions Caused by Ship Motions.......................................................................................... 304
2.4 Actions due to Traction by Ships. ......................................................................................... 308
Chapter 9 Environmental Actions.........................................................................................................................311
Chapter 10 Self Weight and Surcharge................................................................................................................312

1 General. ...............................................................................................................................................312
2 Self Weight. .........................................................................................................................................312
3 Surcharge........................................................................................................................................... 314
3.1 Static Load. .............................................................................................................................. 314
3.2 Live Load. ................................................................................................................................. 316
Chapter 11 Materials.................................................................................................................................................. 325
1 General.................................................................................................................................................. 325
2 Steel .................................................................................................................................................... 325
2.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 325
2.2 Characteristic Values of Steel............................................................................................... 328
2.3 Corrosion Protection............................................................................................................... 331
2.3.1 Overview........................................................................................................................ 331
2.3.2 Corrosion Rates of Steel................................................................................................ 332
2.3.3 Corrosion Protection Methods....................................................................................... 333
2.3.4 Cathodic Protection Method.......................................................................................... 333
2.3.5 Covering/Coating Method.............................................................................................. 336
3 Concrete. ............................................................................................................................................ 338
3.1 Materials of Concrete. ............................................................................................................ 338
3.2 Concrete Quality and Performance Characteristics.......................................................... 338
– xiv –
CONTENTS
3.3 Underwater Concrete. ............................................................................................................ 340

3.4 Concrete Pile Materials.......................................................................................................... 340
4 Bituminous Materials......................................................................................................................... 342
4.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 342
4.2 Asphalt Mats. ........................................................................................................................... 342
4.2.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 342
4.2.2 Materials......................................................................................................................... 342
4.2.3 Mix Proportion................................................................................................................ 343
4.3 Paving Materials...................................................................................................................... 343
4.4 Sand Mastic. ............................................................................................................................ 343
4.4.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 343
4.4.2 Materials......................................................................................................................... 343
4.4.3 Mix Proportion................................................................................................................ 344
5 Stone. .................................................................................................................................................. 345
5.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 345
5.2 Rubble for Foundation Mound............................................................................................... 345
5.3 Backfilling Materials................................................................................................................ 345
5.4 Base Course Materials of Pavement. .................................................................................. 346
6 Timber. ................................................................................................................................................ 347
6.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 347
6.2 Strength Performance............................................................................................................ 347
6.3 Durability................................................................................................................................... 349
7 Recyclable Materials......................................................................................................................... 350
7.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 350
7.2 Slag .......................................................................................................................................... 350
7.3 Crushed Concrete................................................................................................................... 351
7.4 Dredged Soil. ........................................................................................................................... 351
8 Other Materials.................................................................................................................................. 353
8.1 Plastic and Rubber.................................................................................................................. 353
8.2 Painting Materials.................................................................................................................... 355
8.3 Grouting Materials................................................................................................................... 355
8.3.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 355
8.3.2 Properties of Grouting Materials.................................................................................... 355
8.4 Asphalt Concrete Mass.......................................................................................................... 356
8.5 Oyster Shell.............................................................................................................................. 356
9 Friction Coefficient. ........................................................................................................................... 358
Part III FACILITIES
Chapter 1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 363
Chapter 2 Items Common to Facilities Subject to Technical Standards................................................. 364

1 Structural Members . ........................................................................................................................ 364
1.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 365
1.1.1 Basic Policy on Performance Verification . ................................................................... 365
1.1.2 Examination of Ultimate Limit State............................................................................... 365
1.1.3 Examination of Serviceability Limit State...................................................................... 366
1.1.4 Examination of Fatigue Limit State................................................................................ 367
1.1.5 Examination of Change in Performance Over Time...................................................... 368
1.1.6 Partial Factors................................................................................................................ 370
1.1.7 Structural Details............................................................................................................ 371
1.2 Caissons................................................................................................................................... 373
1.2.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification .................................................................. 376
1.2.2 Determination of Basic Cross Section and Characteristic Values................................. 377
1.2.3 Actions........................................................................................................................... 378
1.2.4 Performance Verification .............................................................................................. 391
1.3 L-shaped Blocks...................................................................................................................... 392
1.3.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification................................................................... 392
– xv –
1.3.2 Determination of Basic Cross Section and Characteristic Values................................. 393
1.3.3 Actions........................................................................................................................... 393
1.3.4 Performance Verification............................................................................................... 395
1.4 Cellular Blocks......................................................................................................................... 398
1.4.2 Setting of Basic Cross Section and Characteristic Values............................................ 399
1.4.3 Actions........................................................................................................................... 399
1.5 Upright Wave-absorbing Caissons....................................................................................... 403
1.5.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 405
1.6 Hybrid Caissons...................................................................................................................... 407
1.6.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 407
1.6.3 Actions........................................................................................................................... 409
1.6.5 Corrosion Control............................................................................................................410
1.7 Armor Stones and Blocks.......................................................................................................411
1.7.1 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks on Slope .................................................411
1.7.2 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks in Composite Breakwater Foundation
Mound against Waves.....................................................................................................418
1.7.3 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks against Currents..................................... 421
1.8 Scouring and Washing-out.................................................................................................... 423
2 Foundations........................................................................................................................................ 426
2.1 General Comments................................................................................................................. 426
2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations. ............................................................................................... 426
2.2.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 426
2.2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Sandy Ground .................................................... 426
2.2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Cohesive Soil Ground ........................................ 428
2.2.4 Bearing Capacity of Multi-layered Ground ................................................................... 429
2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions . .................................................. 429
2.3 Deep Foundations................................................................................................................... 434
2.3.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 434
2.3.2 Characteristic Value of Vertical Bearing Capacity......................................................... 434
2.3.3 Horizontal Resistance Force of Deep Foundations....................................................... 435
2.4 Pile Foundations...................................................................................................................... 439
2.4.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 439
2.4.2 Fundamentals of Performance Verification of Piles....................................................... 439
2.4.3 Static Maximum Axial Pushing Resistance of Pile Foundations................................... 439
[1] General . .................................................................................................................. 439
[2] Static Maximum Axial Resistance of Single Piles due to Resistance of Ground ... 441
[3] Estimation of Static Maximum Axial Resistance from Loading Tests...................... 442
[4] Estimation of Static Maximum Axial Resistance by Static Resistance Formulas.... 443
[5] Examination of Compressive Stress of Pile Material............................................... 449
[6] Decrease of Bearing Capacity due to Joints............................................................ 449
[7] Decrease of Bearing Capacity due to Slenderness Ratio....................................... 449
[8] Bearing Capacity of Pile Groups.............................................................................. 450
[9] Examination of Negative Skin Friction..................................................................... 451
[10]Examination of Pile Settlement................................................................................ 454
2.4.4 Static Maximum Pulling Resistance of Pile Foundations............................................... 454
[1] General..................................................................................................................... 454
[2] Static Maximum Pulling Resistance of Single Pile................................................... 455
[3] Items to be Considered when Calculating Design Value of Pulling Resistance
of Piles ..................................................................................................................... 456
2.4.5 Static Maximum Lateral Resistance of Piles................................................................. 456
[1] General..................................................................................................................... 456
[2] Estimation of Behavior of Piles................................................................................. 457
[3] Estimation of Behavior of a Single Pile by Loading Tests........................................ 457
[4] Estimation of Pile Behavior using Analytical Methods............................................. 458
[5] Consideration of Pile Group Action.......................................................................... 466
[6] Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles.............................................................. 466
– xvi –
CONTENTS
2.4.6 General Considerations of Performance Verification of Pile Foundations.................... 469
[1] Load Sharing............................................................................................................ 469
[2] Distance between Centers of Piles.......................................................................... 470
[3] Performance Verification of Pile Foundations during Construction......................... 470
[4] Joints of Piles........................................................................................................... 473
[5] Change of Plate Thickness or Material Type of Steel Pipe Piles............................. 473
[6] Other Notes regarding Performance Verification......................................................474
2.5 Settlement of Foundations..................................................................................................... 475
2.5.1 Ground Stress................................................................................................................ 475
2.5.2 Immediate Settlement.................................................................................................... 475
2.5.3 Consolidation Settlement............................................................................................... 475
2.5.4 Lateral Displacement..................................................................................................... 478
2.5.5 Differential Settlements.................................................................................................. 478
3 Stability of Slopes.............................................................................................................................. 484
3.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 484
3.2 Examination of Stability.......................................................................................................... 486
3.2.1 Stability Analysis by Circular Slip Failure Surface ........................................................ 486
3.2.2 Stability Analysis Assuming Slip Surfaces other than Circular Slip Surface................. 488
4 Soil Improvement Methods.............................................................................................................. 490
4.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 490
4.2 Liquefaction Countermeasure Works. ................................................................................. 490
4.3 Replacement Methods. .......................................................................................................... 490
4.4 Vertical Drain Method............................................................................................................. 492
4.5 Deep Mixing Method............................................................................................................... 498
[1] Scope of Application................................................................................................ 498
[2] Basic Concept.......................................................................................................... 498
4.5.2 Assumption of Dimensions of Stabilized Body.............................................................. 500
[1] Mixing Design Method for Stabilized Subsoil........................................................... 500
[2] Material Strength of Stabilized Body........................................................................ 500
4.5.3 Conditions of Actions on Stabilized Body .................................................................... 503
[1] External Stability of Improved Subsoil..................................................................... 505
[2] Examination of Internal Stability . .............................................................................511
4.6 Lightweight Treated Soil Method. ..........................................................................................518
4.7 Blast Furnace Granulated Slag Replacement Method...................................................... 521
4.8 Premixing Method................................................................................................................... 523
4.8.2 Preliminary Survey......................................................................................................... 524
4.8.3 Determination of Strength of Treated Soil...................................................................... 524
4.8.4 Design of Mix Proportion............................................................................................... 525
4.8.5 Examination of Area of Improvement ........................................................................... 525
4.9 Sand Compaction Pile Method (for Sandy Soil Ground).................................................. 529
4.9.1 Basic Policy for Performance Verification .................................................................... 529
4.9.2 Verification of Sand Supply Rate................................................................................... 529
4.10 Sand Compaction Pile Method for Cohesive Soil Ground............................................... 533
4.10.1 Basic Policy of Performance Verification....................................................................... 533
[1] Scope of Application................................................................................................ 533
[2] Basic Concept.......................................................................................................... 533
4.10.2 Sand Piles...................................................................................................................... 533
4.10.3 Cohesive Soil Ground.................................................................................................... 534
4.10.4 Formula for Shear Strength of Improved Subsoil.......................................................... 535
4.10.5 Actions........................................................................................................................... 536
4.11 Rod Compaction Method....................................................................................................... 542
4.12 Vibro-flotation Method............................................................................................................ 542
4.12.1 Basic Policy of Performance Verification . .................................................................... 542
– xvii –
[1] Examination using Past Results of Execution.......................................................... 542
4.13 Drain Method as Liquefaction Countermeasure Works.................................................... 543
4.14 Well Point Method................................................................................................................... 543
4.15 Surface Soil Stabilization Method. ....................................................................................... 544
4.16 Liquefaction Countermeasure Works by Chemical Grouting Methods ......................... 544
4.16.1 Basic Policy of Performance Verification . .................................................................... 544
4.16.2 Setting of Improvement Ratio........................................................................................ 544
4.17 Pneumatic Flow Mixing Method............................................................................................ 544
4.18 Active Earth Pressure of Geotechnical Materials Treated with Stabilizer...................... 545
4.18.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 545
4.18.2 Active Earth Pressure.................................................................................................... 545
[1] Outline...................................................................................................................... 545
[2] Strength Constants................................................................................................... 545
[3] Calculation of Active Earth Pressure ...................................................................... 545
[4] Cases where Improvement Width is Limited............................................................ 547
Chapter 3 Waterways and Basins....................................................................................................................... 552

1 General. .............................................................................................................................................. 552
2 Waterways.......................................................................................................................................... 553
2.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 553
2.2 Depth of Navigation Channel. ............................................................................................... 556
2.2.1 Bases for Verification..................................................................................................... 556
2.3 Performance Verification of Width of Navigation Channel............................................... 560
2.3.1 Verification for Class 1 (Empirical Approach)................................................................ 560
2.3.2 Verification for Class 2 (Performance-based Approach) . ............................................ 560
2.4 Alignment of Navigation Channel (Bends).......................................................................... 575
2.4.2 Performance Verification for Class 2............................................................................. 575
3 Basins.................................................................................................................................................. 577
3.1 Performance Criteria.............................................................................................................. 577
3.2 Performance Verification. ...................................................................................................... 579
[1] Location and Area.................................................................................................... 579
[2] Water Depth.............................................................................................................. 580
[3] Harbor Calmness .................................................................................................... 581
4 Small Craft Basin............................................................................................................................... 582
Chapter 4 Protective Facilities for Harbors....................................................................................................... 583
1 General . ............................................................................................................................................. 583
2 Common Items for Breakwaters..................................................................................................... 585
2.1 Principals of Performance Verification. ............................................................................... 588
[1] General..................................................................................................................... 588
[2] Layout....................................................................................................................... 588
[3] Selection of Structural Type and Setting of Cross Section ..................................... 589
3 Ordinary Breakwaters....................................................................................................................... 592
3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Composite Breakwaters)........................................................ 592
3.1.1 Principals of Performance Verification........................................................................... 595
3.1.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 596
3.1.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section ..................................................................................... 597
3.1.5 Performance Verification of Structural Members.......................................................... 614
3.2 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Upright Breakwaters).............................................................. 618
3.3 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Sloping Breakwaters).............................................................. 619
3.4 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Breakwaters Covered with Wave-dissipating Blocks)....... 622
– xviii –
CONTENTS
3.4.2 Setting of Basic Cross Section...................................................................................... 622
3.5 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Upright Wave-absorbing Block Type Breakwaters)........... 625
3.5.1 Principals of Performance Verification ......................................................................... 625
3.6 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Wave-absorbing Caisson Type Breakwaters). ................... 628
3.6.1 Principals of Performance Verification ......................................................................... 628
3.6.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 628
3.7 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Sloping-top Caisson Breakwaters)....................................... 632
3.7.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 632
3.8 Pile-type Breakwaters ........................................................................................................... 635
3.8.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 637
3.9 Breakwaters with Wide Footing on Soft Ground................................................................ 640
3.10 Floating Breakwaters ............................................................................................................. 641
4 Amenity-oriented Breakwaters........................................................................................................ 646
5 Storm Surge Protection Breakwaters. ........................................................................................... 647
5.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification......................................................................... 647
5.2 Actions. ..................................................................................................................................... 647
5.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section. ............................................................................................ 647
6 Tsunami Protection Breakwaters.................................................................................................... 648
6.2 Actions. ..................................................................................................................................... 648
6.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section . ........................................................................................... 648
6.5 Structural Details..................................................................................................................... 650
6.6 Tsunami Reduction Effect of Tsunami Protection Breakwaters....................................... 650
7 Sediment Control Groins.................................................................................................................. 651
7.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 651
7.2 Performance Verification . ..................................................................................................... 653
8 Seawalls.............................................................................................................................................. 654
9 Training Jetties................................................................................................................................... 657
9.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 657
9.2 Performance Verification . ..................................................................................................... 658
10 Floodgates.......................................................................................................................................... 659
11 Locks .................................................................................................................................................. 661
12 Revetments......................................................................................................................................... 664
12.1 Common Items for Revetments............................................................................................ 664
12.1.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 665
12.2 Revetments with Amenity Function ..................................................................................... 669
13 Coastal Dikes..................................................................................................................................... 671
14 Groins.................................................................................................................................................. 672
15 Parapets.............................................................................................................................................. 673
16 Siltation Prevention Facilities........................................................................................................... 674
16.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 674
16.2 Facilities for Trapping Littoral Drift and River Erosion Sediment..................................... 674
16.3 Wind Blown Sand Prevention Work..................................................................................... 675
– xix –
16.3.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 675
Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities ................................................................................................................................ 676

1 General . ............................................................................................................................................. 676
1.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 676
1.2 Dimensions and Layout of Mooring Facilities .................................................................... 678
1.3 Selection of Structural Type of Mooring Facilities . ........................................................... 678
1.4 Standard Concept of Allowable Deformation of High Earthquake-resistance
Facilities for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion............................................................... 678
2 Wharves.............................................................................................................................................. 680
2.1 Common Items for Wharves. ................................................................................................ 682
2.1.1 Dimensions of Wharves................................................................................................. 686
2.1.2 Protection against Scouring........................................................................................... 690
2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls.......................................................................................................... 691
2.2.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 693
2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls...............................................................................................................711
2.3.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification....................................................................715
2.3.2 Actions............................................................................................................................717
2.3.3 Setting of Cross-sectional Dimensions.......................................................................... 723
2.4 Cantilevered Sheet Pile Quaywalls...................................................................................... 744
2.4.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 746
2.4.3 Performance Verification................................................................................................747
2.5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Raking Pile Anchorages. ........................................................ 749
2.5.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 750
2.6 Open-type Quaywall with Sheet Pile Wall Anchored by Forward Batter Piles..............751
2.6.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification....................................................................751
2.6.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 753
2.6.3 Layout and Dimensions.................................................................................................. 753
2.7 Double Sheet Pile Quaywalls................................................................................................ 755
2.7.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 757
2.8 Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms..................................................................................... 758
2.8.1 Principles of Performance Verification.......................................................................... 760
2.8.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 763
2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections. .................................................. 767
2.9.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 773
2.9.3 Setting of the Equivalent Wall Width . ........................................................................... 774
2.10 Placement-type Steel Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls ........................................................ 789
2.10.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 789
2.10.3 Setting of Cross-sectional Dimensions.......................................................................... 790
2.11 Upright Wave-absorbing Type Quaywalls........................................................................... 795
– xx –
CONTENTS
3 Mooring Buoys................................................................................................................................... 800

3.2 Actions. ..................................................................................................................................... 803
3.3 Performance Verification of Mooring Buoys....................................................................... 804
4 Mooring Piles. .................................................................................................................................... 808
5 Piled Piers........................................................................................................................................... 810
5.1 Common Items for Piled Piers...............................................................................................817
5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles.................................................................................. 818
5.2.1
Fundamentals of Performance Verification................................................................... 818
5.2.2
Setting of Basic Cross-section....................................................................................... 819
5.2.3
Actions........................................................................................................................... 821
5.2.4
Performance Verification............................................................................................... 826
5.2.5
Performance Verification of Structural Members.......................................................... 836
5.3 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles. ................................................................. 837
5.3.2 Setting of Basic Cross-section....................................................................................... 837
5.3.3 Actions........................................................................................................................... 838
5.4 Strutted Frame Type Pier....................................................................................................... 841
5.5 Jacket Type Piled Piers.......................................................................................................... 842
5.6 Dolphins.................................................................................................................................... 844
5.6.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 845
[1] Pile Type Dolphins.................................................................................................... 846
[2] Steel Cell Type Dolphins.......................................................................................... 846
[3] Caisson Type Dolphins............................................................................................. 846
5.7 Detached Piers........................................................................................................................ 847
5.7.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 848
6 Floating Piers..................................................................................................................................... 851
6.2 Setting the Basic Cross-section. .......................................................................................... 856
6.3 Actions. ..................................................................................................................................... 857
7 Shallow Draft Wharves..................................................................................................................... 864
8 Boat Lift Yards and Landing Facilities for Air Cushion Craft...................................................... 865
8.1 Boat Lift Yards. ........................................................................................................................ 865
8.1.2 Location Selection of Boat Lift Yard............................................................................... 866
8.1.3 Dimensions of Each Part............................................................................................... 866
[1] Requirements for Usability....................................................................................... 866
[2] Height of Each Part.................................................................................................. 866
[3] Front Water Depth.................................................................................................... 867
[4] Gradient of Slipway ................................................................................................. 867
[5] Area of Front Basin . ................................................................................................ 867
8.2 Landing Facilities for Air Cushion Craft............................................................................... 867
8.2.2 Selection of Location...................................................................................................... 868
8.2.3 Dimensions of Each Part............................................................................................... 868
[1] Slipway..................................................................................................................... 869
[2] Apron........................................................................................................................ 869
[3] Hangar...................................................................................................................... 869
9 Ancillary of Mooring Facilities.......................................................................................................... 870
9.1 Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings....................................................................................... 870
9.1.1 Position of Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings............................................................... 871
9.1.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 872
9.2 Fender Equipment................................................................................................................... 875
– xxi –
9.2.1 Fundamentals of the Performance Verification of Fender Equipment........................... 875
9.2.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 876
9.2.3 Layout of Fenders.......................................................................................................... 877
[1] General..................................................................................................................... 877
[2] Performance Verification.......................................................................................... 878
9.3 Lighting Facilities..................................................................................................................... 881
9.3.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination................................................................................... 881
[1] General..................................................................................................................... 881
[2] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Outdoor Lighting............................................ 881
[3] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Indoor Lighting............................................... 882
9.3.3 Selection of Light Sources............................................................................................. 882
9.3.4 Selection of Apparatuses............................................................................................... 883
[1] Outdoor Lighting....................................................................................................... 883
[2] Indoor Lighting.......................................................................................................... 883
9.3.6 Maintenance................................................................................................................... 883
[1] Inspection................................................................................................................. 883
9.4 Lifesaving Facilities................................................................................................................. 884
9.5 Curbings. .................................................................................................................................. 884
9.6 Vehicle Loading Facilities....................................................................................................... 885
9.7 Water Supply Facilities........................................................................................................... 886
9.8 Drainage Facilities................................................................................................................... 886
9.9 Fueling Facilities and Electric Power Supply Facilities. .................................................... 886
9.10 Passenger Boarding Facilities............................................................................................... 887
9.11 Fences, Doors, Ropes, etc.................................................................................................... 887
9.12 Monitoring Equipment............................................................................................................. 887
[1] Fundamentals of Performance Verification.............................................................. 887
9.13 Signs ....................................................................................................................................... 888
9.13.1 Placement of Signs and Marks...................................................................................... 888
9.13.2 Forms and Installation Sites of Signs............................................................................ 888
9.14 Aprons....................................................................................................................................... 889
9.14.1 Specifications of Aprons................................................................................................ 889
[1] Apron Widths............................................................................................................ 889
[2] Gradient of Apron..................................................................................................... 890
[3] Countermeasures for Apron Settlement.................................................................. 890
[1] General . .................................................................................................................. 890
[2] Fundamentals of Performance Verification.............................................................. 890
[3] Actions...................................................................................................................... 890
[4] Performance Verification for Concrete Pavements.................................................. 892
[5] Performance Verification of Asphalt Pavements...................................................... 899
9.15 Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment....................................................................... 904
9.15.2 Actions........................................................................................................................... 908
9.15.3 Performance Verification of Pile-type Foundations....................................................... 908
[1] Concrete Beams....................................................................................................... 908
[2] Maximum Static Resistance Forces of Piles............................................................ 909
9.15.4 Performance Verification in the Cases of Pile-less Foundation.................................... 909
[1] Analysis of Effect on Quaywall ................................................................................ 909
[2] Concrete Beams....................................................................................................... 909
Chapter 6 Port Transportation Facilities............................................................................................................ 913

1 General. .............................................................................................................................................. 913
2 Roads.................................................................................................................................................. 914
2.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification . ...................................................................... 915
2.2 Carriageway and Lanes......................................................................................................... 916
2.3 Clearance Limits...................................................................................................................... 924
– xxii –
CONTENTS
2.4 Widening of the Curved Sections of Roads........................................................................ 924

2.5 Longitudinal Slopes................................................................................................................. 924
2.6 Level Crossings....................................................................................................................... 924
2.7 Performance Verification of Pavements.............................................................................. 924
3 Tunnels Constructed by the Immersed Tunnel Method. ............................................................. 927
3.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 929
3.3 Determination of the Basic Cross Section. ......................................................................... 930
3.5 Structural Specifications........................................................................................................ 932
4 Parking Lots. ...................................................................................................................................... 933
4.1 Examination of Size and Location of Parking Lots............................................................ 933
5 Bridges................................................................................................................................................ 935
5.2 Ensuring of Durability. ............................................................................................................ 937
5.3 Performance Verification of Fenders................................................................................... 937
6 Canals. ................................................................................................................................................ 940
Chapter 7 Cargo Sorting Facilities...................................................................................................................... 941
1 General. .............................................................................................................................................. 941
1.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 941
2 Stationary Cargo Handling Equipment and Rail-mounted Cargo Handling Equipment........ 942
2.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 944
2.3 Loading Arms (Stationary Cargo Handling Equipment).................................................... 947
3 Cargo Sorting Areas......................................................................................................................... 948
3.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 950
3.2 Timber Sorting Areas for Timber Sorting............................................................................ 950
3.3 Cargo Sorting Facilities for Marine Products...................................................................... 950
3.4 Cargo Sorting Facilities for Hazardous Cargoes .............................................................. 950
3.5 Container Terminal Areas...................................................................................................... 950
3.5.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 950
4 Sheds. ................................................................................................................................................. 957
4.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 957
Chapter 8 Storage Facilities.................................................................................................................................. 958
1 General. .............................................................................................................................................. 958
2 Warehouses. ...................................................................................................................................... 958
3 Open Storage Yards. ........................................................................................................................ 958
4 Timber Storage Yards and Ponds................................................................................................... 959
5 Coal Storage Yards........................................................................................................................... 959
6 Hazardous Materials Storage Facilities......................................................................................... 959
7 Oil Storage Facilities......................................................................................................................... 959
Chapter 9 Facilities for Ship Service.................................................................................................................. 961
1 General. .............................................................................................................................................. 961
2 Water Supply Facilities to Ships...................................................................................................... 961
Chapter 10 Other Port Facilities............................................................................................................................. 963
1 Fixed and Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities...................................................................... 964
1.1 Fixed Passenger Boarding Facilities.................................................................................... 964
1.2 Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities. ............................................................................. 966
2 Waste Disposal Sites........................................................................................................................ 968
2.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 968
2.2 Purposes of Wastes Disposal Seawalls ............................................................................. 968
– xxiii –
2.2.1 Inert-type Wastes Disposal Sites................................................................................... 968
2.2.2 Controlled-type Wastes Disposal Sites ........................................................................ 969
2.2.3 Strictly Controlled-type Wastes Disposal Sites............................................................. 969
2.3 Fundamentals of the Performance Verification.................................................................. 969
3 Beaches.............................................................................................................................................. 972
3.1 General. .................................................................................................................................... 973
3.2 Purposes of Beaches. ............................................................................................................ 973
3.3 Fundamentals of Performance Verification..........................................................................974
3.4 Landscape of Beaches............................................................................................................974
3.5 Amenity..................................................................................................................................... 976
3.6 Conservation of Natural Environments................................................................................ 976
4 Plazas and Green Spaces............................................................................................................... 978
INDEX ......... ................................................................................................................................................................. 981
– xxiv –
Part I General
PART I GENERAL, CHAPTER 1 GENERAL RULES
Chapter 1 General Rules
1.1 Scope of Application

This book is a translated version of the major parts of the Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and
Harbour Facilities in Japan, which are referred to as "the Technical Standards" hereinafter.
The Technical Standards are applied to the construction, improvement and maintenance of the port and harbor
facilities in Japan. Fig. 1.1.1 shows the statutory structure of the Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities
in Japan set forth by the Port and Harbour Law, which is composed of the Ministerial Ordinance and the Public Notice
and was enacted in July 2007, supplemented with Commentaries.
Port and Harbour Law Port and Harbour Law Port and Harbour Law
[Article 56, Paragraph 2, Item (2)] Enforcement Order Enforcement Regulations
(Technical Standards for [Article 19] [Article 28]
Port and Harbour Facilities) (Facilities subject to (Stipulation of facilities
the Technical Standards) excluded from coverage)
The Technical Standards

The Ministerial Ordinance
The Public Notice (with Commentaries)
Fig. 1.1.1. Statutory Structure of the Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities
Commentaries mainly provide engineers with explanation on the background to and the basis for the Public
Notice. In addition, Technical Notes are added at many subsections for provision of further explanation and detailed
information. They are intended to assist engineers in designing facilities, by presenting explanation of the investigation
methods and/or related standards, specific examples of structures, and other related materials.
–3–
1.2 Definition of Terms

The terms defined hereinafter include those defined in Article 1 of the Ministerial Ordinance and those defined in Article
1 of the Public Notice. The other terms are those used in the present Technical Standards.
Accidental actions
means the actions which can be expected to have a low possibility of occurrence during the design working life and
which have a large effect on the facilities concerned, including tsunamis, Level 2 earthquake ground motion, waves of
extremely rare event, collision by ships and fire.
Accidental situation
means the situation in which the dominating actions are accidental actions, among the states in which one action, or
combination of two or more actions such as accidental actions and permanent actions are considered in the performance
criteria and the performance verification.
Accidental waves
means the waves which have an extremely low possibility of attacking during the design working life of the facilities
concerned, among waves expected to attack at the location where the facilities are to be installed, although which will
have a major impact on the objective facilities in the event of an attack.
Annual exceedence probability

means the probability that an expected or greater action will occur one or more times in one year.
Cargo handling facilities

means the facilities provided for the use in port cargo handling, including stationary cargo handling equipment, rail-
mounted cargo handling equipment, cargo handling areas and sheds.
Characteristic value
means the values representing the respective characteristics of the strengths of the materials comprising structures
and the forces acting on the structures, corresponding to certain probability conditions, by considering the deviations
of these items.
Constructability
means the performance which enables construction while securing safety in construction work within an appropriate
construction period using suitable and reliable methods.
Design value
means the value obtained by multiplying the characteristic value of a design parameter by the partial factor.
Design situation
means the combination of actions considered in the verification.
Design working life

means the period during which facilities satisfy the performance requirements which were set in the design of the
facilities.
Encounter probability
means the probability that the action greater than the action in a certain return period will occur at least once during
the lifetime of the facilities.
Expected total cost

means the total amount of the initial construction cost of facilities and the expected recovery cost of disasters expected
to occur during a certain period.
Facilities against accidental incident

means the facilities in which there is a danger of serious impact on life, property, or socioeconomic activity
accompanying damage of the objective facilities.
Facilities against accidental incident include breakwaters, revetments, seawalls, water gates, quaywalls, buoys,
floating piers, levees, and locks and water gates constructed behind densely populated areas, and in addition, facilities
which handle hazardous cargoes, port transportation facilities used by the general public and vehicles, and tunnels and
bridges for trunk port traffic needs.
–4–
Facilities for ship service
means the facilities provided for the use of ships, including water supply facilities, fueling facilities, and coal supply
facilities for ships, ship repair facilities and ship storage facilities.
Fatigue limit state

means the state in which failure similar to that in the ultimate limit state occurs due to repeated loads acting during
the lifetime of the structure.
Ground motion propagation effects

means the effect on ground motion of the propagation path from the source to the seismic bedrock of the point
concerned.
High earthquake-resistance facilities

means the port and harbour facilities which contribute to the recovery and reconstruction of the port and the surrounding
area when damage occurs due to a large-scale earthquake.
High earthquake-resistance facilities include quaywalls, piers, and lighter’s wharfs which contribute to the transport
of the emergency supplies and the trunk line cargoes, and greenbelts, and plazas, which function as the counter
disaster bases (bases contributing to the recovery and reconstruction of the port and surrounding area).
Level 1 earthquake ground motion

means the ground motion with a high probability of occurring during the design working life of the facilities, based
on the relationship between the return period of ground motion and the design working life of the objective facilities,
among ground motions expected to occur at the location where the facilities are to be installed.

means the ground motion having an intensity of the maximum scale, among ground motions expected to occur at the
location where the facilities are to be installed.
Life cycle cost

means the total amount of the initial construction cost of facilities and the expected recovery cost of disasters expected
during the design working life.
Limit state design

means the design method to verify the limit state which is defined as state when a load acts on a structure and some
inconvenience on the functions or the safety of the structure occurs. The states subject to the examination are the
ultimate limit state, serviceability limit state, and fatigue limit state.
Limit state function

means the function showing the relationship between the variable resistance of the structure and the variable force
acting on the structure.
The limit state function provides the limit state of the structures, and is mainly used in calculating the probability of
failure of the structures.
Maintenanceability
means the performance which is capable of continuously securing the required performance necessary in facilities by
implementing repairs and maintenance, within the range of technically possible and economically appropriate against
the deterioration and the damage of the facilities due to the use of the facilities and expected actions.
Maintenance level
means the level of maintenance control set for each member comprising the facilities, considering changes over time in
the members comprising the facilities, the ease of inspection and diagnosis, and maintenance work, and the importance
of the facilities, in accordance with the maintenance control plan for the facilities as a whole.
Mooring facilities
means the facilities where ships moor for cargo handling and passenger embarkation/disembarkation including
quaywalls, mooring buoys, mooring piles, piers, floating piers, lighter’s wharfs and slipways.
Partial factor
means the factor when using the method to verify the performance of facilities by confirming that the design value of
resistance Rd exceeds the design value of the effect of actions Sd, upon defining that the design value for that factor is
the value obtained by multiplying the characteristic value of a factor by a certain coefficient.
–5–
Performance criteria
means the criteria which concretely describe performance requirements so that performance verification is possible.
Performance requirements
means the performance which facilities must possess in order to achieve their purpose.
Performance verification
means the act of confirming that facilities satisfy the performance criteria.
Permanent actions
means the actions which are expected to act on facilities continuously through the design working life, including self
weight, earth pressure, and environmental actions.
Permanent situation
means the situation in which the dominating actions are permanent actions, among the states in which one or multiple
permanent actions, or combination of permanent actions and variable actions are considered in the performance
criteria and the performance verification.
Port transportation facilities

means the facilities provided for the use in transportation necessary for the use of ports and harbours, including roads,
parking lots, bridges, railroads, rail tracks, canals and heliports.
Protective facilities for harbor

means the facilities which protect waterways and basins such as breakwaters, sediment control groins, seawalls,
training jetties, water gates, locks, revetments, banks, groins and parapet walls, and shore facilities such as facilities
on water area, mooring facilities and cargo handling facilities.
Random variable
means the variable which is characterized by the fact that the value of the variable changes probabilistically, as in
action forces such as waves, winds, and the resistance force of facilities to those forces.
Reliability-based design method

means the method of quantitatively evaluating the probability of failure expected in failure mode(s) when the limit
state to be verified is clearly defined and the failure mode(s) for that state are identified.
Reliability index
means the index showing the safety of a structure until failure with a certain failure probability; expressed by the ratio
of the average value to the standard deviation of the limit state function.
Restorability
means that the facilities can recover their required functions within a short period of time by repairs in a range which
is technically possible and economically appropriate.
Return period
means the average time interval (years) from the time when an action of a certain magnitude or larger occurs until that
action next occurs again.
Safety
means the performance capable of securing the safety of human life; in the event of a certain degree of damage
corresponding to the expected actions, the degree of damage shall not be fatal for the facilities, and shall be limited to
a range which does not have a serious impact on securing the safety of human life.
Sensitivity factor
means the index showing the degree of influence of respective design parameters on the total performance of facilities.
Serviceability
means the performance which enables use without inconvenience from the viewpoint of use; in the case in which
damage does not occur due to the expected action, or limited to a range in which the degree of damage is such that the
facilities can recover their required functions quickly with very minor repairs.
–6–
Serviceability limit state
means the state in which comparatively minor inconvenience such as excessive cracking occurs due to actions that
frequently occur during the lifetime of a structure.
Site effects
means the effects of the earthquake motion to the deposit layers on the seismic bedrock.
Source effects of earthquake

means the effect of the rupture process of the source fault on the ground motion.
Storage facilities
means the facilities provided for the use in the storage of cargoes being handled in ports, including warehouses, open
storage yards, timber ponds, coal storage yards, yards for hazardous cargo and oil storage facilities.
System failure probability

means the probability of failure of the facilities as a whole system caused by a combination of individual failure modes
which occur under uncertain factors.
System reliability
means the reliability of the total system against failure in cases where there are multiple failure modes . The reliability
of the total system will differ depending on whether the failure mode is a series system or a parallel system.
Target safety level

means the level which is the target for defining facilities as being in a safe state in the reliability-based design method.
Ultimate limit state

means the state in which failure occurs in a structure due to the maximum load.

Variable actions
means the actions due to winds, waves, water pressure, water currents, and ship berthing force and tractive force,
and actions such as Level 1 earthquake ground motion, and surcharges which show changes over time during the
design working life that are not negligible in comparison with their average values and are not unidirectional and the
characteristic values of these actions being given probabilistically.
Variable situation
means the situation in which the dominating actions are variable actions among the states in which one or multiple
variable actions, or combination of permanent actions and variable actions are considered in the performance criteria
and the performance verification.
Variable waves
means the waves with a high possibility of attacking during the design working life of the facilities concerned, among
waves expected as attacking at the location where the facilities are to be installed.
Waterways and basins

means the water areas where ships navigate or anchor, such as navigation channels, basins, and small craft basins.
–7–
1.3 Performance-based Design

1.3.1 Performance-based Design Systems
Fig. 1.3.1 shows a basic framework of the performance-based design of port facilities.5) References 1), 2), 3), and 4)
are considered as higher-level standards in this system. In the figure, the “objective” is the reason why the facility
concerned is needed, the “performance requirements” is the performance of the facilities needed to achieve the objective
plainly explained from the viewpoint of accountability, and the performance criteria is the technical explanation of a
set of rules needed to verify the performance requirements. According to this hierarchy consisting of the objective,
the performance requirements, and the performance criteria, the “ministerial ordinance to set technical standards for
port facilities” (hereafter referred to as “ministerial ordinance”) corresponding to the higher-level criteria specifies
the objectives and the performance requirements of facilities, and the “public notice to set the details of technical
standards for port facilities (hereafter referred to as “public notice”)” that defines the requirements conforming to the
ministerial ordinance specifies the performance criteria.
The performance verification is an act to verify that the performance criteria are satisfied. No particular method
is mondatory for it. Actual performance verification methods, allowable failure probabilities, allowable deformation
limits, etc. are left to the discretion of the designers of the facilities concerned. This document is therefore positioned
as a reference for the designers to correctly understand the standards stipulated based on the performance criteria.
This document illustrates the standard performance verification methods, allowable failure probabilities, and the
standard ways of thinking about deformation limit values with examples. This document does not, however, intend
to discourage the development and introduction of new technologies. If the designers set performance criteria for the
performance verification of the facilities concerned other than those specified by the notifications and can prove that
the performance requirements are met, they may assume that the facilities concerned conform to the criteria.
Items to be conformed
Performance hierarchy
Objective Ministerial
ordinance
Performance
requirements
Commentary Performance Public

Interpretation criteria notice
notice on standards
Verification
hierarchy
Arbitrary
Performance
verification
items
Appendix
Fig. 1.3.1 Positioning of Performance Hierarchy and Performance Verification
1.3.2 Classification of Performance Requirements

For the sake of convenience, the performance requirements specified by ministerial ordinances of the technical
standards is classified according to the range of applicable facilities, the category of performance, and the allowable
degree of damage. The range of applicable facilities means whether the performance requirements is on a facility-by-
facility basis or common to all facilities. The category of performance means whether the performance requirements
are on structural responses to action or on the requirements for usability of facilities and enhancement of convenience.
Refer to Fig. 1.3.2 for the classification of performance requirements.
–8–
On a facility-by-
facility basis Action/response Serviceability
Classified according to
Restorability the allowable degree of damage
Safety
Performance
requirements
Usability/ Usability
convenience
Common to
all facilities Constructability
Classified according to
the category of performance
Maintenanceability
Fig. 1.3.2 Classification of Performance Requirements
1.3.3 Performance Requirements

Performance requirements are the performance required for facilities to achieve their objectives. It includes
performance on the structural responses and structural dimensions, constructability, maintenanceability, etc. of the
facilities. Performance on structural responses of a facility is classified into three categories according to the allowable
degree of damage: (1) serviceability, (2) restorability, and (3) safety.
These categories are arranged in order of the allowable degree of damage: (3) safety > (2) restorability > (1)
serviceability. Fig. 1.3.3 shows the performance requirements for structural responses of port facilities.5) In the
figure, the vertical and horizontal axes show the annual exceedence probability of action and the degree of damage,
respectively. The curve in the figure shows the performance of facilities. Except permanent actions, the characteristic
values of actions are generally determined depending on their annual occurrence probabilities. Different amounts of
action cause different degrees of damage to facilities. Damage to facilities caused by variable or permanent actions
with a relatively high annual exceedence probability is not acceptable. Since protecting facilities from damage by
accidental actions with a very low annual exceedence probability is economically unreasonable, a small amount of
damage to facilities caused by accidental actions is acceptable. The following summarize the basic concepts on
performance requirements for port facilities:
(1) For permanent and variable actions (with an annual exceedence probability of about 0.01 or more), the basic
requirement is serviceability. It is assumed that ensuring serviceability also ensures restorability and safety
against permanent and variable actions.
(2) As for accidental actions (with an annual exceedence probability of about 0.01 or less), satisfaction of performance
either of serviceability, restorability, or safety taking account of the expected functions and significance of facilities.
Except in the cases where facilities are high seismic resistance structure and where damage to facilities affects a
significant influence on human life, property, or social and economic activities, performance against accidental
actions is basically not required. It does not, however, deny the necessity of verification against accidental actions
conducted by the persons responsible for performance verification in facility owners.
The threshold value of 0.01 used in the above Items (1) and (2) is just for the sake of convenience and unrestrictive.
It is only a guide for the cases where design working life falls within a standard range.
For example, when designing a facility having a function of transporting emergency supply materials immediately
after a big earthquake, it is required to set its degree of damage caused by accidental actions small as shown by the
facility A in Fig. 1.3.3 (ensuring serviceability). When designing a facility having a minimum function against
accidental actions, it is necessary to set an allowable degree of damage at a relatively large value and make sure that
the facility does not suffer fatal damage (ensuring safety).
–9–
0 Degree of damage
Annual exceedence probability of action

Restorability
Serviceability
Accidental
Safety
Facility A
action
Facility B
0.01
Variable/permanent
Serviceability
action
1
Fig. 1.3.3 Conceptual Diagram of the Relation Between Design situations and Required Performance
Performance requirements for structural responses of the subject facilities of technical standards given in ministerial
ordinances specify, based on the above concepts, the minimum requirements for individual facilities to have from the
view point of public welfare. Responsible persons for the construction, improvement, and maintenance of the subject
facilities of technical standards can therefore set as necessary performance levels higher than these criteria as the
performance requirements for the facilities, taking account of their surrounding situations and required functions.
Requirements for crest heights, harbour calmness, and ancillary facilities are also given as performance requirements
for structural dimensions from the viewpoints of the usability and convenience of facilities. Ministerial ordinances
specify performance requirements for structural responses and structural factors on a facility-by-facility basis.
However, the following performance requirements for constructability and maintenanceability are factors common to
all facilities:
- Constructability: performance required for constructing facilities. Refer to Part I, Chapter 2, Section 2
Construction of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards.
- Maintenanceability: performance required for maintaining facilities. Refer to Part I, Chapter 2, Section 3
Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards.
1.3.4 Actions
Actions are classified into three categories mainly according to time history in their amounts and their social risks to
be addressed: permanent, variable, and accidental actions. Table 1.3.1 shows examples of dominating actions to be
considered in the performance verification of port facilities.
Performance verification shall properly take account of the effects of actions on the facility concerned. The
return periods of actions taken into consideration in performance verification shall be appropriately set based on the
characteristics of individual actions, the significance of structures, and the design working life of the facility. It should
be noted that the return period means the average interval between the occurrence of actions of a certain amount or
more and is different from the design working life. For example, the probability that an action with a return period of
50 years (annual exceedence probability: 1/50 = 0.02) occurs during a design working life of 50 years is 1−(1−0.02)50
= 0.64 if the past history of actions does not affect the annual probability of exceedence. Actions with a return
period either longer or shorter than the design working life also have a certain probability of occurence in the design
working life. When the structure of the facilities under construction is different from the one expected at the time of
completion, it is necessary to take account of differences in the effects of actions on the structure during construction.
Table 1.3.1 Classification of Dominating Actions
Category Action
Per ma nent Self weight, earth pressure, environmental actions such as temperature stress, corrosion,
act ion freezing and thawing, etc.
Va r iable Waves, winds, water level (tide level), surcharge of cargo or vehicle, action due to ship
a ct ion berthing/tracting, Level 1 earthquake ground motion, etc.
Accide nt al Collision with a ship or other object except when berthing, fire, tsunami, Level 2 earthquake
a ct ion ground motion, accidental waves, etc.
– 10 –
1.3.5 Design Situation

When conducting performance verification, a design situation, which means a combination of actions taken into
account in the verification shall be defined. They are classified into three categories: permanent, variable (where
variable actions are dominating actions), and accidental (where accidental actions are dominating actions) situations.
Actions are generally divided into dominating and non-dominating actions. In the cases where the possibility
of simultaneous occurrence of dominating and non-dominating actions is low, the characteristic values of the
non-dominating actions are likely to be those frequently occurring in a design working life with a relatively high
annual exceedence probability. It is unreasonable to set all characteristic values of actions with a low possibility
of simultaneous occurrence at values with a low annual exceedence probability and to combine them. The general
principle on the combination of such actions is called the Turkstra’s rule.
In conducting performance verification of port facilities, a design situation may have a number of situations in which
dominating actions are different from each other. This document hence uses an expression “--- situation with respect
to --- (dominating action)” to distinguish dominating actions. For example, if dominating actions are variable waves,
“ variable situation in respect of waves” is written.
References
1) ISO 2394 : General principles on reliability for structures, 1998
2) Ministry of Land, Infrastructures and Transport: Basics related to Civil Engineering and Architecture Design, Oct. 2002
3) Japan Society of Civil Engineering: Comprehensive design code (draft)-Principle and guide line for the preparation of
structural design based on performance design concept-, Mar. 2003
4) Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering: design principle for foundation structures based on performance design
concept, Mar. 2006
5) Nagao, T and F. Kawana: performance prescription of the design method for port and harbour facilities, 60th Annual Meeting
of JSCE, 2005
– 11 –
1.4 Performance Criteria

Public Notice
Fundamentals of Performance Criteria
Article 2
The performance criteria for the facilities subject to the Technical Standards as specified in this Public Notice
can be used as the requirements for verification of the performance requirements. The same applies to the
performance criteria not specified in this Public Notice but proved to satisfy the performance requirements
of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards.
[Technical Note]
Performance criteria are the technical regulations needed to verify performance requirements. Meeting the
performance criteria given here is hence considered as meeting performance requirements. Public notices specify
performance criteria on only general facilities of dominating structural types. In constructing, improving, or
maintaining other structural types of the subject facilities of technical standards, or in assuming specific design
situations, therefore, performance criteria shall be properly specified taking account of performance criteria for
similar structural types and the surrounding situations of the facilities concerned.
Performance criteria given in public notices specify, according to performance requirements, the performance
required for facilities to have from the viewpoint of public welfare. Responsible persons for constructing, improving,
or maintaining the subject facilities of technical standards can hence set higher-level codes than those given in public
notices. In such cases, however, the setting should be appropriately made based on a proper approach such as life cycle
cost minimization.
– 12 –
1.5 Performance Verification

Public Notice
Fundamentals of Performance Verification
Article 3
1 Performance verification of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be conducted using a
method which can take account of the actions to the facilities, requirements for services, and the uncertainty
of the performance of the facilities concerned or other methods having high reliability.
2 The performance verification of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be made in principle
by executing the subsequent items taking into consideration the situations in which the facilities concerned
will encounter during the design working life:
(1) Appropriately select the actions in consideration of the environmental conditions surrounding the
facilities concerned and others.
(2) Appropriately select the combination of the actions in consideration of the possible simultaneous
occurrence of dominant and non-dominant actions.
(3) Select the materials of the facilities concerned in consideration of their characteristics and the
environmental influences on them, and appropriately specify their physical properties.
[Commentary]
(1) Fundamentals of Performance Verification
① Methods capable of taking account of actions, requirements for services, and the uncertainty of the
performance of the facilities concerned
The methods capable of taking account of requirements for services and the uncertainty of the
facility performance concerned are the performance verification methods capable of properly taking
account of the uncertainty of the performance of the facilities concerned such as the uncertainty of
actions and strengths caused by the uncertainty inherent to various design parameters such as natural
conditions, material characteristics, and analysis methods. Reliability-based design methods shall be
generally used.
The performance verification using a reliability design method needs to properly evaluate actions,
and the uncertainty inherent to various design parameters relating to the performance of the facilities
concerned and properly set target failure probabilities or reliability indices.
The performance verification using the level 1 reliability-based design method (partial factors
method) needs to properly evaluate the uncertainty of design parameters and set the partial factors
reflecting target reliability indices.
② Other reliable methods
Other reliable methods are in principle performance verification methods to specifically and
quantitatively evaluate the performance of the facilities concerned. They generally include numerical
analysis methods, model test methods, and in situ test methods. If these methods are inappropriate to
use, however, methods to indirectly evaluate the performance of the facilities concerned based on past
experiences taking account of various conditions such as natural conditions can be interpreted as one
of the other reliable methods.
③ Corrosion of steel products
The performance verification of the subject facilities of technical standards shall be carried out
properly taking account of the corrosion of steel products according to various conditions such as
natural conditions. Since the steel products used for the subject facilities of technical standards are
generally installed in highly corrosive environments, anticorrosion measures shall be taken using
anticorrosion methods such as cathodic protection methods, coating methods, etc.
(1) Performance Verification Methods and Performance Criteria
Performance verification is an act to verify that performance criteria are satisfied. Ministerial ordinances
and public notices do not define specifications for verification. Designers conducting performance
verification shall take responsibility for using reliable methods. Table 1.3.2 summarizes currently
available verification methods on structural responses to actions recommended for individual design
situations. Reliability-based design methods are in principle applied to the performance verification
for permanent and variable situations, and numerical analysis methods are used for accidental situation.
If the methods shown in Table 1.3.2 cannot be used due to insufficient technical knowledge, methods
– 13 –
based on past experiences may be used. When using the verification methods shown above, note the
following:
① Reliability-based design methods
The performance verification using a reliability-based design method needs to properly evaluate actions,
strengths, and the uncertainty inherent to various design parameters relating to the performance of the
facilities concerned and properly set target failure probabilities or reliability indices. The performance
verification using the level 1 reliability-based design method (partial factor method) needs to properly
evaluate the uncertainty of design parameters and set the partial factors reflecting target reliability
indices.
② Numerical analysis methods
The performance verification using a numerical analysis method needs to study the applicability of
the method concerned from the viewpoints of the behaviors of actual structures in the past and the
reproducibility of test results and carefully judge the reliability of the method concerned.
③ Model test methods or in-situ test methods
The performance verification using a model test method or a in-situ test method needs to carefully
evaluate the performance of the facilities concerned taking account of differences in response between
models and actual structures and of the accuracy of tests and tests.
④ Methods based on past experiences
When performance verification using a method based on past experiences is unavoidable, it should be
noted that the number of actual applications does not necessarily mean high reliability.
Table 1.3.2 Performance verification methods recommended for individual Design situations
Design situation Dominating action Performance verification method

Self weight, earth pressure, winds, Reliability-based design method (partial
waves, water pressure, action due to factor method and others)
ship berthing/tracting, surcharge Model test method, or in-situ test method
Level 1 earthquake ground motion Reliability-based design method (partial
Permanent situation
factor method and others)
Variable situation Numerical analysis method (nonlinear
seismic response analysis taking account
of dynamic interaction between the
ground and the structure)
Model test method
Collision with a ship, tsunami, Numerical analysis method (method
Level 2 earthquake ground motion, capable of specifically evaluating the
Accidental situation accidental waves, fire amount of deformation or degree of
damage)
Model test method or in-situ test method
Taking account of the conformity of technical standards to international standards and the
accountability of designers, this document adopts the following methods: for the permanent and
variable situations, a reliability-based design method capable of quantitatively evaluating the stability
of facilities; for the accidental situation, a numerical analysis method capable of specifically evaluating
the amount of deformation and the degree of damage caused by actions.
A typical breakwater with a design working life of about 50 years, for example, needs to have
usability against waves with a 50 year return period. Verify the usability by checking that the
probability of failure against the sliding, overturning and foundation failure of the breakwater is not
higher than the allowable value. Setting this allowable failure probability at a value as low as about
1% shall be considered to ensure the serviceability.
In performance verification for the accidental situation, properly assume actions that have a low
possibility of occurrence in the area concerned but are unignorable to ensure social safety based
on disaster cases and scenarios, use a numerical analysis method to evaluate the responses of the
facility concerned to the actions, and judge if the degree of damage falls within a permissible range.
Persons responsible for performance verification shall properly set a permissible range of deformation
depending on the functions required for the facility after suffering damage from the actions concerned.
Other performance verification methods shall include the methods that persons in charge of
– 14 –
Table 1.3.3 Expected Performance Verification Methods for Each Facility or Structure Type, and for Each Design situation and Verification Item (1/4)
Facilities that can follow this
Assumed performance verification method performance verification
method
Reliability design method Methods based
Facility or structure
Design situation Verification item Level 3 reliability on specifications Methods based on
type Methods based
Level 1 reliability design methods Numerical analysis method of previous similar structure
design methods (methods on empirical
(dynamic analysis method) design methods types or other
(partial factor that consider determinations
(formal partial standards
methods) probabilistic
deformation) factor methods)
Permanent situation related Ground slip failure ○ Upright breakwater, gravity

to self weight type special breakwater,
Variable situation associated Sliding or overturning of the upright ○ ○ sediment control groin, groin,
with waves portion, bearing capacity of the Sliding
foundation ground
training jetty, etc.
Variable situation associated Sliding or overturning of the ○ ○

Composite with level 1 earthquake upright portion, bearing capacity
breakwater ground motion of the foundation ground
Accidental situation Deformation/damage ○ ○
Level 2 earthquake ground Tsunami, etc.
motion
– Crown height, harbor calmness, ○
etc.
Permanent situation Ground slip failure ○ Rubble revetment, etc.
associated with self weight
– 15 –
Variable situation associated Sliding or overturning of the ○
with waves superstructure, failure of the
ground, etc.

Sloping breakwater with level 1 earthquake superstructure, failure of the
ground motion ground, etc.
Accidental situation Sliding or overturning of the ○ ○

superstructure, failure of the Level 2 earthquake ground Tsunami, etc.
ground, etc. motion
– Crown height, harbor calmness, ○
etc.
Overall ○
Pile type
breakwater
Breakwater with Overall ○

wide footing on
soft ground
Overall ○ Breakwater, parapet, seawall,
Revetment See mooring etc.
facilities, etc.
Overall ○ Water gate, etc.
Lock
* Expected verifications are shown by ○. As much as possible, this table shows all the verification items for the expected performance verification methods of this document, but does not rule out verification by other appropriate methods. This table does not include determination
of liquefaction or study of precipitation, so a separate study is required.

Assumed performance verification method
performance verification method
Reliability design method
Methods based on
Facility or structure Level 3 reliability Numerical specifications of Methods based on
Design situation Verification item Methods based
type Level 1 reliability design methods analysis method previous design similar structure
(dynamic analysis methods (formal types or other
method) partial factor standards
methods) probabilistic methods)
deformation)
Permanent situation Ground slip failure ○ Placement type cellular-bulkhead
associated with self weight quaywall (however, not including
verification of sheer deformation,
Permanent situation Sliding or overturning of the ○ the main bodies of the cells, arcs,
associated with earth wall, bearing capacity of the and joints), gravity type revetment,
pressure foundation ground etc.
Gravity type
with level 1 earthquake wall, bearing capacity of the
quaywall
ground motion foundation ground
Variable situation associated Deformation ○
with level 2 earthquake
ground motion
--- Dimensions of the base, ○
ancillary facilities, etc.
Permanent situation Ground slip failure ○ Sheet piled revetment, etc.
– 16 –
associated with self weight
Permanent situation Stress of sheet pile and tie rods ○

associated with earth
pressure
Permanent situation Stress of waling ○
associated with earth
pressure
Variable situation associated Stress of sheet pile, tie rods, and ○ ○
with level 1 earthquake waling
ground motion
Sheet Piled Variable situation associated Stress of tie rods and waling ○
quaywall with ship action
Overall Anchorage work (anchorage ○

wharves, coupled pile

anchorage, anchorage sheet pile,
concrete wall anchorage)
Accidental situation Deformation/cross-sectional ○

associated with level 2 strength of sheet pile, tie rods,
earthquake ground motion and anchorage work
--- Dimensions of the base, ○
ancillary facilities, etc.
Cantilevered sheet Overall ○ Sheet piled revetment, etc.

pile type quay wall
* Expected verifications are shown by ○. As much as possible, this table shows all the verification items for the expected performance verification methods of this document, but does not rule out verification by other
appropriate methods. This table does not include determination of liquefaction or study of precipitation, so a separate study is required.
Assumed performance verification method performance verification
method
Reliability design method
Facility or structure Methods based on
Design situation Verification item Level 3 reliability specifications of Methods based on
Type Numerical analysis Methods based
Level 1 reliability design methods previous design similar structure
design methods (methods method (dynamic on empirical
methods (formal types or other
(partial factor that consider analysis method) determinations
partial factor standards
deformation)
Double sheet piled All

○
quaywall
Permanent situation Sheer deformation Placement type cellular-

associated with earth cell crown deformation ○ bulkhead quaywall, cell type
pressure revetment, steel cell type
Permanent situation Sliding of the wall, bearing dolphin, etc.
associated with earth capacity of the foundation ○
pressure ground
Permanent situation Stress of the main bodies of the
associated with earth cells and arcs ○
pressure
Embedded Type Permanent situation Ground slip failure
Cellular-Bulkhead associated with self weight ○
Quaywall
Variable situation associated Sliding of the wall, bearing
– 17 –
with level 1 earthquake capacity of the foundation ○ ○
ground motion ground, cell crown deformation
Accidental situation Deformation
associated with level 2 ○
earthquake ground motion
--- Dimensions of the base,
ancillary facilities, etc. ○
Quaywall with Overall

○
relieving platform
Variable situation associated Verification of the floating body

with wave or ship action ○
Overall Verification of the mooring

Floating pier ○ Floating breakwater, etc.
--- Dimensions and ancillary

facilities ○
Variable associated with Verification of the anchoring

ship action chain of floating body, ground
○
chain, sinker chain, mooring
Mooring buoy anchor, etc.
--- Dimensions, etc.
○

Assumed performance verification method
performance verification method
Reliability Design Method

Methods based on
Facility or Level 3 reliability Numerical specifications of Methods based on
Design situation Verification item Methods based
structure type Level 1 reliability design methods analysis method previous design similar structure
(dynamic analysis methods (formal types or other
method) partial factor standards
deformation)
Variable situation associated Verification of pile axial strength Open-type wharf on coupled
with ship action, level 1 ○ piles, strut type pier, jacket type
seismic action, or loading piled pier, detached piled pier, pile
type dolphin
Variable situation associated Pile stress
with ship action or loading ○
Variable situation associated Pile stress

with level 1 earthquake ○ ○
Open-type wharf ground motion
on vertical piles Accidental situation Deformation/damage
associated with level 2 ○
Overall Verification of earth- retaining ○
section See mooring
facilities, etc.
– 18 –
--- Dimensions of the base,
ancillary facilities, etc. ○
Overall ○
Shallow draft
See mooring
wharf
facilities, etc.
Variable situation associated Stability of members and
○
with ship action structures
Mooring posts and
mooring rings --- Installation location, spacing,
○
etc.
Variable situation associated Berthing energy

○
with ship action
Fenders
--- Arrangement, etc.
○
Variable situation associated Verification of pavement

○
with loading soundness
Aprons
--- Size, width, slope, etc.
○
performance verification can freely select. Methods of performance verification other than those
listed in Table 1.3.2 may be used for the performance verification of the subject facilities of technical
standards. The persons in charge may also adopt new verification methods. The methods capable
of specifically evaluating the performance of the facility concerned, such as those to probabilistic
evaluation of indices like a total amount of deformation incurred during the design working life and
the life cycle cost, are especially recommendable from the viewpoint of the reasonable performance
verification. There may be a method, for example, to verify the performance of the facility concerned
taking account of actions corresponding to various return periods as much as possible.
A typical example is the method to use a total amount of deformation incurred during the design
working life and the life cycle cost as verification indices and their probabilistic control. From the
viewpoint of the reasonable performance verification, such a method should be recommended because
it can specifically evaluate the performance of the facility concerned. Table 1.3.2 has no intention to
exclude these methods.
The above reliability-based design methods and numerical analysis approaches have not been
established as the performance verification methods for all types of port facilities. They are inapplicable
to some facilities. It is therefore necessary to select appropriate performance verification methods
for such facilities, taking account of the methods based on the setting used in conventional design
methods (methods based on the conventional allowable safety factor method and the allowable stress
design method). The methods based on the setting used in conventional design methods are those that
use a verification equation in the form of partial factors with no essential change from conventional
design methods to allow the latest knowledge and findings to be immediately reflected on performance
verification. Table 1.3.3 shows the performance verification methods assumed in this document
corresponding to facility-wise and structure type-wise performance criteria given in public notices.
The verification of the variable situation of the cusing the seismic coefficient method needs to calculate
seismic coefficients for verification. This document describes the methods of calculating seismic
coefficients for verification with the examples of composite breakwaters, gravity-type quaywalls,
sheet pile quaywalls with vertical-pile anchorage, sheet pile quaywalls with coupled-pile anchorage,
open type wharves on vertical-piles, and the ground improved by the deep mixing method or the sand
compaction pile (SCP) method. As exemplified in Table 1.3.4, the methods of calculating seismic
coefficients for verification used for the above types of facilities can also be applied to the other types,
taking account of their structural characteristics. It should be noted that the performance verification
methods shown in this document are only examples and it has no intention to restrict the use of other
verification methods.
(2) Actions
The performance verification of a subject facility of technical standards needs to take account of its
design working life and the performance requirements, and properly set the amounts of actions. The
setting of actions needs to take account of various conditions like natural conditions, and as necessary,
actions during design working life affected by estuarine hydraulics, littoral drift, ground settlement,
ground liquefaction, and environmental actions. For further details on the setting of actions, refer to
the regulations and corresponding commentaries in Article 5 to Article 20 of the Public notice of the
Technical Standards.
(3) Combination of Actions
The combination of actions means the types and amounts of actions simultaneously considered in
performance verification. The setting of the combination of actions needs to properly take account of
the design working life of the facility concerned, its performance requirements, etc. For the combination
of dominating and non-dominating actions assumed in the performance criteria specified in the public
notices of the technical standards, refer to the tables shown in the commentaries of individual facilities.
In setting the combination of actions, non-dominating actions can be assumed to have an amount
with a relatively large annual exceedence probability and occur frequently in the design working life, if
the possibility of the simultaneous occurrence of dominating and non-dominating actions is low.
(4) Selection of Materials
Selection of materials needs to properly take account of their quality and durability. Materials used
for the subject facilities of technical standards include steel products, concrete, bituminous materials,
stone, wood, other metallic materials, plastics, rubber, coating materials, landfill materials (including
wastes), recycled materials (slag, coal ash, concrete mass, dredged soil, asphalt concrete mass, shells,
etc.). Materials conforming to the Japanese Industrial Standards can be assumed to have quality needed
to meet the performance requirements of the subject facilities of technical standards.
– 19 –
(5) Characteristic Values of Materials

Characteristic values of materials mean material properties such as strength, weight per unit volume,
friction coefficient, etc. Designers need to properly set the characteristic values of materials based on JIS
specification values or other reliable quality data. The setting of the physical characteristics of materials
and cross sectional dimensions needs proper consideration of material degradation due to environmental
actions.
Table 1.3.4 Method of Calculating the Seismic Coefficient for Verification, for Each Facility or Structure Type
Facilities for which the

method of calculating the Facilities to which the method of calculating the
Seismic coefficient for verification
seismic coefficient for seismic coefficient for verification can be applied
verification is specified
Composite breakwater Seismic coefficient for verification Composite breakwater (block, cellular block),
(caisson type) considering deformation upright breakwater, sloping breakwater,
breakwater armored with wave-dissipating
blocks, gravity type special breakwater, caisson
type dolphin (not affected by earth pressure), cell
type dolphin (not affected by earth pressure)
Breakwater with wide Operating seismic coefficient –
footing on soft ground (= maximum acceleration /
gravitational acceleration)
Gravity type quaywall Seismic coefficient for verification Gravity type quaywall (l-shaped block, block,
(caisson type) considering deformation cellular block), upright wave-dissipating type
quaywall, embedded type cellular-bulkhead
quaywall, placement type cellular-bulkhead
quaywall, quaywalls with relieving platforms,
caisson type dolphin (affected by earth pressure),
cell type dolphin (affected by earth pressure),
gravity type revetment, embedded type cellular-
bulkhead revetment, placement type cellular-
bulkhead revetment, rubble type revetment
Sheet piled Vertical pile Seismic coefficient for verification Sheet piled quaywall (sheet pile anchorage type,
quaywall anchorage considering deformation concrete wall anchorage type), free standing
sheet piled quaywall, sheet piled quaywall
with raking pile anchorages, double sheet piled
quaywall
Coupled pile Seismic coefficient for verification –
anchorage considering deformation
Open-type Pier Seismic coefficient for verification Open-type wharf on coupled raking piles, jacket
wharf on using the response spectrum type piled pier, strutted type pier, detached piled
vertical piles pier, pile type dolphin, pile type breakwater,
quaywalls with sheet pile walls with supporting
raking piles to the front, mooring pile
Earth- Seismic coefficient for verification –
retaining considering deformation
section
Improved Deep mixing Seismic coefficient for verification –
subsoil method considering deformation
SCP method Seismic coefficient for verification –
considering deformation
* With regard to sediment control groins, training jetties, groins, coastal dikes, parapets, seawalls, locks, water gates, shallow draft
wharves, and slipways, it is possible to consider the structure type and the facility’s response characteristics during seismic movements
when applying the above methods of calculating the seismic coefficient for verification.
– 20 –
1.6 Reliability-based Design Method

1.6.1 Outline of Reliability-based Design Method
The reliability-based design method is a method in which the possibility of failure of facilities is evaluated using a
technique based on probability theory, and comprises three design levels corresponding to the evaluation method.1)
Evaluations are performed by the failure probability Pf of the structure at Level 3, highest level, by the reliability
index β at level 2, and by a performance verification equation using partial factors, γ at level 1, lowest level as shown
in Table 1.6.1.
When calculating the failure probability in evaluation by the level 3 reliability-based design method, it is generally
necessary to obtain the simultaneous probability density function based on the limit state function, and to perform
multiple integrals on the result. However, conducting of standardization of the simultaneous probability density
function, and calculation of high order multiple integrals accompany difficulty, so that it is not practical normally.
For this reason, techniques such as Monte Carlo Simulation, MCS, etc. are used in numerical calculations of failure
probability. Even in such cases, from the viewpoint of reducing the computational load, it is the general practice to
apply Variance Reduction Techniques, VRT, etc. rather than the primitive crude Monte Carlo simulation. In the level
2 reliability-based design method, a reliability index which is related to the failure probability is used as an evaluation
parameter. The reliability index is calculated based on a method such as First-Order Reliability Method, FORM, or
the like. On the other hand, in the level 1 reliability-based design method, verification is performed by calculating
design values, which are the products of the characteristic values and partial factors, and then confirming that the
design values of resistance Rd are greater than the design values of the effects of actions Sd. Commentaries on the
reliability-based design method are available in References 3) and 4) .
Table 1.6.1 Three Levels in Reliability-based Design Method
Performance
Design verification Evaluation parameter
level equation
Pf T ≥ Pf
Level 3 Failure probability
Pf
βT ≤ β
Level 2 Reliability index
β
R d ≥ Sd
Level 1 Design value
Sd
Regardless of the method selected, in order to make an accurate quantitative evaluation of the performance of
facilities by the reliability-based design method, it is necessary to determine the various indeterminate factors,
namely the design parameters which intervene in the performance verification. If this is not achieved, the calculated
failure probability or reliability index will have no engineering meaning. Furthermore, in order to achieve design
rationalization and construction cost reduction by applying the reliability-based design method, it is necessary to strive
for improved accuracy in estimations of the controlling factors with the greatest effect on the design. This is because,
in addition to the average values of the design parameters, their standard deviations also affect the failure probability
Pf of structures. For this, firstly, it is necessary to designate the controlling factors. For example, evaluation using
sensitivity factors is extremely effective as a technique for this. Here, sensitivity factors are indices that express the
sensitivity or importance of the various design parameters in the performance of the facilities, as described in detail
in 1.6.3 Method of Setting Partial Factors. Because reliability indices and sensitivity factors are used in calculation
of the partial factors in the level 1 reliability-based design method, quantitative evaluation of these values has a large
engineering significance.
1.6.2 Level 1 Reliability-based Design Method (Partial Factor Method)

The international standard ISO 2394 “General Principles on Reliability for Structures” and “Basics of Civil Engineering
and Architectural Design” (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) recommend the partial factor
method as a standard performance verification method for facilities. Considering conformity to these upper-level
standards and simplicity and convenience in practical design work, this document adopts the level 1 reliability-based
design method (partial factor method) as the standard performance verification method. However, this does not
restrict the use of the level 2 and level 3 reliability-based design methods for performance verification. Rather, because
the partial factor method is a simple design method, as described below, adoption of level 2 or level 3 methods for
precise control of the possibility of failure is preferable.
The following summarizes the level 1 reliability-based design method as the standard performance verification
– 21 –
method.
The level 1 reliability-based design method is a method in which characteristic values are multiplied by partial factors
in order to calculate design values, and equation (1.6.1) is used to confirm that the design value of resistance Rd is
greater than the design value of the effect of actions Sd in order to verify the performance of the facility.
(1.6.1)
The design values of the effect of actions Sd and resistance Rd are given by equations (1.6.2) and (1.6.3), respectively.
(1.6.2)
(1.6.3)
The design values of the individual design parameters necessary in performance verification such as the wave
action, the ground motion, material characteristics, etc. are calculated from equations (1.6.4) and (1.6.5).
(1.6.4)
(1.6.5)
where
sid : design value of design parameter si of action effect
γ s : partial factor of design parameter si of action effect
sik : characteristic value of design parameter si of action effect
rjd : design value of design parameter rj of resistance
γ r : partial factor of design parameter rj of resistance
rjk : characteristic value of design parameter rj of resistance
Equations (1.6.6) and (1.6.7) give the design values of the simplest action effects and resistance, respectively, when
i = j = 1 (suffixes i, j = 1 are omitted). Equation (1.6.8) expresses the performance verification equation in that case.
(1.6.6)
(1.6.7)
(1.6.8)
1.6.3 Methods of Setting Partial Factors

The above 1.6.2 describes the outline of the partial factor method. We describe here the method of setting the
partial factors.
In the cases where the stochastic variable X has a normal distribution, the partial factor γx used in the level
1 reliability-based design method can be calculated from equation (1.6.9) using the reliability index and the
sensitivity factor described above.
(1.6.9)
where
βT : target reliability index
VX : coefficient of variation of stochastic variable X
µX : average value of stochastic variable X
X k : characteristic value of stochastic variable X
In the cases where the stochastic variable X has a logarithmic normal distribution, the partial factor can be
calculated from equation (1.6.10).
– 22 –
(1.6.10)
The stochastic variables used in this document have a normal distribution unless otherwise noted.
1.6.4 Setting of Target Safety Level and Target Reliability Index/Partial Factors
In application of reliability-based design methods, how the target safety level is set is a key issue. Methods of
setting the target safety level include the following method 1):
① Method based on accident statistics
② Method based on the average safety level of conventional design criteria (safety factor method, allowable stress
method)
③ Method based on comparison with other disaster vulnerabilities
④ Method based on the investment effect necessary for avoiding the risk of human loss
⑤ Method based on the minimization of the life cycle cost
A study 6) of the applicability of these methods to port and harbour facilities revealed the following: Method ①
based on accident statistics has difficulty in matching statistics on accidents, which are often caused by human error,
with failure probabilities, which are caused by various levels of actions such as waves and earthquakes, whereas
method ③ based on comparison with other disaster vulnerabilities and method ④ based on the investment effect
necessary for avoiding the risk of human loss do not have high applicability to port and harbour facilities because
they were proposed for facilities with a high possibility of direct human loss due to damage to facilities.
Taking these viewpoints into consideration, this document generally uses method ② based on calibration to
conventional design criteria as the method of setting target safety levels for cases where the probability distributions
of parameters are known and verification methods are compatible with failure mechanisms. However, use of method
④ based on the minimization of life cycle cost is not rejected.
When adopting a method using the life cycle cost as the index, the cost arising during the design working life
(assumed to be 50 years) is generally defined as the life cycle cost, and the possibility of multiple disasters is
considered. Equation (1.6.11) shows the expected value of the life cycle cost. It should be noted that this is a narrow
definition of life cycle cost.
(1.6.11)
(1.6.12)
(1.6.13)
where
LC
E : expected value of life cycle cost
Ci : initial construction cost
m : rank number of action of interest
T : design working life (50 years)
Ef j : expected number of damage occurrence caused by action of interest
Cf : cost of recovery after failure
i : social discount rate
Pf : failure probability due to actions of interest
νj : average annual occurrence rate of action of interest (=1/R)
R : return period of action of interest
Fig. 1.6.1 shows the general concept of this method. Life cycle cost generally shows different trends depending
on the side of the minimum value (optimum value). On the right side (dangerous side) of the minimum value, the
life cycle cost is sensitive to changes in failure probability, and rapidly increases as the failure probability increases.
On the left side (conservative side) of the minimum value, the life cycle cost gradually increases as the failure
probability decreases.
– 23 –
Expected value of life cycle cost

Life cycle cost
Optimum value
Conventional
design method
(ELC)
Initial construction cost
Failure probability Pf
Fig. 1.6.1 Method based on Minimization of Life Cycle Cost
In performance verification of mooring facilities for the permanent situation, the probability distributions of
parameters are known and verification methods are compatible with failure mechanisms. Nevertheless, the use
of method ② is not necessarily appropriate because multiple failure modes exist in each structural type and there
were large differences in the safety levels for each failure mode due to differences in setting in the conventional
design methods.7) Furthermore, the safety levels of the conventional design methods also varied greatly due to the
autocorrelation of ground strength, which is affected by the size of the slip arc as in the case of the circular slip failure
mode.8) When using method ⑤, because it is not necessary to consider the action of multiple annual exceedance
probabilities in mooring facilities in the permanent situation, the expected total cost expressed by the sum of the
initial construction cost and the expected value of failure recovery cost is used as an index, and verification is
performed by finding the failure probability for minimizing this index as the optimum value. In this case, the
expected total cost is given by equation (1.6.14).
(1.6.14)
where
TC
E : expected total cost
Ci : initial construction cost
Pf : failure probability due to action of interest
Cf : cost of recovery after failure
The method of setting partial factors used in this document is based on the following concept.
In the cases where the probability distributions of parameters are known and verification methods are compatible
with failure mechanisms, partial factors are generally determined based on calibration to conventional design
methods using the allowable safety factor method and similar approaches.
On the other hand, when in performance verification of mooring facilities for the Permanent situation,
the probability distributions of parameters are known and the verification methods are compatible with failure
mechanisms, but using the partial factors set based on calibration to conventional design methods (allowable safety
factor method, allowable stress method, etc.) sometimes leads to the setting of excessively safe and uneconomical
cross sections. In such cases, this document recommends the use of partial factors set based on minimization of
expected total costs.
In other cases, where the probability distributions of parameters are unknown or verification approaches are not
necessarily compatible with failure mechanisms, the setting of target safety levels/partial factors using a probability
theory is difficult. Therefore, in such cases, this document determines partial factors stochastically, considering the
settings used in conventional design methods (safety factor method, allowable stress method).
Table 1.6.2 summarizes the above-mentioned setting methods by type of facility.
– 24 –
Table 1.6.2 Methods of Setting Target Reliability Indexes/Partial Factors of Major Facilities
Method of setting target

Facility Design situation Failure mode reliability index/partial factor
Method based on
Circular slip failure of foundation
Permanent situation minimization of expected
ground total cost
Gravity type
breakwater Sliding of breakwater body Method based on average
Variable situation with respect
Overturning of breakwater body safety level of conventional
to waves Bearing capacity of the foundation design methods
ground
Sliding of wall body
Overturning of wall body Method based on
Permanent situation Bearing capacity of foundation minimization of expected
ground total cost
Gravity type Circular slip of foundation ground
quaywall
Sliding of wall body
Variable situation associated Method based on setting
with Level 1 earthquake ground Overturning of wall body used in conventional design
Bearing capacity of the foundation
motion methods
ground
Embedded length of sheet pile Method based on
Stress of sheet pile minimization of expected
Stress of tie rods total cost
Permanent situation Circular slip of foundation ground
Stress of anchorage work (bearing Method based on setting
used in conventional design
capacity)
Sheet piled methods
quaywall Method based on setting
Embedded length of sheet pile used in conventional design
Variable situation associated methods
with Level 1 earthquake ground Stress of sheet pile
motion Method based on setting
Stress of tie member used in conventional design
Stress of anchorage work (bearing methods
capacity)
Method based on setting
Shear deformation used in conventional design
Sliding methods
Cellular- Permanent situation
Method based on average
bulkhead Stress of cell shell safety level of conventional
type Stress of arc design methods
quaywall
Variable situation with respect Method based on setting
to Level 1 earthquake ground Sliding used in conventional design
motion methods
Method based on
Stress of pile (edge yield of pile head) minimization of expected
Variable situation associated total cost
with actions caused by ships Method based on setting
Open-type Bearing capacity of pile used in conventional design
wharf on methods
vertical piles Method based on average
Stress of pile (edge yield of pile head) safety level of conventional
Variable situation associated design methods
with respect to Level 1
earthquake ground motion Method based on setting
Bearing capacity of pile used in conventional design
methods
– 25 –
References
1) Hoshitani M. And K. Ishii: reliability Design method of structures, Kajima Publishing Co., 1986
2) Naga, H: Structural reliability design as basic knowledge, Sankaido Publications, 1995
3) Melchers, R.E. : Structural Reliability Analysis and Prediction, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999
4) Haldar, A. and Mahadevan, S. : Probability, Reliability and Statistical Methods in Engineering Design, 2nd edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000
5) Box, G. E. P. and Muller, M. E. : A note on the generation of normal deviates, Ann. Math. Stat., 29 pp.610-611, 1958
6) Nagao, T. Y. Kadowaki and K. Terauchi: Evaluation of Safety of Breakwaters by the Reliability Based Design Method (1st
Report: Study on the Safety against Sliding), Report of PHRI. Vol. 34, No. 1, 1995
7) Nagao, T., Y. Kadowaki and K. Terauchi: Overall system stability of a breakwater based on reliability design method (First
Report)- Discussion on the stability against sliding, Proceedings of Structural Eng., Vol. 51A, pp.389-400, 2005
8) Ozaki, R. and T. Nagao: Study on Application of reliability based design method on circular arc slip of breakwaters,
Proceedings of Ocean Development No. 21, JSCE, pp. 963-968, 2005
– 26 –
ANNEX 1 Reliability-based Design Method
(1) Level 3 Reliability-based Design Method

In the level 3 reliability-based design method, value of failure probability is assessed directly and cross-sectional
dimensions are determined so that failure probability is equal to or lower than an allowable value. Failure
probability is calculated by multiple integrals of the joint probability density function of random variables in the
failure domain [see equation (A-1.1)].
(A-1.1)
where x1, x2, … xn are stochastic variables, fx(x1, x2, … xn) is the joint probability density function
of the random variables, and g(X) is the limit state function.
The joint probability density function can be expressed by equation (A-1.2), for example, when all
random variables are normally distributed.
(A-1.2)
where Cx is the covariance matrix, and μ is the average value.
fX1X2(x1, x2)
fX1(x1)
fX2(x2) x1
μ X1
0 x1 fX1X2(x1, x2)
( μ X1, μX2)
μ X2
Z<0
Z>0
Z<0 Z>0
Z=0
x2 Z=0
x2
Fig. A-1.1 Concept of Failure Probability
Fig. A-1.1 shows the concept of failure probability for a simple case of two independent variables, where
fx1(x1) and fx2 (x2) are marginal probability density functions, and the bell-shaped fx1x2 (x1, x2) is a joint probability
density function. In the cases of two variables, the joint probability density distribution can be expressed as a
bell-shaped distribution in a three-dimensional space and its multiple integrals gives the volume. The multiple
integrals in the whole domain results in the volume = 1. The failure probability is given by the failure domain of
this joint probability density function, i.e., the volume of the domain shown by Z < 0 in Fig. A-1.1.
The application of this multiple integrals to actual problems is, however, difficult in many cases. Triple or
higher-order multiple integrals is generally difficult. In some cases, joint probability density functions cannot be
expressed in an explicit form. In almost all cases, therefore, the value of failure probability is not assessed directly
from equation (A-1.1) but by Monte Carlo simulation (hereafter called MCS).
The following shows the general procedure of MCS:
– 27 –
① Pseudo-random numbers (uniform random numbers) are generated.

② The uniform random numbers are transformed into random numbers having a necessary probability distribution
and a correlation.
③ The safety of the structure concerned is evaluated using the combination of obtained random numbers.
④ The above evaluation is performed a large number of times, and the number of trials judged as failure is divided
by the total number of trials to determine the failure probability.
The random numbers generated by computer follow a certain rule depending on needs, and hence are called
pseudo-random numbers. Methods such as the multiplicative congruence method and linear congruence methods
have been widely used as algorithms for generating uniform random numbers. Likewise, at present, build-in
functions for various applications frequently use these methods. It should be noted, however, that the problem of
cycle length, which is one of the requirements for random number generation algorithms, has been pointed out in
the case of the linear congruence method. For this reason, other algorithms such as Mersenne Twister are often
used. The source code of Mersenne Twister is available on the internet.
The transformation of uniform random numbers into other probability distributions is carried out by inverse
operation of the probability distribution function. For example, the following equation (A-1.3) can be used for the
transformation into normal random variables:
(A-1.3)
where ri is a uniform random number, Φ is the standard normal cumulative distribution function, and μ and V
are the average value and the coefficient of variation, respectively.
In addition, the method proposed by Box and Muller 5) is also widely used for transformation into normal
random variables. Other transformation methods include the one using the central limit theorem, which uses the
fact that the sum of random numbers having the same probability distribution approximates a normal distribution.
However, in applying this method, care is necessary with regard to the applicability of the distribution tail,
because a very small failure probability is normally required for structures, and accurate evaluation of such a
small failure probability demands exact reproducibility of the tail of the probability distribution. Accordingly,
due consideration of the applicability of the distribution tail is necessary, especially in assessing value of failure
probability.
In the cases where random variables are correlated, independent random variables must be converted into
correlated random variables using the covariance matrix transformation.
MCS is the method for obtaining an approximate solution from equation (A-1.5) as an alternative to using multiple
integrals as shown in equation (A-1.4).
(A-1.4)
(A-1.5)
where I is a failure judgment function. The above expression becomes 1 for I < 0 and zero for other cases.
When using MCS, the number of trials must be set carefully because the validity of approximation in equation
(A-1.5) depends on the number of trials. In MCS, the number of trials is generally set so that the coefficient of
variations of the failure probability [equation (A-1.6)] will become sufficiently small.
(A-1.6)
where V is the coefficient of variation, pf is the assessed value of failure probability by MCS, and N is the
number of trials.
Following Shooman, 6) the error ε attributable to MCS can be calculated from equation (A-1.7).4) From this,
it can be understood that a small failure probability is likely to result in large error if the number of trials is
insufficient. Therefore, evaluation of probability based on a small number of trials due to the calculation load in
each trial must absolutely be avoided.
(A-1.7)
– 28 –
Several methods have been devised to improve the calculation efficiency of MCS while maintaining the
necessary calculation accuracy. These are collectively called Variance Reduction Techniques (VRTs), while the
primitive MCS with no special sampling techniques is called the crude Monte Carlo method. It is thought that
VRTs will be used as a standard technique in the future.
The Importance Sampling Method is a typical VRT.7), 8) This method introduces the sampling density function
h(x) in equation (A-1.8)] into equation (A-1.4). In determining the sampling density function, information on the
design point obtained from the FORM, as described below, are used in many cases.7), 8) It must be noted that the
improper setting of the sampling density function may result in slow convergence.
(A-1.8)
Methods of improving calculation efficiency other than the importance sampling method include, for example,
the Adaptive Sampling method, 9), 10) the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method, 11) ,12) the Latin hypercube
sampling method, 13) etc. Other methods use Low Discrepancy Sequences called quasi-random numbers 14) without
using the pseudo-random numbers described above.
(2) Level 2 Reliability-based Design Method
The level 2 reliability-based design method assesses the reliability index β, instead of the failure probability, in
order to determine the cross-sectional dimensions so as to obtain a value of β greater than the permissible value.
The failure probability of a structure decreases as the reliability index increases. In some cases, the reliability
index was formerly called the safety index. However, this document will use the term “reliability index.” (The
term reliability index is also used in ISO 2394 and elsewhere.)
The reliability index β and the failure probability pf have the relation shown by equation (A-1.9). Fig. A-1.2
is a graphic representation of this relationship.
(A-1.9)
where Ф is the standard normal cumulative distribution function.
Fig. A-1.2 Relationship between Reliability Index and Failure Probability
Cornell 15) first formulated the reliability index β. Since the method uses only the first and second order
moments (called average value and variance, respectively) of limit state function, it is called the First-Order
Second-Moment (FOSM) method.
Assuming that the limit state function Z simply consists of two variables of the resistance R and the action effect S
(Z = R - S), the reliability index can be obtained from equation (A-1.10). Fig. A-1.3 shows a graphic representation.
(A-1.10)
where μ is the average value and σ is the standard deviation.
– 29 –
fZ (z)
βσZ
Failure Safe
( Z ≤ 0) (Z >0)
Pf
0 µZ Z
Fig. A-1.3 Reliability index β
The above is the expression for the case of two variables. As a more general expression in the FOSM, the
limit state function g is developed around its average value by Taylor's series expansion method. The average and
standard deviation of the limit state function are evaluated by using terms up to the first order as shown in equation
(A-1.1).
When the limit state function consists of mutually independent random variables xi (i = 1, ---, n), the average
value and standard deviation are evaluated by equations (A-1.12) and (A-1.13), respectively. It must be noted that
the expression is different when the variables are correlated.
(A-1.11)
(A-1.12)
(A-1.13)
where μ is the average value and σ is the standard deviation. The mark ¯ attached to variables such as X and
xi indicates the average value of the symbol.
Equation (A-1.14) gives the reliability index.
(A-1.14)
The reliability index determined by FOSM has the following defects: It does not reflect probability distribution
of random variables. It uses a linear approximation at the average value of the limit state function, and does not
consider the probability distribution based on random variables , it may give a non-negligible error when the
limit state function is nonlinear, and it gives different reliability indexes depending on differences in the form of
expression used for the limit state function (for example, Z = R−S and Z = R/S−1). At the present time, therefore,
more accurate approaches such as the FORM described below are generally used. However, in cases, where the
object of verification is the amount of deformation and the degree of damage of the structure obtained by nonlinear
seismic response analysis, and where the calculation of the failure probability and reliability index using the MCS
described above or the FORM and SORM described below involves a heavy calculation load, using the FOSM is
considered a simple and easy option for reliability evaluation.
Hasofer and Lind 16) proposed a reliability index which overcomes the defects of FOSM. The index gives
accurate results within the range of the first order approximation when the random variables are normal. Rackwitz
and Fiessler 17) later proposed a method which extends that method to the cases of random variables other than
normal ones. Their method is called FORM (First-Order Reliability Method).
In FORM, random variables are transformed into mutually independent standard normal random variables,
and the limit state function in the standardized space consisting of standard normal random variable vectors is
assessed. Next, a search is made to identify the shortest distance from the origin of the standardized space to the
limit state curved surface (curved surface where the limit state function becomes zero). This distance is defined
as the reliability index.
Some points regarding the transformation into standard normal random variables should be noted. First, in
the cases of random variables other than normal ones, these are transformed into the normal random variables
– 30 –
simultaneously giving the same values of probability density and probability distribution at the position of
interest (normal tail transformation). Since the objective here is to find failure probability, the form of the tail
distribution has no effect on the failure probability if the probability density and probability distribution are
identical. Accordingly, the above transformation into normal random variables will not cause error in the failure
probability. Next, in cases where random variables are normal and are also mutually correlated, these must
be transformed into a linear combination of independent normal random variables by Cholesky decomposition.
Furthermore, in cases of mutually correlated general random variables (random variables other than normal ones),
it is also necessary to use the Resenblatt transformation, 18) Nataf transformation 19), etc.
In assessment of the reliability index using FORM, it is necessary to search for the shortest distance between
the origin of the standardized space and the limit state curved surface. Therefore, this method can be considered
as a kind of optimization problem. Various procedures for calculating the reliability index have been proposed
(see References 3) and 4) for details), including a method of calculating convergence on the original coordinate
system. Whichever method is used, it is necessary to note that cases in which convergence is very slow or does
not occur are conceivable, depending on conditions. As described below, the process of searching for the shortest
distance requires the calculation of the directional cosine, and therefore, that of the partial differentiation of the
limit state function. However, if the analytical partial differentiation is not possible, numerical differentiation
may be used.
The reliability index used in FORM can be expressed as shown in Fig. A-1.4 for the simple case of two
independent variables as the random variables. A feature of FORM is to use the linear approximation of the limit
state function with a certain point (design point) as the center for simplification to a problem in two-dimensional
space, as shown in Fig. A-1.3, and express the reliability index as the distance between the origin and the failure
point, without calculating the volume (in the case of two variables) as shown in Fig. A-1.1. The fact that error
is set to the minimum point in this approximation is of vital importance. Because this is the point where the
joint probability density shows its maximum value on the limit state curve surface (surface where the limit state
function is zero), this is the search point. Fig. A-1.4 differs from Fig. A-1.1 in that the variables are transformed
into the standardized space, and as a result, the joint probability density has its maximum value at the origin and
is expressed by the concentric contours. Thus, the design point is the point giving the shortest distance from the
origin to the limit state curved surface.
x2'
g(x1', x2')=0
First-order approximation
g(x1', x2')<0
g(x1', x2' )>0
φ (x2') x'*
x1'
Design point
β φ (x1')
P*f u
φ (x1')
Fig. A-1.4 Reliability Index in FORM
In the cases where random variables are normal and have no mutual correlation, as dealt with by Hasofer and
Lind, 16) the reliability index is expressed by equation (A-1.15).
– 31 –
(A-1.15)
where
Z : limit state function
X : value of stochastic variable X at the failure point
µ : average value
σ : standard deviation
The process of calculating the reliability index requires the calculation of the sensitivity factor α expressed by
equation (A-1.16). The sensitivity factor α is a linear approximate coefficient of limit state function.
(A-1.16)
where
(A-1.17)
Equation (A-1.16) expresses the directional cosine of the reliability index to each random variable axis in the
standardized space (see Fig. A-1.5). The sensitivity factor has a positive value for the parameters on the resistance
side and a negative value for those on the action effect side, their sum of squares being 1 when the random
variables have no correlation with each other. As is clear from the figure, as the absolute value of the sensitivity
factor of a variable approaches 1, the standardized value at the failure point tends to coincide more closely with
the reliability index. This means that the variable has a large effect on the reliability index.
In cases where random variables are mutually correlated, the correlation coefficient ρ between the random
variables is considered in the standard deviation and sensitivity factor of the limit state function, which are
expressed by equations (A-1.18) and (A-1.19), respectively.
(A-1.18)
(A-1.19)
– 32 –
S'
Z=0
Z<0 First-order approximation
β
S'*
cos-1( αR)
R'
R'* 0
cos-1( αs )
Fig. A-1.5 Reliability Index β and Sensitivity Factor α
The application of the FORM enables accurate evaluation of the reliability index within the range of the
first-order approximation. It must be noted, however, that FORM uses the first-order approximation of the limit
state function to evaluate the reliability index. For example, when the hatched area in Fig. A-1.5 shows a real
failure domain, FORM approximates it by the dotted line in the figure, causing an error corresponding to the
area between the solid and dotted lines. Therefore, in cases where the limit state curved surface shows strong
nonlinearity, the FORM may cause error which cannot be ignored.
As an approach to solving the problem inherent to FORM, the Second-Order Reliability Method (SORM) has
been proposed.20) SORM corrects the reliability index obtained by FORM according to the curvature of the limit
state curved surface, as shown in equation (A-1.20).
(A-1.20)
where
β : reliability index obtained by the FORM, κi: principal curvature of the i-th limit state curved
surface.
An important point in reliability analysis is the proper selection of an accurate method according to the
characteristics of the problem concerned.
Another point to note in reliability analysis is a problem of the spatial autocorrelation of the ground
characteristics.21) The natural sedimentary ground is thought to have a correlation distance of several tens of
meters horizontally and several meters vertically. Accordingly, the reliability index and the failure probability
must be assessed giving proper consideration to the vertical correlation in particular. This issue is critically
important in dealing with problems such as analysis of circular slip failure.
– 33 –
Coefficient of variation V of ground strength
1) Small slip arc: The number n of stochastically independent

soil layers crossed by the slip arc is small.
Coefficient of variation V of ground strength
2) Large slip arc: The number n of stochastically independent

soil layers crossed by the slip arc is large.
Fig. A-1.6 Effect of Spatial Autocorrelation
Fig. A-1.6 is a schematic illustration of this problem using circular slip failure problems as an example. If
only vertical correlation is considered, the number of stochastically independent soil layers crossed by a small slip
arc and a large arc is different, as shown in the figure. In such cases, the coefficient of variation of slip resistance
will differ depending on the size of the arcs. For example, assuming for simplicity that soil layers which are
more than several meters apart are independent, the coefficient of variation of resistance when an arc crosses n
independent layers can be expressed as the n1/2th power of V.22) When assessing value of failure probability using
MCS, the physical properties of the ground may be sampled according to the autocorrelation function.
References
1) Hoshitani M. And K. Ishii: reliability Design method of structures, Kajima Publishing Co., 1986
2) Naga, H: Structural reliability design as basic knowledge, Sankaido Publications, 1995
3) Melchers, R.E. : Structural Reliability Analysis and Prediction, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999
4) Haldar, A. and Mahadevan, S. : Probability, Reliability and Statistical Methods in Engineering Design, 2nd edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000
5) Box, G. E. P. and Muller, M. E. : A note on the generation of normal deviates, Ann. Math. Stat., 29 pp.610-611, 1958
6) Shooman, M. L. : Probabilistic reliability : an engineering approach, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968
7) Hohenbichler, M., Rackwitz, R.: Improvement of Second-Order Reliability estimates by Importance Sampling, Journal of
Eng. Mech., ASCE, 114, 12, pp-2195-2199, 1988
8) Harbitz, A.: An Efficient Sampling Method for Probability of Failure Calculation, Structural Safety, Vol.3, No.2, pp.109-115,
1986
9) Karamchandani, A., Bjerager, P., and Cornell, A.C.: Adaptive Importance Sampling, Proceedings, International Conference
on Structural Safety and Reliability (ICOSSAR), San Francisco, CA, pp.855-862, 1989
10) Wu, Y. T.: An Adaptive Importance Sampling Method for Structural System Reliability Analysis, Reliability technology
1992, In T.A. Cruse (Editor), ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Vol. AD-28, Anaheim, CA, pp.2I7-231, 1992
11) Iba, Y. et al.: computational statistics II, Markov chain Monte Carlo Method and related topics, Frontier of statistical science,
Iwanami Shorten Publishing, 2005
12) Gilks, W. R., Richardson, S., and Spiegelhalter, D. J. (Editors): Markov Chain Monte Carlo in Practice, Chapman & Hall/
CRC, 1996
13) Architectural Institute of Japan: Non-liner uncertain modeling of structure system, Applied Dynamics Series 6, 1998
14) Tezuka, S. et al.: Computational statistics I, New method for statistical calculation, Frontier of statistical science, Iwanami
Shoten Publishing, 2005
15) Cornell, C. A. : A probability based structural code, Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 66(12), pp.974- 985, 1969
16) Hasofer, A. M. and Lind, N. C. : Exact and Invariant Second Moment Code Format, Journal of the Engineering Mechanics
Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. EM 1, pp.111-121, 1974
17) Rackwitz, R. and Fiessler, B. : Structural Reliability under Combined Random Load Sequences, Computers & Structures,
Vol. 9, pp.489-494, 1978
18) Rosenblatt, M. : Remarks on a multivariate transformation, Ann. Math. Stat., 23, pp.470-472, 1952
– 34 –
19) Nataf, A.: determination des distribution don’t les Marges sont Donnes, Comptes Rendus de l’Acamemie des Sciences, 225,
pp.42-43, 1962
20) Breitung, K.: Asymptotic approximations for multinormal integrals, J. Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 110 (3), pp.357-366,
1984
21) Matsuo, M.: Geotechnical Engineering, Principle and applications of reliability design, Gihodo Publishing, 1994
22) Nagao, T.: Reliability based design way for caisson type breakwaters, Jour. JSCE No.689/1-57, pp.173-182, 2001
– 35 –
ANNEX 2 Partial Factor and System Reliability
(1) Partial Factor

As shown by equations (1.6.9) and (1.6.10), the partial factor is set based on the estimation accuracy, sensitivity
factor, and target reliability index of the design parameter. Future progress in research, the development of new
materials, and other factors may improve the estimation accuracy of design parameter, and changes in target
safety levels from the viewpoint of life cycle cost and other considerations are also conceivable. In such cases, it
is necessary to set the partial factors properly, as the sensitivity factors of the design parameters will change. As
methods of setting the partial factor in these cases, the following are considered possible:
① Method of modifying the partial factor using the sensitivity factor adopted before the change in reliability.
② Method of modifying the partial factor corresponding to the change in reliability.23)
③ Method of setting the partial factor by perform ingrecalibration.
The above method ③ is the most preferable from the viewpoint of appropriate setting of the partial factor. Method
② enables simple but reasonable design, and the simplest method ① can also be used.
In cases where the target reliability index βT is changed to βT’, the simple method ① may be used in setting partial
factors if the partial factor is set with either equation (1.6.9) or equation (1.6.10) (in which case βT used in the
equation is written as βT’), using the sensitivity factors, coefficients of variation, and bias of the average values
shown in the table of partial factors for each type of structure.
On the other hand, in setting of partial factors using method ② when the target reliability index βT is changed
to βT’, the partial factors can be set by calculating βT’’ for use in setting the partial factor from the target reliability
indexes βT and βT’, the sensitivity factor, and the coefficient of variation before and after the change, and using
equations (1.6.9) or (1.6.10) (writing βT as βT’’) based on the result.
In cases where method ③ is applied, the partial factor may be set by equation (1.6.9) or (1.6.10) by performing
level 2 or higher level reliability-based design to reevaluate the sensitivity coefficient, and using the target
reliability index and sensitivity factor after the change and the coefficients of variation and the bias of the average
values shown in the table of partial factors for each type of structure.
Adoption of new types of structures and structures having the features of multiple conventional structural
types is also conceivable. These issues are discussed in Reference 24), which describes the method of setting
partial factors for the sloping top breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks which has features of two
structural types, the breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks and the sloping top breakwater.
(2) System Reliability
In performance verification of structures, verification limited to a single failure mode is rarely sufficient.
Performance verification of multiple failure modes is normally necessary. For example, taking the problem of
stability of a breakwater against external stability as an example, it is necessary to consider three failure modes,
namely, sliding, overturning, and foundation failure. It is necessary to assess the value of failure probability of
the structure as a system taking into account such multiple failure modes. Structural systems are generally of two
types, the series system or the parallel system. A practical issue is the problem of combinations of these systems.
From the viewpoint the external stability of breakwaters, any of the failure modes of sliding, overturning, or
foundation failure is considered as the failure of the structural system. Thus, this type of system is called a series
systems. On the other hand, in the cases where the superstructure is supported by multiple piles, as in piers,
yielding of a single pile is not directly considered failure. Such systems are called parallel systems. In other
words, series systems suffer system failure when any failure mode occurs, whereas parallel systems fail only when
all failure modes occur. The essential definition of the system failure of piers is as described above. However, it
should be noted that this document specifies performance-base codes considering a safety allowance.
(a) Series system (b) Parallel system
Fig. A-2.1 System Reliability
– 36 –
Z1
Z2 Z3
Fig. A-2.2 System Reliability (Case of Three Modes)
In evaluations of system reliability, it is necessary to assess the possibility of higher-order simultaneous failures
among various modes. Fig. A-2-2 shows a conceptual diagram for three modes, where Z1, Z2, and Z3 are failure
modes. Referring to the figure, equation (A-2.1) is a general formula for calculating the system failure probability
P(F) when the number of modes is n.
(A-2.1)
where Zi is the i-th failure mode.
In cases where the modes can be considered independent, equation (A-2.2) expresses the system failure probability.
(A-2.2)
When modes are mutually correlated, the system failure probability cannot be assessed as simply as in the above
equation. Therefore, system reliability has been evaluated with a certain latitude. Ditlevsen 25) bounds are well-
known example of this (equation (A-2.3)).
(A-2.3)
With the Ditlevsen bounds method, a very wide range of reliability may be given in some cases, depending on
conditions. Accordingly, it is generally necessary to perform the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) in order to assess
system reliability. In the cases of two modes, however, system reliability can be evaluated easily using the FORM
results. The system reliability in this case is given by equation (A-2.4). Use of Owen’s method 26) makes it possible
to reduce the integral degree of the double integral term (third term in the right side of equation (A-2.5)) to one. In
this case, equation (A-2.5) gives the system failure probability.
(A-2.4)
(A-2.5)
where ρ12 is the correlation coefficient of the failure modes 1 and 2 and is expressed by equation (A-2.6) using the
inner product of sensitivity factor vectors.
– 37 –
(A-2.6)
where α x,i is the sensitivity factor of the parameter x in the i-th failure mode.
Taking as an example the system reliability assessment method for the external stability of breakwaters
adopted in this document, system reliability can be assessed with sufficient accuracy, 27) even with the upper limits
given by equation (A-2.3), as sliding is frequently the dominant mode among the three failure modes of sliding,
overturning, and foundation failure.
In addition, research is also underway on the assessment of third or higher-order system reliability within
the framework of first-order approximation methods. The methods under study replace the problem of system
reliability in systems with correlated modes of failure with the problem of system reliability in systems having
equivalent independent modes of failure. Among them, FOMN (First-Order Multinormal approach) 28), 29) and
PCM (Product of Conditional Marginals) 30) are well known.
(3) Recent Developments in Reliability Analysis Methods
Taking as examples cases in which it is necessary to assess reliability for residual deformation and the degree of
damage of mooring facilities affected by ground motion, simple assessment of the probability distribution of the
residual deformation and degree of damage included in the limit state function is difficult because these values
must be obtained by second or higher-order nonlinear seismic response analyses, and an extremely large number
of analyses is necessary to calculate their probability distribution. In such cases, the application of methods
such as the MCS, FORM, and SORM is accompanied by difficulties. A conceivable alternative is a simple
evaluation of reliability by FOSM. Because FOSM evaluates the average and standard deviation of the limit state
function through several analyses, the calculation load is dramatically reduced. For actual research examples, see
References 31), 32), and 33).
Reliability analysis is also applicable to the optimization problems in maintenance strategies which consider
deterioration of the material of existing steel structures.34)
The use of stored data and analysis results obtained through the adoption of reliability-based design method
systems reduces variations in the evaluation of various parameters, contributing to reduced construction costs.35)
Therefore, consistent efforts to accumulate various types of statistical data are extremely important.
References
23) Yoshioka, S. and T. Nagao: Determination of partial safety coefficients in accordance with the reliability, Proceedings of
Structural Engineering, JSCE, Vol. 51A, PP.401-412, 2005
24) Miyazaki, S and T. Nagao: A study on determination of partial coefficient of gravity type breakwater having plural structural
characteristics- an example of sloping top caisson breakwater covered with wave absorbing blocks,- Technical Note of
National Institute of Land and Infrastructure Management (NILIM), No. 350, 2006
25) Ditlevsen, O.: Narrow reliability bounds for structural systems, Jour. of Struct. Mechanics, Vol.7, No.4, pp.453-472., 1979
26) Owen, D. B.: Tables for computing bivariate normal probabilities, Ann, Math. Stat., Vol.27, pp. 1075-1090, 1956
27) Yoshioka, K., Nagao T., A. Washio and Y. Moriya : reliability analysis of external stability of gravity type breakwater,
Proceeding of Coastal Engineering No. 51, JSCE, pp.751-755,2004
28) Hohenbichler, M. and Rackwitz, R : First-order cocept5s in system reliability, Structural Safety, 1(3), pp.177-188, 1983
29) Tang, L. K. and Melchers, R. E.: Improved approximation for multi-normal integral, Structural Safety, 4, pp.81?93, 1987
30) Pandey, M. D.: An effective approximation to evaluate multinormal integrals, Structural Safety, 20 (1), pp.51-67, 1988
31) Oshima, Y., Z. Murakmi, H. Ishikawa and T. Takeda: Evaluation system of the stability of earth structure against earthquake,
5th Symposium on the safety and reliability of structures in Japan, Proceeding of JCOSSAR 2003 pp. 691-694, 2003
32) Matsumoto, T., S. Sawada, Y. Oshima, T. Sakata and E. Watanabe: Damage evaluation of underground structure with strong
non-linear behavior due to earthquake, Proceeding of Structural Engineering Vol.52A, JSCE, pp. 1159-1168, 2006
33) Nagao, T.: Simple method for the evaluation of residual deformation of a wharf, Proceeding of Structural Engineering No.
52, JSCE, 2007
34) Nagao, T. H. Sato and S. Miyajima: Discussions on the methodology to choose maintenance measures considering failure
probability, Journal of applied dynamics, Vol.9, pp. 1051-1060, 2006
35) Yoshioka, K. and T. Nagao: rational application method of Level 1 reliability design principle to Caisson Breakwaters, JSCE
Proceeding of Coastal Eng., Vol. 51, pp. 39-70 pp. 856-860, 2004
– 38 –
PART I GENERAL, CHAPTER 2 CONSTRUCTION, IMPROVEMENT, OR MAINTENANCE OF FACILITIES SUBJECT TO THE TECHNICAL STANDARDS
Chapter 2 Construction, Improvement, or Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the

Technical Standards
1 Design of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards

Ministerial Ordinance
Design of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards
Article 2
1 The facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be properly designed to satisfy their performance
requirements and to avoid adverse effects on their structural stability during construction while considering
environmental conditions, usage conditions, and other conditions to which the facilities concerned are
subjected.
2 The design of facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be made by properly setting their design
working life.
3 The requirements other than those specified in the preceeding two paragraphs for designing the facilities
subject to the Technical Standards shall be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Consideration for Construction and Maintenance in Designing
Article 4
Design of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be conducted with due consideration for
proper construction and maintenance of the facilities.
[Technical Note]
1.1 Design Working Life
(1) For determining design working life, the objectives of the facilities concerned, their usage conditions of the
surroundings such as other facilities, as well as the effects of design working life on the setting of actions for
performance verification and on material selection considering environmental effects, shall be properly taken into
consideration.
(2) For determining of design working life, the classification of design working life defined in ISO 2394 (1998) shown
in Table 1.1 may be referred. The standard design working life of port facilities is the one based on the values for
Class 3 in the table.
Table 1.1 Concept of Classification of Design Working Life Defined in ISO 2394 (1998)
Class Expected design working life (year) Example
1 1-5 Temporary structures

Replaceable structural elements such as bridge abutment
2 25
beams and bearings
Buildings and other public structures, structures other than
3 50
the below
Memorial buildings, special or important structures, large-
4 100 or longer
scale bridges
(3) Structural Robustness

It is desirable for the design of facilities subject to the technical standards to ensure their structural robustness, as
well as verifying their performance (i.e. verifying their compliance with the performance requirements specified
in the Ministerial Ordinance for the Technical Standards). Structural robustness refers to the performance that
actions such as unexpected fires, crashes, etc. applied to the facilities concerned or their partial destruction have
no fatal effect on the whole structural system.
– 39 –
2 Construction of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards

Construction of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards
Article 3
The facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be properly constructed based on the construction
standards provided by the Public Notice to satisfy their performance requirements, while considering
subjected.
[Commentary]
(1) Construction of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards

The provision defines constructability as one of performance requirements for all facilities subject to
the technical standards. Construction is the action to actually construct or improve designed facilities.
The construction of facilities subject to the technical standards must meet the performance requirements
demanded by their designers.
2.1 General
The technical standards concerning construction of port and harbor facilities are specified by the Public Notice to
set forth the details necessary for construction of the facilities subject of the Technical Standards (Public Notice of
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism No. 364 of 2007), which is referred to as the "Public Notice
for Construction" hereinafter.
2.2 Substance Set as Construction Plans

Public Notice for Construction
Construction Plans
Article 2
1 Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards, including contractors, shall
normally prepare construction plans to accurately, smoothly, and safely construct the facilities concerned.
2 Construction plans shall normally include the subjects listed in the following items:
(1) Construction methods of the facilities concerned
(2) Supervision methods for construction work of the facilities concerned
(3) Supervision methods for construction safety of the facilities concerned
(4) Requirements other than those listed in the above three items to accurately, smoothly, and safely
construct the facilities concerned.
3 Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall normally modify
their construction plans when required by changes in work progress or construction site situations.
2.3 Substance Set as Construction Methods

Construction Methods
Article 3
1 Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall specify construction
methods taking account of the conditions, in accordance with Article 6 of the Ministerial Ordinance,
under which the facilities concerned are placed.
2 Construction methods shall normally specify the subjects listed in the following items:
(1) Construction procedures and the construction specifications of each construction stage from the
beginning to the completion of the facilities concerned
(2) Types and specifications of the major working vessels and machines used for constructing the facilities
concerned
– 40 –
(3) Substance and timing of the measures taken to construct the facilities concerned other than those listed
in the preceding two items
2.4 Content of Construction Management

Construction Management
Article 4
1 Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall properly supervise
construction works in compliance with the criteria provided in the following items:
(1) Management items, content of management, management methods, quality standards, measurement
frequencies, and methods to analyze measurement results shall be specified on the materials and
structural members used for the facilities concerned, and the quality standards required for the materials
and members shall be ensured.
(2) Management items, measurement methods, measurement densities, measurement units, methods to
analyze measurement results, and allowable ranges shall be specified for the shape of the facilities
concerned, and the shape required for the facilities shall be ensured.
2 Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall normally supervise
progress status and work schedule management taking into account the offshore operations by working
vessels to facilitate smooth construction, in addition to the items specified in the preceding items.
3 Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall make use of measurement
records obtained from construction management for maintenance program so as to facilitate the proper
maintenance of the facilities concerned.
2.5 Substance Set as Construction Safety Management

Construction Safety Management
Article 5
Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall study the subjects listed in
the following items in compliance with the relevant laws and regulations concerning safety of port facility
construction work, properly perform safety management, and make efforts to prevent accidents and disasters
when constructing the facilities concerned:
(1) Measures to ensure safety under the construction conditions and construction methods of the facilities
concerned
(2) Measures to ensure safety against abnormal phenomena
(3) Measures other than those listed in the preceding two items to prevent accidents and disasters
2.6 Structural Stability during Construction

Structural Stability during Construction
Article 7
Those who construct or improve facilities subject to the technical standards shall perform temporary works
as necessary to prevent the structures of the facilities concerned from losing structural stability during
construction.
References
1) Japan Port Association: Standard Specifications for Port Construction Work, Japan Port Association, 2004
2) Working Vessels Association: Catalogue of Working Vessels in Japan, Working Vessels Association, 1991
3) Japan Port Association: Standard Specifications for Port Design, Survey and Study, Japan Port Association, 2004
– 41 –
3 Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards

Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards
Article 4
1 The facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be properly maintained according to their maintenance
programs to satisfy their performance requirements through their working life.
2 The maintenance of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be carried out while considering
subjected.
3 For the maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical Standards, necessary maintenance work and
other activities shall be executed appropriately upon a comprehensive evaluation based on the results
of inspection and diagnosis of the damage, degradation, and other changes in the state of the facilities
concerned in its entirety.
4 For maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical Standards, appropriate safety countermeasures
shall be undertaken which include those such as establishing well-defined operational manuals and other
methods of hazard prevention to ensure the safe usage of the facilities concerned and other facilities
surrounding them.
5 Requirements other than those specified in the preceding paragraphs for the maintenance of facilities
subject to the Technical Standards shall be provided by the Public Notice.
[Commentary]
(1) Maintenance of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards

① Since facilities subject to the Technical Standards are generally placed under severe natural conditions,
material deterioration, damage of members, scouring, settlement, sedimentation, etc. of the foundation
mounds, etc. often cause performance degradation during the design working life of the facilities.
Planned and proper maintenance is hence needed to prevent the facilities concerned from failing
to satisfy their performance requirements during their design working life. Effective and accurate
maintenance plans shall be established.
② Facilities subject to the Technical Standards need to be properly maintained based on appropriate
maintenance plans and criteria taking into account structural types, structural characteristics of
members, and types and qualities of materials, as well as the natural conditions surrounding the
facilities concerned, their usage status, future plans, design working life, importance, substitutions,
and difficulty levels in inspection, diagnosis, and maintenance work.
③ The maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical Standards means a series of procedures to
accurately grasp changes in the facilities such as degradation and damage through timely and
appropriate inspection and diagnoses, to comprehensively evaluate the results, and to take proper
measures such as necessary maintenance work.
Here “damage” refers to the unexpected changes in structures or members caused by excessive effects
of accidental actions such as earthquakes and typhoons, and “deterioration” means the slow change
in the qualities and characteristics of materials caused by environmental effects over a period of time.
The damage and degradation, including the displacements and deformations occurring in structures
and members, are collectively called the changes of structures and members.
④ The maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical Standards requires the planned and proper
inspection and diagnosis, comprehensive evaluation, and maintenance work of the facilities concerned.
The basic concepts of the maintenance of the facilities concerned and the methods, details, timing,
frequencies, and procedures of their inspection and diagnosis shall be specified in advance as
maintenance planning documents.
Maintenance work required as a result of a comprehensive evaluation includes not only hardware side
measures, such as maintenance work, repair work, and strengthening work to recover the performance
of structures and members and prevent performance degradation from occurring, but also software
side measures such as temporary actions to stop services, restrict services, limit loads, and secure
safety.
– 42 –
⑤ Since facilities subject to the Technical Standards include not only structures such as protective
facilities for harbor and mooring facilities but also mechanical equipment such as cargo handling
facilities and passenger boarding facilities, the maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical
Standards requires the proper use and operation of the facilities concerned sufficiently taking account
of their characteristics. The use of the facilities concerned requires specifying in advance actual
safety measures, responsibility, and operational rules, in order to widely ensure safety to the operators
and the general public not only in normal times but also in rough weather, and to prevent other port
facilities integrally functioning with the facilities concerned, such as the quaywalls where cargo
handling facilities are installed, from having operational difficulties.
[Technical Note]
3.1 General
(1) Maintenance should be continuously performed over the design working life specified by maintenance plans so
that the performance of the structures and members of facilities does not fall below the required level. Here the
working life may be considered as the design working life of the facilities concerned at the initial stages of their
construction or improvement.
(2) Performance degradation of the structures or members of facilities advance slowly such as the deterioration of
structural materials, ground settlement, sand washing out, etc. Facilities subject to the Technical Standards are
usually exposed to marine environments, where structural materials such as concrete and steel easily deteriorate
and the soft ground tends to cause ground settlement and sand washing out. Accidental actions such as earthquakes
and impacts may also cause sudden damage to the facilities.
(3) The maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical Standards is a series of procedures to grasp the degradation
of the structures or members due to the damage caused by their physical changes and aging deterioration through
timely and accurate inspection and diagnosis, then to comprehensively evaluate the results, and to take proper
measures such as necessary maintenance work. It needs to be performed based on appropriate plans and criteria.
Here the appropriate plans refer to the maintenance programs described in Section 3.2, and appropriate criteria
indicate Technical Manual for Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Port Facilities, 1) Standard Specifications
of Concrete Structures (Maintenance), 2) etc.
(4) Corrosion control measures for steel may apply the corrosion control levels shown in Part II, Chapter 11, 2.3
Corrosion Protection taking account of the performance requirements and design working life of the facilities
concerned.
(5) Corrosion protection measures for reinforcing bars in concrete may apply Part II, Chapter 11, 3.2 Concrete
Quality and Performance Characteristics and Part III, Chapter 1, 1.1 General, taking into account the
performance requirements and design working life of the facilities concerned. The most basic corrosion protection
measures are a reduction of water-cement ratio, an increase in concrete quality using admixtures, or an increase in
cover depth. If these measures are insufficient, other measures such as the use of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars,
the installation of surface protection, the application of cathodic protection, etc. should be considered. If such
measures are expected to be taken during the design working life, it is desirable to consider the use of structures
for which measures can be easily taken.
(6) Soil improvement, the most common measures against the soft ground, may be performed based on Part III,
Chapter 2, 4 Soil Improvement Methods.
(7) It is desirable to conduct scheduled maintenance dredging for waterway and take measures to remedy gradual
siltation.
(8) For designing of facilities subject to the Technical Standards, it is necessary to consider in advance planned and
proper maintenance inspections and diagnoses in the implementation of maintenance for in the future.
(9) Details necessary for maintenance of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards are specified by the Public
Notice to set forth the details necessary for maintenance of the facilities subject of the Technical Standards (Public
Notice of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism No. 364 of 2007), which is referred to as the
"Public Notice for Maintenance" hereinafter.
– 43 –
3.2 Maintenance Programs

Public Notice for Maintenance
Maintenance Programs and Related Plans
Article 2
1 The owners of the facilities subject to the Technical Standard shall normally prepare maintenance plans.
2 Maintenance plans shall normally specify the subjects listed in the following items:
(1) The basic concepts of design working life of the facilities concerned and the maintenance of the
facilities as a whole and their structural members
(2) Planned and proper inspection and diagnosis of the damage, degradation, and other changes in the state
of the facilities concerned
(3) Planned and proper maintenance work on the damage, degradation, and other changes in the state of
the facilities concerned
(4) Maintenance efforts other than those listed in the preceding three items required for maintaining the
facilities concerned in a good state
3 The formulation determination of maintenance plans shall take into account the conditions under which
the facilities concerned are placed based on Article 6 of the Ministerial Ordinance, such conditions as
design working life, structural characteristics, material characteristics, difficulty levels in inspection,
diagnosis, maintenance work, the degree of importance of the facilities concerned, and so on.
4 For formulating the maintenance plans, it is recommended to consult with experts who have technical
knowledge on maintenance such as damage to the facilities concerned, the inspections and diagnoses
of the damage, degradation and other changes in the state of the facilities concerned, the comprehensive
evaluations of the maintenance of the whole facilities, maintenance work, and other maintenance activities.
The above shall not apply, however, to the cases where the persons responsible for the maintenance
programs are the experts in these fields.
5 Maintenance plans shall normally be modified when required by the changes in the uses of the facilities
concerned or innovations in maintenance technologies.
6 The provisions of the third and fourth items shall apply to the modification of maintenance programs.
[Commentary]
(1) The owners of facilities subject to the Technical Standards must prepare maintenance programs at
the initial time of maintenance and properly maintain the facilities concerned based on the programs.
Maintenance programs shall normally specify planned and appropriately applied maintenance items in
line with the procedure of maintenance and provide them in the form of maintenance program documents.
(2) The determination of maintenance programs shall properly specify the maintenance levels shown in
Table 3.2.1 as the basic concepts of the maintenance, taking account of the objectives of installing the
facilities concerned, their design working life, performance requirements, design concepts, substitutions,
etc.
Table 3.2.1 Maintenance Levels of Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards
Classification Concept of dealing with damage and deterioration

Implementing high-level measures against damage and deterioration to prevent the facilities
Maintenance level I
concerned from failing to satisfy performance requirements during their design working life
Frequently implementing small-scale measures at a stage of minor damage and deterioration
Maintenance level II to prevent the facilities concerned from failing to satisfy performance requirements during
their design working life
Allowing a certain degree of performance degradation within the scope of meeting
Maintenance level III performance requirements and implementing large-scale measures once or twice a design
working life to deal with damage and degradation ex post facto
– 44 –
(3) Maintenance plans shall specify the methods, details, and implementation timing for inspection and
diagnosis, comprehensive evaluations, and maintenance and intervention according to the maintenance
levels of the facilities concerned. In formulating the plans, it is necessary to consider the conditions
under which the facilities concerned are placed, design working life, structural characteristics, material
characteristics, difficulty levels in inspections, diagnoses and maintenance works, and the importance
of the facilities concerned. The future performance changes with time of the structural members of the
facilities concerned shall also be considered.
3.2.1 Maintenance Programs
(1) The owners of the facilities concerned shall normally prepare the maintenance programs of the facilities. The
development of the programs need a consistent philosophy throughout the planning, design, construction, and
maintenance of the facilities concerned, and it is hence most reasonable for the owners of the facilities concerned
who are the most familiar with these processes to develop the programs.
(2) Maintenance plans shall aim to deliberately and properly maintain the facilities concerned. Maintenance program
shall be normally used to specify the maintenance program documents. Other methods may also be used if it is
substantially cover the items specified in the maintenance program documents to properly maintain the facilities
concerned.
(3) The development of maintenance programs shall materialize the basic concepts of maintenance to the actual
work levels of the facilities concerned upon sufficiently studying what their maintenance should be and possible
scenarios based on the installation objectives, design working life, and performance requirements.
(4) Facilities subject to the technical standards shall maintain the performance requirements corresponding to the
maintenance levels shown in Table 3.2.1 at any time during their design working life. For that purpose, the
initial design must satisfy designated maintenance levels and properly take account of smooth implementation of
inspections, diagnoses, and maintenance works corresponding to the designated maintenance levels.
(5) The setting of maintenance levels shall be conducted estimating the performance changes with time of the facilities
concerned from the conditions surrounding the facilities such as natural environmental conditions and usage
statuses, the structural types of the facilities and the characteristics of their structural members, and the types
and quality of the materials used for the facilities, based on the installation objectives, design working life, and
performance requirements of the facilities. Maintenance levels are normally set for whole facilities, but in most
actual cases, estimating the performance changes with time of the whole facilities concerned is difficult and setting
the same maintenance levels for all members and ancillary equipment is unreasonable. Proper maintenance levels
shall be hence set for each structural member of the facilities concerned, taking account of the study results of the
performance changes with time of the structural members of the facilities and the difficulty levels in inspections
and maintenance works, the importance of the facilities, and drawing up a maintenance scenario for the facilities
as a whole.
(6) Maintenance programs shall specify inspection and diagnosis plans and the methods, details, timing, frequencies,
procedures, etc. of maintenance works, corresponding to the maintenance levels of the facilities concerned and
following the basic stages of maintenance. Fig 3.2.1 shows the standard structure of maintenance program
documents and the items to be specified.
(7) The preparation of maintenance program documents may apply Guide for the Preparation of Maintenance
Program Documents for Port Facilities 3) and Basic Concepts for the Preparation of Maintenance Program
Documents for Port Facilities.4)
– 45 –
Scope of maintenance program development
General
Prerequisites for the maintenance of the facilities concerned
- Consideration items for maintenance programs Conditions under which the facilities concerned are placed Design
- Working life (use design working life at the time of initial construction
working lifetime Structural characteristics Material characteristics Difficulty levels in inspections, diagnoses,
and improvement time)
- Basic concepts of maintenance (→ setting of maintenance levels, etc. )
Promotion of planned maintenance
Inspection and diagnosis plans
maintenance works, etc. Importance of the facilities concerned Performance requirements

Emergency response
Normal times at abnormal times
General periodic Detailed periodic General temporary
- Opinions from those having professional knowledge and technologies or skills

Daily
inspections inspections and inspections and inspections and
diagnoses diagnoses diagnoses
Abnormal Abnormal
Abnormal
Nothing Detailed temporary
abnormal Abnormal inspections and
diagnoses
Nothing Nothing Nothing

abnormal abnormal abnormal
Comprehensive
evaluations
- Estimation, based on engineering knowledge and judgment, of the degrees of

performance deterioration of the facilities concerned from the results of
inspections and diagnoses
- Study of the necessity of measures such as maintenance works
- Administrative judgment of financial conditions, urgency of measures, etc.
Maintenance works are needed The modification of

inspection and diagnosis
plans is needed
No measures
Maintenance and repair plans are needed
Plans for implementing maintenance works
Implementation of maintenance works
Review of maintenance programs
Fig. 3.2.1 Standard Structure of Maintenance Program Documents and the Items to be Specified
– 46 –
3.2.2 Inspection and Diagnosis Programs
(1) General
① Since the changes in the state of structural members of facilities subject to the technical standards are strongly
correlated with each other, inspection and diagnosis plans must select items, methods, and procedures for
efficient and effective inspections with full understanding of the link of changes in state described in Item (ii).
② Facilities subject to the technical standards have relatively complex structures and their structural members are
correlated with each other. Various external factors act on the structures. The occurrence and development
of changes are hence complicated. It is desirable for reasonable maintenance to select inspectable damage,
degradation that have significant effects on component performance as major changes in state, and inspect and
diagnose them. The selection of major changes in state shall fully take account of the linked changes, which
are the progressive processes of the causes, occurrence, and effects of changes resulting in the performance
deterioration of the facilities. Focusing on and making inspection and diagnosis of the most important
linked changes are useful for reasonable maintenance. Refer to Technical Manual for Maintenance of Port
Facilities 1) for the linked changes of facilities subject to the technical standards.
③ The implementation of planned and proper inspections and diagnoses based on the above-mentioned concept
of the linked changes is essential to effectively detect the deterioration which has occurred in facilities subject
to the technical standards. The following constitute the inspections and diagnoses of facilities subject to the
technical standards:
(a) Initial inspections: They are performed to grasp the initial maintenance state of not only the whole facilities
concerned but also their members and ancillary equipment at the completion stages of construction or
improvement work, or at the preparation stages of maintenance programs for existing facilities. When they
are performed immediately after the completion of construction or improvement work, initial state may be
grasped based on the results of quality inspections and workmanship inspections performed at the time of
completion.
(b) Daily inspections: They are performed to check routinely inspectable parts for changes in state and their
degrees.
(c) Periodic inspections and diagnoses: They are performed to periodically check routinely uninspectable
structures and members including the details of changes in state and their degrees. They are classified into
general periodic inspections and diagnoses and detailed periodic inspections and diagnoses. The former
are conducted on the parts above the sea level mainly by visual inspections or simplified measurement at
relatively short intervals. The latter are conducted at relatively long intervals and their objects include the
parts on which the former are unpractical.
(d) General temporary inspections and diagnoses: They are performed to check the facilities for changes and their
degrees mainly by visual inspections or simplified measurement at the earliest possible stage at abnormal
times after the occurrence of earthquakes and rough weather.
(e) Detailed temporary inspections and diagnoses: They are performed when particular or unexpected
abnormalities are found from the results of periodic or general temporary inspections and diagnoses.
– 47 –
3.3 Measures Regarding Prevention of Danger

Measures Regarding Prevention of Danger
Article 4
1 The owners of facilities subject to the technical standards shall normally take measures specified in the
following items as the measures to clarify the operational methods provided in the fourth item of Article
4 of the Ministerial Ordinance and other safety measures, taking account of natural conditions, usage
statuses, and other conditions under which the facilities concerned are placed:
(1) Designation of persons responsible for inspecting or examining and implementing the measures
concerned before and after the operation of the facilities concerned
(2) Designation of persons responsible for necessary measures to safely maintain the facilities concerned
and responsible for implementing the measures concerned in rough weather
(3) Development of the operational rules required for safely maintaining the facilities concerned or the
confirmation of the operational rules prepared by the facility management bodies, in addition to those
specified in the preceding two items.
2 The measures provided in the preceding items shall be normally taken by those who have professional
knowledge and skills for ensuring of safety of facilities subject to the technical standards and their
surrounding facilities which are used integrally with mutual operational relations.
3.4 Measures Dealing with Out-of-Service Facilities

Out-of-Service Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards
Article 6
Proper actions shall be taken as necessary on out-of-service facilities subject to the technical standards such
as their removal, proper maintenance, ensuring the safety of their neighboring areas to prevent the facilities
concerned from obstructing the development, use, and maintenance of the ports.
References
1) Port and Airport Research Institute (Edition): Maintenance Manual for port facilities, Coastal Development Institute of
Technology. 2007
2) JSCE Guidelines for concrete, Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2001 “Maintenance”, JSCE, Mar. 2005.
3) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Edition): Guideline for the Preparation of the
Maintenance Plan of Port Facilities, Coastal Development Institute of Technology. 2007
4) Takahashi, N., M. Iwanami and H. Yokota: Fundamental concept on Maintenance Plan of Port Facilities, Technical Report of
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, No.376、2007
– 48 –
4 Environmental Consideration
Environmental Consideration
Article 5
1 The design, construction, and maintenance of facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall endeavor
to preserve the natural environments around a port, to form good landscapes, and to ensure the security of
the port area by considering the environmental conditions, usage conditions, and other conditions to which
the facilities concerned are subjected.
2 Installation of facilities to be utilized by an unspecified large number of people and subject to the Technical
Standards shall consider the safe and smooth usage of the facilities by seniors, handicapped persons, and
others whose daily or social lives are restricted due to physical disabilities while considering environmental
conditions, usage conditions, and other conditions to which the facilities concerned are subjected.
[Technical Note]
4.1 General
(1) Environmental Consideration

It is desirable for the construction, improvement, and maintenance of facilities subject to the technical
standards to consider the natural environment and the good port landscapes of the regions, taking
account of the constructability, economy of the facilities concerned, when determining their layouts,
scales, and specifications, and selecting their structural types, materials used, and construction methods.
(2) Considerations for Natural Environment
In the construction, improvement, and maintenance of facilities subject to the technical standards, it is
necessary to preserve the natural environments of the ports, paying attention to creating a better natural
environment, as well as to eliminate bad effects on the natural environments. For the creation of the
better natural environments such as beaches, in particular, a comprehensive planning method, which is
one of integrated approaches through the planning, design, construction and maintenance of the facilities
concerned, and one of adaptive management methods taking account of the variability and uncertainty
of the natural environment can be applied. Here the environmental qualities of ports mean water
quality, bottom sediment quality, and air quality. It is desirable for the construction, improvement, and
maintenance of facilities subject to the technical standards to take account of the effects of the facilities
concerned on the habitation of life around of the facilities in terms of changes in the environmental
quality.
(3) Primary Factors Controlling the Natural Environment
The actions of tides and waves are the primary factors controlling material advection and diffusion
and the habitats for marine organisms related to the natural environment of ports. The construction,
improvement, and maintenance of facilities subject to the technical standards need to properly take into
consideration that the changes in these actions accompanying the construction of the facilities concerned
and related activities spread widely in time and space.
(4) Environmental Quality
① As for water quality, it is desirable to focus not only on the level of water pollutants such as CODs,
nutrient salts, floating suspended substances, etc., but also on the phenomena such as the upwelling of
low oxygen water mass, blue tides etc., and the occurrence of red tides resulting from water pollution,
and study water quality from the viewpoint of sound material circulation.
② As for bottom sediment quality, it is necessary to focus on particle size distributions and the contents
of organic matter, trace chemical substances, heavy metals, etc., and pay attention to the spread of the
influence, of their interactions with water quality, avoiding secondary pollution such as the accelerated
formation of low oxygen bottom water due to their decomposition, the accelerated elution of nutrient
salts in low oxygen environments.
It should also be noted that the bottom sediment stirred up by navigating ships tends to cause the
emission of offensive odors and the degradation of water quality and that fine particles tend to deposit
in calm areas and absorb toxic substances such as heavy metals.
– 49 –
③ As for air quality, it is necessary to focus on the heat, gases such as NOX, SOX, CO2, , and fine particles
emitted into the air by ships, vehicles, port cargo handling equipment, and activities of firms located
in port areas, etc. They are mostly caused by port activities, although it is also necessary to carefully
select working vessels and machines for constructing and maintaining the facilities concerned.
(5) Adaptive Management Methods
The basic concepts of adaptive management methods are to adjust to the changes in the natural
environment and social backgrounds, monitor circumstances using the latest information and the most
advanced technologies, regularly verify the achievement of individually set objectives, then introduce
feed back mechanisms to modify plans if necessary. Implementing adaptive management enables
the management bodies of nature recovery projects to learn from experience, adjust to the changes in
the factors affecting the characteristics, continuously improve management methods, and verify the
appropriateness of management.
(6) Considerations for Forming Good Regional Landscapes
It is desirable for the formation of good regional landscapes to not only give consideration to the
appearances of each facility but also understand the landscape implication of the surrounding spaces of
the facilities concerned to preserve, use, or improve their landscape values. For good regional landscape
formation, it is desirable to perform the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of facilities
subject to the technical standards based on a consistent objective or a design concept on landscapes
throughout all stages of their design working life.
(7) Considerations for Port Security
It is desirable for port facilities to secure monitoring functions and eliminate blind spots from structures
to ensure security according to the characteristics of the facilities.
The important international wharf facilities specified in the Law for Security of Ships and of Port
Facilities (Law No. 31 of April 14, 2004) also need to meet the technical standards for wharf security
equipment provided in the Law.
(8) Considerations for Senior Citizens and Disabled Persons on the Facilities Used by a Number of
Unspecified
Persons
It is desirable for the facilities used by a number of unspecified majority of persons such as mooring
facilities, beaches, green spaces, etc. to consider that all persons including senior citizens and disabled
persons can safely and smoothly use the facilities equipped with ship boarding/unboarding function and
amenity-oriented function.
The passenger ship terminals specified in the Law for Promoting Easily Accessible Public
Transportation Infrastructure for the Aged and the Disabled Persons (Law No. 91 of June 21,
2006) also need to meet the standards provided in the Law.
(9) Considerations for the Recycle of Resources
The construction, improvement, and maintenance need to make efforts to consider the recycle of resources
through the proper treatment of construction byproducts and the utilization of recycled resources.
(10) References 1) – 4) provide information on the consideration of port facilities for the natural environment
and on adaptive management study.
(11) Reference 5) – 11) provide information on the landscape study of port facilities.
References
1) Working Group for marine natural reclamation: Handbook of Marine Natural reclamation, Gyosei, 2003
2) Study Group for the formation of natural symbiotic type coast: Process to form marine natural Procedure, National Association
of Sea Coast, 2003
3) Kameyama, A., N. Kuramoto and Y. Hioki: Natural reclamation, Soft Science Co., 2005
4) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport: “Greenization “ of Port Administration
(Environment friendly Administration of Ports and Harbours, Independent Administrative Institution National Printing
Bureau, 2005.
5) Nakamura, Y, Y. Tamura, T. Higuchi, and O. Shinohara: Theory of Landscaping, Shokoku Publishing, 1977
6) Shinohara, O: Landscape planning in Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering New Series No. 59, Giho-Do Publications, 1982,
326p.
7) JSCE: Landscape design of Port, Giho-Do Publications, Dec. 1991, 286p.
8) JSCE, Civil Engineering Handbook, Giho-do Publications, 1989, 4133p.
– 50 –
9) Shinohara, O: Landscaping Dictionary, Shokoku Publishing Co., 1998
10) Port Planning Laboratory, Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport: For the Realization of Beautiful Port
landscape. 1993
11) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport: Guideline for Complete Inspection of Port
Landscape, 2005.
– 51 –
– 52 –
Part II Actions and Material Strength Requirements
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 1 GENERAL
Chapter 1 General
Requirements for the Setting of Environmental and Other Conditions
Article 6
In designing, constructing, and maintaining the facilities subject to the Technical Standards, required items
for the setting of the environmental conditions, usage conditions, and other conditions for the facilities
concerned shall be provided by the Public Notice..
Public Notice
Setting of Environmental and Other Conditions
Article 5
The items specified in Article 6 of the Ministerial Ordinance for the setting of the conditions surrounding
the facilities concerned shall be provided in the subsequent article through Article 20..
[Technical Note]
1 General
(1) The performance verification of port facilities need to properly set actions and material strength requirements
as design conditions according to the performance required for the facilities concerned and the situations under
which the facilities are placed.
Conditions such as natural conditions include winds, tides, waves, tsunamis, movement of sea water, estuary
hydraulics, littoral drift, ground conditions, earth and water pressures, ground settlement, ground motions, ground
liquefaction, principal dimensions of design ships, environmental actions, self weights, and surcharges.
(2) The setting of design conditions has significant effects on the performance, economic efficiency, etc. of the
facilities, and hence it should be carried out carefully. Design conditions generally need to be properly set based
on the results of sufficient preliminary surveys and tests. It is necessary to understand the methods and results of
the surveys and tests.
2 Other Needs to be Considered

In addition to the items listed above, it is desirable for the performance verification of port facilities to consider the
following as necessary:
(1) Encounter Probabilities
Encounter probabilities can be calculated from equation (2.1).
(2.1)
where
E1 : encounter probability
L1 : design working life (year)
T1 : return period (year)
(2) Construction Methods

The sufficient consideration of construction methods is essential for reasonable design.
(3) Construction Accuracy
Facility design needs to take account of actually achievable construction accuracy.
(4) Construction Periods
In the cases where construction periods are designated, it is necessary to give consideration both to the design
and the construction method, in order that it will be possible to complete construction work within the designated
period. Construction periods generally depend on the difficulty of material procurement, construction equipment,
the difficulty of construction, opening date, natural conditions, etc.
(5) Construction and Costs, etc.
Construction and costs, etc. include initial investment costs and maintenance costs. The design of port facilities
– 55 –
needs to take all of them into account. The initial investment costs include indirect costs such as compensation
costs.
– 56 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 2 METROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY
Chapter 2 Meteorology and Oceanography
1 Meteorology and Oceanography Items to be Considered for Performance Verification

1.1 General
The following meteorology and oceanography items, shall be considered with regard to the performance verification
of port facilities.
① Atmospheric pressure and its distribution are factors that generate winds.
② Winds generate waves and storm surge, and affect the wind pressure that acts upon port facilities and moored
vessels, and become a factor to interfere with cargo handling and other port operations. See 2 Winds for details.
③ The tidal level affects soil pressure and water pressure, which act on port facilities, and becomes a factor to
interfere with cargo handling and other port operations. Also, it has an effect on waves in areas of shallow water.
See 3 Tidal level for details.
④ Waves exert wave force on port facilities, and become a factor to interfere with the functioning of port facilities.
They also act on moored vessels, causing them to move and interfere with cargo handling and other port operations.
They also can raise the mean water level, which has effects similar to the tidal level as mentioned above. See 4
Waves for details.
⑤ Tsunami exerts wave force and fluid force on port facilities, and becomes a factor to interfere with the functioning
of port facilities. It also acts on moored ships, causing them to move. See 5 Tsunamis for details.
⑥ Water currents affect sediments on the sea bottom and become a factor to interfere with the functioning of port
facilities. See 6 Water Currents etc. for details.
– 57 –
2 Winds
Public Notice
Winds
Article 6
Characteristics of winds shall be set by the methods provided in the subsequent items corresponding to the
single action or combination of two or more actions to be considered in the performance criteria and the
performance verification:
(1) Ocean surface winds to be used in the estimation of waves and storm surge shall be appropriately
defined in terms of wind velocity, wind direction and others based on the long-term wind observation
or weather hindcasting.
(2) Winds to be used in the calculation of wind pressures shall be appropriately defined in terms of the
wind velocity and direction corresponding to the return period through the statistical analysis of the
long-term data of observed or hindcasted winds or other methods.
(3) Winds to be used in the calculation of wind energy shall be appropriately defined in terms of the joint
frequency distribution of wind velocity and direction for a certain duration of time, based on the long-
term data of observed or hindcasted winds.
[Commentary]
1) Winds to be used in the Estimation of Waves and Storm Surge:

Winds to be used in the estimation of waves and storm surge shall be observed or hindcasted values for
30 years or more as a standard.
2) Winds to be used in the Calculation of Wind Pressure:
Winds to be used in the calculation of wind pressure shall be observed or hindcasted values for 30 years
or more as a standard.
[Technical Note]
2.1 General
(1) Wind is one of the most distinctive meteorological phenomena, namely, the phenomenon that the air moves due
to atmospheric pressure differences and heat. The conditions under which winds blow over the ocean are usually
very different than for those over land. Wind velocities over the ocean are much higher than those over land near
the shore.1) For performance verification of port facilities, the effects of winds must be appropriately evaluated.
(2) Gradient Winds
① The velocity of the gradient wind can be expressed as a function of pressure gradient, radius of curvature of
barometic isolines, latitude, and air density as in equation (2.1.1).
(2.1.1)
where
Vg : velocity of gradient wind (m/s); in the case of an anticyclone, equation (2.1.1) gives a negative
value and so the absolute value should be taken.
∂p/∂r : pressure gradient (taken to be positive for a cyclone, negative for an anticyclone) (kg/m 2/s2)
r : radius of curvature of barometic isolines (m)
ω : angular velocity of Earth's rotation (1/s) ω =7.27×10 -5/s
φ : latitude (°)
ρa : density of air (kg/m3)
Before performing the calculation, measurement units should first be converted into the MKS units listed
above. Note that 1º of latitude corresponds to a distance of approximately 1.11 × 105 m, and an air pressure of
1.0 hPa is 100kg/m/s2.
– 58 –
② A gradient wind for which the barometic isolines are straight lines (i.e., their radius of curvature in equation
(2.1.1) is infinite) is called the geostrophic wind. In this case, the wind velocity is as equation (2.1.2).
(2.1.2)
③ The actual sea surface wind velocity is generally lower than the value obtained from the gradient wind equation.
Moreover, although the direction of a gradient wind is parallel to the barometic isolines in theory, the sea
surface wind blows at a certain angle α to the barometic isolines in reality as illustrated in Fig. 2.1.2. In the
northern hemisphere, the winds around a cyclone blow in a counterclockwise direction and inwards, whereas
the winds around an anticyclone blow in a clockwise direction and outwards. It is known that the relationship
between the velocity of gradient winds and that of the actual sea surface wind varies with the latitude. This
relationship under the average conditions is summarized as in Table 2.1.1.3)
α α
Low High
(a) Cyclone (b) Anticyclone
Fig. 2.1.2 Wind Direction for a Cyclone (Low) and an Anticyclone (High)
Table 2.1.1 Relationship between Sea Surface Wind Speed and Gradient Wind Speed
Latitude (°) 10 20 30 40 50
Angle α (°) 24 20 18 17 15
Velocity ratio Vs /Vg 0.51 0.60 0.64 0.67 0.70
(3) Typhoon Winds

In calculations concerning the generation of storm surge or waves due to a typhoon, it is common to assume that
the air pressure distribution follows either Fujita’s equation (2.1.3) 4) or Myers’ equation (2.1.4) 4) ; the constants
in the chosen equation are determined based on actual air pressure measurements in the region of typhoons.
Fujita’s formula
(2.1.3)
Myers’ formula
(2.1.4)
where
p : air pressure at a distance r from the center of typhoon (hPa)
r : distance from the center of typhoon (km)
pc : air pressure at the center of typhoon (hPa)
r0 : estimated distance from the center of typhoon to the point where the wind velocity is maximum
(km)
∆p : air pressure drop at the center of typhoon (hPa) ∆p=p∞ -pc
p∞ : air pressure at r =∞ (hPa); p∞=pc+∆p
The size of a typhoon varies with time, and so r0 and ∆p must be determined as the functions of time
(4) Meteorological GPV
Organizations such as the Japan Meteorological Agency, the European Center for Medium-Range Weather
– 59 –
Forecasts (ECMWF), and America’s National Center for Environmental Protection (NCEP), calculate the values
of items such as air pressure, wind velocity, wind direction, and water vapor flux, based on calculation models
for meteorological values that use a three-dimensional calculation grid, and the values at the grid points (GPV:
grid point values) are saved. These GPV’s may be used instead of wind hindcastings based on equation (2.1.1)
through equation (2.1.4). However, when a grid with large spacing is used for meteorological calculations the
atmospheric pressure and winds may not be satisfactorily reproduced at places where meteorological conditions
change drastically with position, such as near the centers of typhoons. Therefore, when GPV’s are used, it is
preferable to use observational values to verify the precision.
(5) Wind Energy
If winds are considered as the movement of the air then the wind energy that crosses a unit cross-sectional area in
unit time is given by equation (2.1.5).1)
Winds for estimating the wind energy shall be appropriately specified with joint statistic distributions for
velocity and direction for a fixed time (usually, one year), based on long-term (usually, three years or more)
observed or hindcasted data.

(2.1.5)
where
P : wind force energy per unit cross-sectional area (W/m 2)
ρa : air density (kg/m3)
V : wind velocity (m/s)
In other words, the wind force energy is proportional to the cube of the wind velocity, so a small difference in
wind velocity can mean a big difference in energy (power generation). Therefore, during performance verification
of facilities that use wind force energy, it is important to accurately understand how the conditions change with
regard to time and space.
In the coastal zone the wind conditions varies drastically between land and sea. Also, wind velocity shows
great variation on land due to altitude, but over the sea the changes in wind velocity with altitude are gradual, so
it is possible to obtain highly stabilized winds that are appropriate for power generation at relatively low altitudes.
For example, the results of measurements in the vicinity of the Kansai International Airport, show that the wind
energy over the course of a year at a measurement tower (MT station) placed at a height of 15 meters over the
ocean were roughly the same as at a land station (C station) with an altitude of 100 meters, and about five times
greater than at a land station with an altitude of 10 meters.5)

2.2 Characteristic Values of Wind Velocity
(1) Determination of Wind Characteristics

The elements of winds are direction and velocity, where the wind direction is expressed as one of sixteen directions
and the wind velocity is the mean velocity over 10 minutes. The velocity of winds that acts directly on port
facilities and moored ships is specified in general as a velocity for a certain period of occurrence, as estimated
from the probability of occurrence distribution of wind velocity based on long-term measured values over 30 years
or more. Using the annual maximum 10-minute mean wind velocities over about 35 years, based on Measurement
Technical Data Sheet #34 of the Japan Meteorological Agency, 7) and assuming a double exponential distribution,
the expected wind velocities over 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 years have been calculated at 141 meteorological
stations. For performance verification of facilities, these data can be used as reference values, however if the
location of study has different topographical conditions from the closest of these meteorological stations then it is
necessary to take measurements for at least one year to determine the effect of the topography.8)
(2) The wind velocities obtained at the meteorological stations are the values at about 10 meters above the ground.
Therefore, when using the measured values to estimate the winds over the ocean, if the height of the target facility
is very different from the height mentioned above, then correction of the height shall be performed for the wind
velocity. The vertical distribution of wind velocity is usually shown on a logarithmic scale, however for simplicity
an exponential scale is often used during performance verification of various types of facilities.
(2.2.1)
where
Uh : wind velocity at height h (m/s)
U0 : wind velocity at height h0 (m/s)
– 60 –
(3) The exponent n in equation (2.2.1) varies with the roughness of the nearby terrain and the stability of the air,
but in general it is possible to use a value of n = 1/10 to 1/4 for performance verification when specifying the
wind velocity for purposes such as calculating wind pressure, and a value of n ≥ 1/7 is often used over the ocean.
Statistical data for wind velocity is usually the mean wind velocity over 10 minutes, however depending on the
facility the mean wind velocity over a shorter time period may be required, or the maximum instantaneous wind
velocity may be required, and in such cases one should understand the characteristics of the region such as the
relationship between the main wind velocity and the maximum wind velocity, and the gust factor (defined as
the ratio between the maximum instantaneous wind speed and the 10-minute mean wind velocity) should be
estimated.
2.3 Wind Pressure
(1) Wind pressure shall be appropriately specified by considering items such as facility structure and facility
location.
(2) Wind pressure that acts on sheds, warehouses, and cargo handling equipment shall be specified as follows.
(a) Structural standard for mobile crane
In Article 9, Structural Standard For Mobile Crane, it is specified that the wind load shall be calculated as
follows:
① The value of the wind load is calculated from equation (2.3.1):
(2.3.1)
where
W : wind pressure force (N)
q : velocity pressure (N/m 2)
C : wind pressure coefficient
A : pressure-receiving area (m 2)
② The value of the velocity pressure in equation (2.3.1) can be calculated from either equation (2.3.2) or equation
2.3.3 depending on the condition of the crane:
(2.3.2)
(2.3.3)
where
h : height (m) above ground of the surface of the crane that receives the winds
use h : 16 m if the height is less than 16 m.
③ For the value of the wind pressure coefficient it is possible to use the value found in wind tunnel tests of the
crane , or the value given in Table 2.3.1 for the category of the surface of the crane that receives the winds. A
“surface composed of flat surfaces” in Table 2.3.1 means the surface of a structure with a box-like shape such
as a box girder, operator’s cab, machine chamber, or electrical chamber. A “cylindrical surface” includes the
surface of a wire rope. The “face area” means the area of the shaded portion in Fig. 2.3.1.
– 61 –
Table 2.3.1 Wind Pressure Coefficients for the Wind Load on a Crane
Classification of crane surfaces that receive winds Value

Surfaces composed with horizontal trusses (Other than horizontal W 1 < 0.1 2.0
trusses made with steel pipe) 0.1 ≤ W 1 < 0.3 1.8
0.3 ≤ W1 < 0.9 1.6
0.9 ≤ W1 2.0
Surfaces composed of flat surfaces W2 < 5 1.2
5 ≤ W2 < 10 1.3
10 ≤ W2 < 15 1.4
15 ≤ W2 < 25 1.6
25 ≤ W2 < 50 1.7
50 ≤ W2 < 100 1.8
100 ≤ W2 1.9
Surfaces composed of cylindrical surfaces or horizontal trusses W3 < 3 1.2
made with steel pipe 3 ≤ W3 0.7
Note: In this table, W1, W2, and W3 represent the following values, respectively:
W1: Area Occupying Ratio (the value obtained by dividing the projected area of the surface of the crane
that receives the winds by the area of the surface that receives that same winds)
W2: The value obtained by dividing the length in the longitudinal direction of the surface of the crane
that receives the winds by the width of the surface that receives that same winds.
W3: The value obtained by multiplying the projected width of the cylinder or steel pipe (unit: m) by the
square root of the value shown in 2) for the velocity pressure (unit: N/m 2) when the crane stops.
Projected Area Ar : Area of the shaded portion

h Ar
Area Occupying Ratio W1 =
h

Fig. 2.3.1 Projected Area
④ The pressure-receiving area in equation (2.3.1) shall be the area of the surface of the crane that receives the
winds projected onto a surface perpendicular to the direction of the winds (hereafter in this section referred
to as “projected area”). When there are two or more surfaces of the crane that receive the winds, the area
subject to wind pressure calculation is determined by summing up the following;
1) the projected area of the first surface in the direction of the winds
2) the areas obtained by multiplying the portions of the surface areas of the second and later surfaces in
the direction of the winds (hereafter in this paragraph “second and later surfaces”) that overlap the first
surface in the direction of the winds by the reduction factors shown in Fig. 2.3.2
3) the projected areas of the portions of the surface areas of the second and later surfaces that don’t overlap
the first surface in the direction of the winds.
In Fig. 2.3.2, b, h, φ, and η represent the following values, respectively:
b : distance between the beams of the crane that receive the winds (see Fig. 2.3.3)
h : height of the first beam in the direction of the winds, among the beams that receive the winds (see
Fig. 2.3.3)
φ : the area occupying ratio of the first beam in the direction of the winds among the beams for the
surfaces of the crane that receive the winds (for surfaces that are formed of horizontal trusses φ is the
value W1 specified in the note of the table of the previous section, and for surfaces formed of flat
surfaces or cylindrical surfaces it is 1)
η : reduction factor
– 62 –
b/h=6
1
0.8
b/h=5
0.6
η b/h=4
0.4 b/h=3
b/h=2
0.2
b/h=1
b/h=0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
φ
Fig. 2.3.2 Reduction Factors for Projected Areas
b h b h
(a) Beams of Steel Structure (b) Beams of Box Type Structure
Fig. 2.3.3 Measurement of b and h
(b) Structural standards for mobile crane

In Article 9, Structural Standard For Mobile Crane, it is specified that the wind load shall be calculated as
follows:
① The value of the wind load can be calculated from equation (2.3.1).
② The velocity pressure can be calculated from equation (2.3.2).
③ For the value of the wind pressure coefficient it is possible to use the value found in wind tunnel tests of the
mobile crane that receives the winds, or the value given in Table 2.3.1 of Section a), Structural Standard
For Mobile Crane”. For the value of velocity pressure in W3 calculation, the value from equation (2.3.3)
shall be used.
④ The pressure-receiving area can be calculated by the method of 4) in Section a) Structural Standard For
Mobile Crane.
(c) Structural standard for derrick crane

In Article 11, Structural Standard For Derrick Crane, it is specified that the wind pressure force shall be
calculated as follows:
① The value of the wind pressure force can be calculated from equation (2.3.4). In this case the wind velocity
is taken to be 50 m/s at the time of storms, and 16 m/s at all other times.
(2.3.4)
where
W : wind pressure force (N)
q : velocity pressure (N/m2)
C : wind pressure coefficient
A : pressure-receiving area (m 2)
② The wind velocity pressure can be calculated from equation (2.3.5):
(2.3.5)
– 63 –
where
q : velocity pressure (N/m2)
U : wind velocity (m/s)
h : height (m) above ground of the surface of the crane that receives the winds
(use h = 15 m , if the height is less than 15 m)
③ For the value of the wind pressure coefficient it is possible to use the value found in wind tunnel tests or the
value given in Table 2.3.2 for the kind of the surface and the completeness ratio of the surface that receives
the winds.
Table 2.3.2 Wind Pressure Coefficients for the Wind Pressure Force of a Derrick
Completeness Wind pressure
Classification of the surface that receives the winds ratio coefficient
Surfaces composed of horizontal lattices or horizontal trusses W1 < 0.1 2
0.1 ≤ W1 < 0.3 1.8
0.3 ≤ W1 < 0.9 1.6
0.9 ≤ W1 2
Surfaces composed of flat surfaces --- 1.2
Wire rope surfaces --- 1.2
Note: The value of the area occupying ratio is the value obtained by dividing the projected area of the surface
of the crane that receives the winds by the area of the surface that receives that same winds.
④ The pressure-receiving area is the area that receives the wind projected onto a surface perpendicular to the
direction of the winds. When there are two or more surfaces that overlap in the direction of the winds, it shall
be calculated as follows;
The area subject to wind pressure calculation is determined by summing up the following;
1) In case there are two overlapping surfaces that receive the winds
i) the projected area of the first surface in the direction of the winds
ii) 60% of the areas of the portions of the second surface in the direction of the winds that overlap the first
surface
iii) the projected areas of the portions of the second surface in the direction of the winds that don’t overlap
the first surface.
2) In case there are three or more surfaces that receive the winds
i) 50% of the projected areas of the portions of the third and later surfaces in the direction of the winds
that overlap the first surface
ii) the projected areas of the portions of the third and later surfaces in the direction of the winds that don’t
overlap the first surface.
The wind pressure that acts upon structures such as highway bridges and elevated highways can be specified
according to the Highway Bridge Specifications and Commentary.10) In the Highway Bridge Specifications
and Commentary, the wind pressure force that acts upon a bridge is specified by appropriately considering
the location, topography, and ground conditions of the bridge construction, the structural characteristics of
the bridge, and its cross-sectional shape.
a) Steel beams
The wind pressure force that acts on a steel beam is the value given in Table 2.3.3, which is the value per one
meter of length in the bridge axial direction for one span.
Table 2.3.3 Wind Pressure Force for Steel Beams (Units: kN/m)
Cross-sectional shape Wind pressure force

1 ≤ B/D < 8 4.0 - 0.2 BD D ≥ 6.0
8 ≤ B/D 2.4 D ≥ 6.0
where B = the total width of the bridge (m) (see Fig. 2.3.4)
D = the total height of the bridge (m) (see Table 2.3.4)
– 64 –
Fig. 2.3.4 Measurement of B
Table 2.3.4 Measurement of D
Bridge Wall type rigid Other than a

guard fence guard fence wall type rigid guard fence
0.4m
Measurement of D D
D
(b) Dual main truss

The wind pressure force that acts on a dual main truss is the value shown in Table 2.3.5, per 1 m2 of the effective
perpendicular projected area on the windward side. For a standard dual main truss it is also possible to use the
wind pressure force shown in Table 2.3.6 per one meter of length of the arch material on the windward side in
the bridge axial direction.
Table 2.3.5 Wind Pressure Force on a Dual Main Truss (Unit: kN/m2)
—
When there is a live load 1.25 /√ φ
Truss —
When there is no live load 2.5 /√ φ
When there is a live load 1.5
Bridge foundation
When there is no live load 3.0
0.1 ≤ φ ≤ 0.6
where φ = area occupying ratio of the truss (the ratio of the truss projected area to the truss enveloped area)
Table 2.3.6 Wind Pressure Force on a Standard Dual Main Truss (Units: kN/m)
Arch material Wind pressure force

—
Loaded arch When there is a live load — √λh ≥ 6.0
1.5 + 1.5 D + 1.25
When there is no live load 3.0 D + 2.5√λh ≥ 6.0
—
When there is a live load 1.25√—λh ≥ 3.0
Not loaded arch When there is no live load 2.5√λh ≥ 3.0
7 ≤ λ / h ≤ 40
where D : total height of the bridge floor (m) (not including the height of the portion that
overlaps the arch portion as seen from the horizontal direction perpendicular to the
bridge axis) (see Fig. 2.3.5)
h : height of the arch portion (m)
λ : main truss height (m) from the center of the lower arch portion to the center of the upper arch portion
– 65 –
Wall type rigid guard fence

Bridge protective fence other
than a wall type rigid guard fence
D1 0.4m
h
D
Arch
Vertical Floor portion
beam beam
Arch
Floor Vertical portion
D=D1–h beam beam
(a) Upper roadway truss (b) Lower roadway truss
Fig. 2.3.5 Measurement of D for a Dual Main Truss
(c) Other types of bridges

Either (a) or (b) depending on the beam shape shall be applied to obtain the wind pressure force on other types
of bridge beams. The wind pressure force on members not described under (a) or (b) is the value given in Table
2.3.7 depending on the cross-sectional shape. When there is a live load, the wind pressure force is taken to be
1.5 kN/m for the live load at a position 1.5 m from the bridge’s upper surface.
Table 2.3.7 Wind Pressure Force Acting on Bridge Members other than Steel Beams and Dual Main Trusses
(Unit: kN/m2)
Wind pressure force

Cross-sectional shape of members Members on the Members on the leeward
windward side side
When there is a live load 0.75 0.75
Circular shape
When there is no live load 1.5 1.5
When there is a live load 1.5 0.75
Polygonal shape
When there is no live load 3.0 1.5
(d) Parallel bridges

When the steel beams are parallel, appropriately correct the wind pressure force of Table 2.3.3 by considering
that effect.
(e) The wind pressure force that acts directly on the lower portion of the structure is taken to be a horizontal load
that is either perpendicular to the bridge’s axial direction or parallel to the bridge’s axial direction. It is assumed
that it doesn’t act simultaneously in both directions. The magnitude of the wind pressure force shall be the value
shown in Table 2.3.8 for the effective vertical projected area in the wind direction.
Table 2.3.8 Wind Pressure Force Acting on the Lower Portion of the Structure (Unit: kN/m2)
Cross-sectional shape of the body Wind pressure force

Circular or elliptical shape
Polygonal shape
References
1) Nagai, T., K. Sugahara, K. Sato and K. Kawaguchi: Characteristic of Japanese Coastal Wind Power based on Long Term
Observation, Technical Note of PHRI, No.999, p.59, 2001
2) Nagai, T: Observed Offshore Wind Characteristics from a View of Energy Utilization, Technical Note of PHRI, No.1034,
p.34, 2002
3) Takahashi, K: Study on quantitative weather forecasting based on extrapolation (Part 1), Study Bulletin No. 13, 1947
4) JSCE: The Collected Formula of Hydraulics (1985 Edition), JSCE, Nov. 1985
– 66 –
5) Nagai, T., H. Ogawa, A, Nakamura, K. Suzuki and T. Nukada: Characteristics of occurrence of offshore wind energy based
on observation data, JSCE Proceedings of Coastal Eng,. ,pp.1306-1310, 2003
6) Nagai, T, I. Ushiyama, Y. Nemoto, K. Kawanishi, T. Nukada, K. Suzuki and T. Otozu: Examination of field application of
lighting system utilizing coastal wind force, Journal of the Japan Society for Marine Survey and Technology Vol. 17 No. 1,
JSMST, 2005
7) Japan Meteorological Agency, Catalogue of annual maximum wind speed (1928-1966)at various places in Japan and the
probability of occurrence, Meteorological Agency observation Technical Note No. 34, 1971
8) JSCE, Civil Engineering Handbook, Giho-do Publications, 1974, pp. 541-544
9) Industrial Health Division, Industrial Safety and Health Dept., Labour Standards Bureau, Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare: Commentary of structural standards of various types of cranes, Japan Crane Association, 2004
10) Japan Road Association: Specifications and commentary of highway bridges, Part I General and Part II Steel Bridge, 2002
– 67 –
3 Tidal Level
Public Notice
Tidal Level
Article 7
The tide level shall be appropriately specified as the water level relative to a datum level for port and harbor
management through the statistical analysis of the observed or hindcasted data and/or others, by taking into
account the astronomical tides, meteorological tides, wave setup (rise of water level by waves near the shore),
and abnormal tidal levels due to tsunamis and others.
[Commentary]
(1) Tidal Level:

When specifying the tidal level for the performance verification of facilities subject to technical standards,
appropriately consider how the tidal level affects the action of waves and water pressure. Also, when
specifying the combination of tidal level and waves in the performance verification of facilities subject
to technical standards, among the tidal levels that have a high likelihood of occurring simultaneously
with waves, take as a standard the tidal level that would be most dangerous from the viewpoint of the
performance verification of such facilities.
(2) Astronomical Tides:
With regard to astronomical tides that are considered in the specification of the tidal level, take as a
standard the specification of chart datum level, mean sea level, mean monthly-highest water level, and
mean monthly-lowest water level, based on measured values for one year or more.
(3) Storm Surge:
When specifying storm surge, appropriately consider long-term measured values. As a standard, long-
term means 30 years or more. When specifying storm surge, if long-term measured values cannot
be available, then appropriately consider items such as hindcasted values of storm surge based on
meteorological conditions and records in past disasters. In the storm surge hindcasting, wave-stepup
due to wave breaking near the shore shall be appropriately considered as necessary.
[Technical Note]
3.1 Astronomical Tides
(1) Definitions 1), 2), 3)

Astronomical tides are tides produced by the gravity of the moon and sun and can be viewed as a sum of components
known as tidal constituents. The definitions for the representative types of water level are as follows:
① Mean sea level (MSL)
The average height of the sea level over a certain period is referred to as the mean sea level for that period. For
practical purposes, the mean sea level is taken to be the average of the water level over one year.
② Chart datum level (CDL)
The standard water level obtained by subtracting the sum of the amplitudes of the four principal tidal constituents
(M2, S2, K1 and O1) from the mean sea level. This is used as the standard for water depth in nautical charts.
③ Mean monthly-highest water level (HWL)
The average of the monthly-highest water level, where the monthly-highest water level for a particular month is
defined as the highest water level occurring in the period from 2 days beore to 4 days after the day of the lunar
syzygy (new moon and full moon).
④ Mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL)
The average of the monthly-lowest water level, where the monthly-lowest water level for a particular month is
defined as the lowest water level occurring in the period from 2 days before to 4 days after the day of the lunar
syzygy.
⑤ Mean high water level (MHWL)
The mean value of all of the high water levels, including the spring tide and the neap tide.
⑥ Mean low water level (MLWL)
The mean value of all of the low water levels, including the spring tide and the neap tide.
– 68 –
⑦ Near highest high water level (NHHWL)

The water level obtained by adding the sum of the amplitudes of the four principal tidal constituents (M2, S2,
K1 and O1) to the mean sea level.
⑧ High water of ordinary spring tides (HWOST)
The water level obtained by adding the sum of a half amplitude of the tidal constituents M2 and S2 to the mean
sea level. The height of the HWOST as measured from the chart datum is known as the spring rise.
⑨ Low water of ordinary spring tides (LWOST)
The water level obtained by subtracting the sum of a half amplitude of the tidal components M2 and S2 from
the mean sea level.
⑩ Mean sea level of Tokyo Bay (TP)
Mean sea level for Tokyo Bay determined during the Meiji period from tidal level observations. Since then, TP
has become the standard for measuring altitude in Japan. The bench mark is located in Nagata-cho, Chiyoda-
ku, Tokyo. Incidentally, TP does not correspond to the present day mean sea level of Tokyo Bay.
There are four principal tidal constituents, namely, the M2 tide (the principal lunar semi-diurnal component
of tides, period = 12.421 hours), the S2 tide (the principal solar semi-diurnal component of tides, period =
12.00 hours), the K1 tide (the luni-solar diurnal component of tides, period = 23.934 hours), and the O1 tide (the
principal lunar diurnal component of tides, period = 25.819 hours).
(2) Seasonal and Annual Changes in Mean Water Level 2)
The mean water level for each month varies over the year due to factors such as the ocean water temperature and
the atmospheric pressure distribution near the Japanese islands, and in many places the mean water level can vary
by ± 5 to 20 cm over the year. Typically along the Japanese coast it is higher in the summer and lower in the winter.
The annual mean water level is also affected by factors such as the ocean water temperature and atmospheric
pressure distribution for that year, and there may be variations of ± 10 cm depending on the ocean region.
(3) Occurrence Probability Distribution of Astronomical Tidal Levels 4)
Astronomical tidal levels have repeated high tides and low tides about twice per day, and repeated highest tides
and lowest tides about twice per month. The shape of the occurrence probability distribution of these astronomical
tidal levels varies with location, and the tidal levels that have the highest probability of occurrence are the tidal
levels that are close to the mean sea level, while the occurrence probability of high tidal levels such as the mean-
monthly highest water level, or low tidal levels such as the mean monthly lowest water level, are small.
3.2 Storm Surge
(1) Definitions
Besides astronomical tides that are caused by the gravity of the moon and sun, the height of the ocean surface
can change due to factors such as changes in atmospheric pressure and winds accompanying the passage of
low atmospheric pressure systems (including typhoons, hurricanes, and cyclones) and high atmospheric pressure
systems. Such meteorological changes in the sea surface are called meteorological tides, and the difference
between the measured tidal level and the forecasted astronomic tidal level is called the tidal level anomaly. In
particular, among meteorological tides, the rise in tidal level due to the passage of a low pressure system is called
a storm surge.
(2) Causes of Storm Surge
If the atmospheric pressure at the sea surface is lowered 1 hPa for a sufficiently long time so that the sea surface
is in equilibrium with the atmospheric pressure at the sea surface, for example, then the ocean surface rises by
about 1 cm higher than normal level. Or, if the winds blow at a constant wind velocity for a long time from the
entrance of an internal bay toward the throat of the bay so that the sea surface rises toward the throat of the bay and
reaches equilibrium then the amount of sea level rise at the furthest point inside the bay is roughly proportional to
the square of the wind velocity, and it is also larger when the bay is longer or shallower. During an actual typhoon
the atmospheric pressure, wind velocity, and wind direction on the sea surface changes in a complicated way at
different locations and times.
(3) Empirical Formula to Predict Storm Surge
The tide anomaly due to a typhoon can be roughly estimated from an empirical formula, such as equation (3.2.1).5)
(3.2.1)
– 69 –
where
ξ : tide anomaly (cm)
p0 : reference atmospheric pressure (1010 hPa)
p : lowest atmospheric pressure at the target location (hPa)
W : maximum value of the 10-minute average wind speed at the target location (m/s)
θ : angle between the main wind direction for the bay and that of the maximum wind speed W
a, b, c : constants determined from past observational results at the target location
(4) Numerical Calculation of Storm Surge
A numerical calculation is conducted to analyze the phenomenon of storm surge in more detail. In this numerical
calculation, items such as the atmospheric pressure that acts on the sea surface, the frictional stress on the sea
surface due to winds, the frictional stress that acts on the currents at the sea bottom, and the eddy viscosity of the
sea water are taken into consideration, and the changes in tidal level and flux flow at the grid points are calculated
at each time step from the time the typhoon approaches until it passes.8)
The distributions of the atmospheric pressure and the wind velocity of the typhoon are calculated from the
central (atmospheric) pressure, the radius of maximum wind velocity, and the forwarding speed of the typhoon.
The sea bottom topography of a bay is approximated using a grid with a spacing of several hundred meters, or
finer than that, giving the water depth at each grid point. There are various models for the numerical calculation
of storm surge, therefore an appropriate calculation method that sufficiently reproduces storm surges in the target
sea region shall be used.
In recent years, numerical calculation models have been developed that consider density layers and water
discharged from rivers, as well as models that do not treat storm surge, astronomical tides, and waves as an
independent phenomena but rather consider their interactions, and such models may sometimes better reproduce
the actual phenomena.9), 10), 11), 12)
(5) Storm Surge and Astronomical Tides
Storm surge is caused by meteorological disturbances such as typhoons, while astronomical tides are caused
mainly by the gravity of the moon and sun. Since storm surge and astronomical tides are phenomena with
independent causes, the time of maximum tide anomaly due to storm surge might overlap either the astronomical
high tide or the low tide. In particular, the astronomical tide range is large at internal bays at the Seto Inland
Sea and along the coast of the East China Sea, so that even if there had been a remarkable tide anomaly it might
have been possible to avoid great damage if it overlaps low tide. When specifying the design tidal level, in order
that one does not overlook such a storm surge, one should not consider the tidal level obtained by combining the
storm surge with the astronomical tide, but rather one should consider the characteristics of the occurrence of tide
anomalies just due to storm surge.
(6) Coincidence of Storm Surge and High Waves
A storm surge in an internal bay mainly occurs due to the suction effect of depression and wind setup effect.
Usually, at the bay entrance the suction effect predominates, and the tide anomaly is maximal when a typhoon
is closest and the atmospheric pressure has dropped the most. At the bay throat often the wind setup effect
predominates, so that the tidal level anomaly is greatest when the typhoon winds are blowing from the entrance
of the bay toward its throat. On the other hand, waves are not directly related to suction effect, but rather they
develop due to winds, and their propagation is affected by the topography of the sea bed. Waves are also affected
by the surrounding topography, and can easily be sheltered by capes or islands. Since storm surge differs in
these ways from waves, the peak of the tide anomaly and the peak of the waves may not occur simultaneously,
depending on the track and the location of the typhoon within the bay.13)
(7) Mean Water Level Rise due to Wave Breaking
In the surf zone, regardless of whether the sea level is being drawn up by depression or wind setup effect, there is a
rise of the mean water level due to wave breaking, and there is long period oscillation. As part of this process, the
rise of the mean water level is called wave setup. The amount of rise depends on factors such as the slope of the
sea bottom and the steepness of the incident waves, and it tends to be larger near the shoreline, and may be 10% or
more of the significant wave height at offshore. Therefore, at the shore that is directly hit by waves, the absolute
value of the amount of rise of the mean water level is large, this is also an important factor of the tide anomaly.
For the performance verification of port facilities in the surf zone it is necessary to consider the rise of the
mean water level due to wave breaking as well as the oscillation, however usually the calculation formulas and
diagrams for factors such as wave height in surf zone, wave force, and wave overtopping rate include the effect
of rise of the mean water level, therefore it is not necessary to separately add the amount of rise of the mean
water level into the design tidal level. However, in areas where reefs have widely formed the rise in water level is
especially large, sometimes even one meter or more, so in such places it is preferable to include the rise in mean
water level in the tidal level for the purpose of performance verification in such locations.
– 70 –
3.3 Harbor Resonance
(1) Definition
In locations such as a lake whose perimeter is closed or a bay whose entrance is narrow so that there is little
exchange of water with the outer ocean the internal water has a natural oscillation with a constant period due to
variations in actions such as winds. This phenomenon is called seiche. On the other hand, the oscillation that
occurs in a bay or harbor where one part is open to the outer ocean so that water can go in and out is called harbor
resonance. Harbor resonance is the main problem for performance verification of port facilities, where one must
consider the oscillation period and amplitude.
Harbor resonance is divided into two main types. One is when it occurs within a bay due to suction effect of
depression and wind setup effect. Fig. 3.3.1 shows the observational records of tidal level in Tokyo Bay during
Typhoon 2001/5 (Danas), when remarkable harbor resonance occurred as shown by the arrows.
The other is the type of oscillation that occurs within a bay or harbor due to waves that impinge from the
outer ocean and their accompanying long-term water level variations and currents. This type of oscillation can
cause a large resonance with an oscillation period that is unique for the shape and size of the bay or harbor. In
particular, in places where the shape is long and narrow, such as an artificially excavated port, and the water area
is surrounded by the facilities with a high refraction coefficient such as quaywalls, remarkable harbor resonance
often occurs.
The period for harbor resonance is usually from several minutes to several tens of minutes, and the amplitude
may reach several tens of centimeters. Nagasaki Bay has seen amplitudes of about 2 meters. Even though the
vertical amplitude of the water level due to harbor resonance may only be several tens of centimeters, the current
velocity in the horizontal direction is large, so this can be a great problem for ship mooring and cargo handling
operations. Waves that contain component waves with a period of 30 to 300 seconds in the frequency spectrum
as analyzed from continuous measurement recordings of 20 minutes or more are defined as long period waves (for
long-period waves, see Section 4.4, Long-period Waves).
Therefore, it is necessary to know a natural frequency period of a port for performance verification of port
facilities. Unoki 17) has conducted a research on the characteristics of harbor resonance in the major ports of
Japan. It is also possible to use numerical calculations of waves with frequencies from several minutes to an hour
that impinge on ports to calculate their amplitude ratios.18)
Fig. 3.3.1 Tidal Level Observational Recordings During Typhoon 2001/5 (Danas)
(Japan Coast Guard home page)
(2) Harbor Resonance Periods

For harbors which can be modeled by simple shape their natural frequency period and amplitude amplification
ratio can be found by theoretical calculations. However, shapes and boundary conditions of real harbors are
extremely complicated, so it is preferable for their natural frequency periods and amplitude amplification ratios to
be found by on-site observations or numerical calculations.18) For reference, formulas for the natural frequency
periods in the simplest cases are given as follows:
– 71 –
① Rectangular harbor of constant depth (surroundings are closed, no water enters or leaves, Fig. 3.3.2 (a)):
(3.3.1)
where
T : natural frequency period (s)
l : length of the water surface (the longitudinal direction) (m)
m : mode of the oscillation (1, 2, 3, ...)
g : gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
h : water depth (m)
② Rectangular harbor of constant depth (as in Fig. 3.3.2 (b), water can freely enters and leaves in one place, and
the harbor is narrow and long):
(3.3.2)
The amplitude amplification ratio often takes its maximum when m is 0 or 1, so in practice it is acceptable
to just investigate this case. In reality, not only the sea water within the harbor but also the sea water in the
outer ocean near the harbor entrance also oscillates to some extent, therefore the value of the natural frequency
period becomes somewhat longer from that given by equation (3.3.2) and becomes the value given by equation
(3.3.3) 19):
(3.3.3)
where
l : longitudinal length of a harbor
α : harbor entrance correction, given by equation (3.3.4):
(3.3.4)
where
π : ratio of the circular constant
b : width of a harbor
Table 3.3.1 shows values of the harbor entrance modification coefficient α for representative values of b/l, as
calculated from equation (3.3.4).
Table 3.3.1 Harbor Entrance Modification Coefficients
b/l 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/10 1/25

α 1.320 1.261 1.217 1.187 1.163 1.106 1.064
③ Rectangular harbor of constant depth (as in Fig. 3.3.2 (c), water can freely enter and leave in one place, and the
harbor entrance is narrow):
(3.3.5)
where
b : width of a harbor (m)
l : length of a harbor
n : number of nodes in the width direction of a harbor (n = 0, 1, 2, ...)
In actual cases, the natural frequency period has a somewhat smaller value than that calculated from equation
(3.3.5) due to the effect of the harbor entrance.
– 72 –
 

b
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.3.2 Models of Harbor Shapes
(3) Amplitude
The amplitude of harbor resonance is determined by the wave period that cause it as well as by the accompanying
long-period water level variations and current variations, and the amplification ratio for those periods. If the
period of the action equals the natural period for the harbor then resonance occurs, so that the amplification ratio
takes on a high value. However, bottom friction causes irregular waves and eddies at the harbor entrance, leading
to a loss of energy, so that the amplitude of the harbor resonance does not increase without any limitation. A
harbor resonance with a small amplitude still forms even if the period of the action is different from the natural
period of the harbor.
If the width of the harbor entrance is narrowed in order to increase the calmness within the harbor, it may
instead make harbor resonance more likely to occur. This phenomenon is called the harbor paradox. When
the shape of the harbor is changed, such as by extending the breakwaters, one must be careful not to cause a
remarkable harbor resonance.
If the energy loss at the harbor entrance is neglected, the amplitude amplification ratio R at the inside corners
of a bay with a rectangular harbor can be calculated from the ratio of the length of the harbor and the wavelength,
using Fig. 3.3.3 20) and Fig. 3.3.4.20) According to these Figs, for the long and narrow rectangular harbor of Fig.
3.3.3, resonance occurs more easily for lengths that are somewhat longer than the resonance conditions. In Fig.
3.3.4 the resonance points are roughly the same as the resonance points for a completely closed rectangular shaped
lake, as approximated by equation (3.3.6):

m, n = 0, 1, 2, ... (3.3.6)
20 10
Amplitude Amplification Ratio R
Amplitude Amplification Ratio R
2d 2b/ =0.2
n=0
m=0
18 2b/ =0.2
2d 2b d/b=0.01
16 d/b=0.01  0.1
8
n=0
m=0
 0.1 1.0
2b
m=1
n=0
14 1.0
m=2
m=3 n=4
m=1
n=0
n=2
m=2
m=2
n=0
12 6
n=0
m=2
m=1
n=2
n=0
m=3
10
n=0
8 4
6
4 2
2
π 2π 3π π 2π 3π
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Relative Length of the Harbor k = 2π/L Relative Length of the Harbor k = 2π/L
Fig. 3.3.3 Resonance Spectrum for a Fig. 3.3.4 Resonance Spectrum for a
Long and Narrow Rectangular Harbor 20) Wide Rectangular Harbor 20)
(4) Countermeasures Against Harbor Resonance

Harbor resonance is the phenomenon whereby long-period waves penetrate into a harbor from the entrance, repeat
perfect reflection within the harbor, and increase their amplitude. In order to hold down the amplitude of harbor
resonance, it is necessary to minimize reflectance around the inner perimeter of the harbor or alter the shape of
the harbor to reduce resonance generation, or increase the energy loss within the harbor. For this reason, it is
not advisable to build upright quay walls around the whole perimeter of a harbor. If a permeable rubble-mound
breakwater with a gentle slope is used, wave reflection can be reduced to some extent, and in addition one can
– 73 –
expect a certain energy loss in a sloping breakwater. Furthermore, by installing an inner breakwater close to the
position of a node of the harbor resonance in a harbor, the amplitude of the harbor resonance can be somewhat
reduced. Regarding the shape of the harbor, it is considered that an irregular shape is better than a geometrically
regular shape.
3.4 Abnormal Tidal Levels
(1) Causes of Abnormal Tidal Levels

Besides storm surge by typhoons and tsunamis, various other reasons can be given for abnormal tide generation,
such as current variations of the Kuroshio current, rise in the ocean water temperature due to the influx of warm
water, and the long-term continuation of westward-moving wind-driven currents. Such abnormal tidal levels may
continue from several days to several months, and in cases such as when the monthly-highest tides overlap with
storm surge there can be damage from water flooding.
The analysis of abnormal tidal levels reveals not only abnormally high tidal levels but also abnormally low
tidal levels. It is important to clarify their causes for each ocean region.
(2) Effects of Abnormal Tidal levels
The effect of abnormal tidal levels on the stability of port facilities and the verification of the ability to withstand
events such as wave overtopping can be considered by reflecting them in design tidal levels. For example, with
regard to the stability of breakwaters, an abnormally high tidal level can increase the buoyancy of breakwaters
and thereby decrease stability.21) Yoshioka et. al. have evaluated the probability distribution of abnormal tidal
levels at 97 places throughout Japan based on tide observational data including as much as for 29 years, and they
have performed a reliability analysis based on this, to study the effect on the sliding and overturning stability of
breakwaters. Within the scope of their results, the decrease in the safety index due to abnormal tidal levels is
small enough that it can be neglected.22)
3.5 Long-term Variation in the Mean Sea Level
(1) Prediction of Variations in the Mean Sea Level

Separate from the considerations of astronomical tidal levels and storm surge in the specification of design tidal
levels, there have been studies both within Japan and abroad of the long-term rise in the level of the ocean surface.
According to the evaluation report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 23), 24) the
global mean sea level is predicted to rise between 0.09 and 0.88 meters from 1990 to 2100. Fig. 3.5.1 shows
IPCC’s predicted future variation in the mean sea level.
Complete
IS92
Rise in the Water Level of the Ocean Surface (m)
SRES Scenario
Complete SRES Envelope
Including the Uncertainties
Concerning Continental Ice
Complete SRES Scenario

Envelope According to
Several Models
Mean Model Envelope for

Complete SRES Scenario
Bars show the range of

prediction results for the
year 2100 according to
several models.
Year
Fig. 3.5.1 Predicted Future Variation in the Mean Water Level of the Earth’s Ocean Surface
According to IPCC’s Third Evaluation Report
(From the Third IPCC Evaluation Report, First Operating Committee Report,
Climate Change 2001, Scientific Basis, Summary for Government Policy Makers)
– 74 –
(2) Effect of the Mean Sea Level Rise, and its Adaptation
If the mean sea level rises, and a storm surge or tsunami occurs, the heights of the shores and river banks will be
insufficient, thereby lowering the safety of their facilities and increasing the risk of disasters. Also, there will be
an effect on the logistics infrastructure, such as usage limitations on port facilities.
Measures to take against a mean sea level rise include such measures as facility development, changes in land
use, and strengthening of disaster prevention system, and it is necessary to clearly understand the advantages
and disadvantages of such measures, taking into account factors such as the social characteristics and natural
conditions of the target areas, and combining all such measures into an adaptable plans.26) In order to develop
facilities, such as port facilities, sewer facilities, and roads (bridges), it is necessary to compensate for the effects of
mean sea level rise. However, it is necessary to keep in mind facility planning, the accompanying design working
time, cost-effectiveness, the effect on the surrounding environment, and the uncertainties in the predictions of the
sea level rise.
3.6 Underground Water Level and Seepage
(1) As necessary, performance verification of port facilities must appropriately consider the underground water level
at sandy coastal areas.
(2) As necessary, performance verification of port facilities must consider the velocity and discharge of seepage
within permeable foundations and facilities.
(3) Groundwater Level in Coastal Aquifer
The elevation of brackish groundwater intruding in a coastal aquifer may be estimated using the following equation
(see Fig. 3.6.1).
(3.6.1)
where
h : depth below the sea surface of the interface between fresh water and saltwater at the distance x (m)
h0 : depth below the sea surface of the interface between fresh water and saltwater at x = 0 (m)
hl : depth below the sea surface of the interface between fresh water and saltwater at x = L (m)
ρ1 : density of the fresh water (g/cm3)
ρ2 : density of saltwater (g/cm3)
ζ0 : elevation of fresh water above the sea surface at the coast (x = 0) (m)
ζ : elevation of fresh water above the sea surface at x = L (m)
L : distance from the coast (x = 0) to the reference point (m)
x : landward distance from the coastline (m)
Equation (3.6.1) cannot be applied if an impermeable layer exists close to the ground surface or in the aquifer:
For the relationship between the rise of groundwater level due to wave runup and beach profile change, see in 10.1
General [Technical Notes] (8)
x=0
L
x
Fresh water
level
ζ0 ζ ζl
Fresh water
Sea h0
h ρ1
h1
Salt water Salt water
level
ρ2
Fig. 3.6.1 Schematic Drawing of Groundwater at Coast
– 75 –
(4) Seepage within Foundations and Facilities
① Formula for Calculating the Seepage discharge
When the fluid that is flowing in the seepage layer is a steady laminar flow, the discharge of seepage can be
calculated from the Darcy formula. Steady flows within the usual seepage layers made of soil and sand, such
as surface layers and filtration layers, are extremely slow. In such cases the flow follows the Darcy formula of
equation (3.6.2)
(3.6.2)
where
q : discharge of water flowing in a seepage layer per unit time (cm3/s)
k : permeability coefficient (cm/s)
h
i : hydraulic gradient i=
h : head loss (cm) L
L : length of seepage current path (cm)
A : cross-sectional area (cm2)
The applicability limits for this formula are determined by the diameters of the particles that form the seepage
layer and the Reynolds number for the seepage rate, however it is better to verify this by measurement because
there still is no sufficiently agreed upon solution.31) For the applicable ranges and permeation coefficients see
Chapter 3, 2.2.3, Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil.
② Permeation through a sheet pile wall
The flow rate of permeation through a sheet pile wall is not determined purely by the permeability of the wall;
rather, the permeability of the soil behind the wall has a dominating influence. Shoji et al.13) examined this
problem, and carried out comprehensive permeation experiments in which they not only varied the tension
of the joints, but also added the cases with and without sand filling in the joint section. They proposed the
following experimental formula:
(3.6.3)
where
q : flow rate of permeation through a sheet pile joint per unit length in the vertical direction (cm3/s/
cm)
K : permeation coefficient for the joints (cm 2-n/s)
h : pressure head difference between the front and back of a joint (cm)
n : coefficient depending on the state of the joints
(n ≒ 0.5 when the joints are not filled with sand, and n ≒ 1.0 when the joints are filled with
sand)
When there was sand on both sides of the sheet pile and the joints were under tension, Shoji et al. obtained
a value of 7.0 × 10-4 cm/s for K in their experiments. However, they also pointed out that if the permeation
flow is estimated with this value, then the flow rate turns out to be as much as 30 times that observed in the
field. For actual design, it is thus necessary to pay close attention to any difference between the state of the
sheet pile wall used in the experiments and those used in the field.
③ Permeation through rubble mound
The flow rate of permeation through a rubble mound foundation of a gravity type structure may be estimated
using the following equation:
(3.6.4)
where
q : flow rate of permeation per unit width (m3/s/m)
U : mean permeation velocity for the whole cross section of rubble mound (m/s)
H : height of the permeable layer (m)
d : rubble stone size (m)
g : gravitational acceleration (= 9.81 m/s2)
Δ H/ΔS : hydraulic gradient
ζ : resistance coefficient
– 76 –
Equation (3.6.4) has been proposed based on the experimental results using eight different types of stones
of uniform size, with the diameter ranging from 5 mm to 100 mm. The virtual flow length ΔS may be taken
to be as the total of the 70% to 80% of the permeable layer height and the width of the caisson base. The
coefficient of resistance is shown in Fig. 3.6.2. When Re(=Ud /ν)>104, it is acceptable to take ζ ≒ 20
103 .
d(mm) ∆S(cm)
5 – 10 100
5 – 10 75
10 – 15 100
10 – 15 75
15 – 20 100
20 – 25 100
25 – 30 99
ζ 30 – 35 100
102 95 104
100 102
10
10 102 103 104
Ud
Re =
v
Fig. 3.6.2 Relationship between Resistance Coefficient ζ and Reynolds Number
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– 77 –
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Conference, Global Warming Study Initiative, Frontier of Climate Change Studies, Knowledge and Technology in the
Century of Environment, 2002, p. 142, 2003
25) Nagai, T. K. Sugahara, H. Watanabe and K. Kawaguchi: Long Term Observation of the Mean Tide Level and Long Waves at
the Kurihama-Bay, Rept. Of PHRI Vol. 35 No.4, 1996. 12, pp. 3-36
26) Task Force of the Study on Land conservation against sea level rise due to global warming: Report of the Land Conservation
Task Force on sea level rise due to the global warming, ,p.35, 2002
27) Todd, D.K.: Ground water hydrology, John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,1963
29) Ishihara, T. and H. Honma: Applied Hydraulics (Vol. II No. 2), Maruzen Publishing, 1966
30) Sakai, G: Geohydrology, Asakura Publishing, 1965
31) Iwasa, Y.: Hydraulics, Asakura Publishing, p.226, 1967
32) Yamaguchi, H: Soul Mechanics, Giho-do Publishing, p.76, 1969
33) Shoji, Y. M. Kumeda and Y. Tomita: Experiments on Seepage through Interlocking Joints of Sheet Pile, Rept. PHRI Vol.21
No.4 1982.12
– 78 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 2 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY
4 Waves
Public Notice
Waves
Article 8
Characteristics of waves shall be set by the methods provided in the subsequent items corresponding to the
single action or combination of two or more actions to be considered in the performance criteria and the
performance verification:
(1) Waves to be employed in the verification of the structural stability of the facilities, the failure of the
section of a structural member (excluding fatigue failure), and others shall be appropriately defined in
terms of the wave height, period and direction corresponding to the return period through the statistical
analysis of the long-term data of observed or hindcasted waves or other methods.
(2) Waves to be employed in the verification of the assurance of the functions of a structural member
and the failure of its section due to fatigue shall be appropriately defined in terms of the wave height,
period, direction and others of waves having a high frequency of occurrence during the design working
life through the statistical analysis of the long-term data of observed or hindcasted waves.
(3) Waves to be employed in the verification of the harbor calmness shall be appropriately defined in terms
of the joint frequency distributions of the wave height, period and direction of waves for a certain
duration of time through the statistical analysis of the long-term data of observed or hindcasted waves.
[Commentary]
(1) Waves employed to verify the stability of facilities, to verify the failure of the section of a structural
member.
① Return period of variable waves
When setting the waves to be considered in the verification of serviceability for a variable state where
dominating action is variable waves, the purpose of the facilities and the performance requirements
must satisfied, and in addition the return period of the waves are set appropriately by considering
suitably the design working life and degree of importance of objective facilities, as well as the natural
condition of objective location.
② Return period of accidental waves
When setting the waves to be considered in the verification of serviceability for a accidental situation
where dominating action is accidental waves, the waves that become the severest among the waves
that can occur in objective marine waters or waves with a return period of 100 years or longer are set
appropriately.
③ Period of observed values or estimated values
A period of 30 years or longer is used as the standard for the long-term observed values or estimated
values.
(2) Waves employed to verify the assurance of the functions and the failure of sections due to fatigue of the
facilities relating to structural members
① The verification of the assurance of the functions of the facilities relating to structural members refers
to verification of the limit state in which function-related trouble occurs in structural members, and in
addition the verification of failure of sections due to fatigue refers to verification of the limit state in
which destruction of a section occurs in a structural member due to repeated action.
② The waves to be considered in the verification of the assurance of the functions of the facilities relating
to structural members employ as the standard waves for which the number of times which the waves
with a wave height greater than that strike in the design working life is about 10,000 times.
③ When setting the waves to be considered in the verification of destruction of a section due to fatigue,
the various conditions such as the natural condition of objective facilities are considered, and the
number of times of appearance relating to the wave height and period of the waves that occur during
the design working life. The period of the observed values and estimated values is based on (1) ③
above.
(3) Waves employed to verify harbor calmness
A period of 5 years or longer is used as the standard for the long term (observation or estimation). In addition,
– 79 –
when setting the waves to be considered in the verification of harbor calmness, long period waves should be
included in areas where occurance of long period waves is predicted.
[Technical Note]
4.1 Basic Matters Relating to Waves
(1) Definition of Waves

The waves of the oceans are one of the principal actions acting on the port facilities, and are in principle treated
as random waves, and are set appropriately based to the greatest possible extent on past observation data and the
latest findings. Fig. 4.1.1 shows the definition of waves. Here, the height from the trough to the peak of one wave
is the wave height H, the spatial length is the wavelength L, and the speed at which it is propagated is the wave
celerity C calculated by the zero-upcross method. The length of the period from the start of a wave to the start
of the next wave expressed in a case observed at a fixed point is the period T. Reference 1) can be referred for the
specifics on the basic nature of waves.
4
3 Wave height H (m)
2
Water level (m)
1
0
-1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-2
-3 Period T
-4
Time (s)
Fig. 4.1.1 Definition of Waves
(2) Introduction of Random Waves

The wave height and period of ocean waves vary for each wave. Such waves are called random waves, and it is
preferable in principle that random waves are employed in the performance verification. It is possible to consider
random waves to be the overlapping of regular waves with various periods, and the respective regular waves are
called component waves. It is the frequency spectrum of a wave that indicates the degree of the energy of the
component waves, and a spectrum shape corresponding to the properties of ocean should be employed in the
performance verification. Based on observed cases to date on Japan’s seacoast, the Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu
spectrum 2) is commonly employed.
The Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum shape is expressed by the following equation.
(4.1.1)
where
S ( f ) : f requency spectrum of the wave
H1/3 : significant wave height
T1/3 : significant wave period
f : f requency
However, in inner bay areas like Tokyo Bay, the peak of the spectrum often becomes pointed, so it is preferable
to introduce a spectrum shape of the JONSWAP type 3) based on observations to the greatest extent possible, or to
employ a spectrum that can reflect appropriately the observation results.
(3) Introduction of Multi directionality of Waves
In shallow waters, the wave height of the component waves becomes orthogonal to the shoreline due to refraction
effects, and the nature of the waves becomes closer to uni-directional random waves. Accordingly, a case in which
the water depth to the wavelength ratio of offshore waves (h/L0) becomes 0.1 or smaller is used as the benchmark,
and in waters shallower than this it may be approximated as a wave that acts by an uni-directional random wave
composed of component waves that are unidirectional only, limited to cases where a wave is employed as the
variable action. In deeper waters, its character as a multi directional random wave where the energy of the
component waves advances in various directions becomes stronger, and it is preferable to treat the wave as a
multi directional random wave. In addition, since the multi directionality of the wave has a major effect in the
– 80 –
performance verification of the stability of the breakwater head of a breakwater or floating facilities, so the multi
directionality of the waves in waters should be examined beforehand with appropriate observation data. The wave
direction has a major effect on the results in the calculation of the degree of calmness, so the waves are calculated
as multi directional random waves.
A directional wave spectrum is employed as an index for showing the multi directionality of a wave. The
directional wave spectrum is the product of the above-described frequency spectrum S( f ) and the directional
spreading function G( f, θ), and is expressed as S( f, θ) = S( f )G( f, θ). The Mitsuyasu type directional spreading
function is commonly employed in most cases as the directional spreading function. Fig. 4.1.2 shows the
distribution shape of the Mitsuyasu directional spreading function. f, fp and l in the figure are respectively the
frequency, peak frequency of the frequency spectrum and coefficient employed when computing the directional
wave function in cosine shape. The parameter of the directional wave function Smax is the directional spreading
parameter introduced by Goda and Suzuki, 4) and the following numerical values can generally be used.
Wind waves Smax = 10

Swell with a short attenuation distance Smax = 25
Swell with a long attenuation distance Smax = 75
However, the variance of the directional spreading parameter is large on-site, and when the directional wave
spectrum is observed on-site, these values should be used as a reference.
G( θ) 2.5
f* 1(f/f p =0.80)
f* 0(f/f p =1.00)
ℓ= 5 f* 2(f/f p =1.38)
ℓ= 9 f* 3(f/f p =1.65)
ℓ=11
ℓ=13 ℓ
-90° 0° θ 90°
(1) When Smax = 75
G( θ ) f* 1(f/f p =0.80)
2
f* 0(f/fp =1.00)
ℓ=1 f* 2(f/f p =1.38)
ℓ=3 f* 3(f/f p =1.65)
1
-90° 0° θ 90°
(2) When Smax = 25
G(θ )
2 f* 1(f/f p =0.80)
f* 0(f/f p =1.00)
ℓ=1
f* 2(f/f p =1.38)
ℓ=3 f* 3(f/f p =1.65)
1
ℓ=5
-90° 0° θ 90°
(3) When Smax = 10
Fig. 4.1.2 The Distribution Shape of the Mitsuyasu Type Directional Spreading Function
– 81 –
The directional spreading parameter Smax of offshore waves that expresses the directional spreading of wave
energy varies depending on the wave shape steepness, and it can be estimated with Fig. 4.1.3 in the event that
adequate observation data is not obtained. In addition, in shallow waters, the directional spreading of waves varies
depending on the sea bottom topography, so it is preferable to estimate this by a wave deformation calculation,
but in those cases where the coastline is close to linear having simple topography and the water depth contour is
deemed to be parallel to the shoreline, the changes in Smax may be estimated by the diagram in Fig. 4.1.4.
200
Smax
100
50
20
10
1
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05
H0/L0
Fig. 4.1.3 Changes in Smax due to Wave Shape Steepness
100
90 (Smax )0= 75
80
70
60
Smax
50
40
(Sma
x )0 = 25
30
20
(α p )0= 0°
(Smax )
30° 0= 10
60°
10
0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
h/L0
* (Smax) indicates the value of offshore waves, and (αp)0 indicates the principal wave direction of offshore waves. L0 indicates the wave
height of offshore waves, and h indicates the water depth.
Fig. 4.1.4 Changes in Smax due to Water Depth
(4) Waves Represented in Perfomance Verification

Since the wave height of random waves varies depending on the time, representative waves shall be employed
in the performance verification. Significant waves are normally employed as representative waves. Since the
significant wave height H1/3 is calculated by calculating the wave height for each wave obtained by the zero-
upcross method, and then calculating the mean value of 1/3 of the upper value of wave height that are rearranged
– 82 –
in descending order. And the significant wave period T1/3 is the value averaging the period of the wave employed
for calculation of the significant wave height. The mean of the individual waves included in all data are expressed
as the mean wave height R and mean wave period T . The wave with the greatest wave height among a series
of waves is called the highest wave, its wave height and period are respectively called the highest wave height
Hmax and highest wave period Tmax, and the action due to the waves employed in the verification of stability of a
breakwater shall be calculated from the dimensions of the highest wave. On the assumption that wave energy is
concentrated in the extremely narrow range of a certain frequency, the occurrence frequency of the wave heights
included in the wave group of offshore waves follows the Rayleigh distribution. In the event that the occurrence
frequency of wave heights follows the Rayleigh distribution, the following relationship exists between the highest
wave height Hmax and the significant wave height H1/3. 5)
(4.1.2)

The following relationship exists for the period.
(4.1.3)

The Rayleigh distribution is expressed by the following equation.
(4.1.4)
where
H is the mean wave height of all waves in the wave group.
As in the case of the method for calculating the significant wave height, the wave height calculated with 1/10
of the upper value of wave height is called the highest 1/10 wave height. The following formulas are established
between H , H1/3 and H1/10.
(4.1.5)
(5) Deformation of waves in shallow waters

The phenomenon where the wave height or direction of progress of waves varies due to the effects of the water
depth is called the deformation of waves, and a deformation of waves in waters that are shallower than ½ of the
wavelength L0 (= 1.56 T02) of offshore waves should be taken into consideration. The deformation of waves includes
such phenomena as refraction or diffraction, wave shoaling, breaking and, reflection, and calculation of these is
done with the respective appropriate numerical calculation methods. Since these respective phenomena occur by
mutually affecting one another, the application of a calculation method that can take all of them into consideration
at once is preferable, but at present there is no calculation method that can consider all of these phenomena
simultaneously in practical use. In principle, the waves that act on the port facilities are those appropriate waves
that are most disadvantageous for the stability of the structure of the port facilities or the utilization of the port
facilities, in view of refraction, diffraction, shoaling, and breaking due to the propagation of offshore waves.
(6) Shallow waters and deep waters
In waters where the water depth is at least ½ the wavelength, the waves are hardly affected by the sea bottom, and
proceed without deforming. However, waves are gradually affected by the sea bottom when they invade waters
where the water depth is less than ½ the wavelength, and the wave celerity becomes slower, the wavelength shorten,
and the wave height also changes. Given this fact, waters where the water depth is at least ½ the wavelength is
called deep waters, and the waters shallower than this is called shallow waters. When setting the waves in shallow
waters, due consideration must be given to the deformation of the waves. For the distinction between shallow
waters and deep waters for random waves, the wavelength L0 of offshore waves is calculated by L0 = 1.56 T02 (m),
and then the waters may be distinguished by the water depth relative to this wavelength. Moreover, it is necessary
to take into consideration the fact that the shape of the spectrum and the frequency distribution of the wave height
differ from the state of offshore waves, due to the effects of refraction, diffraction, shoaling, and breaking in
shallow waters.
(7) Long period waves and harbor resonance
Long period waves, which have a water surface fluctuation whose frequency is several tens of seconds or longer,
may exert a major impact on the mooring facilities or topography of the sea bottom, and it is preferable to examine
as necessary, based on on-site observations and the analytical results to date. Harbor resonance, which is the
– 83 –
natural resonance of harbors and bays, has effects on not only moored ships but also the water level of the inner
part of the bay, so in the event that clear harbor resonance is found from the tide records to date, or in the event
that the topography of the harbor varies widely, it is preferable to examine this with an appropriate numerical
calculation method. 6)
(8) Wave direction
The wave direction is an important parameter for determining the direction of the forces acting on the facilities.
It is preferable to determine the principal wave direction to the greatest extent possible by observation of the
directional wave spectrum or of the flow speed of two components. 7) The principal wave direction is the orientation
where the peaks in the wave train are distributed most densely on a wave form of a certain direction, and it is
considered as an angle where the peak in directional wave spectrum appears. However, in the event that the swells
from outside the harbor or the wind waves that occur inside the harbor overlap, bidirectional waves that have
two peaks for the directional spreading function appear frequently. 8) In these cases, even if the principal wave
direction is determined, it is seldom that this principal wave direction represents the direction in which the energy
of the wave proceeds, so one should examine special measures such as carrying out the performance verification
of the facilities at the wave direction that is most dangerous, or carrying out the performance verification for the
respective wave directions, and setting the facilities to be stable for both.
(9) Setting of waves
In the performance verification, the above-described properties of waves shall be considered, and first of all the
offshore waves composing variable action or accidental action shall be determined, in accordance with the function
of the facilities. The directional concentration of the energy of the wave is set, in addition to the significant wave
height, significant wave period and wave direction, as the conditions of the waves. Next, the wave deformation
calculation shown in the next chapter is carried out in shallow waters, and the conditions of the waves that act on
the facilities shall be determined.
4.2 Generation, Propagation and Attenuation of Waves
(1) Summary of the Wave Hindcasting Method

Wave hindcasting estimates the temporal and spatial changes in wind direction and wind velocity of the prescribed
water area from the topography and the meteorological data, and estimates the waves under the wind field. There
are various methods for wave hindcasting, but in general these can be divided roughly into the significant wave
method and the spectrum method, and the mainstream method at present is the spectrum method.
(2) Wave Hindcasting by the Significant Wave Method
The modern wave hindcasting method that was first developed in the world treats the series of phenomena known
as the generation, development, propagation and attenuation of waves collectively, and estimates the wave height
H1/3(m) and period T1/3(s) with the wind velocity U10(ms) value at 10 m above the sea surface, wind duration t (s)
and fetch length F(m) as the parameters. Its forerunner is the S-M-B method, which was proposed by Sverdrup
and Munk 9) in the 1940s and revised by Bretschneider. 10), 11)
Currently, the improved Wilson IV formula, 12) is generally employed:
(4.2.1)
(4.2.2)
Fig. 4.2.1 illustrates these relational expressions (the unit of the fetch length F in equation (4.2.1) and equation
(4.2.2) is expressed by kilometer units in Fig. 4.2.1). However, these relational expressions are for cases where
the wind is continuously blowing constantly for an adequately long time, and for a while after the wind starts
blowing it does not reach this wave height or period. The time required for a wave that occurs at the upper
extremity of the fetch to reach the point at distance F(m) while it develops is called the minimum wind duration
tmin(s), and is expressed by the following equation.
(4.2.3)
where
Cg(x) is the group velocity of the waves. In addition, it is possible to make a rough estimate by means
of the following equation.13)
– 84 –
(4.2.4)
Where, tmin’ is the minimum wind duration (hr), and F’ is the fetch length (km), and it is necessary to pay
attention to the fact that the units differ from equations (4.2.1) and (4.2.2). When the wind duration is shorter
than the minimum wind duration, the waves are in the process of developing with time. Therefore, in those cases
where the fetch length and the wind duration are simultaneously provided, the smaller ware of the two calculated
waves must be adopted.
The SMB method fundamentally applies to constant fetch, but in the event that the wind speed is changing
gradually, the waves can be hindcasted by using the equi-energy line (the line showing H1/32 · T1/32 = const).
In the event that the width of the fetch is narrower than the fetch length in a lake or bay, or in the event that the
fetch length is determined by the opposite shore distance, and the opposite shore distance varies widely relative
to minute fluctuations of the wind direction, equation (4.2.1) and equation (4.2.2) provide a wave height or period
that is much larger than it really is. In such cases, it is best to employ the effective fetch length 14) provided by the
following formula.
(4.2.5)
Here, Feff is the effective fetch length, Fi is the opposite shore distance in the number ith direction from the
hindcasting point of the wave, and θi is the angle formed by the direction of the opposite shore distance Fi and the
principal wind direction, and is -45° ≤ θi ≤ 45°.
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 2 3 4 6 8 102 2 3 4 6 8 103 2 3 4 6 8 104

60
4 50
40 5 30
50 35 28
30 26
2 28
24 6 24
40 2 22 22
18 0
16 20
14
35 12 18
1
9 0 16
30 8 14
28
7
26 12
6
Wind velocity U (m/s)
24
4
22 10
3.
5
3
20 9
2.
5
8
2
18
7
1.
16
5
6
1
14
0.
5
75
12
0.
5
10
3.
5
H
9
=0
3
.25
8
2.
5
7
0.75
150
2
200
6
300
100
400
8
7
25
80
14
16
10
40
12
50
18
60
90
t =0.50
30
70
2.5
20
1.5
5
4
3
1
6
T
=1
.5
5
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 2 3 4 6 8 102 2 3 4 6 8 103 2 3 4 6 8 104
Fetch length F (km)
Wave height H1/3 (m) Period T1/3

Minimum wind duration t (h) Equi-energy line (H1/32 • T1/3) = const.
Fig. 4.2.1 Wind Hindcasting Diagram by the S-M-B Method
In the SMB method, when the variation of the wind field is significant as in the case of a typhoon or extra
tropical cyclone, it is difficult to provide suitably the values for wind velocity U10 , fetch length F or wind duration
t. A method that solves this problem is Wilson’s graphical calculation method, 15) and the methods of Ijima and
Horikawa, 16), 17) which solve Wilson’s equation numerically, are commonly employed.
As shown in equation (4.2.1) and equation (4.2.2), the significant wave method is nothing more than formula
that links experientially the development of wind waves with the basic parameters, and is not formula that is
constructed in line with the mechanisms of generation and development of waves. Owing to this nature, it leaves
a number of vague points, such as how to handle cases where the wind gradually deflects, the transition from wind
waves to swells, the method for synthesizing wind waves and swells. In addition, there is also the problem that
the wave direction obtained by hindcasting displays the wind direction of the final step of calculation. However,
compared to a case where the wind field has a simple nature and the effects of swells can be ignored, it is a
practical estimation method that is simpler than the spectrum method and whose calculation time is also short.
– 85 –
As far as the swells that wind waves propagate distant from the generation and development areas are
concerned,
(4.2.6)
(4.2.7)
Here, (H1/3)F and (T1/3)F are the wave height and period of a significant wave at the terminus of the fetch, (H1/3)
D and (T1/3)D are the wave height and period of a swell, Fmin is the minimum fetch length that generates the wave,
D is the attenuation distance, that is the distance terminus of the wind field to the arrival point of a swell, and k1
0.4, and k 2 2.0. In addition, the propagation time t of a swell is given by the following equation.
(4.2.8)
A wave hindcasting method for shallow water area has also been proposed.19)
(3) Wave Hindcasting by the Spectrum Method
In general the following formula is employed for wave hindcasting by the spectrum method.
(4.2.9)
Here, Cg is the group velocity, the first term at left stands for the local temporal change in spectrum energy
E(ω, θ), and the second term stands for the changes due to the transmission effect of the spectrum energy. In
addition, Snet(ω, θ) on the right side is the term expressing the total amount of change in energy related to the
change of the spectrum components, and in general is provided by the following formula:
(4.2.10)
Here, Sin is the energy transmitted from the wind to the waves. Snl is the gain and loss of energy that occurs
between the four component waves with different wave numbers, and is called transport of wave energy by
nonlinear interactions (hereinafter, “nonlinear transport of wave energy”). The nonlinear interactions due to
these four waves cause the shape of the directional wave spectrum to vary, with the total sum of energy that the
waves have constant. Sds stands for the effects where the energy of the waves dissipates due to white-cap breaking
waves or the internal viscosity of seawater.
Models based on the spectrum method are classified into the disjoined propagation (DP model), the coupled
hybrid (CH) model and the coupled disjoined (CD) model, depending on how the nonlinear transport of wave
energy Snl is treated. In the DP model, the nonlinear transport of wave energy term is not introduced directly,
and the respective frequency and directional components are not coupled to each other. In the CH model, the
nonlinear interactions between component waves are parameterized and introduced. In the CD model, the
nonlinear interactions are introduced directly in some form or other.
On the other hand, the models are also classified by the period when they were developed. The DP model,
which was developed from the 1960s to the beginning of the 1970s, is the first generation model, and the CH
model and CD model, which were developed from the 1970s to the 1980s, are second generation models, and the
CD model, which was developed from the latter half of the 1980s to the present, and which handles the nonlinear
interactions with higher accuracy than previously, is called the third generation model. In the third generation
model, the degree of flexibility of the scheme of the nonlinear transport of wave energy term is high, and it is
possible to hindcast with good accuracy even in the case of waves where bidirectional waves, wind waves and
swells are all present.
The wave hindcasting model of the Japan Meteorological Agency started from MRI, 20) the first generation
model, and developed into MRI-II 21) and MRI-II new, 22) the second generation models, and currently MRI-III, 23)
the third generation model, is being employed. In addition to these, the Inoue model 24) and the Yamaguchi-
Tsuchiya model 25) are known as a first generation model, and the Tohoku model 26) is known as a second generation
model. In addition, in the first generation models, a one point method where the waves at one spot are calculated
– 86 –
from a calculation along the wave ray of each component wave that arrives at one spot has been developed.
(4) MRI Model 20)
The MRI model that was developed in 1973 is the model that was employed for the numerical wave report service
of the Japan Meteorological Agency over approximately a decade from 1977.
In the MRI model, the linear development and exponential development of wind waves due to wind, and the
physical mechanisms of energy dissipation due to the effects of breaking waves and internal friction and headwinds,
are taken into consideration. The effects of nonlinear transport of wave energy Snl are not considered formally, but
the effects of on-linear transport of wave energy are expressed indirectly by employing the development equation
24) for wind waves, which does not separate the nonlinear transport of wave energy S from the transport of wave
nl
energy Sin from the wind to the wave.
The total amount of change in energy Snet(ω, θ) is divided into the cases of tailwinds and headwinds, and is
expressed as follows.
(4.2.11)
Here, f is the frequency, θ is the wave direction, θ w is the wind direction and E = E( f, θ) is the directional
spectrum of the wave. EPM is the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum, and is employed as the standard form of a
saturated spectrum. In addition, Γ (θ-θ w) is the directional wave function that is proportionate to cos2θ, A and B
are the linear and exponential development rates 24) of wind waves per unit time, and D is the coefficient of internal
friction (eddy viscosity).
In a DP model including the MRI model, the spectrum shape of the waves is expressed so as to gradually
approximate a saturated spectrum, by multiplying the term of the form {1 – (E - EPM )2}, and – (E - EPM )2
expresses the formal energy dissipation. In addition, in the DP model, the calculation time is short, and it has
practical accuracy with respect to wave height, so it is employed currently as a wave model that can be used simply
and conveniently.
(5) WAM Model28)

The WAM model is a representative third generation wave hindcasting model that directly calculates the nonlinear
interactions of four wave resonance, by the discrete interaction approximation 29) of S. Hasselmann and K.
Hasselmann.
In the model of the spectrum method, the transport of wave energy from wind to wave is generally provided
by the following.
(4.2.12)
Here, A corresponds to the Phillips resonance mechanism, and BE to the Miles instability mechanism. The
Phillips resonance mechanism is a mechanism where the random pressure fluctuations of wind that blows over a
still water surface, and the component waves that have a spatial scale and phase velocity that matches the former,
cause resonance, and owing to the phenomena a wave is generated. On the other hand, the Miles instability
mechanism is a mechanism where the airflow on the water surface is disturbed and becomes unstable owing to
the unevenness of the water surface due to the waves, and energy is efficiently transmitted from wind to waves
due to this phenomenon. In the WAM model, the following equation, from which the items related to the Phillips
resonance mechanism are omitted, is adopted:
(4.2.13)
However, in this method, if the initial value of the spectrum energy of the waves is assumed to be 0, no waves
are generated, so it is possible to provide as the initial value a spectrum calculated from the fetch length and initial
velocity.
In Cycle 4 of the WAM model, Janssen’s quasi-linear theory 30), 31) has been incorporated in the calculation
equation for the transport of wave energy term from wind to waves. Owing to this, even in the event that the
conditions of the offshore winds are identical, it is possible to calculate closer to reality, such that the amount of
wave energy transported is greater for waves whose wave age is younger.
In the energy dissipation term of the WAM model, the effects of white-cap breaking waves and sea bottom
friction have been taken into consideration.
In the nonlinear transport of wave energy term, the nonlinear interactions of the four wave resonance have
– 87 –
been taken into account. Nonlinear interactions are a phenomenon where the component waves making up the
spectrum exchange the energy that they respectively have, and although no change is imparted directly to the
total energy of the wave, effects appear themselves on the amount of energy transport from wind to waves and the
amount of energy dissipation due to the fact that the spectrum shape changes. Then, the nonlinear transport of
wave energy of four wave resonance is expressed by the following equation. 32)
(4.2.14)
Here, n(k) = E(k)/ω stands for the wave action density, Q( ) the joint function of the spectrum components,
δ the delta function, k the wave vector, and the subscripts are the four wave components. The delta function
expresses the resonance conditions, and nonlinear interactions occur between the component waves that satisfy
the following expression.
(4.2.15)
However, an incalculable number of combinations of resonance that satisfies this expression exist. Owing to
this, an immense calculation burden is involved in calculated all of these combinations, so in the actual model one
representative combination is decided on, and Snl is approximated.
A model expanded so that topographical breaking waves and wave set up based on WAM can be considered
is SWAN, 33) and this is employed for wave hindcasting in shallow waters.
4.3 Wave Transformations

In general, the waves to be considered to exert actions on port facilities shall be the waves that are most unfavorable
in terms of the structure stability or the usage of the port facilities. In this consideration, appropriate attention
shall be given to wave transformations during the propagation of waves from deepwater toward the shore, which
include refraction, diffraction, shoaling, breaking, and others. The wave transformations to be considered shall be
multi directional random waves, 34) and these will have to be calculated after assigning them with an appropriate
directional wave spectrum 35) while in deepwater. However, when determining the rough wave height of the action,
an approximate solution may be calculated using regular waves with representitive wave heights and wave periods (for
example H1/3, T1/3) of random waves.
4.3.1 Wave Refraction
(1) In shallow waters, the changes in wave celerity accompanying the changes in water depth cause the wave refraction
phenomenon. Changes in wave height and wave direction due to refraction must therefore be considered.
(2) Refraction Calculation for Random Waves
① Calculation methods
Calculation method for refraction analysis for random waves include the following: ① the component wave
method, whereby the directional wave spectrum is divided into an appropriate number of component waves, a
refraction calculation is performed for each component wave, and then the wave refraction coefficient for the
random wave is evaluated by making a weighted average of the component wave energies; ② methods in which
the wave energy balance equation 37) or the mild-slope equation for wave is solved directly using a computer
with finite difference schemes. As with the component wave method, the energy balance equation is derived
by assuming that wave energy does not cut across wave rays and flow out. This means that the technique is
basically the same in both cases. However, with the energy balance equation method, refraction within a micro-
finite region is calculated, meaning that the wave refraction coefficient does not become infinite even at a point
in which two regular wave rays may converge. On the other hand, the mild-slope equation method for wave is a
strictly analytical method, but it is difficult to apply it to a large region. When determining the wave refraction
coefficient for random waves, it is acceptable to use the component wave method, which involves the linear
superposition of wave refraction coefficients for regular waves and is thus simple and convenient. However,
when intersections of wave rays occur during a refraction calculation for a component wave, the energy balance
equation method may be used for practical purposes with the exception of the case that the degree of intersection
is large.
② Effects of diffraction
When deepwater waves have been diffracted by an island or a headland, the wave spectrum becomes generally
different from a standard form that has been assumed initially. Thus it is necessary to use the spectral form after
diffraction when performing the refraction calculation.
– 88 –
③ Diagrams of the wave refraction coefficient and angle for random waves at a coast with straight, parallel depth
contours
Figs 4.3.1 and 4.3.2 show the wave refraction coefficient Kr and the principal wave direction (αp)0, respectively,
for random waves at a coast with straight, parallel depth contours, with the principal direction of deepwater
waves (αp)0 as the parameter. The direction (αp)0 is expressed as the angle between the wave direction and
the line normal to the boundary of deepwater. Smax is the maximum value of the parameter that expresses the
degree of directional spreading of wave energy (see 4.1 Basic Matters Relating to Waves).
1.0
Kr (α p)0=0°
20°
0.9 30°
40°
50°
0.8 60°
Smax=10
0.7
1.0
Kr ( α p)0=0°
20°
0.9 30°
40°
0.8 50° Smax=25

60°
0.7
Kr 1.0
( αp)0=0°
20°
30°
0.9 40°
50°
Smax=75
0.8
60°
0.7
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
h/L0
Fig. 4.3.1 Wave Refraction Coefficient of Random Waves at Coast with Straight, Parallel Depth Contours
80°
70°
(αp)0=70°
60°
60°
50°
50°
αp 40°
40°
30°
30°
20° 20°
15°
10° 10°
5°
0°
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
h/L0
Fig. 4.3.2 Change Due to Refraction in the Principal Direction αp of Random Waves at Coast with Straight,
Parallel Depth Contours
(3) Energy Balance Equation

The energy balance equation calculates the changes due to refraction in shallow waters of the frequency spectrum
of random waves, and calculates the wave height change in shallow waters. Equation (4.3.1) shows the basic
equation of the energy balance equation.
– 89 –
(4.3.1)
(4.3.2)
Here, S is the directional spectrum of the wave, C is the wave celerity, Cg is the group velocity of the waves,
and θ is the wave angle that is measured from clockwise to counterclockwise of the x axis. Equation (4.3.1) can be
solved from offshore towards the direction in which the waves proceed. In equation (4.3.1), the left term is 0, and
the total energy of the wave being propagated is treated not to vary. Takayama et al.have taken into consideration
the energy loss due to breaking waves, and improved it so that the effects of breaking waves can be treated as well.
Fig. 4.3.3 is an example of improved calculation by the energy balance equation.
5.5
5.5
5.0
4.5
3.0 5.0 4.0
3.5 2.5 1.0
3.0 2.0
4.5 1.5
3.5
4.0
0.6 1.0
3.5 0.6
0.5
3.0
1.5 0.5
1.0
2.5
1.0 2.5 3.0
1.0 H1/3(m)
2.0 EBM
2.0
Diffr Method
1.5 2.0
1.5
Fig. 4.3.3 Example of Calculation of the Wave Height Distribution by the Energy Balance Equation
In the figure, the solid line is the wave height based on the energy balance equation, and the broken line is
the wave height distribution calculated by taking into consideration only the refraction inside the harbor. In the
energy balance equation, there are cases where the effects of not only refraction but also diffraction are also
applied to large wave fields. Since the the invasion of wave energy due to directional dispersion of random waves
are dominant compared to that due to diffraction, it is possible to examine the wave height inside a harbor that is
shielded by a breakwater, excluding the area immediately behind it.
(4) At places where the water depth is 0.5 times or less the offshore wave height, the nature of waves as a flow is more
prominent than the nature as a wave, so the refraction calculation employed for computing the wave height and
refraction coefficient is applied to the range where the water depth is deeper than 0.5 times of the offshore wave
height.
– 90 –
4.3.2 Wave Diffraction
(1) Wave Diffraction

① The wave height in regions in which waves are anticipated to be greatly affected by the phenomenon of diffraction
caused by obstacles such as breakwaters or islands needs to be calculated using an appropriate method.
② Diffraction is a phenomenon whereby waves invade into a water arear sheltered by breakwaters. It is the most
important phenomenon when determining the wave height in a harbor. The irregularity of waves should be
considered in a diffraction calculation. For a harbor within which the water depth is assumed uniform, the
diffraction diagrams for random waves with regard to a semi-infinite length breakwater or straight breakwaters
with one opening are prepared. The ratio of the wave height after diffraction to the incident wave height is
called the diffraction coefficient Kd. The diffraction coefficient Kd is given by the following equation:
(4.3.3)

where
Hi : incident wave height outside harbor
Hd : height of wave in harbor after diffraction
Diffraction diagrams and diffraction calculation methods assume that the water depth within the harbor is
uniform. If there are large variations in water depth within the harbor, the errors will become large, in which
case it is preferable to examine the wave height in the harbor by either hydraulic model tests or numerical
calculation methods that also take the effect of refraction into account.
③ Treatment of obliquely incident waves
When waves are obliquely incident to breakwaters with opening, it is preferable to obtain the diffraction diagram
by a numerical calculation. When this is not possible, or when the diffraction diagram is only required as a
rough guideline, the following approximate method may be used instead.
(a) Determining the axis of the diffracted wave
When waves are obliquely incident to breakwaters with opening, the direction θ' of the axis of the diffracted
waves (see Fig. 4.3.4) varies slightly from the direction of incidence θ. Tables 4.3.1 (a) - (c) list the direction
of the axis of the waves as a function of the breakwater opening width ratio B/L and the direction of incident
waves. These tables are used to obtain the direction θ' of the axis of the waves after diffraction, and then the
virtual ratio B'/L corresponding to θ' is obtained from the following equation:
(4.3.4)

Principal direction of diffracted waves
θ'
θ B
B'
Principal direction of incident waves
Fig. 4.3.4 Virtual Opening Width B' and Angle of Axis of Wave after Diffraction θ
– 91 –
Table 4.3.1 Angle of Axis of Wave after Diffraction θ
(a) Smax=10 [Angle in the parentheses is the angle of deffraction relative to the angle of incidence]
Angle between breakwater and incident wave direction θ

B/L
15° 30° 45° 60°
1.0 53° (38°) 58° (28°) 65° (20°) 71° (11°)

2.0 46° (31°) 53° (23°) 62° (17°) 70° (10°)
4.0 41° (26°) 49° (19°) 60° (15°) 70° (10°)
(b) Smax=25
B/L
15° 30° 45° 60°
1.0 49°(34°) 52°(22°) 61°(16°) 70°(10°)

2.0 41°(26°) 47°(17°) 57°(12°) 67°( 7°)
4.0 36°(21°) 42°(12°) 54°( 9°) 65°( 5°)
(c) Smax=75
B/L
15° 30° 45° 60°
1.0 41° (26°) 45° (15°) 55° (10°) 66° ( 6°)

2.0 36° (21°) 41° (11°) 52° ( 7°) 64° ( 4°)
4.0 30° (15°) 36° ( 6°) 49° ( 4°) 62° ( 2°)
(b) Fitting of a diffraction diagram

Out of the diffraction diagrams of normal incidence, the diffraction diagram that has a ratio of an opening
width B to a wave length L nearly equal to the breakwater opening width virtual ratio that is selected. This
diffraction diagram is next rotated until the direction of incident waves matches the direction of the axis of
the diffracted waves as determined from Table 4.3.1. The diffraction diagram is then copied and taken to
be the diffraction diagram for obliquely incident waves. The errors in this approximate method are largest
around the opening in the breakwaters; in terms of the diffraction coefficient, the maximum error with the
approximate method may amount to around 0.1.
④ Method to determine diffraction coefficient in a harbor
The diffraction coefficient within a complex shape of harbor is generally estimated by numerical computation
with a computer. Diffraction calculation methods include Takayama’s method, which involves linear super
position of analytical solutions for detached breakwaters, and calculation methods that use the Green functions.38)
⑤ Angular spreading method
When the width of an island or the width of the entrance of a bay is at least ten times the wavelength of the
incident waves, there will not be a large difference between the wave height estimate by the direct diffraction
calculation and the estimate using the amount of directional wave energy that arrives directly at the point of
interest behind the island or in the bay; the latter is called the directional spreading method. However, if the
point of interest is just behind an island or headland, the effects of diffracted waves will be large, and so the
angular spreading method cannot be applied.
⑥ Studies by hydraulic model tests
Thanks to improvements in multi directional random wave generating devices, it is easy to reproduce waves that
have directional spreading in the laboratory nowadays, meaning that diffraction model tests can be carried out
relatively easily. When carrying out a model test, an opening in the harbor model is set up within the effective
wave generating zone, and the wave height is simultaneously measured at a number of points within the harbor.
The diffraction coefficient is obtained by dividing the significant wave height in the harbor by the significant
wave height at the harbor entrance over at least two observation points.
– 92 –
4.3.3 Combination of Diffraction and Refraction
(1) When carrying out diffraction calculations for waves in waters where the water depth varies greatly, wave
refraction must also be considered.
(2) When the water depth within a harbor is more-or-less uniform by dredging, often seen in large harbors, the
refraction of waves after diffraction can be ignored. In order to determine the wave height in the harbor in this
case, it is acceptable to first carry out a calculation considering only refraction and breaking from the deepwater
wave hindcasting point to the harbor entrance. Next, a diffraction calculation for the area within the harbor is
carried out, taking the incident wave height to be equal to the estimated wave height at the harbor entrance. In
this case, the wave height at a point of interest within the harbor is expressed using the following equation:
(4.3.5)

where
Kd : diffraction coefficient at the point of interest
Kr : refraction coefficient at the point of interest
Ks : shoaling coefficient at the harbor entrance (see 4.3.5 Wave Shoaling)
H0 : deepwater wave height
The energy balance equation method or the improved energy balance equation method 35) in which a term
representing dissipation due to wave breaking is added is appropriate as the calculation method for refraction
analysis for the ocean. Takayama's 42) harbor calmness calculation method, whereby diffraction solutions for
detached breakwaters are superimposed in order to obtain the change in the wave height of random waves within
the harbor due to diffraction and reflection, can be used for the diffraction calculation for the area within the
harbor, provided there are no complex topographic variations within the harbor.
In equation (4.3.5) the assumed wave height by multiplying Kr and Kd by H0 is used as the equivalent deepwater
wave height H0' and calculated with the following equation.
(4.3.6)

The equivalent deepwater wave height is the assumed deepwater wave used for the performance verification
on the results obtained from two-dimensional water tank experiments. And it is obtained by calculating the
effects of refraction and diffraction in advance, and by using wave height H0' multiplied by H0, it is possible to be
obtained by using the calculation diagrams shown in 4.3.5 Wave Shoaling and 4.3.6 Wave Breaking.
(3) When there are large variations in water depth even at places sheltered by breakwaters often seen in the case
with relatively small harbors and coastal areas, it is necessary to simultaneously consider both diffraction and
refraction within the harbor. If ignoring wave reflection and just examining the approximate change in wave
height, it is possible to carry out refraction and diffraction calculations separately, and then estimate the change in
wave height by multiplying together the refraction and diffraction coefficients obtained.
Calculation methods that allow simultaneous consideration of refraction and diffraction of random waves
include a method that uses time-dependent mild-slope equations for wave,43) a method in which the Boussinesq
equation is solved using the finite difference method, 44) and the multicomponent coupling method of Nadaoka
et al.45) There are also references in which other calculation methods are explained.38) The wave transformation
calculation model using the Boussinesq equation has been modified and NOWT-PARI (Nonlinear wave
transformation model by Port and Airport Research Institute) has been proposed as one of the models that can be
used at ports.46) Modified versions that allow simultaneous consideration of runup and seawall wave overtopping
in shallow waters have also been proposed.47) Designers should use appropriate numerical calculation methods,
taking into consideration water area characteristics and the application limit of the program.
4.3.4 Wave Reflection

[1] General
(1) In the performance verification of port facilities, examination shall be carried out on the effects of reflected waves
from neighboring structures on the facilities in question and also the effects of wave reflection from the facilities
in question on neighboring areas.
(2) It is necessary to take note of the fact that waves reflected from port facilities can exercise a large influence on the
navigation of ships and cargo handling. For example, waves reflected from breakwaters can cause disturbances in
navigation water ways, and multiple-reflected waves from quaywalls can cause agitations within harbors.
– 93 –
(3) Composition of Reflected Waves and Incident Waves
The wave height Hs when incident waves and waves reflected from a number of reflective boundaries coexist can
be calculated using the following equation. Here, a train of incident waves and those of reflected waves from
reflective boundaries are termed the “wave groups”.
(4.3.7)

where
Hs : significant wave height when all of the wave groups are taken together
H1, H2,…, Hn : significant wave heights of wave groups
However, if the wave action varies with the wave direction, the differences in the wave directions of various
wave groups must be considered. The calculated wave height is valid for places that are at least about 0.7
wavelengths away from a reflecting boundary.
Regarding the diffraction or refraction of waves for which wave direction is an important factor, the significant
wave height is determined separately for each wave group by carrying out whatever calculation is necessary for
that wave group, when the wave directions of various wave groups differ. Then the composite wave height
is calculated by putting these significant wave heights into equation (4.3.7). An acceptable alternative is to
determine the spectrum for each wave group, add these spectra together in order to calculate the spectral form
when the wave groups coexist, and then perform direct diffraction or refraction calculations using this spectrum.
(4) Composition of Periods
The significant wave height to be used in calculating the wave force when two wave groups of different periods
are superimposed may be determined by the energy composition method (as shown in, equation (4.3.7)). The
significant wave period T1/3 may be determined using the following equation (4.3.8) 48):
(4.3.8)
where
(4.3.9)
(4.3.10)
(4.3.11)
(4.3.12)
(4.3.13)
(4.3.14)
(H1/3)I, (H1/3)II : significant wave heights of wave groups I and II before superimposition,
respectively (m)
(T1/3)I, (T1/3)II : significant wave periods of wave groups I and II before superimposition,
respectively (s)
Note that, in the above equations, I is assigned to the wave group with the shorter period and II to that with
the longer period.
(5) Methods for Calculating the Effects of Reflected Waves
Calculation methods for investigating the extent of the effects of waves reflected from a structure include the
calculation method of wave height distribution around an island 49) and a simple method by means of diffraction
diagrams.
– 94 –
① Calculation method of wave height distribution around an island 49)

In this calculation method, the theoretical solution that shows the wave transformation around a single convex
corner is separated into three terms, representing the incident, the reflected and the scattered waves, respectively.
The term for the scattered waves is progressively expanded to obtain an approximate equation, so that the
method can be applied to the case where there are a number of convex corners.
When there are a number of convex corners, it is assumed as a precondition that the lengths of the sides
between convex corners are at least five times the wavelength of the incident waves, so that the convex corners
do not interfere with each other. It is necessary to pay attention on to the fact that errors may become large
if the sides are shorter than this. Since another assumption is made such that the water depth is uniform, the
refraction of reflected waves cannot be calculated. In general, it is sufficient for practical purposes if the lengths
of the sides between convex corners are at least about three times the wavelength of the incident waves. This
calculation method can also be applied to the reflection of random waves by means of superposing component
waves. Although the wave diffraction problems can also be analyzed with this calculation method, there will
be large errors if it is applied to the diffraction of waves by thin structures such as breakwaters.
② Simple method by means of diffraction diagrams
Explanation is made for the example shown in Fig. 4.3.5. The wave height at a point A on the front face of a
detached breakwater is estimated when waves are incident on the detached breakwater at an angle α.
Instead of the detached breakwater, it is supposed that there are two semi-infinite virtual breakwaters with
opening, such as shown with dashed lines in Fig. 4.3.5. Next, one considers the situation whereby waves are
incident on the virtual opening from both the wave direction of the incident waves and the direction symmetrical
to this with respect to the detached breakwater (i.e., the direction shown by the dotted arrow in Fig. 4.3.5),
and draws the diffraction diagram for the opening (dotted lines in Fig. 4.3.5). The range of influence of the
reflected waves is represented by means of the diffraction diagram for the virtual breakwaters with opening.
Accordingly, supposing that the diffraction coefficient at point A is read off as being 0.68, then the wave height
ratio with respect to the incident waves at point A is obtained by combining this value of 0.68 with a value
of 1.0 representing the incident waves; since it is the energies that are added, the wave height ratio becomes
It should be noted, however, that this value of 1.21 represents the mean value of the wave
height ratio around the point A. It is not preferable to use this method for points within 0.7 wavelengths of the
detached breakwater, because the errors due to a phase coupling effect will be large.
For the case of wave reflection by a semi-infinite breakwater, the virtual breakwater also becomes a semi-
infinite breakwater in the opposite direction, and so the diffraction diagram for a semi-infinite breakwater
is used. When the reflection coefficient of the breakwater is less than 1.0 due to wave-dissipating work for
example, the diffraction coefficient should be multiplied by the reflection coefficient before being used. For
example, if the reflection coefficient of the detached breakwater is 0.4 in the previous example, the wave height
ratio at the point A becomes .
0.5
0.6
A
0.8
Fig. 4.3.5 Sketch Showing the Effect of Reflected Waves
– 95 –
[2] Calculation of Reflection Coefficient
(1) Ref lection coefficients need to be determined appropriately based on the results of field observations,
hydraulic model tests, and past data.
(2) Approximate Values for Reflection Coefficient
It is preferable to calculate the value of reflection coefficient by field observations. However, when it is difficult
to carry out observation or when the structure in question has not yet been constructed, it is possible to estimate
reflection coefficient by referring to the results of hydraulic model tests. In this case, it is preferable to use random
waves as the test waves.
The following is a list of approximate values for the wave reflection coefficients of several types of structures.
0.7 – 1.0
Upright wall:
(0.7 is for the case of a low crown with much overtopping)
Submerged upright breakwater: 0.5 – 0.7
Rubble mound: 0.3 – 0.6
Wave-dissipating blocks: 0.3 – 0.5
Upright wave-dissipating structure: 0.3 – 0.8
Natural beach: 0.05 – 0.2
With the exception of the upright wall, the lower limits in the above ranges of reflection coefficient correspond
to the case of steep waves and the upper limits to waves with low steepness. It should be noted, however, that with
the upright wave-dissipating structure, the wave reflection coefficient varies with the wavelength, and the shape
and dimensions of the structure. In addition, compared to swells with a period of several tens of seconds or long
period waves with a period of several tens of seconds, the wave reflection coefficient becomes higher than the
above-mentioned values in the case of deformed wave-dissipating blocks or upright wave-dissipating structures.
In recent years there have been reports about calculation methods that incorporate a function that can reproduce
the nature whereby the reflection characteristics of the waves vary in accordance with the thickness of the wave-
dissipating layer and the void ratio in nonlinear wave transformation model, which can calculate a wave form
temporally and spatially.50) The section on long period waves can be referred, for the wave refraction coefficient
of long period waves.
[3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners near the Heads of Breakwaters and around Detached
Breakwaters
(1) Around the concave corners of structures, near the heads of breakwaters, and around detached breakwaters,
the wave height becomes larger than the normal value of standing waves owing to the effects of diffraction and
reflection. This increase in wave height shall be examined thoroughly. Moreover, the irregularity of waves shall
be considered in the analysis.
(2) Influence of Wave Irregularity
When the wave height distribution near the concave corner or the head of a breakwater is calculated for regular
waves, a distributional form with large undulations is obtained. However, when wave irregularity is incorporated
into the calculation, the undulated form of the distribution becomes smoothed out, excluding the region within one
wavelength of a concave corner, and the peak value of the wave height becomes smaller. Calculation using regular
waves thus overestimates the increase in the wave height around concave corners and the heads of breakwaters.
(3) Graphs for Calculating Wave Height Distribution around a Concave Corner
Wave height distributions for random waves near a concave corner are shown in Fig. 4.3.6. This figure exhibits
the form of the distribution of the maximum value of the wave height, as obtained from numerical calculations
for each principal wave direction. It has been assumed that waves are completely reflected by the breakwater.
In the diagram, Kd is the ratio of the wave height at the front of the main breakwater to the wave height of the
incident waves. The random waves used in the calculation has a spectral form with Smax = 75, which implies
a narrow directional spreading. The long dash-dot line in each graph shows the distribution of the maximum
value of the wave height at each point as obtained using an approximate calculation. The length l1 is that of the
main breakwater, l2 is that of the wing breakwater, and β is the angle between the main breakwater and the wing
breakwater. This figure may be used to calculate the wave height distribution near a concave corner. When it is
not easy to use the calculation program, the approximate calculation method may be used.
– 96 –
(4) Wave Height-Reducing Effects of Wave-dissipating Work
When a wave- dissipating work is installed in order to reduce the increase in wave height around a concave corner
and if the wave-dissipating work is such that the reflection coefficient of the breakwater becomes no more than
0.4, it is quite acceptable to ignore the increase in wave height due to the presence of concave corner. However,
this is only the case when the wave-dissipating work extends along the whole of the breakwater. If the breakwater
is long, one cannot expect the wave-dissipating work to be very effective unless it is installed along the entire
length of the breakwater, because the effect of waves reflected from the wing breakwater extend even to places
at a considerable distance away from the concave corner. The same can be said for the influence of the main
breakwater on the wing breakwater.
2
2
4
β=120˚ 1 =∞, 2 =∞
3
Kd
2
4
β=120˚ 1 =5L1/3 , 2 =L1/3
3
Kd
2
4
β=135˚ 1 =∞, 2 =∞
3
Kd
2
4
β=135˚ 1 =5L1/3 , 2 =L1/3
3
Kd
2
4
β=150˚ 1 =∞, 2 =∞
3
Kd
2
4
β=150˚ 1 =5L1/3 , 2 =L1/3
3
Kd
2
4
β=165˚ 1 =∞, 2 =∞
3 1 =5L1/3 , 2 =L1/3
Kd
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/L1/3 ; Computer method
; Approximate solution
method
Fig. 4.3.6 Distribution of the Maximum Value of the Wave Height around Concave Corner 54)
(5) Increase in Wave Height at the Head of a Breakwater

Near the head of a semi-infinite breakwater or those of breakwaters with opening, specifically within a distance
of one wavelength from the head, waves diffracted by breakwaters exercise an effect of local wave height increase
over the normal standing wave heights. Because the wave height distribution has an undulating form even at the
back of a breakwater, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the difference in water level between the inside
and the outside of the breakwater gives rise to a large wave force. Fig. 4.3.7 shows an example of the results of a
calculation of the ratio of the wave force to that of a standing wave near the head of a breakwater.
– 97 –
1.4
1.2
Wave force ratio

1.0
0.8
Random waves
Regular waves
h=10m
T=10s L=92.4m
0 100 200
x(m)
Fig. 4.3.7 Wave Force Distribution along a Semi-infinite Breakwater 55)
(6) Increase in Wave Height around Detached Breakwater

Along a detached breakwater, waves with the height greater than that of normal standing waves are produced,
and the wave height distribution takes an undulating form even at the back of the breakwater. This is due to the
effect of wave diffraction at the two ends of the breakwater.56) The wave force also becomes large due to the
difference between the water levels in the front and back sides of the breakwater. In particular, it is necessary to
pay attention to the fact that, with a detached breakwater, the place where the maximum wave force is generated
can shift greatly with the wave direction and the ratio of the breakwater length to the wavelength.
Fig. 4.3.8 shows an example of the results of a calculation of the wave force distribution along a detached
breakwater for unidirectional random waves. In this calculation, the wave direction for which the largest wave
force occurs is α = 30º of obliquely incident with a relatively shallow angle.
1.6
1.4
1.2
90˚
60˚ 75˚
1.0
Wave force ratio
45˚
0.8
α=30˚
0.6
0.4
0.2 α
x
0
50 100 150 200
x(m)
Fig. 4.3.8 Wave Force Distribution along a Detached Breakwater
4.3.5 Wave Shaoling
(1) When waves propagate into shallow waters, shoaling shall be considered in addition to refraction and diffraction.
It shall be considered that the nonlinearity of waves when calculating the shoaling coefficient.
(2) Shoaling is one of the important factors that lead to changing of the wave height in coastal waters. It exemplifies
the fact that the wave height in shallow waters is also governed by the water depth and the wave period. Fig. 4.3.9
has been drawn up based on Shuto’s nonlinear long wave theory.57) It includes the linearized solution by the small
amplitude wave theory and enables the estimation of the shoaling coefficient from deep to shallow waters. In the
diagram, Ks is the shoaling coefficient, H0’ is the equivalent deepwater wave height, H is the wave height at water
depth h, and L0 is the wavelength in deepwater.
– 98 –
h/L0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
3.0 H 1.0
1/ Ks
3 2%
0.9
de
ca
y
2.5 lin
tan e
θ=
1/1
0 H0'/L0=
1/2 0.005
Ks= H 2.0 0
H0' H0'/L0=0.0005
1/1
0 00 0.01
0.001
0.002
1.5 0.02
0.04
1.0
0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
h/L0
Fig. 4.3.9 Diagram for Evaluation of Shoaling Coefficient
4.3.6 Wave Breaking
(1) At places where the water depth is shallower than about three times the equivalent deepwater wave height, changing
of the wave height due to wave breaking need to be considered. It is standard to consider the irregularity of waves
when calculating the change in the wave height due to wave breaking.
(2) After the height of waves has increased owing to shoaling, waves break at a certain water depth and the wave
height decreases rapidly. This phenomenon is called the wave breaking. It is an important factor to be considered
when determining the wave conditions exercising on coastal structures. For regular waves, the place at which
waves break is always the same: this is referred to as the “wave breaking point”. For random waves, the location
of wave breaking depends on the height and period of individual waves, and wave breaking thus occurs over a
certain distance: this area is referred to as the “breaker zone”.
(3) Change in Wave Height due to Wave Breaking
The change in wave height due to wave breaking may be determined using Figs. 4.3.10 (a) ~ (e) or Figs. 4.3.11
(a) - (e). These figures show the change in wave height for random waves as calculated by Goda 58) using a
theoretical model of wave breaking. For the region to the right of the dash-dot line on each diagram, the change
in wave height is calculated using the shoaling coefficient (see 4.3.5 Wave Shoaling). For the region to the left
of this dash-dot line, the change in wave height due to wave breaking dominates, and so the wave height must be
determined using this diagram. As for the sea bottom slope, it is appropriate to use the mean sea bottom slope
over the region where the water depth to equivalent deepwater wave height ratio h/H0' is in the range of 1.5 to 2.5.
(4) Scope of Application of Graphs of Wave Height Change
At places where the water depth is shallower than about one half of the equivalent deepwater wave height, a major
portion of wave energy is converted to the energy of flows rather than to that of water level changes. Therefore,
when calculating the wave force acting on a structure in a very shallow water, it is preferable to use the wave
height at the place where the water depth is one half of the equivalent deepwater wave height, if the facilities in
question are highly important. However, it is necessary to estimate the wave force acting on facilities constructed
on land areas from the shoreline with another proposed equation.59)
– 99 –
3.0 3.0
Bottom slope 1/10 Bottom slope 1/20
H0'/L0=0.002
2.5 2.5
e
lin
H0'/L0=0.002
cay
e
De
in
2.0 2.0
yl
0.005
2%
ca
(H1/3 KsH0')
De
0.005
2%
H1/3 0.01 H1/3
1.5 1.5
H 0' H 0' 0.01
0.02 (H1/3 KsH0')
0.02
0.04
1.0 1.0 0.04
0.08
0.08
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0' h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.10 (a) Diagram of Significant Wave Height in the Fig. 4.3.10 (b) Diagram of Significant Wave Height in the
Breaker Zone for Bottom Slope of 1/10 Breaker Zone for Bottom Slope of 1/20
3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
H0'/L0=0.002
H0'/L0=0.002
e
2.0 2.0
lin
c ay
0.005
De
0.005
H1/3 H1/3
2%
1.5 1.5
H 0' 0.01 H 0' 0.01
(H1/3 KsH0') (H1/3 KsH0')
0.02 0.02
1.0 0.04 1.0 0.04
0.08 0.08
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0' h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.10 (c) Diagram of Significant Wave Height in the Fig. 4.3.10 (d) Diagram of Significant Wave Height in the
– 100 –
3.0 3.5
H0'/L0=0.002 0.005
3.0
2.5
e
y lin
H0'/L0=0.002 Hmax H1/250
0.01
2.5
a
Dec
2.0
2%
e 0.02
lin 2.0
H1/3 0.005 c ay Hmax
1.5 De 0.04
H 0'
0.01 2% H 0'
0.08
(H1/3 KsH0') 1.5
0.02
1.0 0.04
1.0
0.08
0.5
0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0' h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.10 (e) Diagram of Significant Wave Height in the Fig. 4.3.11 (a) Diagram of Highest Wave Height in the
3.5 3.5
3.0 H0'/L0=0.002 3.0 H0'/L0=0.002

0.005
ine
Hmax ≡H1/250　 Hmax≡H1/250　 0.005 yl
e
lin
2.5 2.5
ca
cay
De
0.01 0.01
2%
De
2%
2.0 0.02 2.0

Hmax Hmax 0.02
H 0' 0.04 0.04
H 0'
1.5 0.08 1.5 0.08
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0' h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.11 (b) Diagram of Highest Wave Height in the Fig. 4.3.11 (c) Diagram of Highest Wave Height in the
– 101 –
3.5 3.5
H0'/L0=0.002 H0' L =0.002
3.0 3.0
/ 0
Hmax≡H1/250　 Hmax≡H1/250　
0.005 0.005
2.5 2.5
ine
ine
yl
yl
0.01
ca
0.01
ca
De
2.0 2.0
De
2%
Hmax 0.02 Hmax 0.02
2%
H 0' 0.04 H 0' 0.04
1.5 0.08 1.5 0.08
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0' h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.11 (d) Diagram of Highest Wave Height in the Fig. 4.3.11 (e) Diagram of Highest Wave Height in the
(5) Approximate Calculation Formulas for Breaking Wave Height

Calculation of wave height changes based on a theoretical model for wave breaking generally requires use of a
computer. However, considering the variability of the phenomenon and the overall accuracy, it is acceptable to
calculate wave height changes using the following simple formula in the case of a beach with constant seabed
slope of about 1/10 to1/75.58)
(4.3.15)

where
(4.3.16)
The shoaling coefficient Ks is determined using Fig. 4.3.9, the operators min{ } and max{ } express minimum
and maximum value of within the braces, respectively, and tanθ is the sea bottom slope.
Similarly, an approximate calculation formula for the highest wave height Hmax is given as follows:
(4.3.17)

where
(4.3.18)
– 102 –
(6) Diagram for Calculating Breaking Wave Height 58)
If the maximum value (H1/3) peak of the significant wave height in the breaker zone is taken as representative of the
breaking wave height, then the breaker index curve becomes as shown in Fig. 4.3.12. If the water depth (h1/3)
peak at which the significant wave height is a maximum is taken as representative of the breaker depth, then the
diagram for calculating the breaker depth becomes as shown in Fig. 4.3.13.
2.5
Note: (H 1/3) peak is the maximum 3.5 Note: (H 1/3) peak is the water
　　 at which H 1/3 is a
depth
Bo
　　of H 1/3 in the breaker zone
value
maximum in the breaker zone
tto
m
Bo 3.0
2.0
slo
tto
1/ m sl
pe
(H1/3)peak (h 1/3)peak
20
1/1
1/1 op 2.5
H0' 00 e H0'
00
1.5 1/1 1/3
0 0
1/3 2.0 1/20
0
1/1
1.0 0
1.5
0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1
H0'/L0 H0'/L0
Fig. 4.3.12 Diagram of Maximum Value of the Fig. 4.3.13 Diagram of Water Depth
Significant at which the Maximum Value of the
Significant Wave Height Occurs
(7) Limiting Breaking Height for Regular Waves

Fig. 4.3.14 shows the limiting breaking height for regular waves. This figure can be used to calculate the limiting
breaking height in hydraulic model tests using regular waves. The curves in the diagram can be approximated
with the following equation:
(4.3.19)
where
tanθ denotes the seabed slope.
Fig. 4.3.14 shows the limiting wave height at the point of first wave breaking. At places where the water
is shallow, the water depth increases owing to the wave setup caused by wave breaking. When estimating the
limiting wave height in the breaker zone, it is thus necessary to consider this increase in water level.
1.5
Bottom slope 1/10
L0=1.56T 2
1/20
1.0 1/30
1/50 or less
Hb
hb
0.5
S.W.L. Hb
hb
0
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
hb/L0
Fig. 4.3.14 Limiting Breaking Height for Regular Waves
– 103 –
(8) Change in Wave Height at Reef Coasts
At reef coasts where shallow water and a flat sea bottom continue over a long distance, the change in wave height
cannot be calculated directly using Figs. 4.3.10 and 4.3.11. Instead, the following empirical equation 61) may be
used:
(4.3.20)

where
H0′ : equivalent deepwater wave height
Hx′ : significant wave height at a distance x from the tip of the reef
h′ : water depth over the reef
′ : increase in the mean water level at a place sufficiently distant from the tip of the reef
The coefficients A and α are 0.05 and 0.33, respectively, according to the results of hydraulic model tests.
However, it is advisable to use the following values that have been obtained from the data of field observations. 62)
(4.3.21)

The coefficient B corresponds to the bottom slope at the front of the reef. Using Fig. 4.3.10, it is obtained
from the significant wave height Hx=0 at water depth h as follows.
H x =0 h + η∞
B= −α (4.3.22)
H 0' H 0'

The term is given by
(4.3.23)

where
β= 0.56. From the continuity of the mean water level at the tip of the reef (x = 0), C0 is given by
(4.3.24)

The term represents the rise in the mean water level at water depth h, which is controlled by the bottom
slope in front of the.
However, there are major localized variations in reef topography on actual coastlines. Wave height may
increase behind circular reefs due to wave concentration and, therefore, it is preferable to conduct experiments
using multi directional random waves wherever possible.63) Reference can be made on 4.3.8 Rise of Mean Water
Level due to Waves and Surf Beats for more information on the concept of increased mean water level. The
calculation method in the above has been derived under the assumption that the water depth h over the reef is
small and waves break over the reef. It is thus not possible to apply the method when the water is deep and wave
breaking does not occur.
Considering the breaking wave height criterion of a solitary wave, the highest wave height Hmax, x at the
distance x from the tip of the reef may be obtained as follows.
(4.3.25)

– 104 –
where, min{a, b} is the smaller value of a or b, and is the rise in the mean water level at the distance x and
is given by the following equation:
(4.3.26)

4.3.7 Wave Runup Height, Wave Overtopping and Transmitted Waves

[1] Wave Runup Height
(1) Wave runup need to be calculated appropriately by taking into account the configuration and location of the
seawall and the sea bottom topgraphy.
(2) The phenomenon of wave runup is dependent upon a whole variety of factors, such as the wave characteristics,
the configuration and location of the seawall, and the sea bottom topography; thus the runup height varies in a
complex way. There are calculation diagrams and equations based on the results of past researches that may be
used, although they are applicable only under certain limited conditions. When the seawall and sea bottom are
complex in form, it is preferable to determine wave runup heights by carrying out hydraulic model tests. When
conducting the performance verification of sloping revetments, it is preferable to set the crown elevation of the
revetment to be higher than the runup height for regular waves. However, for random waves, depending on the
wave height, overflow can occur, and so ultimately the crown elevation and the form of the seawall are preferably
determined so as to make the quantity of wave overtopping (see 4.3.7 [2] Wave Overtopping Quantity) no more
than a certain permissible value.
(3) The results proposed by Mase 64) are simple, and the scope of application is wide, for the wave runup height of
random waves to a uniform slope.
(4.3.27)
Here, x, a and b stand for the coefficients of the statistical values and calculated values of the wave runup
height, and are provided as shown below.
Table 4.3.2 Coefficients of Equation (4.3.27)
Rx Rmax R2% R1/10 R1/10 R

a 2.32 1.86 1.70 1.38 0.88
b 0.77 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69
Here, Rmax is the maximum value of the wave runup height, and R2% is the value at which the wave runup
height calculated in an experiment exceeds 2%. R1/10, R1/3 and R are 1/10 and 1/3 maximum wave runup height
and the mean value respectively that can be calculated by the same method as a case in which random waves are
statistically analyzed. ξ is called the surf similarity parameter, and . tanβ is the sea bottom
slope.
It is possible to employ the following equation, which has been verified to accord well with experimental
results, for the 1/3 maximum wave runup height 65).
(4.3.28)
– 105 –
(4) As for the wave runup height of a rubble slope, there is Van der Meer-Sten’s equation available. 66)
(4.3.29)
Here, the coefficient is shown in the following table. In addition, in , Hs is the

significant wave height at the water depth at the foot of a seawall, and Tm is the mean period.
The following equation is proposed for the wave runup height of a slope that has permeability.
(4.3.30)
Table 4.3.3 Coefficients of Equation (4.3.29)
Rx Rmax R2% R1/10 R1/10 R

a 1.12 0.96 0.77 0.77 0.47
b 1.34 1.17 0.94 0.88 0.60
c 0.55 0.46 0.42 0.41 0.34
d 2.58 1.97 1.45 1.35 0.82
(5) In the case of complex cross sections, studies into random waves are still insufficient but Saville's virtual slope
method 67) and Nakamura's modified virtual slope method 68) may be used for regular waves.
A “complex cross section” refers to the case where the sea bottom topography and the configuration and
location of the seawall are as shown in Fig. 4.3.15.
① When the cross section can be considered to be complex, the runup height of the seawall is obtained as follows
(refer to Fig. 4.3.15).38)
(a) The wave breaking point B is determined from the deepwater wave characteristics.
(b) Next, the runup height R is assumed and the point A is set at the maximum runup point. Then, the points A
and B are joined by a straight line, and the gradient of this line yields the virtual gradient cotα.
(c) The runup height for this virtual gradient is calculated using Fig. 4.3.16, and the calculated height is compared
with the initially assumed runup height. If the two do not agree, then a new runup height is assumed, and the
estimations are repeated. This iterative process is repeated until convergence is achieved.
(d) The value so obtained is taken to be the runup height for the complex cross section in question.
Maximum runup point

A Wave breaking point
S.W.L.
Actual cross section hb

Virtual gradient α
B
Fig. 4.3.15 Complex Cross Section and Virtual Gradient
– 106 –
10
8
6
0.002 0.001
4 0.004
H0' 0.008
0.012
L0 0.020
2 0.029
0.049
0.078
R
H0' 1.0 0.001
0.8
0.6 0.002
0.004
0.4 H0'
h 0.008
1< H ' <3 0.012 L0
0 0.020
0.2 0.029
0.049
0.078
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.60.81.0 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 80100
cot α
Fig. 4.3.16 Runup Height on a Slope
② When the results obtained from this method are compared with actual experimental results for a complex cross
section, it is generally found that there is good agreement between the two, with the error usually being no more
than 10%. However, if the bottom slope is too gentle, the agreement between the two becomes poor, and so this
method is to only be used when the bottom slope is steeper than 1/30.
③ Fig. 4.3.17 shows experimental results 69) obtained for a bottom slope of 1/70. This figure provides a useful
reference when estimating the runup height for a complex cross section with a gentle bottom slope.
6.0
5.0 H0'/L0=0.007
4.0
3.0 0.01
0.025
R 2.0 0.035
H0'
1:112
1.0 1.2m 1:20
0.8
0.7 1.0m 0.8m 1:70 1:6
0.6
0.5
0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 60
cot α
Fig. 4.3.17 Runup Height on Seawall Located Closer to Land than Wave Breaking Point
(6) Oblique Wave Incidence 70)

Fig. 4.3.18 shows the relationship between the incident angle coefficient Kβ and the angle β. Here, β is the
angle between the wave crest line of the incident waves and the centerline of the seawall, and the incident angle
coefficient Kβ is the ratio of the runup height for angle β to the runup height when the waves are normally incident
(i.e., when β= 0). This figure can be used to estimate the effect of wave incident angle on the runup height.
(7) Effects of Wave-dissipating Work
The runup height can be significantly reduced when the front of a seawall is completely covered with wave-
dissipating blocks. Fig. 4.3.19 shows an example. However, the effect of the blocks varies greatly according
to the way in which they are laid, and so in general it is preferable to determine the runup height by means of
hydraulic model tests.
(8) Estimation Errors
It is important to note that the curves for determining the runup height have been obtained by averaging
experimental data that show a large scatter. It should also be noted that actual wave runup will frequently exceeds
– 107 –
the design crown height because of wave irregularity when the crown height of a seawall is verified against the
significant waves, even if the scatter of the experimental data is not considered; in fact, in extreme cases as many
as about a half of the waves may exceed this height. Accordingly, the crown height of a seawall should not be
decided based purely on the runup height of regular waves; rather, it is necessary to give consideration to the
quantity of wave overtopping (see 4.3.7 [2] Wave Overtopping Quantity).
(9) Use of Super Roller Flume for Computer Aided Design of Maritime Structure
It is possible to use CADMAS-SURF to carry out a numerical simulation in calculating the runup height on a
slope. The calculation method for the runup height of regular waves on a uniform slope has been identified by the
study group 71) on the application of CADMAS-SURF in wave-resistant design. The validity of this method has
been confirmed by Sakuraba 72) et. al. through comparisons with experimental values. Hence this method may
be referred to.
1.0 1+cos β
2 (Holland)
H0'/L0
0.8 0.010
0.015
0.6 0.020
Kβ cos β 0.025
0.030
0.4 0.040
1 0.050
1+cos2α –tan2 β (Russia) 0.060
0.2
0
0 10˚ 20˚ 30˚ 40˚ 50˚ 60˚
β
Fig. 4.3.18 Relationship between Wave Incident Angle and Runup Height
(Solid Lines: Experimental Values by Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction)
4.0
3.0 Smooth surface
2.0 1:1.5
Surface covered with 1:5 1:4 1:1.25
wave-dissipating 1:2
concrete blocks 1:2.5
1.0 1:3
1:1.25
0.8
R/H0' 0.6 1:1.5
1:2
0.4 1:2.5
0.3 1:3
1:4
0.2
1:5
0.003 0.006 0.01 0.03 0.06

0.002 0.004 0.008 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.2
H0'/L0
Fig. 4.3.19 Reduction in Runup Height due to Wave-dissipating Work 54)
– 108 –
[2] Wave Overtopping Quantity
(1) For structures for which the wave overtopping quantity is an important performance verification factor, the wave
overtopping quantity must be calculated by carrying out hydraulic model tests or by using data from hydraulic
model tests carried out in the past. In this case, wave irregularity need be considered. If the sea bottom topography
is complex, the planar distribution of the wave overtopping rate may be determined by calculating the wave acting
on the seawall via wave transformation calculations and then by using the overtopping rate equation.73)
(2) The "wave overtopping quantity" is the total volume of overtopped water. The "wave overtopping rate", on the other
hand, is the average volume of water overtopping in a unit time; it is obtained by dividing the wave overtopping
quantity by the time duration of measurement. The wave overtopping quantity and the wave overtopping rate are
generally expressed per unit width.
(3) If the wave overtopping quantity is large, then not only there will be damage to the seawall body itself, but also
damage by flooding to the roads, houses and/or port facilities behind the levee or seawall, despite that the levee or
seawall is intended to protect them. There is further a risk to users of water frontage amenity facilities that they
may be drowned or injured. When verifying performance, it is necessary to set the wave overtopping quantity so
that it is equal to or less than the limit value that has been determined in line with the characteristics of structures
and the situation with regard to their usage. Furthermore, when estimating the wave overtopping quantity by
means of experiments, it is preferable to consider changes in tidal water level, i.e., to carry out experiments for
different water levels.
(4) Design Diagram of wave overtopping rate 74)
For an upright or wave-dissipating type seawall that has a simple form (i.e., that does not have anything like a
toe protection mound or a crown parapet), the wave overtopping rate may be estimated using Figs. 4.3.20 to
4.3.23. These diagrams have been drawn up based on experiments employing random waves. From the results of
a comparison between the experiments and field observations, it is thought that the accuracy of the curves giving
the wave overtopping rate is within the range listed in Table 4.3.4. The wave overtopping rate for the wave-
dissipating type seawall has been obtained under the condition that the upper armor layer at the crown consists of
2 rows of wave-dissipating concrete blocks.
Table 4.3.4 Estimated Range for the Actual Wave Overtopping Rate relative to the Estimated Value
Wave-dissipating
2 g ( H 0' )
3
q Upright seawall type seawall
10 -2 0.7–1.5 times 0.5–2 times

10 -3 0.4–2 times 0.2–3 times
10 -4 0.2–3 times 0.1–5 times
10 -5 0.1–5 times 0.05–10 times

Note that when obtaining rough estimates for the wave overtopping rate for random waves using Figs. 4.3.20
to 4.3.23, the following should be considered:
① If the actual values of the bottom slope and the deepwater wave steepness do not match any of the values on
the diagram, the diagram for which the values most closely match should be used, or alternatively interpolation
should be carried out.
② The wave-dissipating concrete blocks in the figures are made up of two layers of tetrapods (upper armor layer
at the crown consists of 2 rows). Therefore, even if the same kind of wave-dissipating concrete block is used, if
there are differences in the crown width, in the way, or in the form of the toe, then there is a risk that the actual
wave overtopping rate may considerably differ from the value obtained by the diagrams.
③ If the number of rows of concrete blocks at the crown is increased, the wave overtopping quantity tends to
decrease.75)
④ When there are difficulties in applying the diagrams for estimating the wave overtopping rate, the approximate
equation of Takayama et al.76) may be used.
– 109 –
2 (a) H '/L =0.012 2

10-2
0 0
.5 hc /H 10-2
5 '=0 0 '=0
.5 5
/H 0
2 hc 75 0.75 2
0. .0 10-3
10-3 1 25
1. .5 1.0 5
1m
q / 2g(H0')3
5
q / 2g(H0')3
1 .75
0 '=
2 1 .0 1.2 2
2
H
4 3
2 5
10-4
10 8 6
10-4
5
5 1.5 5
2 hc 2
1.
10-5
75
10-5 h
5 1:30 5
2.0
2 2
10-6 10-6
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 (b) H '/L =0.017 2

0 0
10-2 10-2
0.5 hc /H '=
5 '0= 0 0.5 5
/H 2
2 h c 75 0.75
10-3 0. .0 10-3
1 25
5 1. .5 5
1m
1.0
q / 2g(H0')3
q / 2g(H0')3
1 .75
0 '=
2 2
2
1.2
1 2.0 H
4 3
5 10-4
10 6
10-4
8 5
5 1.5 5
2 2
hc
10-5 10-5
1.
75 2.0
5 h 5
1:30
2 2
10-6 10-6
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 (c) H '/L =0.036 2

0 0
10-2 10-2
.5 hc /H0'=0.5
5 '=0 5
/ H0 2
2 hc 0.75
5
10-3 0.7 .0 10-3
5 1 5 1.0 5
1m
q/ 2g(H0')3
q/ 2g(H0')3
1.2 5
0 '=
2 1. 5 2
2
H
1.25
4 3
1.7 10-4
10 6
10-4
8 5
5 2.0 1.5 5
2 2
hc
1.75
10-5 10-5
5 h 5
1:30 2.0
2 2
10-6 10-6
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
Fig. 4.3.20 Diagrams for Estimating Wave Overtopping Rate for Upright Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/30)
– 110 –
2 2
.5
10-2 h c/H 0'=0 hc /H 10-2
0 '=0
5 .5 5
0.75
2 0.75 2
10-3 1.0 10-3
1.25 1.0 5
q / 2g(H0')3
1m
5
q / 2g(H0')3
0 '=
2 1.5 1.2 2
2
H
5
4 3
10-4
1.75
10 8 6
10-4
5
5 1.5 5
2.0
2 hc 2
1.
10-5 10-5
75
h
5 1:10 5
(a) H0'/L0=0.012
2.0
2 2
10-6 10-6
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 (b) H '/L =0.017 2

0 0
10-2 hc /H 10-2
.5 0 '=0
5 h c/H 0'=0 .5 5
5
2 0.7 0 0.75 2
10-3 1. 5 10-3
1.2 5 1.0 5
1m
q / 2g(H0')3
5
q / 2g(H0')3
1. 5
0 '=
2 1.7 .0 1.2 2
2
H
4 3
2 5 10-4
10 6
10-4
5
1.5
8
5 5
2 hc
2
1.
10-5 10-5
75
h 5
5 1:10
2.0
2 2
10-6 10-6
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 (c) H '/L =0.036 2

0 0
10-2 10-2
5 .5 hc /H0'=0.5
5
'=0
H
h c/
0
2 5 2
0.7 .0 0.75
10-3 1 10-3
5
1.2 1.0 5
1m
5
q / 2g(H0')3
q / 2g(H0')3
1.5 5
0 '=
2
2 1.7 0
2
H
1.25
4 3
2. 10-4
10 8 6
10-4
5
5 1.5 5
2 hc
2
1.7
10-5 5 10-5
h
5 1:10 2.0 5
2 2
10-6 10-6
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
Fig. 4.3.21 Diagrams for Estimating Wave Overtopping Rate for Upright Seawall
(Bottom Slope 1/10)
– 111 –
2 2
(a) H0'/L0=0.012
10-2 hc /H '= 10-2
5 .5 0 0.5 5
'o =0
H 2
2 h c/ 75 0.75
10-3 0. 10-3
0
1. 5
1m
5
q / 2g(H0')3
q/ 2g(H0')3
25 1.0
0 '=
2 1. .5 2
2
H
4 3
1 1.2
75
10 6
10-4
5
5 10-4
1.
8
5 5
2.0
2 1.5 2
10-5 hc
10 -5
5 5
1.
blo
ck
75
h
2 1:30 2
2.0
10-6 10-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 hc 2
blo (b) H0'/L0=0.017
10-2 ck
h
10-2
5 1:30 hc /H '= 5
0 0.5
2 2
5
10-3 0. 0.75 10-3
'=
75 5
1m
/H
0
q / 2g(H0')3
5
q/ 2g(H0')3
hc 0. 1.0 0 '=
2 2
2
0
H
1.
4 3
10 6
10-4 25
5
10-4
1. 1.25
8
5 5 5
1.
2 75 2
1. 1.5
10-5 0 10-5
2.
5 1.7 5
2 2.0 5 2
10-6 10-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 2
hc (c) H0'/L0=0.036
10-2 blo
ck
10-2
5 h hc/H0'=0.5 5
1:30
2 2
10-3 0.75 10-3
5
0.5
1m
q / 2g(H0')3
5
q/ 2g(H0')3
75 1.0
o '=
0 '=
2 0. 2
2
H
/H
4 3
.0
10 6
hc
10-4 1
5
1.25 10-4
25
8
5 1. 5
2 2
5 1.5
10-5 1. 10-5
5 5
5
1.75
1.7
2 2
10-6 10-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 56 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
Fig. 4.3.22 Diagrams for Estimating Wave Overtopping Rate for Wave-dissipating Type Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/30)
– 112 –
2 hc/H0'=0.5 2
10-2 0.75 hc /H 10-2
5 1.0 0 '=0 5
.5
1.25 2
2 1.5 0.75
10-3 1.75 10-3
5
1m
5
q / 2g(H0')3
q/ 2g(H0')3
2.0 1.0
0 '=
2 2
2
H
4 3
1.2
10 6
10-4
5
5 10-4
8
5 5
1.5
2 2
10-5 hc 10-5
1.
75
blo
5 ck
h
5
(a) H0'/L0=0.012
2.0
2 1:10 2
10-6 10-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 (b) H0'/L0=0.017 2
10-2 10-2
5 hc/H0'=0.5 hc /H '=
5
0 0.5
0.75
2 1.0 2
0.75
10-3 10-3
1.25 5
1m
5
q / 2g(H0')3
q/ 2g(H0')3
1.0
2 1.5 0 '= 2
2
H
4 3
10 6
10-4 1.2
5
10-4
5
75
8
5 5
1.
2 1.5 2
2.0
10-5 hc 10-5
blo
5 ck 5
h
1.
2
75
2 1:10 .0 2
10-6 10-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
2 hc 2
blo (c) H0'/L0=0.036
10-2 ck h 10-2
1:10
5 hc/H0'=0.5 5
5
2 2
0.
0 '=
10-3 5 0.75 10-3

0.7
c /H
5
h
5
1m
q / 2g(H0')3
q/ 2g(H0')3
1.0
0 '=
2 1.0 2
2
H
4 3
10 6
10-4 10 -4
5
5
1.25
1.2
5 5
1.5
2 75 1.5 2
10-5 1. 10-5
5 1.75 5
0
2.
2 2.0 2
10-6 10-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 8 1010-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
h/H0' q(m3/m/s)
Fig. 4.3.23 Diagrams for Estimating Wave Overtopping Rate for Wave-dissipating Type Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/10)
– 113 –
(5) Allowable Wave Overtopping Rate
The allowable wave overtopping rate depends on factors such as the structural type of the seawall, the situation
with regard to land usage behind the seawall, and the capacity of drainage facilities; it needs to be set appropriately
depend on the situations. Although it is thus impossible to give one standard value for the permissible wave
of overtopping rate, Goda 77) et al. nevertheless gave the values for the threshold rate of wave overtopping for
inducing of damage as shown in Table 4.3.5 based on the past cases of disasters. Also, Fukuda et al.78) gives
the values shown in Table 4.3.6 as values for allowable wave overtopping rate in view of the land usage behind
the seawall. Furthermore, Nagai et al.79) have considered the degree of importance of the facilities behind the
seawall and have come up with the values for the allowable wave overtopping rate as shown in Table 4.3.7, using
the results of experiments with regular waves. Suzuki et al.63) have proposed 0.01m3/m/s as the allowable wave
overtopping rate for amenity-oriented revetment When conducting the performance verification, these must be
set appropriately by considering the importance of the facilities and the capacity of drainage facilities.
CADMAS-SURF 80) or flooding analysis models such as those that use the MARS method 81) can be used
when calculating wave overtopping precisely with the inclusion of items such as the permeability of the soil
behind the seawall and the characteristics of wave-dissipating work configurations.
Table 4.3.5 Threshold Rate of Wave Overtopping for Inducing of Damage
Type Armor Layer Wave Overtopping Rate (m3/m/s)

Paved behind 0.2
Seawall Not paved behind 0.05
Covered with concrete on 3 sides 0.05
Levee Crown paving/rear slope non constructed 0.02
Crown not paved 0.005 or less
Table 4.3.6 Allowable Wave Overtopping Rate in view of State of Land Use
User Distance from dike Wave overtopping rate (m3/m/s)

Land right in back 2 x 10 -4
(50% degree of safety)
Pedestrian
Automobile
House
Table 4.3.6 is a table created with the results where people who watch a wave overtopping observation video
make a judgment, and indicates a wave overtopping rate that at least that percentage of people judged to be safe.
Table 4.3.7 Permissible Wave of Overtopping Rate in view of Degree of Importance of Hinterland (m3/m/s)
Districts where significant damage is expected

particularly by the invasion of wave overtopping Around 0.01
and spray due to a dense concentration of
residential houses and public facilities in the rear.
Other important districts Around 0.02
Other districts 0.02 – 0.06
(6) Equivalent Crown Height Coefficient

The equivalent crown height coefficient can be used as a guideline when setting the wave overtopping rate for a
seawall upon which wave-dissipating concrete blocks are laid or for a wave-dissipating type seawall with vertical
slits. The equivalent crown height coefficient is the ratio of the height of the seawall in question to the height of
an imaginary upright seawall that results in the same wave overtopping quantity, where the conditions in terms of
waves and the sea bottom topography are taken to be the same for the both cases. If the equivalent crown height
coefficient is less than 1.0, this means that the crown of the seawall under study can be lowered below that of an
– 114 –
upright seawall and still give the same wave overtopping quantity; in other words, the seawall under study has
a form that is effective in reducing the wave overtopping rate. Below are the reference values for the equivalent
crown height coefficient β for typical types of seawall.
Wave-dissipating block type seawall 76) : β = 0.9– 0.7

Vertical-slit type seawall 76) : β = 0.6
Parapet retreating type seawall 75) : β = 1.0– 0.5
Stepped seawall 75) : β = 1.7 – 1.0
When the waves are obliquely incident 82), 83) :
(θ is the angle of incidence of the waves; it is 0º

when the waves are incident perpendicular to the
seawall faceline)
(7) Effect of Winds on the Wave Overtopping Quantity
In general, winds have a relatively large effect on wave overtopping quantity when it is small, although there is
a lot of variation. However, the relative effect of winds decreases as the wave overtopping rate increases. Fig.
4.3.24 shows the results of an investigation on the wind effect on the wave overtopping quantity based on field
observations. The abscissa shows the spatial gradient of the horizontal distribution of the wave overtopping
quantity, while the ordinate shows the wave overtopping quantity per unit area. As can be seen from the figure,
when the wave overtopping quantity is small, the larger the wind velocity, the smaller the spatial gradient of the
horizontal distribution of the wave overtopping quantity becomes. When the wave overtopping quantity is large,
the spatial gradient of the horizontal distribution of the wave overtopping quantity increases. This shows that,
when the wave overtopping quantity is small, the distance over which a mass of water splash strongly affected by
the wind velocity, with a larger distance at a higher wind velocity; however, when the wave overtopping quantity
is large, the difference in the splash distance becomes small.
10-1 6.8 7.2

6.8 6.8 7.2
∆h= ∆qx
11.1
Wave overtopping rate per unit area q
5 7.2
∆ 9.9 8.6
U ∆q q 13.3 7.2 13.6
2 11.1 8.6
1/2∆ x 11.1
10-2 1/2 x∆ 13.6 9.9 8.6
13.3 6.8
13.6 9.9 8.6 7.2
9.9 13.3 11.1
2.8
5 13.6 6.8 8.6
13.6 13.3 7.2
11.1 11.1
9.9 6.8 6.8
9.9 8.6
2 11.1 13.3 11.1 11.1
11.1 11.1
8.6 9.9
Wind velocity vector
10-3 13.3 8.6 6.8 U (m/s)
(m/s) 13.3 8.6 9.9 6.8
5
14 13.3 9.9 6.8
12
9.9 10 8 6 4
2 8.6
10-4
10-5 2 5 10-4 2 5 10-3 2 5 10-2 2 5 10-1
Gradient ∆h (m3/m2/h)/m
Fig. 4.3.24 Wind Effect on Spatial Gradient of Horizontal Distribution of Wave Overtopping Quantity 78)
(8) Wave Overtopping of Multi Directional Random Waves

In waters where the multi directionality of waves is well clarified, the wave overtopping rate may be corrected in
accordance with Smax as in reference 83).
(9) Effects of Parapet
Parapet on a revetment is effective in reducing wave overtopping. Reference 84) can be referred for wave
overtopping of sloping dikes with parapet.
– 115 –
[3] Transmitted Waves
(1) It shall be standard to calculate the height of waves transmitted behind a breakwater by overtopping and/or
permeation through the breakwater or the foundation mound of breakwater by referring to either the results of
hydraulic model tests or the past data.
(2) It is necessary to appropriately estimate the transmitted wave height after waves have overtopped and/or passed
through a breakwater, because the transmitted waves affect the wave height distribution behind the breakwater.
Transmitted waves include waves that have overtopped and/or overflowed, as well as waves that have penetrated
through a sloping breakwater or a foundation mound of composite breakwater. The latter in particular is sometimes
referred to as penetrated waves. Recently, several breakwaters have been built with caissons, which are originally
not permeable, having through-holes in order to enhance the exchange of the seawater in a harbor. In this case,
it is necessary to examine on the wave coefficient of wave transmission, because the coefficient serves as an
indicator of the efficiency of the exchange of seawater.
(3) Coefficient of Wave Transmission for Composite Breakwater
Fig. 4.3.25 may be used to calculate the height of waves that are transmitted into a harbor when they overtop a
composite breakwater or permeate through a foundation mound. Even when the waves are random, the coefficient
of wave transmission agrees pretty well with that shown in Fig. 4.3.25. It has also been shown that Fig. 4.3.25
is valid not only for the significant wave height, but also for the highest one-tenth wave height and the mean wave
height.85)
1.0
d/h=0.5 HT B HI
d/h=0.7 R
0.8 d
d/h=0.3 h
d/h=0
0.6
HT
KT=
HI
0.4
0.2
0
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
R
HI
Fig. 4.3.25 Diagram for Calculating Coefficient of Wave Transmission 86)
(4) Period of Transmitted Waves of Composite Breakwater

The period of the transmitted waves drops to about 50 to 80% of the corresponding incident wave period in both
the significant wave and the mean wave.86)
(5) For composite breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, sloping breakwaters covered with
wave-dissipating concrete blocks, and other such breakwaters, experiments on the transmitted wave height have
been carried out by the Civil Engineering Research Institute of Hokkaido Development Bureau.87), 88)
(6) Coefficient of Wave Transmission of Structures
① For a porous and permeable structure such as a sloping breakwater or a wave-dissipating concrete block type
breakwater, Kondo's 53) theoretical analysis may be referred to. The following empirical equation may be used
to obtain the coefficient of wave transmission of a typical structure.
Stone breakwater 89):
(4.3.31)
– 116 –
where
kt : in the case of sloping breakwater and in the case of
deformed block type breakwater

B : crown width of the structure
dt : Nominal diameter of rubble or height of deformed block
H : height of transmitted waves
L : wavelength of transmitted waves
② For a curtain wall type breakwater, the empirical solutions of Morihira et al.90) may be used.
③ For the coefficient of wave transmission of an upright breakwater of permeable type that has slits in both the
front and rear walls, the experimental results 52) are available.
④ Types of breakwater aiming to promote the exchange of seawater include multiple-wing type permeable
breakwaters, multiple vertical-cylinder breakwaters, horizontal-plate type permeable breakwaters, and pipe
type permeable breakwaters. The coefficient of wave transmissions of these types of breakwater are obtained.52)
(7) Coefficient of Wave Transmission of Submerged Breakwater
A submerged breakwater is usually made by piling up natural stones or crushed rock to form a mound, and then
covering the surface with concrete blocks to prevent underlayers from sucking out. For a submerged breakwater
of crushed rock, a diagram 52) showing the relationship between the crown height of the breakwater and the
coefficient of wave transmission is available.
4.3.8 Rise of Mean Water Level due to Waves and Surf Beats
[1] Wave Setup
(1) When constructing structures within the breaker zone, it is preferable to consider the phenomenon of wave setup
as necessary, which occurs in the breaker zone owing to wave breaking as they approach the coast.
(2) Rise of the mean water level due to breaking waves
The phenomenon where the mean water level near the shoreline rises due to breaking waves, so-called “wave set
up”, was known long ago through observations at the seashore and so on, but theoretical proof about the causes
for the occurrence of this phenomenon has been lacking. In 1962, Longuet-Higgins and Stewart 91) indicated
that when a series of waves whose wave height varies approach the shore, this becomes the conveyance of a large
momentum at the places where the wave height is large, and it becomes smaller at the places where the wave height
is small, so apparent stress ends up being generated, and the mean water level changes. This apparent stress was
termed the radiation stress. This radiation stress is an amount proportionate to the square of the wave height, and
in that sense is an amount of the same order as the energy of a wave.
(3) Radiation Stress
With the introduction of the concept of radiation stress is introduced, the change in the mean water level can be
explained as follows.
When a wave approaching from offshore reaches shallow waters, the wave height increases due to shallow
water deformation as the water depth becomes more shallow. When the wave height becomes larger, the
conveyance of momentum becomes larger, and the mean water level begins to decline (wave set down). When
the wave approaches the place where it is even shallower, it breaks due to the wave height corresponding to the sea
bottom slope and water depth, and suddenly the wave height is diminished, and the sudden decline of this wave
height causes the conveyance of momentum to decrease suddenly, and the mean water level rises. The rise in the
mean water level in the vicinity of the shoreline is viewed as a typical example of a phenomenon caused by such
radiation stress.
(4) Diagrams for Estimating the Amount of Wave Setup
The changes in the mean water level by random wave breaking on the bottom slopes of 1/100 and 1/10 as calculated
by Goda 47) are shown in Figs. 4.3.26 and 4.3.27. The smaller the wave steepness (H0'/L0) the faster and larger the
rise of mean water level becomes. Fig. 4.3.28 shows the rise of mean water level at the shoreline. The smaller
the wave steepness, and the steeper the bottom slope, the larger the rise of mean water level becomes. When H0'/
L0 is in the range 0.01-0.05, with the exception of very steep bottom slope, the rise of mean water level near the
shoreline is of the order (0.1-0.15)H0', where H0' is the equivalent deepwater wave height and L0 is the wavelength
of the deepwater wave. Fig. 4.3.29 is a diagram for estimating the amount of wave setup that has newly been
proposed taking the directional wave spectrum into account. The values are slightly smaller compared to Fig.
4.3.28 in ranges where the wave steepness is small.92)
– 117 –
0.25
H0'
=
Change in mean water level η / H'0

0.20 L0 tanθ =1/10
0.15 0.005
0.01
0.10 0.02
0.04
0.05
0.08
0
-0.05
-0.10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.26 Change in Mean Water Level (Bottom Slope 1/10)
0.20
H0'
Change in mean water level η / H'0
= tanθ =1/100
0.15 L0
0.005
0.10 0.01
0.02
0.05 0.04
0.08
0
-0.05
-0.10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
h/H0'
Fig. 4.3.27 Change in Mean Water Level (Bottom Slope 1/100)
0.45
0.40
Rise in mean water level η max/ H'0
0.35
tanθ =1/10
0.30
0.25
1/20
0.20
1/50
1/100
0.15
10
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1

Wave steepness H0'/L0
Fig. 4.3.28 Rise in Mean Water Level at Shoreline
– 118 –
0.35
0.3
Mean water level rise η0 0.25
0.2
0.15 Seabed slope

1/10
0.1 1/20
1/30
0.05 1/50
1/100
0
0.001 0.01 0.1
Wave steepness H0'/ L0
Fig. 4.3.29 Figure Diagram of Water Level Rise at Shoreline considering the Multi Directionality of Waves
(5) Consideration of the rise in mean water level in the performance verification
Since the wave breaking point varies, and the breaking wave height becomes larger, owing to the rise of the mean
water level, it is important to consider the rise in mean water level in order to carry out accurate computation of
the design wave height in shallow waters.
[2] Surf Beats
(1) Surf beat with a period of one to several minutes, which occurs along with wave deformation in shallow waters, is
examined, as necessary.
(2) Random wave height fluctuations lasting one to several minutes in the vicinity of the shoreline are called surf beat,
and this has a major effect on the runup height of waves, wave overtopping and stability of beaches at the beach.
It is preferred that the size of the surf beat is estimated as appropriate by either Goda’s approximation formulas 58)
or on-site observations.
(3) Goda’s Formulas for Estimating Surf Beat Amplitude
Based on the results of field observations of surf beat, Goda 58) has proposed the following relationship:
(4.3.32)
where
ζrms : root mean square amplitude of the surf beat wave profile
(ηrms)0 : root mean square amplitude of the deepwater wave profile
H0' : equivalent deepwater wave height
L0 : wavelength in deepwater
h : water depth
This equation shows that the amplitude of the surf beat is proportional to the deepwater wave height, that it
falls as the water depth increases, and that it increases as the deepwater wave steepness (H0'/L0) decreases.
– 119 –
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
ζrms 0.08
(ηrms)0
0.06
0.04
Around shoreline Offshore
Ooarai
Niigata
0.02
Miyazaki
0.01
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
H0' h 1/2
(1+ )
L0 H0'
Fig. 4.3.30 Ratio of Surf Beat Amplitude for Deepwater Wave
4.4 Long-period Waves
(1) With regard to long-period waves and seiche in harbors, field observations should be carried out as far as possible,
and appropriate measures to control them must be taken based on the results of these observations. Here, long-
period waves are defined as waves composed of component waves with periods between 30 seconds to 300 seconds
included in the frequency spectrum analyzed from an uninterrupted observation record taken over a period of 20
minutes or more.
(2) Water level fluctuations with the period between 30 seconds and several minutes sometimes appear at observation
points in harbors and off the shore. Such fluctuations are called long-period waves. If the period of such long-
period waves is close to the natural frequency period of the vibration system made up of a ship and its mooring
ropes, the phenomenon of resonance can give rise to a large surge motion even if the wave height is small, resulting
in large effects on the cargo handling efficiency of the port. If it is clear from observations that long-period waves
of significant wave height 10 - 15 cm or more frequently arise in a harbor, it is advisable to investigate either hard
or soft countermeasures.93)
When conspicuous water level fluctuations within the period several minutes or longer occur at an observation
point in a harbor, it is highly likely that the phenomenon of “seiche” is taking place. This phenomenon occurs
when small disturbances in water level generated by changes in air pressure out at sea are amplified by the natural
frequency of the harbor or bay. If the amplitude of such seiche becomes significantly large, inundation at the head
of the bay or reverse outflow from municipal drainage channels may occur. Also high current velocities may
occur locally in a harbor, resulting in breaking of the mooring ropes of small ships. When drawing up a harbor
plan, it is thus preferable to give consideration to making the shape of the harbor to minimize the seiche motion
as much as possible. At marinas and other small ports, the natural frequency of the port may be close to the
frequency of long-period waves and the propagation of long-period waves from the open sea may excite the seiche
in the port. The two aspects are therefore highly correlated. If seiche excitation by long-period waves becomes
apparent from observations or numerical calculations, it is preferable to deliberate countermeasures while giving
thought to these aspects.
(3) Critical Wave Height for Cargo Handling Works Effected by Long-period Waves
It is necessary to give due consideration to the fact that long-period waves in front of a quaywall can induce
ship surging with the amplitude of several meters through resonance. The critical wave height for smooth cargo
– 120 –
handling works effected by long-period waves depends on the factors such as the wave period, the dimensions
of the ship in question, the mooring situation, and the loading conditions. Nevertheless, according to field
observations carried out in Tomakomai Bay, 96) it corresponds to a significant wave height of about 10 - 15 cm.
(4) Calculating Propagation of Long-period Waves
It is preferable to calculate the propagation of long-period waves into a harbor by setting up incident wave boundary
out at sea and then using either the Boussinesq equation 97) or a calculation method that uses long linear wave
equations.98)
(5) Standard Spectrum for Long-period Waves
When there are insufficient field observation data of long-period waves out at sea and the long-period waves
conditions that determine the external forces are not established, the standard spectrum shown in reference 99) or
its approximate expression may be used for the long-period waves performance verifications.
Fig. 4.4.1 shows a comparison between an observed spectrum and an approximate form of the standard
spectrum. The term α  in the diagram is a parameter that represents the energy level of the long-period waves.
This shows the relationship between the spectrum peak frequency of short-period wave components and boundary
frequency f b for calculating the energy of long-period waves components. From the past observations, the value
is between 1.6 and 1.7. The smaller the value of α  , the larger the energy of the long-period waves becomes.
101
Observed spectrum
0
10
Approximate form
of the standard
spectrum
10-1
S ( f ) fp / E
a  =1.60
-2
10
a  =1.65
10-3 a =1.70
10-4 -2
10 10-1 100 101 102
f / fp
Fig. 4.4.1 Comparison between Standard Spectrum with Long-period Components and Observed Spectrum
(6) Wave Direction of Long-period Waves

In the event of long-period waves are propagated, there are many cases where they overlap with waves reflected
from the longshore, and it is difficult to determine the wave direction. However, the energy of the principal long-
period waves may propagete according with the principal wave direction of a short-period wave (wind wave).
(7) Method for Calculating Harbor Resonance
See 3.3 Harbor Resonance for the method for calculating harbor resonance.
(8) Countermeasures for Long-period Waves and Harbor Resonance
In waters where long-period waves are marked, it is preferable to establish a breakwater layout plan in order to
inhibit the ingress of long-period waves into the harbor. At this time, in the event that the particle diameter of the
mound materials is large, almost all of the energy of the long-period waves is transmitted into the harbor, so it is
preferable to undertake appropriate examination on the formation of the breakwater and mound structure.
In order to control the surge oscillation of ships, it is preferable to shift the natural period of the mooring
system from the period of the invading long-period waves. To this end, such measures as changing the place
where the mooring facilities are installed and the initial tension, as well as an increase in the number of mooring
lines using improve the rope materials and new installation of land winches, are desirable, but the results should
– 121 –
be examined beforehand and appropriate measures should be devised based on suitable numerical calculations.
There are many instances where long-period waves are reflected and amplified by the facilities in a harbor,
and in particular upright wave-dissipating revetments have almost no wave-dissipating function for long-period
waves and swells, so it is necessary to revise the reflection coefficient of the facilities in estimation of the long-
period waves height inside harbors. The Environment Assessment Manual of Long-Period Waves in Harbors 100)
can be used as a reference for the rough order of magnitude and calculation method of the reflection coefficient.
Long-period wave-dissipating revetments that employ backfilling materials of a two-sided slit caisson wall that
has a slit wall on both sides and a gravel material with a large particle diameter allow waves to pass through and
dampen long-period waves have been developed as an engineering method that lowers the long-period waves
height inside harbors.
The width of the transmitting layer with the gravel material is preferably 50 to 100 meters. It is preferable
to set the width of the water transmitting layer, place of installation and installation range so that the maximum
effects are achieved in the hydraulic model test and numerical calculations. Since the distribution of long-period
waves is not uniform within the harbor, it is preferable to examine as well modifications of the berth location at the
planning stage in the event that it is clear that the long-period waves in the target berth exceed the limit values.
(9) Distinction between Long-period Waves and Harbor Resonance
In an ordinary harbor, the period of harbor resonance is longer than that of long-period waves by several minutes,
and it is possible to distinguish the two from analysis of the oscillation period. However, the period of harbor
resonance may become shorter to 2 to 3 minutes in the case of small craft basins and marinas, and this makes
the discrimination difficult. In that case, it is preferable to make a judgment as suitable based on the observation
results for offshore waters and the circumstances in the surrounding harbor.
4.5 Concept of Harbor Calmness
(1) Factors of Calmness and Disturbance

① When evaluating the harbor calmness, the factors causing disturbances in the harbor need to be set
appropriately.
② The problem of harbor calmness is extremely complex. It involves not only physical factors such as waves,
winds, ship motions, and the wind- and wave-resistance of working machinery, but also the factors requiring
human judgment, such as the easiness of ships entering and leaving of harbor, ship refuge during stormy
weather, and the critical conditions of works at sea. The harbor calmness is further related with the economic
factors, such as the efficiency of cargo handling works, the operating rate of ships, and the cost of constructing
the various facilities required to improve the harbor calmness. The factors that lead to wave disturbances in
harbors, which constitute the basis of the criteria for determining the harbor calmness, include the following:
(a) Waves penetrating through the harbor entrance
(b) Transmitted waves into the harbor
(c) Reflected waves
(d) Long-period waves
(e) Harbor seiche
In large harbors, wind waves generated within the harbor may require attention, and the ship waves by larger
ships may cause troubles for small ships.
(2) Points to remember when carrying out harbor calmness calculations
It is necessary to bear the following points in mind when carrying out harbor calmness calculations.
① Set the wave height and period frequency distribution at the port entrance.
② In the event that the depth of navigation channel differs markedly from the surrounding water depth, or shoals
may exist inside the harbor, or the water depth changes suddenly in the port entrance, consider the water depth
change inside the harbor to the extent possible in the calculation of wave height inside the harbor.
③ Introduce the effects of the period as concerns the permissible value of the wave height in the harbor.
④ Consider the future state of the use of ports as concerns the target value for harbor calmness.
(3) Computation of Harbor Calmness
The harbor calmness can be calculated with the temporal probability of the occurrence of a wave height that does
not exceed the critical wave height for cargo handling works or the critical wave height for anchoring. The critical
wave height for cargo handling works is the wave height of the limit at which the ships moored at the quaywall or
dolphin can safely perform cargo handling activities. The critical wave height for anchoring is the wave height at
which anchoring in the basin and buoy mooring as well as mooring at the mooring facilities is possible. Here, the
temporal probability of the occurrence of a wave height that exceeds the critical wave height for cargo handling
– 122 –
works is called the cargo handling operating rate, and in general the harbor calmness is assessed as the cargo
handling operating rate (see Fig. 4.5.1).
＊- Hearings from ship owners, and past disaster results

- Observation, prediction and numerical analysis, etc.
using the manual for long-period waves, etc.
[No] Is there any risk that cargo [Yes]
handling damages will be
incurred due to swells and Stringent analysis
long-period waves? method
[Further stringent analysis

is required]
- Are the ships that utilize the target

[No] berth specified to a certain extent? [Yes]
- Or, are countermeasures and examination
of mooring facilities, etc. of the target
berth required?
Conventional
method
Standard analysis Detailed analysis
- Examination of wind waves and swells method method
- Critical wave height for cargo handling
works (set based on the ship size) - Examination of wind waves and swells - Examination of wind waves and swells
+ long-period waves + long-period waves
- Critical wave height for cargo handling - Critical wave height for cargo handling
works (set based on the wave direction works (set based on the permissible
and ship type, ship size, etc.) amount of turbulence for cargo handling)
[Environment Assessment Manual of

Long-Period Waves in Harbors]
Is a cargo handling operating rate of at least 97.5% assured?
Fig. 4.5.1 Example of Performance Verification Steps Relating to Harbor Calmness
① Harbor calmness for abnormal waves

The harbor calmness for abnormal waves which is equivalent to a probablistic wave with a return period of 50
years, for facilities with a design working life of 50 years in the case of waves as variable action, can be generally
assessed by considering the fact that the waves inside the harbor have a major effect on the performance of
harbors. The evaluation of the habor calmness can be performed by, setting the critical value of the wave height
such that abnormal waves inside the harbor do not cause major damage to the facilities of the harbors, and
confirming that the wave height computed by in-harbor wave height calculation does not exceed this critical
value.
② Calculation of the cargo handling operating rate for long-period waves
Setting the critical wave height for cargo handling works.
For the setting of the critical wave height for cargo handling works for the long-period waves portion, it is
preferable to consider the type of ship and the cargo handling system in question, and to determine the wave
heights separately based on a survey of the actual state of cargo handling. The critical wave height for cargo
handling works for long-period waves is defined in Table 4.5.1.
– 123 –
Table 4.5.1 Critical Wave Height for Cargo Handling Works for Long-Period Waves 102)
Critical wave height for

Level of the significant wave
Assumed conditions cargo handling works
height of long-period waves
(m)
Ship classes for which the permissible amount of motions in cargo
handling is relatively large for surging, or ships whose natural period
1 0.20
for surging is less than 1.5 minutes (medium sized ships: 1,000 to 5,000
DWT)
handling is moderate for surging, and ships whose natural period for
2 0.15
surging is less than 1.5 minutes (general cargo ships: 5,000 to 10,000
DWT)
handling is small for surging, or ships whose natural period for surging
3 0.10
is 2-3 minutes and under (container ships, mineral ore ships: 10,000 to
70,000 DWT)
4.6 Ship Waves
(1) It is preferable to consider ship waves during ship navigation in canals and waterways.
(2) Ship waves are caused when ships navigate. The large the ship is and the faster its speed is, the greater is the wave
height of ship waves. When the propagation distance of ship waves becomes larger they end up attenuating, so
they cause no serious problems in wide water areas. However, there are cases when they cause motions in small
ships under anchor, floating docks, etc. inside harbors, in narrow. In addition, there are also cases where they
have an effect on wave overtopping at revetments on both sides of a waterway, scouring and stability of armored
blocks.
(3) Pattern of Ship Waves
If ship waves are viewed from air, it appears as shown in Fig. 4.6.1. It is composed of two groups of waves. One
group of waves spread out in a shape like “ ” from a point slightly ahead of the bow of the ship. The other group
of waves is behind the ship and is such that the wave crest is perpendicular to the ship’s navigation line. The
former waves are termed the “divergent waves”, while the latter are termed the “transverse waves”. The divergent
waves form concave curves; the closer to the navigation line, the smaller the gap between waves. On the other
hand, the transverse waves are approximately arcshaped, with the gap between waves being constant. In deep
water, the area over which the ship waves extend is limited within the area bounded by the two cusplines with the
angles ±19º28' from the navigation line and starting from the origin lying somewhat in front of the bow of the ship.
The divergent waves cross the transverse waves just inside the cusplines; this is where the wave height is largest.
The wave steepness is smaller for the transverse waves than for the divergent waves, implying that the transverse
waves often cannot be distinguished from an aerial photograph.
19˚ 28'
Ship’s navigation line
Fig. 4.6.1 Plan View of Ship Waves

(Solid lines show divergent waves and dotted line show transverse waves)
(4) Wavelength and Period of Ship Waves

The wavelength and period of ship waves differ for the divergent waves and the transverse waves, with the latter
having both a longer wavelength and a longer period. Amongst the divergent waves, the wavelength and period
are both longest for the first wave and then become progressively shorter.
– 124 –
① The wavelength of the transverse waves can be obtained by the numerical solution of the following equation,
which is derived from the condition that the celerity of the transverse waves must be the same as the velocity at
which the ship is navigating forward.
: (4.6.1)
where
Lt : wavelength of transverse waves (m)
h : water depth (m)
V : ship’s navigation speed (m/s)
Note however that when the water is sufficiently deep, the wavelength of the transverse waves is given by the
following equation:
(4.6.2)
where
L0 : wavelength of transverse waves at places where the water is sufficiently deep (m)
V k : ship’s navigation speed (kt); Vk = 1.946V
② The period of the transverse waves is equal to the period of progressive waves with the wavelength Lt in water
of depth h. It is given by equation (4.6.3) or (4.6.4).
(4.6.3)
(4.6.4)
where
Tt : period of transverse waves in water of depth h (s)
t0 : period of transverse waves at places where the water is sufficiently deep (s)
③ The wavelength and period of the divergent waves are given by equations (4.6.5) and (4.6.6), which are derived
from the condition that the component of the ship’s speed in the direction of travel of the divergent waves must
be equal to the celerity of the divergent waves.
Ld = Lt cos 2 θ (4.6.5)
Td = Tt cos θ (4.6.6)
where
Ld : wavelength of divergent waves as measured in the direction of travel (m)
Td : period of divergent waves (s)
θ : angle between the direction of travel of the divergent waves and the navigation line (º)
According to Kelvin’s theory of wave-generation at places where the water is sufficiently deep, the angle
of travel θ of the divergent waves can be obtained as shown in Fig. 4.6.2, as a function of the position of the
place under study relative to the ship. Note however that for actual ships the minimum value of θ is generally
about 40º, and θ is usually about 50º - 55º for the point on a particular divergent wave at which the wave height
is the maximum. Note also that, as shown in the illustration in the figure, the angle θ directs the location of the
source point Q from where the divergent wave has been generated; α is the angle between the cuspline and the
navigation line.
– 125 –
90 0.9
Angle between the direction of travel of the divergent
Ratio of the period of the divergent waves to that

T / T0=0.816
80 0.8
x / s=2.83
70 0.7
x
60 O Q 0.6
α θ
of the transverse waves Td / T0

50 Td / P 0.5
T0 =
cos
waves and the sailing line θ (˚)
θ tan θ 2
40 35.3° 1+ tan α = 0.4
cos2θ
30 0.3
20 0.2
x / s=2.83
10 0.1
0 0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Relative position of observation point x/s
Fig. 4.6.2 Wave Height and Period of Divergent Waves at Places Where the Water is Sufficiently Deep
(5) Shoaling Effect on Ship Waves

As common with waves in general, ship waves are affected by the water depth, and their properties vary when the
water depth decreases relative to the wavelength of ship waves. This shoaling effect on ship waves may be ignored
if the following condition is satisfied:
(4.6.7)
The critical water depth above which ship waves may be regarded as deepwater waves is calculated by
equation (4.6.7), as listed in Table 4.6.1. As can be seen from this table, the waves generated by ships in normal
conditions can generally be regarded as deepwater waves. Situations in which they must be regarded as shallow
water waves include the following cases: a high-speed ferry travels through relatively shallow waters, a motorboat
travels through shallow waters, and ship waves propagate into shallow waters. Note that ship waves in shallow
water have a longer wavelength and period than those generated by the ship navigating in deep water at the same
speed.
Table 4.6.1 Conditions under which Ship waves can be regarded as Deepwater Waves
Speed of vessel Vk (kt) 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 25.0 30.0
Water depth h (m)≥ 1.4 3.1 5.5 8.6 12.4 16.9 22.0 34.4 49.6
Period of transverse waves T0 (s) 1.7 2.5 3.3 4.1 5.0 5.8 6.6 8.3 9.9
(6) Height of Ship waves

The ship wake wave research committee of the Japan Association for Preventing Maritime Accidents has proposed
the following equation for giving a rough estimate of the height of ship waves:
(4.6.8)
where
H0 : characteristic wave height of ship waves (m), or the maximum wave height observed at a distance
of 100 m from the navigation line when a ship is navigating at its full-load cruising speed
Ls : length of the ship (m)
VK : f ull-load cruising speed (kt)
EHPW : wave-generation horsepower (W)
– 126 –
The wave-generating horsepower EHPW is calculated as follows. Refer to Reference 104) for the ship
dimensions.
(4.6.9)
(4.6.10)
(4.6.11)
(4.6.12)
(4.6.13)
where
SHPm : continuous maximum shaft power (W)
ρ0 : density of seawater (kg/m3) ρ0 =1030(kg/m3)
V0 : f ull-load cruising speed (m/s) V0 = 0.514VK
CF : f rictional resistance coefficient
ν : coefficient of kinematic viscosity of water (m 2/s) ν≒1.2×10 -6 (m2/s)
∇ : f ull-load displacement of ship (m3)
Equation (4.6.13) has been obtained by assuming that the energy consumed through wave-generation resistance
is equal to the propagation energy of ship waves, while the values of the coefficients have been determined as
averages from the data from ship towing tank tests. The characteristic wave height H0 varies from ship to ship,
although for medium and large-size ships it is about 1.0 ~ 2.0 m. Tugboats sailing at full speed produce relatively
large ship waves.
It is considered that the wave height attenuates in proportional to S -1/3, where S is the distance of the
observation point from the navigation line. It is also considered that the wave height is proportional to the cube
of the cruising speed of the ship. Accordingly equation (4.6.13) has been obtained by assuming that the energy
consumed through wave-generation resistance is equal to the propagation energy of ship waves, while the values
of the coefficients have been determined as averages from the data from ship towing tank tests. The characteristic
wave height H0 varies from ship to ship, although for medium and large-size ships it is about 1.0 ~ 2.0 m. Tugboats
sailing at full speed produce relatively large ship waves.
It is considered that the wave height attenuates in proportional to S-1/3, where S is the distance of the observation
point from the navigation line. It is also considered that the wave height is proportional to the cube of the cruising
speed of the ship. Accordingly:
(4.6.14)
where
max : maximum height of ship waves at any chosen observation point (m)
H
S : distance from the observation point to the navigation line (m)
V k : actual cruising speed of the ship(kt)
Equation (4.6.14) cannot be applied if S is too small. However, equation (4.6.14) can be applied when either
the ship length Ls or 100 m, whichever is the smaller.
The upper limit of the height of ship waves occurs when the wave steepness of the maximum wave of the
divergent wave reach to the breaking criterion of Hmax /Lt = 0.14. If the angle between the wave direction and the
navigation line is assumed to beθ= 50º at the point on a divergent wave where the wave height becomes largest,
the upper limit of the wave height at any given point is given by equation (4.6.15). However, the conditions for
deepwater waves shall be satisfied.
(4.6.15)
where
Hlimit : upper limit of the height of ship waves as defined by the wave breaking conditions (m)
– 127 –
(7) Propagation of Ship Waves
① Among two groups of ship waves, the transverse waves propagate in the direction of ship’s navigation line, and
continue to propagate even if the ship changes course or stops. In this case, the waves have a typical nature
of regular waves with the period being given by equation (4.6.3), and they propagate at the group velocity,
undergoing transformation such as refraction and others. Takeuchi and Nanasawa 105) gave an example of such
transformations. Note however that as the waves propagate, the length of wave crest spreads out, and even when
the water is of uniform depth, the wave height attenuates in a manner inversely proportional to the square root
of the distance traveled.
② The direction of propagation of a divergent wave varies from point to point on the wave crest. According to
Kelvin’s theory of wave-generation, the angle between the direction of propagation and the navigation line
is θ= 35.3º at the outer edge of a divergent wave. As one moves inwards along the wave crest, the value of θ
approaches 90º. The first wave arriving at a any particular point has the angle θ= 35.3º, while θ getting gradually
larger for subsequent waves. This spatial change in the direction of propagation of the divergent waves can be
estimated using Fig. 4.6.2.
③ The propagation celerity of a divergent wave at any point on the wave crest is the group celerity corresponding
to the period Td at that point (see equation (4.6.6)). In the illustration in Fig. 4.6.2, the time needed for a
component wave to propagate at the group celerity from the point Q at wave source to the point P is equal to
the time taken for the ship to travel at the speed V from the point Q to the point O. Since each wave profile
propagates at the wave celerity (phase velocity), the waves appear to pass beyond the cuspline and vanish one
after the other at the outer edge of the divergent waves.
(8) Generation of Solitary Waves
When a ship navigates through shallow waters, solitary waves are generated in front of the ship if the cruising
speed Vk (m/s) approaches . Around the river mouths, there is a possibility of small ships being affected by
such solitary waves generated by other large ships.106)
4.7 Wave Pressure and Wave Force

4.7.1 General 107), 108)
(1) Wave Force Calculation

The wave force acting on port facilities is generally determined using appropriate hydraulic model tests, numerical
calculations or methods described in 4.7.2 Wave Force on Upright Wall, with the waves determined by the
procedures described in Chapter 4 Waves. However, in the event of an increase in wave height or an increase
in wave force due to impulsive breaking waves, appropriate consideration needs to be given to these aspects
depending on the shape and structural characteristics of the breakwater.
(2) Structure Type and Wave Forces
Wave forces can be generally classified by the type of structure as follows:
① Wave force acting on a wall-type structure
② Wave force acting on armor stones or concrete blocks
③ Wave force acting on submerged members
④ Wave force acting on structures near the water surface
The wave forces are different for each type of structure. It is thus necessary to use an appropriate calculation
method in accordance with the conditions including structural type. For some types of structures with a few
experiences of construction, their wave actions have not been sufficiently resolved, and therefore it is preferable
to carry out studies including hydraulic model tests for such structures.
Wave forces and resistance forces acting on armor stones and concrete blocks differ greatly depending on
their shapes and positions in addition to conditions of the waves acting on them. Therefore, when verifying
performance, the required mass for the armor stones and concrete blocks are usually determined directly from
wave conditions rather than calculating the acting wave force (see Part III, Chapter 2, 1.7.2 Required Mass of
Armor Stones and Blocks in Composite Breakwater Foundation Mound against Waves).
(3) Wave Irregularity and Wave Force
Sea waves are irregular with the wave height and period varying from wave to wave. Depending on the water
depth and the topography of the sea bottom, wave forces such as non-breaking, breaking or after-breaking act on
the structure. When calculating the wave force, it is important to include the waves that cause the severest effect
on the structure. It is necessary to give sufficient consideration to wave irregularity and to the characteristics of
the wave force in accordance with the type of structure.
– 128 –
In general, it may be assumed that the larger the wave height, the greater the wave force becomes. It is thus
acceptable to focus on the wave force of the highest wave among a train of random waves attacking the structure.
However, with regard to the stabilities of concrete blocks or armor stones on the slope and wave force acting on
the floating structures and cylindrical structures with small rigidity, it is preferable to consider the effect of the
successive action of the random waves.
(4) Examination of Wave Force by Hydraulic Model Tests
When examining wave force by hydraulic model tests, it is necessary to give sufficient consideration to the failure
process of the structure and to use an appropriate measurement method. It is also preferable to give sufficient
consideration to the irregularity of waves. In particular, when carrying out experiments using regular waves, an
examination against the highest wave should be included.
(5) Examination of Wave Force by Numerical Calculation
A great deal of labor and expense is required for examining the wave force due to model tests, and usually
there are limits to the experimental case and the measurement items. On the other hand, in recent years it
has become possible to employ numerical calculations when computing the wave force acting on structures.
When the numerical calculations are employed in actual design, it is necessary to verify the appropriateness of
the calculation results by comparing them with on-site observations and model tests, but once the suitability is
confirmed, computation of wave force with less labor and expense becomes possible. The CADMAS-SURF 109)
is a numerical computation program developed for the purpose of assisting the structually resistive design against
wave action and with it is possible to examine the interactions of waves, ground and structures and the impulsive
breaking pressure.
(6) Design Values for Wave Force
The partial factors differ depending on the structural type as far as the design values for the wave force are
concerned. The wave force as used here in principle indicates the characteristic value of the wave force. The
partial factor for wave force can be referred to the respective structure type.
4.7.2 Wave Force on Upright Walls 110), 111), 112), 113)
(1) General Characteristics of Wave Force on Upright Walls

① The major parameters that affect the wave force acting on an upright wall are wave period, wave height, wave
direction, water level, water depth, bottom slope, water depth of the crown of the foundation mound, the front
berm width of foundation mound, slope of foundation mound, the crown height of upright wall, and water depth
at base of the upright wall. In addition, it is also necessary to consider the effect of the wall alignment. The
wave force on an upright wall with a concaved alignment may be larger than that on an upright, straight wall of
infinite length. Furthermore, if the front of upright wall is covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, the
characteristics of these blocks and the crown height and width will affect the wave force.
② Types of wave force
The wave force acting on an upright wall can be classified according to the type of waves such as a standing
wave force, a breaking wave force, or a wave force after breaking. It is considered that the changes of wave
forces are continuous. A standing wave force is produced by waves whose height is small compared with the
water depth, and the change in the wave pressure over time is gradual. As the wave height increases, the wave
force also increases. In general, the largest wave force is generated by the waves breaking just a little off the
upright wall. Accordingly, with the exception of very shallow water conditions, the force exerted by waves
breaking just in front of an upright wall is larger than the wave force by higher waves that have already broken.
It is necessary to note that when breaking waves act on an upright wall on a steep seabed, or on an upright wall
set on a high mound, a very strong impulsive breaking wave force may appear.
(2) Wave Forces of Standing Waves or Breaking Waves when the Peak of Waves is on the Wall Surface
① Goda’s formula
(a) It is standard to calculate the maximum horizontal wave force acting on an upright wall and the simultaneous
uplift using Goda’s formula as shown below. Goda’s formula is that proposed by Goda taking into consideration
wave pressure experiments and results of application of the formula to the existing breakwaters and modified
to include the effects of wave direction. Its single-equation formula enables one to calculate the wave force
from the standing to breaking wave conditions without making any abrupt transition. However, where the
upright wall is located on a steep seabed, or built on a high mound, and is subjected to a strong impulsive
wave pressure due to breaking waves, the formula may underestimate the wave force. It should therefore
be carefully applied with consideration of the possibility of occurrence of impulsive wave pressure due to
breaking waves (see 4.7.2 (4) Impulsive Breaking Wave Force).
The wave pressure given by Goda’s formulas takes the hydrostatic pressure at the still water condition as
– 129 –
the reference value. Any hydrostatic pressure before wave action should be considered separately. Further,
the formula aims to examine the stability of the whole body of an upright wall. When breaking wave actions
exist, the formula does not necessarily express the local maximum wave pressure at the respective positions;
thus such should be considered during examination of the stress of structural members.
(b) Wave pressure on the front face according to the Goda’s formulas
The wave pressure on the front face of an upright wall in the Goda’s formula is a linear distribution. Wave
pressure is 0 at the height expressed as η* in equation (4.7.1), maximum value expressed as p1 in equation
(4.7.2) at still water level, and expressed as p2 in equation (4.7.3) at the sea bottom. The formula considers
wave pressure from the bottom to the crown of the upright wall (see Figs. 4.7.1 and 4.7.2).
(4.7.1)
(4.7.2)
(4.7.3)
(4.7.4)
In this equation, η*, p1, p2, p3, ρ0, g, β, λ1, λ 2, h, L, HD, α1, α2 and α3 respectively represent the following
values:
η* : height above still water level at which intensity of wave pressure is 0 (m)
p1 : intensity of wave pressure at still water level (kN/m 2)
p2 : intensity of wave pressure at sea bottom (kN/m 2)
p3 : intensity of wave pressure at toe of the upright wall (kN/m 2)
ρ0g : unit weight of water (kN/m3)
β : angle between the most dangerous direction within the range of ±15° from the main wave
direction and the line perpendicular to the faceline of the upright wall (°)
λ1, λ 2 : wave pressure correction factor (1.0 is the standard value)
h : water depth in front of the upright wall (m)
L : wavelength at water depth h used in calculation as specified in the item (d) below (m)
HD : wave height used in calculation as specified in the item (d) below (m)
α1 : value expressed by the following equation:
(4.7.5)
α2 : smaller value of
(4.7.6)
α3 : value expressed by the following equation:
(4.7.7)
In this equation, hb, d and h' respectively represent the following values:
hb : water depth at an offshore distance of 5 times the significant wave height from the upright
wall (m)
d : water depth at the crest of either the foot protection works or the mound armoring units of
whichever is higher (m)
h' : water depth at toe of the upright wall (m)
– 130 –
p1
η*
d h' Buoyancy
h
pu
p2
p3
Fig. 4.7.1 Wave Pressure Distribution Used in Design Calculation

Perpendicular to the face line
β 15° Principal direction of wave
90°
Face Line
Fig. 4.7.2 Way of Obtaining Incident Wave Angle β 
(c) Uplift on the bottom of upright wall

In Goda’s formulas, the uplift acting on the bottom of an upright wall is described by a triangular distribution,
with the pressure intensity at the front toe pu given by the following equation and 0 at the rear toe.
(4.7.8)
In this equation, pu and λ3 respectively represent the following values:
pu : uplift pressure acting on the bottom of the upright wall (kN/m 2)

λ3 : uplift pressure correction factor (1.0 is the standard value)
(d) Wave height and wavelength used in the wave pressure calculation
In Goda’s formulas, the wave height HD and the wavelength L are the height and wavelength of the highest
wave. The wavelength of the highest wave is that corresponding to the significant wave period, while the
height of the highest wave is as follows:
1) When the highest wave does not have effect of wave breaking:
(4.7.9)
In this equation, Hmax and H1/3 respectively represent the following values:
Hmax : highest wave height of incident waves as a progressive wave at the water depth of the upright
wall (m)
H1/3 : significant wave height of incident waves as a progressive wave at the water depth of the upright
wall (m)
2) When the highest wave has effect of wave breaking:
HD: maximum wave height considering transformation due to the breaking of random waves (m)
(e) Highest wave
Since Goda’s formulas represents the wave force on individual wave, in the breakwater performance
– 131 –
verifications in general, it is necessary to use the wave parameters of the largest wave force from a wave
group. The highest wave shall be subject to consideration. The occurrence of the highest wave in a random
wave group is probabilistic, and so it is not possible to determine the parameters of the wave explicitly.
Nevertheless, after examination of the results of applying the current method to breakwaters in the field, it is
standard to use 1.8 times the significant wave height as the height of the highest wave where no transformation
of breaking wave is observed. It has also become standard to use the wavelength corresponding to the
significant wave period as the wavelength of the highest wave.
In order to determine whether or not the highest wave is subject to wave breaking, the diagrams for
determining the highest wave height (Fig. 4.3.10 (a)–(e) in 4.3.6 Wave Breaking) should be used by
referring to the location of the peak wave height in the zone in the onshore side of the 2% attenuation line. It
is acceptable to consider that the highest wave is not subject to wave breaking when the water is deeper than
that at the peak height, but that it is subject to wave breaking when the water is shallower than this. If the
highest wave height is to be obtained using the approximate equation (4.3.23) in 4.3.6 Wave Breaking, hb
should be substituted as h in the first term in the braces { } on the right-hand side of the equation.
If using a value other than 1.8 as the coefficient on the right-hand side of equation (4.7.9), it is necessary to
conduct sufficient examinations into the occurrence of the highest wave and then choose an appropriate value
(see 4.1 Basic Matters Relating to Waves).
(f) Wave pressure correction factor λ1, λ2, λ3
Equations (4.7.1) – (4.7.8) are the generalized version of Goda’s formulas. It contains three correction factors
so that it can be applied to walls of different conditions. For an upright wall, the correction factors are of
course 1.0. The wave pressure acting on other types of wall such as a caisson covered with wave-dissipating
concrete blocks or an upright wave-dissipating caisson may be expressed using the generalized Goda’s formulas
with appropriate correction factors (see 4.7.2 (5) Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall covered with Wave-
dissipating Concrete Blocks and 4.7.2 (7) Wave Force Acting on Upright Wave-absorbing Caisson).
(g) Features and application limits of the Goda’s formulas
The first feature of Goda’s formulas is that the wave force from standing waves to breaking waves can be
calculated continuously, including the effect of surrounding conditions. The parameter α1 given by equation
(4.7.5) expresses the effect of the period (strictly speaking h/L); it takes the limiting values of 1.1 for shallow
water waves and 0.6 for deepwater waves. The effect of period also appear when determining the maximum
wave height to be used in the calculation; for a constant deepwater wave height, the longer the period, the
larger the maximum wave height. Since Goda’s formulas incorporates the effect of period on the wave
pressure as well as on the maximum wave height, it is necessary to take sufficient care when determining the
period in the design conditions.
Another feature of Goda’s formulas is that the change in the wave force with the foundation mound height
and the bottom slope is considered by means of the parameter α2. As can be seen from equation (4.7.6), as the
foundation mound height is gradually increased from zero (i.e., d = h), α2 gradually increases from zero to its
maximum value. After reaching its limit value, α2 then decreases until it reaches zero again when d = 0. The
limit value of α2 is 1.1; combining this with the limit value of α1 of 1.1, the intensity of the wave pressure p1 at
the still water level is given 2.2ρ0gHD.
With regard to the effect of the bottom slope, hb within the equation for α2 is taken as the water depth at the
distance of 5 times the design significant wave height from the upright wall. Because of this artifice, a steep
bottom slope results in the same effect as having a high foundation mound. The effect of the bottom slope
also appears when determining the maximum wave height to be used in the calculation. In the wave breaking
zone, the steeper the bottom slope, the larger the wave height, because the wave height used in the calculation
is the maximum wave height at a distance 5H1/3 offshore from the upright wall. The bottom slope thus has
a strong influence on the wave force, and so care must be taken when setting the bottom slope in the design
conditions.
As explained above, Goda’s formulas consider the effects of the foundation mound height and the bottom
slope on the wave pressure. Nevertheless, for an upright wall on a high mound or a steep seabed, a large
impulsive breaking wave force may act, and under such conditions the Goda’s formulas may underestimate
the wave force. When applying the Goda’s formulas, it is thus preferable to pay attention to the risk of an
impulsive breaking wave force arising. In particular, with a high mound, it is necessary to consider not onlyα2
in equation (4.7.6) but also the impulsive breaking wave force coefficient αI by Takahashi et al.116) (see 4.7.2
(4) ⑥ Impulsive breaking wave forces acting on composite breakwater), and to use αI in place of α2 when
αI is the larger of the two.
One more problem with Goda’s formulas concerns its applicability to extremely shallow waters, for example
near to the shoreline. It is difficult, however, to clearly define where the limit of applicability lies. For cases
such as the wave force acting on an upright wall near the shoreline, it is advisable to use other calculation
equations together with the Goda formula. (See 4.7.2 (10) Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall Located
Considerably Toward the Landside from the Breaker Line).
– 132 –
(h) Effect of wave direction in Goda’s formula
Although results from a number of experiments on the effect of wave direction on the wave force are available,
there are still many points that are unclear. Traditionally, for standing waves, no correction has been made
for wave direction to the wave force. The effects of wave direction have been considered only for breaking
waves, by multiplying the wave force by cos2β. However, this has resulted in the irrational situation whereby
the breaking wave force is assumed to decrease as the wave angle increases, reaching zero at the limiting
value β = 90º, and yet standing waves are assumed to remain at the perfect standing wave condition. In other
words, because actual breakwaters are finite in extension, when the incident angle is large (i.e., oblique wave
incidence), it takes a considerably large distance from the tip of breakwater until the wave height becomes
two times the incident height. At the limiting value of β = 90º, it becomes an infinite distance. In this case, it
is appropriate to consider that the wave pressure of progressive waves acts on the upright wall. Furthermore,
even in cases where the breakwater can be taken to extend infinitely, when using second-order approximation
finite amplitude wave theory, the wave pressure form oblique incident waves decreases slightly in comparison
to incidence at right angles and its degree becomes proportionate to the wave steepness. Considering these
points and application to the breakwaters in the field, equation (4.7.2) for wave direction has been corrected by
multiplying α2 which represents mound effects with cos2β, and then multiplying the whole term by 0.5(1+cosβ).
② Application of other theory and formulas
Goda’s formula enables continuous determination of wave forces with considerable precision from standing
waves to breaking waves without categorizing them by their application limits. But when the ratio of the
wave height to the water depth is small and a standing wave force is obviously exerted on an upright wall, a
high-accuracy standing wave theory may be applied. In this case, however, it is necessary to give sufficient
consideration to the irregularity of waves in the field, and preferable to examine the force for the highest wave.
Moreover, the Sainflou formula 117) and Hiroi’s formula 118) may also be used for wave force calculations. When
applying these methods, adequate care is needed in determining applicability.
③ Wave force and significant wave period for waves composed of two wave groups with different periods
Examples of two wave groups with different periods being superimposed are such a case that waves enter a bay
from the outer sea and another group of waves are generated within the bay. Another case is the superposition
of diffracted waves coming from the entrance of a harbor and waves transmitted by wave overtopping. In such
cases, the spectrum is bimodal (i.e., having two peaks), and there are actual cases of such observations in the
field. 120) Tanimoto, Kitamura et al.121)) carried out experiments on the wave force acting on the upright section
of a composite breakwater by using waves with a bimodal spectrum, and verified that Goda’s formulas can
be applied even in such a case. They also proposed a method for calculating the significant wave period to be
used in the wave force calculation (see 4 Waves). If each frequency spectrum of the two wave groups before
superimposition can be considered to be a Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu type, the significant wave period after
superimposition may be obtained using the method by Tanimoto et al. Then this significant wave period may
be used in wave force calculation.
④ Wave force for low crested upright wall
When applying Goda’s formulas on breakwaters, if the crown height of the upright wall is low, the reduction in
resistance force due to the fall in weight becomes greater than the reduction in wave force resulting from the
decrease in the range of wave pressure acting on the wall. Therefore, in general, the wall needs to be widened.
However, the stability of an upright wall does tend to increase as the crown height is reduced. Nakata, Terauchi
et al.122) have proposed a method for calculating the wave force for a breakwater with a low crown height. In the
method, the front wave pressure and the uplift from the Goda’s formulas are multiplied by a modification factor
λh, thus reducing the wave force.
⑤ Wave force for high crested upright wall
When the crown of the upright wall is considerably higher than that for a normal breakwater, there will be no
wave overtopping, meaning that the wave force may be larger than that given by Goda’s formulas. Mizuno,
Sugimoto et al.123) carried out experiments into the wave force acting on a breakwater with a high crown. This
result may be referred.
⑥ Wave force on inclined walls
When the wall is slightly inclined, such as a trapezoidal caisson, the horizontal wave force is more-or-less the
same as that for an upright wall. However, it is necessary to consider the vertical component of the wave force
acting on the inclined surface, along with the reduction in uplift. Tanimoto and Kimura 124) have carried out
experiments on the wave force for slightly inclined walls, and have proposed a method for calculating the wave
force.
⑦ Uplift on caisson with footing
When a caisson has a footing, a wave force acts downwards on the upper surface of the footing on the seaside,
and an uplift of pu’ acts at the front toe, while the uplift at the rear toe is zero. Nevertheless, in general the
– 133 –
resultant force is not significantly different to that without the footing. It is thus acceptable to ignore the footing,
and to assume that the uplift has a triangular distribution as shown in Fig. 4.7.3, with the uplift pu at the front
toe being given by equation (4.7.8), and the uplift at the rear toe being zero. If the footing is extremely long,
however, it is necessary to calculate the uplift appropriately, considering the change in the uplift pu’ at the front
toe of the footing.
p'u pu
Fig. 4.7.3 Uplift when there is a Footing
⑧ In case of wide mound berm in front of upright wall

The wave force acting on the upright wall of a composite breakwater varies not only with the mound height
but also with the berm width and the front slope of foundation mound (see 4.7.2 (4) Impulsive Breaking Wave
Force). As explained, of these three factors, Goda’s formulas incorporates only the effect of the mound height.
Consequently, if the width and/or slope of the foundation mound are considerably different from normal, it is
preferable to carry out examination using hydraulic model tests. Note however that if the berm is sufficiently
wide, it may be considered as a part of the topography of the sea bottom. Even with the standard formula, if the
width is more than one half of the wavelength, it is possible to use the water depth on the mound for calculation
of both the wave height and the wavelength.
⑨ Wave force acting on an upright wall comprised of vertical cylinders
Nagai, Kubo et al.125) as well as Hayashi, Karino et al.126) have carried out studies on the wave force acting on an
upright wall comprised of cylinders such as a pile breakwater. Through their researches, it has been verified that
the wave force is not greatly different from that acting on an upright wall with a flat face. It is thus acceptable
to treat an upright wall comprised of cylinders as having a flat face and calculate the wave force using Goda’s
formulas.
(3) Negative Wave Force of Wave Troughs on Wall Surfaces
① General
When the trough of a wave is at a wall, a negative wave force acts corresponding to the trough depth of the
water surface from the still water level. A negative wave force is a wave force that obtained through suitable
hydraulic model tests or through appropriate calculations. It is a force directed seaward and may be comparable
in magnitude to a positive wave force when the water is deep and the wavelength is short.
② Negative wave pressure distribution
The negative wave pressure acting on an upright wall at the wave trough can be approximately estimated as
shown in Fig. 4.7.4. Specifically, it can be assumed that a wave pressure acts toward the sea, with the magnitude
of this wave pressure being zero at the still water level and having a constant value of pn from a depth 0.5HD
below the still water level right down to the toe of the wall. Here, pn is given as follows:
(4.7.10)
where
pn : intensity of wave pressure in constant region(kN/m 2)
ρ0g : Unit weight of seawater (kN/m3)
HD : wave height used in performance verification (m)
In addition, the negative uplift acting on the bottom of the upright wall can be assumed to act as shown
in Fig. 4.7.4. Specifically, it can be assumed that an uplift acts downwards with its intensity being pn as
given by equation (4.7.10) at the front toe, zero at the rear toe, and having a triangular distribution in-between.
Incidentally, it is necessary to use the highest wave height as the wave height HD used in the performance
verification.
– 134 –
Seaward Shoreward
0.5HD
pn
pn
Fig. 4.7.4 Negative Wave Pressure Distribution
③ Negative wave force by finite amplitude wave theory

Goda and Kakizaki 127) have carried out a wave force calculation based on the fourth order approximate solutions
of a finite amplitude standing wave theory, and presented calculation diagrams for negative wave pressure. It
has been verified that their calculation results agree well with experimental results. When the water is deep
and standing waves are clearly formed, it is acceptable to use the results of this finite amplitude standing wave
theory of higher order approximation. It should be noted that, for a deepwater breakwater, the negative wave
force at the wave trough may become larger than the positive wave force at the wave crest, and that the upright
wall may slide toward offshore.
(4) Impulsive Breaking Wave Force
① General
An impulsive breaking wave force is generated when the wave front of a breaking wave strikes a wall surface.
It has been shown from model tests that under certain conditions the maximum wave pressure may rise as much
as several tens of times the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the wave height (1.0ρ0gHD). However, such a
wave pressure acts only locally and for a very short time, and even slight changes in conditions lead to marked
reduction in the wave pressure. Because of the impulsive nature of the wave force, the effects on stability and the
stress in structural elements vary according to the dynamic properties of the structure. Accordingly, when there
is a risk of a large impulsive breaking wave force due to breaking waves being generated, it is necessary to take
appropriate countermeasures by understanding the conditions of the impulsive breaking wave force generation
and the wave force characteristics by means of hydraulic model tests. It is preferable to avoid the use of cross-
sectional shapes and structures that may give rise to a strong impulsive breaking wave force. Where generation
of strong impulsive breaking wave force is unavoidable due to steep sea bottom or other reasons, it would be
preferable to arrange ways of mitigating wave forces such as by installing appropriate wave-dissipating works.
② Conditions of Generation of Impulsive Breaking Wave Forces
A whole variety of factors contribute to generation of an impulsive breaking wave force, and so it is difficult to
describe the conditions in general. Nevertheless, based on the results of a variety of experiments, it can be said
that an impulsive breaking wave force is liable to occur in the following cases when the wave incident angle β
(see Fig. 4.7.2) is less than 20º.
(a) In the case of steep bottom
When the three conditions, such that the bottom slope is steeper than about 1/30; there are waves that break
slightly off the upright wall; and their equivalent deepwater wave steepness is less than 0.03, are satisfied
simultaneously, then an impulsive breaking wave force is liable to be generated.
(b) In the case of high foundation mound
Even if the bottom slope is mild, the shape of the rubble mound may cause an impulsive breaking wave force
to be generated. In this case, in addition to the wave conditions, the crown height, the berm width and the
slope gradient of the mound all play a part, and so it is hard to determine the conditions under which such
an impulsive breaking wave force will be generated. In general, an impulsive breaking wave force will be
generated when the mound is relatively high, the berm width is relatively wide or the slope gradient is gentle,
and breaking waves form a vertical wall of water at the slope or at the top of the mound.128) When the seabed
slope is gentler than about and the ratio of the depth of water above the top of the mound including armor units
to the water depth above the seabed is greater than 0.6, it may be assumed that a large impulsive breaking
wave force will not be generated.
③ Countermeasures
If a large impulsive wave force due to breaking waves acts on an upright wall, the wave force can be greatly
– 135 –
reduced by sufficiently armoring the front with wave-dissipating concrete blocks. In particular, with a high
mound, a sufficient covering with wave-dissipating concrete blocks can prevent the generation of the impulsive
breaking wave force itself. In some cases the action of an impulsive wave force can also be avoided by using
special caissons such as perforated-wall caissons or sloping-top caissons.128) The wave direction also has a large
effect on the generation of an impulsive breaking wave force, and therefore, one possible countermeasure is to
ensure that the wave direction is not perpendicular to the breakwater alignment.
④ Examining wave force using model tests
When examining the wave force using hydraulic model tests for the case that an impulsive breaking wave force
due to breaking wave acts, it is necessary to give consideration to the response characteristics of the structure.
For example, the examination of the stability of upright wall as a whole is preferably conducted by sliding
experiment and the strength of members such as parapets by stress measurement experiment.
⑤ Impulsive breaking wave force due to breaking waves acting on an upright wall on a steep seabed.
(a) Water depth of upright wall inducing maximum wave pressure and the mean intensity of wave pressure
Mitsuyasu, 129) Hom-ma, Horikawa et al.130), Morihira, Kakisaki et al.131), Goda and Haranaka,132) Horikawa
and Noguchi, 133) and Fujisaki, Sasada et al.134) have all carried out studies on the impulsive breaking wave
force due to breaking waves acting on an upright wall on a steeply sloping sea bottom. In particular, Mitsuyasu
carried out a wide range of experiments using regular waves whereby he studied the breaking wave force
acting on an upright wall on uniform slopes of gradient 1/50, 1/25, and 1/15 for a variety of water depths. He
investigated the change in the total wave force with the water depth at the location of the upright wall, and
obtained an equation for calculating the water depth hM at the upright wall for which the impulsive wave force
is largest. When the Mitsuyasu equation is rewritten in terms of the deepwater wavelength, it becomes as
follows:
(4.7.11)
where
(4.7.12)
H0 : deepwater wave height (m)

L0 : deepwater wavelength (m)
tanθ : gradient of uniform slope
Hom-ma and Horikawa et al.135) have proposed a slightly different value for CM based on the results of
experiments with a gradient of 1/15 and other data. In any case, the impulsive breaking wave pressure is
largest when the structure is located slightly shoreward of the wave breaking point for progressive waves.
Fig. 4.7.5 shows the total wave force when the impulsive breaking wave force is largest for a number of
slope gradients, as based on the results of Mitsuyasu’s 129) experiments. In this figure, the mean intensity of
the wave pressure p, determined by assuming that wave pressure acts from the sea bottom to the height of 0.75
times limiting breaker height Hb above the still water surface, has been obtained and then divided by p0gHb
to make it dimensionless; it has then been plotted against the deepwater wave steepness. It is possible to gain
an understanding of the overall trend from this figure. Specifically, it can be seen that the smaller the wave
steepness, the larger the impulsive breaking wave force is generated. Also, as the slope gradient becomes
smaller, the intensity of the maximum impulsive breaking wave force decreases.
(b) Conditions for generation of impulsive breaking wave force
The conditions for the occurrence of an impulsive breaking wave force on a steep seabed, as described in
4.7.2 (4) ② (a) in the case of steep sea bottom, have been set by primarily employing Fig. 4.7.5 as a gross
guideline. For random waves in the sea, the equivalent deep water wave steepness can be calculated as the
ratio of the equivalent deepwater wave height corresponding to the highest wave height Hmax to the deepwater
wavelength corresponding to the significant wave period: where the wave height Hmax is to be calculated at the
distance 5H1/3 from the upright wall taking into account of wave transformation due to random wave breaking.
One may refer to Fig. 4.7.5 in order to obtain an approximate estimate of the mean intensity of the wave force
for this equivalent deepwater wave steepness. In this case, Hb should be taken to be the aforementioned Hmax.
One can also envisage an installation of a breakwater at a place where the risk of impulsive breaking wave
force generation is not large for the design waves. However, when placing an upright wall closer to the shore
where waves already broken act upon, it becomes important to carry out examination for waves with a height
lesser than that of the design waves.
– 136 –
(c) Impulsive breaking wave force acting on an upright wall on a horizontal floor adjoining a steep slope
Takahashi and Tanimoto et al.135) have carried out studies on the impulsive breaking wave force acting on an
upright wall on a horizontal floor joining to a steep slope. They employed a horizontal berm connected to a
slope of gradient 1/10 or 3/100 in a water tank, and then measured the wave pressure that acts on an upright
wall at a variety of positions with regular waves. They have proposed an equation valid for certain wave
conditions for calculating the upright wall position at which the wave force is largest and the maximum wave
force in that condition.
5.0
i=1/15
4.0 1/30
1/50
p 3.0
ρ 0 g Hb
2.0
1.0
0
0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10
H 0 / L0 ×10-2
Fig. 4.7.5 Mean Intensity of Wave Force for the Severest Wave Breaking (Upright Wall on a Steep Slope)
⑥ Impulsive breaking wave force acting on composite breakwater

(a) Effect of the mound shape (impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient)
Takahashi et al.116) have proposed, based on the results of sliding experiments, 128) the impulsive breaking
wave pressure coefficient αI. This is a coefficient that represents the extent of the impulsive breaking wave
force due to breaking waves when the foundation mound is high. It is expressed as the function of the ratio
of the wave height to the depth of water above the mound in front of the caisson HD /d, the ratio of the depth
of water above the mound to the original water depth at the upright wall d/h, and the ratio of the berm width
of the mound to the wavelength at this place BM /L. Note that the wave height HD is the design wave height,
namely highest wave height. The impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient αI is expressed as the product
of αI0 and αI1 as in the following equations:
(4.7.13)
(4.7.14)
Fig. 4.7.6 shows the distribution of αI1. It attains the maximum value of 1 when d/h is 0.4 and BM /L is 0.12.
The impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient αI takes values between 0 and 2; the larger the value of αI,
the larger the impulsive breaking wave force is. When calculating the wave force using Goda’s formulas,
among αI and α2, whichever larger shall be used. The equation for αI has been formulated based mainly on the
results of sliding experiments when HD/h is relatively large and may be used when examining the sliding of an
upright wall on the condition of HD/h≥0.5. When HD/h<0.5, h=2HD may be used, for the sake of convenience,
in the calculation of αI1.136)
(b) Effect of the crown height of the upright wall
The higher the crown height, the greater the risk of an impulsive breaking wave force being generated. This
is because the steep front of a breaking wave often takes a nearly vertical cliff of water above the still water
level, and if there is an upright wall at this place, the impact of the wave front results in the generation of an
impulsive force. For example, Mizuno et al.123) have pointed out the tendency that, when the crown is high,
an impulsive breaking wave force is generated even when the mound is relatively low.
(c) Effect of the wave direction
According to the results of the sliding experiments of Tanimoto et al.127), even if conditions are such that a
large impulsive breaking wave force is generated when the wave angle β is 0º, there is a rapid drop in the
– 137 –
magnitude of the wave force as β increases to 30º or 45º. When the alignment of breakwater is oblique at
the direction of incident waves, the impulsive breaking wave force will not generate or actually be neglected
because of the weak effect of it against sliding, even if generated. By considering the fluctuation in the wave
direction, it is reasonable to assume that the condition for the generation of an impulsive wave force is that β
is less than 20º.
(d) Dynamic response of the upright section to an impulsive breaking wave force and the sliding of upright
section
When an impulsive breaking wave force due to breaking waves acts on an upright section, the instantaneous
local pressure can rise up to several tens of times the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the wave height,
although the duration time of the impulsive breaking wave force is very short. It is necessary to evaluate the
contribution of the impulsive breaking wave force to sliding in terms of the dynamic response, considering
deformation of the mound and the subsoil. Goda 137) as well as Takahashi and Shimosako, 138) have carried
out calculations of the shear force at the bottom of an upright section using dynamic models. Judging from the
results of these calculations and the results of various sliding experiments, it would seem reasonable to take
the mean intensity of the wave pressure statically equivalent to the sliding of the upright wall on the mound to
be (2.5 – 3.0) ρ0gH. The impulsive breaking wave force coefficient has been introduced based on the results
of sliding experiments with consideration of such dynamic response effects.
1.0 0
α I1
0.8 0.1 0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6 0.9 0.4
h－d d
h h
0.4 0.6
0.0
BM
0.2 aI = aI0 aI1 0.8
HD HD
: <2 d
aI0 = d d h
2: H D
>2
d
0 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
BM
L
Fig 4.7.6 Impulsive Breaking Wave Pressure Coefficient
(5) Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-dissipating Concrete Blocks
① General
If the front of an upright wall is covered with wave-dissipating deformed concrete blocks, the features of wave
force acting on the wall varies. The extent of this variation depends on the characteristics of incident waves,
along with the crown height and width of the wave-dissipating work, the type of wave-dissipating concrete
blocks used, and the composition of the wave-dissipating work including the presence or non-presence of core
materials such as rubble. In general, when standing waves act on an upright wall, the variation in wave force on
the upright wall is not large. However, when a large impulsive breaking wave force acts, the wave force can be
reduced significantly by covering the upright wall with wave-dissipating blocks. Nevertheless, such a reduction
in the wave force is only achieved when the wave-dissipating work has a sufficient width and crown height; in
particular, it should be noted that if the crown of the wave-dissipating work is below the design water level, the
wave-dissipating work often causes an increase in the wave force.
② Wave force calculation formula for upright wall sufficiently covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks
The wave force acting on an upright wall covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks varies depending on
the composition of the wave-dissipating work, and therefore it should be evaluated using the results of model
tests corresponding to the design conditions. However, if the crown elevation of the wave-dissipating work
is as high as the crown of the upright wall and the wave-dissipating concrete blocks are sufficiently stable
– 138 –
against the wave actions, the wave force acting on the upright wall may be calculated by applying the extended
Goda’s formulas. In this method with the standard formula given in 4.7.2 (2) Wave Forces of Standing Waves
or Breaking Waves when the Peak of Waves is on the Wall Surface, the values of η*, p1, and pu given by
equations (4.7.1), (4.7.2), and (4.7.8) are used respectively, but it is necessary to assign appropriate values to the
wave pressure correction factors λ1, λ2 and λ3 in accordance with the design conditions.
③ Wave pressure correction factors to the extended Goda’s formulas
The method using the extended Goda’s formulas can be applied for not only breaking waves but also non-
breaking waves by assigning appropriate wave pressure correction factors λ1, λ2 and λ3. Studies about the wave
pressure correction factor have been carried out by Tanimoto et al.139), 140), Takahashi et al.141), Sekino, Kakuno
et al.142), and Tanaka, Abe et al.143) They have revealed the following:
(a) Wave-dissipating concrete blocks results a considerable reduction in the breaking wave pressure, and so it is
generally acceptable to set the breaking wave pressure correction factor λ2 to zero.
(b) The larger the wave height, the smaller the correction factor λ1 for standing wave pressure and the correction
factor λ3 for uplift become.
(c) The larger the ratio of the width of covering block section to the wavelength, the smaller the correction factors
λ1 and λ3 become.
(d) If even a small portion of the upper part of the upright section is left uncovered, there is a risk of the wave
force here becoming an impulsive breaking wave force. Based on such experimental results, Takahashi et
al.141) have proposed that in general, when the upright wall is sufficiently covered with wave-dissipating
concrete blocks, the wave pressure reduction coefficient λ2 may be taken to be zero, while the values of λ1 and
λ3 depend primarily on the wave height H (the highest wave height). They have thus proposed the following
equations:
(4.7.15)
In the breaker zone, where breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks are generally used,
the above equations give λ1 =λ3 = 0.8.
④ Wave force on the discontinuous part of wave-dissipating block covering
In those cases where wave-dissipating blocks are placed partially at corners of breakwater alignment, a
discontinuous part of a wave-dissipating block covering appears at the end of wave-dissipating works. In cases
where the crest height of a wave-dissipating work is lower than the design tide level, care is required since the
wave force may increase greatly when it is not armored, and a similar large increase in the wave force may occur
also at the discontinuous part of the wave-dissipating block covering.144)
Shiomi, Yamamoto, et al.145) have conducted a hydraulic experiment for the wave force at the discontinuous
part of the wave-dissipating block armoring and examined the following calculation method. The target range
for wave force calculation of the discontinuous part is set at as from the slope toe end of the wave-dissipating
work to the point where H.W.L. crosses the slope. The armored length is divided into unit lengths l. For each
divided water depth of the wave-dissipating work is assumed to be the water depth d on the mound armored
work crest, and the wave-dissipating work crest width is assumed to be the mound crest width BM, shown in
Fig. 4.7.6 and the wave pressure and uplift intensity is calculated by Goda’s formulas employed the impulsive
breaking wave pressure coefficient αI) in 4.7.2 (2) Wave Forces of Standing Waves ot Breaking Waves when
the Peak of Waves is on the Wall Surface, and the wave pressure of each divided section is determined. The
wave force is calculated such that the mean wave pressure intensity (p1, p3, p4) and the uplift pressure intensity
(pu) of the one caisson act on the entire caisson located in the discontinuous portion. The division length l is
determined such that the full wave force over the length of one caisson becomes maximum, but in general it is
set at 1/4 to 1/1 of the partition wall interval of the caisson.
⑤ Morihira’s formula
The formula proposed by Morihira, et. al.131) may be used for the breakwater which is located in surf zone,
where there is a significant wave height decrease by the effect of wave breaking, and is covered sufficiently with
wave-dissipating concrete blocks.
⑥ Wave force acting on the superstructure of a sloping breakwater covered sufficiently by wave-dissipating blocks
Tanimoto and Kojima 146) have proposed a calculation equation for the wave pressure correction factor λ for
– 139 –
cases where the foundation ground exists near the still-water surface, and where it is covered sufficiently with
wave-dissipating blocks similar to the superstructure of a sloping breakwater.
⑦ Block load due to wave action
Wave force as the direct action of waves and the action due to the leaning of the blocks acts on an upright wall
that is covered with wave-dissipating blocks. The latter is called the block load. Research on the block load has
been carried out by Hiromoto, Nishijima, et al.147), Tanaka, Abe, et al.143), and Takahashi, Tanimoto, et al.141),
and the results have been summarized as follows.
(a) The block load when waves are not acting is small immediately after installation, but increases along with the
action of waves, and approaches the constant value. It is possible to consider the same distribution as the earth
pressure for that load, but the value differs depending on the wave forces that act on.
(b) The block load during wave action can be ignored in ordinary cases. This is because the upright wall is
displaced, albeit slightly, by the action of the waves, and the block load decreases, and becomes almost 0 when
the wave height becomes larger. However, in the event that the wave height is small, or when the water depth
is large and the block load in still water is large, it can no longer be ignored.
⑧ Impact force of wave-dissipating blocks
Immediately after installation of the blocks or in the event that settlement of the blocks has occurred, when they
are subjected to the action of waves in a state where the interlocking between blocks is loose, there are cases
where the blocks move due to the waves, and strike the upright wall. In particular, when a wave-dissipating
block is large, a powerful impact force acts, and punching sheer failure may occur in the wall surface. Arikawa
et al.148), Yamaguchi et al.149) have examined this kind of impact force of blocks, and reference can be made to
their work.
(6) Wave Force on Sloping-top Caisson Breakwaters
① The wave force on sloping-top caisson breakwaters should be calculated based on the model test results that are
suited to the conditions. However, it is possible to use the following calculation equations, if the conduct of the
model test is difficult.150) (See Fig. 4.7.7)
(4.7.16)
(4.7.17)
(4.7.18)
(4.7.19)
Here,
FX : total horizontal wave force acting on the sloping-top breakwater (kN/m)
FZ : total vertical wave force acting on the sloping-top breakwater (kN/m)
FSH : horizontal component of the wave force acting on the sloping part (kN/m)
FSV : vertical component of the wave force acting on the sloping part (with the upwards direction
being positive) (kN/m)
FV : wave force acting on the upright part (kN/m)
FU : uplift acting on the bottom surface (kN/m)
F1 : component corresponding to the sloping part out of the horizontal wave force acting on the
upright wall calculated by Goda’s formulas (kN/m)
F2 : component corresponding to the upright part out of the horizontal wave force acting on the
upright wall calculated by Goda’s formulas (kN/m)
λSL’ : correction factor for the wave force acting on the sloping part
λV : correction factor for the wave force acting on the upright part
α: angle of the sloping part (°)
pU : uplift pressure at the front toe of an ordinary caisson calculated by Goda’s formulas
B : caisson width of a sloping-top breakwater (m)
H : wave height (m)
L : wavelength (m)
dc : height from the still-water surface to the lower end of the slope (with a case where it is located
above the still-water surface taken to be positive) (m)
λSL’ is defined by the following three areas.
– 140 –
(a) W here H/L is relatively small
λSL' = sin-2α, that is, FSH = F1, FSV = F1 · tan-1α,
(b) W here H/L is large
λSL' = 1.0, that is, FSH = F1 · sin2α, FSV = F1 · sin 2α,
(c) W here H/L is between (a) and (b)
λSL' decreases as H/L becomes larger
In addition, with respect to λV, λV = 1.0 when H/L is relatively small, and λV decreases as H/L becomes larger.
However, this wave force calculation equation is applied in the cases where the water depth is relatively deep and
the period of the design wave is long, and the value of λV should be set at a lower limit of around 0.75.136) Before
this calculation equation was proposed, it had been calculated as λSL’ = λV = 1.0 as a convenient and simple
method.151) In this case, the calculated results are somewhat on the safe side in those cases other than when H/L
is relatively small.
② Wave force acting on sloping-top caisson breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks
The research of Sato, et al.152) can be referenced as concerns the wave force acting on sloping-top caisson
breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks. In addition, Katayama, et al.153) have proposed a wave force
calculation equation for the semi-submerged type, as when the lower end of the sloping part is under the water
surface.
F1 FSH
hc
α
FSV
dc
h'
h F2 FV FU
Rubble mound
Fig. 4.7.7 Wave Force Acting on Sloping-top Caisson Breakwater
(7) Wave Force Acting on Upright Wave-absorbing Caisson

① General
The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing caisson varies in a complex way. Specifically, it varies
with the wave characteristics, the water level, the water depth, the topography of sea bottom and the shape of
the foundation mound as with the case of an ordinary upright wall, but it also varies with the structure of the
wave-dissipating structure. It is thus difficult to designate a general calculation method that can be used in all
cases. Consequently, if the calculation method that is sufficiently reliable for the structure in question is not
proposed, it is necessary to carry out studies using hydraulic model tests matched to the individual conditions.
It is preferable to sufficiently examine not only the wave force to be used in the stability examination but also the
wave force acting on structural members. Moreover, it should be noted that the wave force varies significantly
according to whether or not the top of wave chamber is covered with a ceiling slab.
② Wave force without a ceiling slab in the wave chamber
The wave force acting on an upright wave-dissipating caisson varies depending on the structural conditions
of the wave-dissipating structure, and so it is not possible to calculate this wave force for all general cases
involved. Nevertheless, for the ordinary case where there is no ceiling slab in the wave chamber, one can apply
the extended Goda’s formulas to calculate the wave force. Takahashi, Shimosako, et al.154) have carried out
experiments on a vertical-slit wall caisson, and have presented a method for calculating the wave pressure acting
on the slit and rear walls for four representative phases, where the wave pressure given by the Goda’s formulas is
multiplied by a correction factor λ. They give specific values for the correction factor for the slit and rear walls
for each phase. This method can be used to give not only the wave force that is severest in terms of the sliding
or overturning of the caisson, but also the wave force that is severest in terms of the performance verification of
the elements for each wall. Note, however, that the experiments which form the basis for this calculation method
– 141 –
were conducted under limited structural conditions. Discretion should therefore be exercised in the scope of
application for this method.136)
③ Simplified method to examine the stability of a wave chamber without a ceiling slab
A simpler form of the Goda’s formulas can similarly be applied when examining the stability of a caisson. In
this method, it is assumed that the wave pressure acts on the main body of the caisson disregarding the wave-
dissipating structure (see Fig. 4.7.8), and then the wave force is calculated using η* obtained using equation
(4.7.1), p1 from equation (4.7.2) and pu from equation (4.7.8), as described in the Goda’s formulas in 4.7.2 (2)
Wave Force of Standing Waves or Breaking Waves when the Peak of Waves is on the Wall Surface. In
this case, with respect to the wave-dissipating structure, buoyancy of the entire section should be taken into
account. With regards the main body of the caisson, on the other hand, buoyancy under the still water should
be considered. However, the wave pressure correction factors λ1, λ2 and λ3 should be assigned appropriately
according to structural conditions. There are examples of examinations 128) on the correction factors λ1 and λ2
on curved-slit caissons, 155) perforated-wall caissons and vertical-slit wall caissons; on an average, λ1=λ3=1.0 and
λ2=0 can be applied to wave-dissipating caissons.
④ Wave force with a ceiling slab in the wave chamber
When the top of the wave chamber is closed off with provision of a ceiling slab, an impulsive breaking wave
force is generated at the instant when the air layer in the upper part of the wave chamber is trapped in by the rise
of water surface. It is thus necessary to give consideration to this impulsive breaking wave force in particular
with regard to the wave pressure used in the performance verification of structural elements. This impulsive
breaking wave force can be reduced by providing suitable air holes. However, it should be noted that if these
air holes are too large, the rising water surface will directly strike the ceiling slab without air cushion, meaning
that the wave force may actually increase.156), 157)
Buoyancy
Fig. 4.7.8 Wave Pressure Distribution Employed for Examining Stability

(In case no ceiling slab is installed for wave chamber)
(8) Calculation of Wave Force considering Effect of Alignment of Breakwater

① General
When the alignment of breakwater is discontinuous, the distribution of the wave height along the alignment of
breakwater becomes non-uniform due to the effects of wave reflection and diffraction. Ito and Tanimoto 158) have
pointed out that most damaged breakwaters having been struck by storm waves show a pattern of meandering
distribution of sliding distance. They have termed this “meandering damage”, and pointed out that one of the
causes of this type of damage is the differences in the local wave forces induced by the non-uniform wave
height distribution. The variation of wave heights along the breakwater is particularly prominent when the
breakwater alignment contains a corner that is concave with respect to the direction of wave incidence (see 4.3.4
[3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters, and around Detached
Breakwaters). This should be considered in the calculation of the wave forces.159), 160) Variations in wave
heights along the breakwater alignment may also occur near the head of the breakwater. In particular, for a
detached breakwater that extends over a short length only, diffracted waves from the two ends may cause large
variations in wave heights.161) These aspects should be considered in the calculation of the wave forces, as
necessary.
② Wave force calculation method taking increase in wave height into consideration
Wave force calculation methods that consider the effects of the shape of the breakwater alignment have not
– 142 –
reached to the level of reasonable reliability yet. It is thus preferable to carry out an examination using hydraulic
model tests. Nevertheless, there is a good correlation between the increase in the wave height owing to the
shape of the breakwater alignment and the increase in the wave force. It is thus acceptable to increase the wave
height for the performance verifications in accordance with the extent of the effect of the shape of the breakwater
alignment as in equation (4.7.20), and then calculate the wave force based on the standard calculation equation.
H D' = min{K c H D , K cb H b } (4.7.20)
where
HD' : wave height to be used in the wave force calculation in consideration of the effect of the shape
of breakwater alignment (m)
Kc : coefficient for the increase in wave height due to the effect of the shape of breakwater alignment;
Kc ≥ 1.0
Kcb : limit value of increase coefficient for limiting breaker wave; Kcb≒1.4
HD : wave height used in the wave force calculation when the effects of the shape of breakwater
alignment are not considered (m)
Hb : breaking wave height at the offshore location with the distance of 5 times the significant wave
height of progressive waves from the breakwater (m)
The wave height increase coefficient Kc in equation (4.7.20) is generally expressed as in equation (4.7.21).
It can be appropriately determined based on the distribution of the standing wave height (see 4.3.4 [3]
Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters, and around Detached
Breakwaters) along the alignment of breakwater as determined under the condition that the waves do not break.
(4.7.21)
where
Hs : standing wave height along the wall of breakwater (m)
HI : incident wave height (m)
K R : reflection coefficient for the breakwater in question
If the waves are treated as being of regular waves, then the coefficient for wave height increase varies
considerably along the breakwater. Moreover, the height increase coefficient is very sensitive to the period
of the incident waves and the direction of incidence. It is thus reasonable to consider the irregularity of the
period and the direction of incident waves. It should be noted that the value of Kc obtained in this way varies
along the breakwater and that there may be regions where Kc < 1.0. However, the wave height to be used in the
performance verifications must not be reduced by applying Kc < 1.0.
The second term in the braces { } on the right-hand side of equation (4.7.20) was introduced in view of the
fact that the increase in wave height from the effects of the shape of the breakwater alignment is limited by the
water depth. The height of limiting breaker wave Hb can be taken to be the highest wave height Hmax in 4.3.6
Wave Breaking when there is an upright wall in a region where the highest wave would be affected by breaking
waves. If it is further offshore, values provided in the breaker index diagram (see Fig. 4.3.15) in 4.3.6 Wave
Breaking can be applied. The limit value Kcb of increase coefficient for limiting breaker waves has not been
clarified in details. Nevertheless, it may be considered to be about 1.4 based on experimental results up to the
present time.
(9) Wave Force acting on Upright Wall in Abrupt Depth Change
For an upright wall located in a place where the water depth changes abruptly owing to the presence of reefs and
others, impulsive breaking wave force or wave force after breaking act on the upright wall in accordance with the
conditions such as the location of the breakwater. It is preferable to calculate the wave force acting on the upright
wall based on hydraulic model tests, by taking the rapid transformation of waves into consideration. Ito et al.162)
have carried out experiments on the wave force acting on an upright wall located on or behind a reef where the
water depth is more-or-less uniform, with the offshore slope of the shoal having a gradient of about 1/10.
(10) Wave Force acting on Upright Wall Located Considerably Toward the Landside from the Breaker Line
① Wave force acting on an upright wall located at the seaside of the shoreline
(a) General
When the changes in wave force due to the installation depth of an upright wall on a uniform slope are
examined under conditions of the specified waves, in general the wave force reaches a maximum when the
upright wall is located somewhat to the shore side from the breaker point as the progressive wave, and the
wave forces decreases as the installation depth becomes shallower than that. Given such a tendency, it is
– 143 –
considered that the wave force due to the smaller waves that break somewhat at the offing of the upright wall
is greater than wave force after the breaking of a large wave that breaks considerably toward the offing from
the upright wall, when it has a certain degree of water depth.
Goda’s formula, which are stipulated in 4.7.2 (2) Wave Force of Standing Waves or Breaking Waves
when the Peak of Waves is on the Wall Surface, provide a wave force based on the waves breaking somewhat
in the offing of such an upright wall. However, in those places where the water depth in the vicinity of the
shoreline is shallow, not only does the breaking wave height vary greatly depending on the changes in water
level due to surf beat and so on, but also the breaking wave force varies greatly due to the sea bottom gradient,
the wave steepness of offshore waves and the irregularity of the waves, so it is not appropriate to employ
Goda’s formulas, and it should be calculated with an equation suited to the conditions or the results of a
hydraulic model test. In addition, the fact that the water depth itself changes due to the littoral drift, or that
the effects of storm surge are great, should also be taken into consideration.
(b) Calculation method of wave force acting on an upright wall at the seaward side of shoreline
A number of different wave force formulas have been proposed for upright walls near the shoreline. It should
be necessary to carry out an appropriate wave force calculation in line with the design conditions. Very
roughly speaking, the standard formula in 4.7.2 (2) Wave Forces of Standing Waves and Breaking Waves
when the Peak of Waves is on the Wall Surface are applicable in the regions where the seabed slope is mild
and the water is relatively deep. The formula of Tominaga and Kutsumi 163) is applicable in the regions near
the shoreline. The formula of Hom-ma, Horikawa and Hase 130) is applicable in the regions where the seabed
slope is steep and the water is of intermediate depth.
When applying Goda’s formula to the places where the water depth is less than one half the equivalent
deepwater wave height, it may be preferable to use the values for the wavelength and wave height at the water
depth equal to one half the equivalent deepwater wave height in the calculation.
② Wave force acting on an upright wall located at the land side of the shoreline
(a) General
Since the wave force acting on an upright wall located at the land side of the shoreline varies greatly depending
on the rise in the water level due to surf beat or the runup of the waves, it should be calculated with an equation
suited to the conditions or the results of a hydraulic model test. In addition, the fact that the topology in the
vicinity of the shoreline changes due to the littoral drift, or that the effects of storm surge are great, should
also be taken into consideration.
(b) Calculation method of wave force acting on an upright wall at the landward side of shoreline
For an upright wall located on the landward side of the shoreline, the formula by the US Army Coastal
Engineering Research Center (CERC) 164) is available. Moreover, one may refer to the research that has been
carried out by Tominaga and Kutsumi on the wave force acting on an upright wall located on the landward
side of the shoreline.
4.7.3 Wave Force Acting on Submersed Members and Isolated Structures
(1) Wave Force Acting on Submersed Members 165)

① Morison’s Formula
(a) General
Structural members such as piles that have a small diameter relative to the wavelength hardly disturb the
propagation of waves. The wave force acting on such members can be obtained using the Morison’s formula as
shown in equation (4.7.22), in which the wave force is expressed as the sum of a drag force that is proportional
to the square of the velocity of the water particles and an inertia force that is proportional to the acceleration.
(4.7.22)
where 
f n : force that acts on a small length ∆S (m) in the axial direction of the member, where the direction
of this force lies in the plane containing the member axis and the direction of motion of the
water particles and is perpendicular to the member axis (kN)
 
u , a : components of the water particle velocity (m/s) and acceleration (m/s2), respectively, in the
n n
direction perpendicular to the member axis that lies within the plane containing the  member
axis and the direction of motion of the water particles (i.e., the same direction as f n ) (these
components are for incident waves that are not disturbed by the presence of member)
 
u n : absolute value of u n (m/s)

CD : d rag coefficient
– 144 –
CM : inertia coefficient
D : width of the member in the direction perpendicular to the member axis as viewed from the
direction of f n (m)
A : cross-sectional area of the member along a plane perpendicular to member axis (m 2)
ρ0 : density of seawater (normally 1.03t/m3)
Equation (4.7.22) is a generalized form of the equation presented by Morison et al.166), to give the wave
force acting on a section of a very small length ∆S of a member orientated in any given direction. The
arrows on top of symbols indicate that the force, velocity and acceleration are the components in the direction
perpendicular to the member. The first term on the right-hand side represents the drag force, while the second
term represents the inertia force. The water particle velocity and acceleration components in the equation
both vary in time and space. It is preferable to pay sufficient attention to these variations, and to examine
the distribution of the wave force that is severest to the member or structure in question. It should be also
necessary to appropriately evaluate the drag coefficient and the inertia coefficient by model tests or field
measurement results.
(b) Water particle velocity and acceleration components
 
The components of water particle velocity and acceleration ( u n , a n ) in equation (4.7.22) represent the
component of the water particle motion at the center axis of the member. These components are in the
direction perpendicular to the member axis, and are evaluated under the assumption that waves are not
disturbed by the presence of the structure in question. When calculating the wave force, it is necessary to
estimate these components as accurate as possible, based on either experimental data or theoretical prediction.
In particular, the water particle velocity component contributes to the wave force with its square, meaning
that when the wave height is large, an approximation using small amplitude wave theory becomes insufficient
to yield reliable estimate. Moreover, when the member extends above the water level, it is necessary to give
sufficient consideration to the range over which the wave force acts, i.e., the elevation of wave crest. When
calculating these terms using theoretical values, it is preferable to use the finite amplitude wave theory that
agrees with the characteristics of the design waves, based on 4.1 Basic Matters Relating to Waves. Note also
that it is necessary to take full account of wave irregularity with regard to the wave height and period used in
the wave force calculation, and to study the wave characteristics that are severest to the safety of member or
structure in question. In general, the highest wave height and the significant wave period may be used in the
analysis for rigid structures.
(c) Drag coefficient CD
In general, the drag coefficient for steady flow can be used as the drag coefficient CD for wave force. Note
however that the drag coefficient varies with the shape of the member, the surface roughness, the Reynolds
number Re, and the separation distance between neighboring members. It also varies with the Keulegan-
Carpenter number (KC number) because the flow is of oscillating nature. It is necessary to consider these
conditions when setting the value of drag coefficient. For a circular cylindrical member, it is standard to set
CD = 1.0 if the finite amplitude properties of the waves are fully considered. For an unmanned structure, a
lower value may be used if its value is based on the results of model tests matched to the conditions. Even in
this case, however, CD should not be set below 0.7. Note also that when estimating the water particle velocity
by an approximate equation, it is preferable to use a value for the drag coefficient that has been adjusted for
the estimation error in the water particle velocity. If the velocity of the water particle motion can be calculated
accurately, drag coefficient values for steady flow in Table 6.5.1 in 6.5 Fluid Force due to Current may be
used.
(d) Inertia coefficient CM
The value by the small amplitude wave theory may be used for the inertia coefficient CM. Note, however, that
the inertia coefficient varies with the shape of the member and other factors such as the Reynolds number, the
KC number, the surface roughness, and the separation distance between neighboring members. The value of
the inertia coefficient should be set appropriately in line with the given conditions.
When the diameter of the object in question is no more than 1/10 of the wavelength, it is standard to use
the value listed in Table 4.7.1 for the inertia coefficient CM However, when estimating the water particle
acceleration by an approximate equation, it is necessary to adjust the value of CM. for the error in the estimate
of water particle acceleration. The value of inertia coefficient shown here is mostly from the study by Stelson
and Mavis.167) According to the experiments of Hamada, Mitsuyasu et al.168), the mass coefficient for a cube
is in the range of 1.4 to 2.3.
– 145 –
Table 4.7.1 Inertia Coefficient
Shape of the object Basic volume Inertia coefficient
π 2
Cylinder  D  2.0 （>D）
4
D
Regular 
D 2 2.19（>D）
prism D
D
D
Cube D3 1.67
D D
π D3
Sphere D 1.5
6
When D /  =1, 0.61
Flat π 2
 D  When D /  =2, 0.85
plate 4
D When D/  =∞, 1.00
(e) Experimental values for drag coefficient and inertia coefficient of cylinder
There are many experimental values for the drag coefficient and inertia coefficient of a vertical cylinder; for
example, those of Keulegan and Carpenter, 169) Sarpkaya, 170), 171), 172) Goda, 173) Yamaguchi, 174) Nakamura,
175) Chakrabarti, 176), 177) and Koderayama and Tashiro.178) There are many variations between these values.
However, there is not sufficient data in the region of high Reynolds number, which is subject to the actual
performance verification. Oda 179) has produced a summary of these researches which may be referred to.
(f) Effects of neighboring members
When structural members neighbor one another, the values of the drag coefficient and inertia coefficient vary
due to the effects of the other structural members. According to experiments on cylindrical columns, the drag
coefficient increases in the event that two columns are arranged in a row perpendicular to in the direction of
the flow, but it has been known that if the net space between the columns (s) is at least 2.5 times its diameter
(D), its effects are small. In addition, in the event that they are arranged in a row in the direction of the flow,
the drag coefficient for the column in back exhibits a tendency to decrease over a considerable range (s/D =
about 9). However, it cannot be recognized that its effects have been adequately solved yet, and in general it
is better not to consider this as a decrease in the drag coefficient due to the neighboring effect.
In addition, the value of the inertia coefficient has been calculated by diffraction theory, and an increase
or decrease has been known compared with the case of a single column depending on the values of s/D and
D/L, 182) but when D/L is small its effects are small. Nakamura and Abe 183) have investigated experimentally
the increase in the inertia coefficient in a range of D/L < 0.1, and have pointed out that although the results
are scattered the upper limit of the coefficient value is extremely large in the vicinity of D/L = 2 to 3, and it is
better to avoid a situation where the interval between the two columns matches such conditions.
(g) Facilities composed of many structural members
The wave force that acts on an entire facility composed of upright columns, slanted members and/or horizontal
members is calculated by equation (4.7.22) considering the phase difference of the wave force acting on each
structural member, and by compound the vector sums of these. In the case of facilities composed of many of
structural members, there is a risk that the whole might collapse due to the failure of one point in the structural
member, so the distribution of the wave force that is most severe for the individual structural members and the
entire facility should be considered in particular.
(h) Resonance with waves and random wave force
In the event that the rigidity of the facilities is low, and the natural frequency period is long, it is preferable to
consider the effects of the dynamic response on the wave force that acts periodically. The wave force in this
 
case may be calculated for the temporal changes of u n , an based on equation (4.7.22). However, since only
the specific dynamic effects are reflected in the examination for waves with a constant period, it is reasonable
– 146 –
to view this as the continuous action of random waves. When calculating the wave force for random waves,
suitable measures may be devised for the way to provide the height of the wave crown height and the drag
coefficient, and the water particle movement component may be calculated based on small amplitude wave
theory.
② Wave force when breaking waves act
When breaking waves act on facilities on a steep sea bottom surface, there are cases when an impulsive wave
force similar to the impulsive breaking wave pressure that acts on upright walls acts in addition to the drag and
inertia forces given by equation (4.7.22). Since the response characteristics of the facilities become the dominant
effect factor for such an impulsive action, not only a calculation of the wave force but also an examination that
includes the behavior of the entire facility as well as the structural members should be carried out.184), 185)
③ Uplift
In addition to the drag and inertia forces of equation (4.7.22), wave force acting on submerged members is the
uplift acting in the direction perpendicular to the plane containing the member axis and the direction of the
water particle motion. In general, it is acceptable to ignore this uplift, but it is necessary to pay attention to the
fact that the uplift may become a problem for horizontal members that are placed near to the seabed.186), 187), 188),
189), 190), 191) Moreover, for long and thin members, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the uplift may
induce vibrations.
④ Wave force due to random waves
Of the wave force components acting on structural members in the sea, the inertia force is linear, so the
spectrum of the wave force can be calculated easily from the spectrum of the waves, but when the drag force
is included this becomes difficult owing to its nonlinearity. Borgman 192) has introduced a theoretical equation
for the wave force spectrum that includes drag force based on probability theory. The first approximation of
this drag force corresponds to something where the nonlinear drag force is made linear in a form in which the
rms value of the water particle speed is incorporated in the coefficient, and this is employed occasionally in
spectrum analysis of on-site observational data and other cases. In addition, Hino 193) has introduced a theory
of a case where waves and a uniform flow co-exist by using the characteristic function method. A simulation
method where the random wave forms and water particle movement are simulated based on a prescribed wave
spectrum, and its time series is inputted and the wave force is calculated, is also being employed commonly as a
method for the statistical nature of random waves including the nonlinear drag and the dynamic response of the
facilities. Borgman 194) has explained this method, and there is the calculation example of Ito et al.195). These
are simulations based on linear theory, but recently nonlinear simulation calculations that consider everything
up to the second order interference terms between component waves have also been carried out, 196) and in
addition nonlinear simulation calculations of multi directional random waves has also been tried.197) As for the
probability distribution of the wave force, the wave height exhibits a Rayleigh distribution, whereas its local
maximum value may become considerably larger than the Rayleigh type owing to the nonlinearity of the drag.
Tickell-Elwany 198) has calculated the theoretical value of the wave force distribution based on three-dimensional
random waves. In addition, Kimura et al.199) has calculated the probability distribution of the wave force acting
on a single cylindrical column based on the joint distribution of the wave height and period of random waves,
and shown a method for calculating the anticipated values for the maximum wave force.
⑤ Equation for calculating the breaking wave force acting on slanted columns
Tanimoto, Takahashi, et al.185) have developed the research of Goda et al.184), and have proposed a method
for calculating the breaking wave force acting on cylindrical columns based on experimental results. The
calculation of the impulsive breaking wave force acting on upright cylindrical columns or slanted cylindrical
columns installed on a sea bottom with a uniform slope may be carried out based on this method. In the
experiment both regular and random waves were employed, and were carried out with a cylindrical column
with a D/h = 1/5, for gradients i = 1/100 and 1/30, and θ = -30°, -15°, 0°, +15° and +30°. The position of the
impulsive wave force that acts and the changes over time can be calculated by the equation, and the response of
the cylindrical column member to the impulsive wave force can also be calculated.
⑥ Breaking wave force acting on small diameter cylindrical columns on a reef
Goda et al.200) have proposed a method for calculating the breaking wave force that acts on upright cylindrical
columns on reefs, where the water depth changes suddenly, and it is possible to carry out calculations of the
wave force based on this method for waves like those that break on the slope of reefs.
⑦ Effects of multi-directionality of waves
As the multi-directionality of waves becomes stronger, the components of the wave force other than the
principal direction of the wave becomes larger. Therefore, the multi directional dispersion of the waves should
be considered in facilities constructed in deep waters where the multi-directionality is strong.
– 147 –
(2) Wave Force Acting on Large Isolated Structures
① General
The wave force acting on a large isolated structure whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength can be
calculated using the velocity potential, because it is generally possible to ignore the drag force. In particular,
for structures of a simple shape, analytical solutions obtained by diffraction theory are available. However, it
is necessary to calculate the breaking wave force by hydraulic model tests if there is a possibility of breaking
wave force exerted on structure.
② Diffraction theory
MacCamy -Fuchs 202) have determined the velocity potential of waves around an upright cylindrical column of
large diameter using diffraction theory, and calculated the wave force from the water pressure distribution at
the surface of cylinder. Goda and Yoshimura 203) have applied diffraction theory to an upright elliptic cylinder,
and presented their results in terms of the inertia coefficient CM. Yamaguchi 204) has examined the effect of
the wave nonlinearity on the wave force acting on an upright cylindrical column of large diameter by nonlinear
diffraction theory, and pointed out that it is necessary to consider these effects when the water is shallow.
③ Isolated structure of arbitrary shape
For a structure that is complex in shape, it is difficult to obtain the wave force analytically, and so it is necessary
to carry out a numerical calculation. Various methods are available, such as integral equation methods (see 4.9
Action on Floating Body and its Motions).
4.7.4 Wave Force Acting on Structures near the Water Surface
(1) Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plates near the Water Surface

① General
In the case of facilities near still water surface, such as the superstructure of piled piers on pile-type dolphins,
and in particular those facilities that are roughly parallel to the water surface, there is a risk that a rising wave
surface will strike on the bottom surface of the facilities and an impulsive wave force (hereinafter, “uplift”)
will act on. In particular, it becomes a large impulsive force when the wave height is large and the clearance
with the still water surface is small. In addition, in a case where there is a reflecting wall at the rear as in the
case of open type wharf, and the waves become standing waves and act on this, the impulsive uplift should be
calculated by a suitable method such as a hydraulic model test. Due attention should also be paid to the fact that
ordinary uplift that is not an impulsive force also acts on the bottom surface of such structures, in addition to
the impulsive uplift.
② Characteristics of impulsive uplift
If the bottom surface of the plate is flat, the impulsive uplift acting on a horizontal plate near the still water
surface level varies with the impact velocity of the wave surface and the angle between the wave surface and
the plate. As shown in Fig. 4.7.9 (a), when there is an angle between the wave surface and the plate, the wave
surface runs along the bottom surface of the plate and the wave pressure distribution becomes as shown there.
The distinct feature of the wave pressure in this case is its rapid rise in time. On the other hand, when the angle
between the wave front and the plate is close to 0, as shown in Fig. 4.7.9 (b), a layer of air is trapped between
the wave surface and the plate, and compression of this layer of air results in the almost uniform wave pressure
distribution. The distinct feature of the wave pressure in this case is its oscillation in time with having a short
period damping vibration.
In case of a piled pier with a deck plate supported by horizontal beams, the wave surface is disturbed by the
beams, and the uplift becomes of complex nature. With beams, a layer of trapped air is often formed and this
layer of air is compressed by the uprising wave surface. It is thus necessary to give consideration to the change
in the uplift with respect to the shape of the bottom face of the horizontal plate. The shape of the impacting wave
surface varies greatly according to the condition whether the wave is progressive or standing in nature. With
standing waves, the shape of the impacting wave front varies with the distance between the position of wave
reflection and the horizontal plate. It is thus necessary to consider such differences.
– 148 –
(a)
Pressure distribution Wave impact
(b)
Pressure distribution
Wave impact
Fig. 4.7.9 Impact between Wave Front and Horizontal Plate
③ Calculation of uplift from standing waves

(a) Uplift acting on horizontal plate with flat bottom surface
Goda 112) considered the uplift acting on a horizontal plate as being the force results in the sudden change in
the momentum of wave by its impact on the plate. Using von Karman’s theory, he obtained the following
formulas for calculating the uplift of standing waves acting on a horizontal plate.
(4.7.23)
(4.7.24)
where
P : total uplift (kN)
ζ : correction factor
ρ0g : unit weight of seawater (kN/m3)
H : wave height of progressive waves, generally the highest wave height Hmax (m)
L : wavelength of progressive waves (m)
B : width of plate (m)
H : water depth (m)
S : clearance of the plate above the still water surface (m)
s' : clearance of the plate above the level corresponding to the middle of the wave crest and trough
(m)
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the uplift in the above equations does not depend on the
length of the horizontal plate.
The impact force has the magnitude given by the above equations and takes the form of a pulse that lasts for
a time τ from the moment of the impact, that is given as follows:
(4.7.25)
Where T is the wave period and  is the length of the horizontal plate. Provided the length of the horizontal
plate is sufficiently short compared with the wavelength L and the bottom surface of the horizontal plate is flat,
equation (4.7.23) well represents the features of the uplift well with simple equation. Comparing calculated
– 149 –
values with ζ = 1.0 to experimental values, agreement is relatively good provided H/s' is no more than 2.
Tanimoto et al.205) have proposed another method for calculating the uplift acting on horizontal plate based
on Wagner’s theory. With this calculation method, the angle of contactβ between the wave surface and the
horizontal plate as well as the impact velocity Vn are given by Stokes’ third order wave theory, making it
possible to obtain the spatial distribution of the impact pressure and its change over time. Note however that
the use of Stokes’ third order wave theory makes the calculation rather complex. This calculation method is
intended for use when the bottom face of the horizontal plate is flat. It cannot be applied directly to structures
of complicated shape such as an ordinary piled pier that have beams under the floor slab; the impact between
the wave surface and the floor slab is disturbed by the beams. In general, the presence of beams causes air to
become trapped in and the wave surface to be disturbed, the result being that the impact force is less than for
a horizontal plate with a flat surface. Accordingly, the value obtained from this calculation method may be
considered as being the upper limit of the uplift for an ordinary piled pier.
(b) Uplift Acting on Piled Pier
Ito and Takeda 206) have conducted scale model tests of piled pier to obtain the uplift acting on an access
bridge, and it’s a vibration threshold weight and a falling threshold weight. The experimental conditions were
the wave height up to 40 cm, a period of 1.0 s and 2.4 s, and a water depth of 56 cm and 60 cm. According to
the measurement records of wave pressure gauges attached to the access bridge, the peak value of the uplift
varied considerably from wave to wave even under the same conditions. Nevertheless, the mean of these peak
values is given approximately by the following equation (4.7.26):
(4.7.26)
where
: characteristic value of the mean peak value of the intensity of uplift (kN/m 2)
H : incident wave height (m), (Hmax)
S : distance from the water level to the underside of access bridge (m)
Note however that the peak value of the intensity of the uplift given by equation (4.7.26) acts only for an
extremely short time, and that the phase of this uplift varies from place to place. This means that even if the
intensity of the uplift p exceeds the self weight q i.e., the weight per unit area (kN/m2) of the access bridge, the
bridge will not necessarily move or fall down immediately. Based on this perspective, Ito and Takeda have
obtained the threshold weight at which the access bridge vibrate and that at which the deck slab falls down.
For waves of period 2.4 s, the relationship between the vibration threshold weight and the wave height is given
below:
(4.7.27)
The vibration threshold weight given by equation (4.7.27) is one fifth of the intensity of the uplift as given
by equation (4.7.26). The falling threshold weight was found to be 1/2 to 1/3 of the vibration threshold
weight.
In these access bridge experiments, Ito and Takeda also tested the access bridge with holes or slits of
various sizes, and investigated how the threshold weights changed when the void ratio was changed. In
general, the change in the vibration threshold weight by the void ratio is only slight compared to access
bridges without holes, when the void ratio is small i.e., around 1%, air escapes easily and the water surface
strikes the access bridge impulsively. The falling threshold weight, on the other hand, drops noticeably when
the void ratio exceeds 20%. Note that the bridge weight referred to here is the weight per unit area of the
substantial part i.e., the weight per unit area excluding the voids. In this way, since there is little change to the
vibrating threshold weight, namely the stable weight per unit area of the substantial part of the access bridge,
the weight of an entire surface area can be reduced by boring holes. What is more, the falling threshold weight
decreases with the increase in the void rate. From these two reasons, it can be concluded that it is best to raise
the void rate.
Furthermore, Ito and Takeda 206) have attached a strain gauge to the deck slab of the model of piled pier
and measured the stress. Based on their results, they proposed the following equation for the equivalent static
load (kN/m 2) assumed to act with uniform distribution on the deck slab.
(4.7.28)
– 150 –
Note however that the value given by this equation corresponds to the upper limit of the experimental
values and should thus be considered corresponding to the case that the distance s from the water level to the
underside of the superstructure is almost 0. The equivalent static load given by equation (4.7.28) is generally
lower than the uplift acting on a horizontal plate with a flat bottom face. It is considered that this is partly
because the beams disturb the impacting wave front and cause air to become trapped in. Experimental
research into the uplift acting on a piled pier has also been carried out by Murota and Furudoi, 207) Nagai and
Kubo et al.208), Horikawa and Nakao et al.209), and Sawaragi and Nochino.210)
④ Calculation of uplift by progressive waves
(a) Uplift acting on horizontal plate with flat bottom surface
An impulsive uplift also acts when progressive waves act on a horizontal plate that is fixed near to the still
water level. Tanimoto and Takahashi et al.211) have proposed a method for calculating this impulsive uplift,
based on the same theory that was used for impulsive uplift by standing waves.
(b) Uplift acting on superstructure of detached pier
1) Ito and Takeda 206) have also carried out studies on the uplift of progressive waves acting on a detached
pier. Specifically, they measured the stress occurring in the deck slabs of a detached pier model. Based
on the upper limits of their experimental results, they proposed the following equation for the uniformly
distributed equivalent static load.
(4.7.29)
2) Allsop and Cuomo, et al.212), 213), 214), 215) have undertaken a systematic examination of the uplift due
to progressive waves that act on detached pier by model tests based on random waves and theoretical
analysis. They have proposed the following calculation equations concerning the ordinary uplift that is
not an impulsive force.
(4.7.30)

(4.7.31)

(4.7.32)

Here,
Fqs : uplift that is not an impulsive force (equivalent to the maximum value in the wave group) (kN)
F* : standard wave force (kN)
a, b : coefficient dependent on the structural member
ηmax : maximum rise in water level when the maximum wave height Hmax is acting (m)
cl : clearance from the still water surface (m)
Hs : significant wave height (m)
bw : width of horizontal plate or beam (m)
bl : length of horizontal plate or beam (m)
p2 : equivalent still water pressure by the action on the lower surface of horizontal plate due to a rise
in the water level (kN/m 2)
According to the experimental results, the value of the coefficient a, b are 0.82 and 0.61 in the case
of horizontal plates and beams outside a harbor, 0.71 and 0.71 in the case of horizontal plates inside a
harbor, and 0.82 and 0.66 in the case of beams inside a harbor, respectively. It is necessary to calculate
the maximum rise in water level ηmax by appropriate theoretical analysis. In addition, the effects of
nonlinearity become greater as the water depth becomes shallower, and the proportion of the maximum
rise in the water level relative to the wave height becomes higher. Owing to this, even if the clearance and
the design wave height are the same, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that not only does the uplift
becomes relatively great when the water depth is shallow, but also that the frequency with which the uplift
acts increases.215)
On the other hand, a comparison with the uplift has been carried out for the impulsive force,214) and
according to the experimental results it is 2.0 to 2.4 times the ordinary uplift in the case of horizontal
– 151 –
plates outside the harbor, 2.0 to 2.9 times this in the case of beams outside the harbor, 1.7 to 2.3 times this
for horizontal plates inside the harbor, and 1.9 to 2.6 times this for horizontal beams inside the harbor.
However, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that although the action time is short as described
above, the variance due to conditions is great.
4.8 Design Wave Conditions

4.8.1 Setting of the Design Wave Conditions for Verification of Stability of Facilities and the Ultimate Limit
State of Structural Members
(1) General
During the performance verification of the facilities of ports, it is necessary to set appropriately the wave conditions
such as the wave height, period, wave direction, as the design conditions. These wave conditions are preferably
set by statistical analysis based on long-term observational data, but in the cases where the observation data are
inadequate it is common to supplement the data by wave hindcasting.219), 220), 221)
The waves for the verification of stability of the facilities and the ultimate limit state of structural members
are generally the probabilistic waves whose return period is 50 years, for facilities whose design working lifetime
is 50 years. This is the return period of waves that is generally taken into consideration in conventional design,
and conventional design is followed in order to provide for continuity with the philosophy of conventional design
methods and to avoid confusion in practical design work. Owing to this, the return period may be established
appropriately by taking into consideration the design working lifetime and degree of importance of objective
facilities, as well as the natural conditions of objective location.
(2) Design Waves at External Values
As far as the abnormal wave characteristics that are employed for the examination of the stability of facilities are
concerned, it is preferable to carry out statistical treatment for the peak waves, and to express this as the return
wave height.
(3) Statistical Treatment of External Waves
The wave height relative to abnormal waves that are the object of design is generally expressed as the return wave
height in respect of the return period for peak waves, from the long-term data i.e. a period of at least 30 years as
a standard. Since the number of locations for which it is possible to utilize observational data over the long term
is extremely small, wave hindcasting results are generally used instead.
Peak waves, which are the hindcasting data for return wave height, refer to waves, in general, significant
waves, when the wave height reaches the maximum in the process where the waves develop and attenuate under
one certain meteorological condition, and it is assumed that the peak waves that are sampled are statistically
independent from each other. During hindcasting of the return wave height, there are cases where the time series
of data where the peak wave height is at least a certain designated value are used in the subject duration, and cases
where the maximum value of the peak wave height is calculated each year, and the data for this annual maximum
wave is used. As the mother distribution function of the return wave height is unknown in general in either case,
the Gumbel distribution, the Weibull distribution, or some other distribution function is applied. The function
form most suited to the data is found, and the return wave height in respect of the required return period, for
example 50 years or 100 years, etc., is estimated with that estimation equations.
Since the accuracy of such estimated values is dependant more on the accuracy of the data used than the
method of statistical treatment, in the event that the data for the peak waves is prepared by wave hindcasting,
care should be paid so that appropriate selection of the hindcasting method and verification based on the observed
values of the hindcasting results should be applied. Moreover, the relationship between the wave height and the
period are plotted for the data for the peak waves, which is the hindcasting data for the return wave height, and
the period corresponding to the return wave height is determined as appropriate based on the correlation of these
data.
(4) Process in the Statistical Treatment of External Waves
During the statistical treatment, the wave height is arranged in order of size, and the non-exceedance
probability for each wave height value is calculated.
Now, assuming that the number of data is N, and the number mth wave height from the larger side is xm,N, the
probability Fm that the wave height does not exceed xm,N is calculated by the following equation.
(4.8.1)
The values for each probability distribution function shown in Table 4.8.1 are employed for α and β in the
above equation. Since Gringorten has calculated the values for the Gumbel distribution, it has been set so that the
effects of the statistical variance of the data are minimized with the non-exceedance probability F corresponding
to the anticipated value of the order statistics xm. Petruaskas and Aagaard 223) have calculated the values for the
– 152 –
Weibull distribution based on the same viewpoint.
In hydrological statistics, the Gumbel distribution (double exponential distribution), the logarithmic peak
value distribution or the square root exponential type maximum value distribution are employed as the distribution
functions. Since collection of data over the long term has not been obtained for the peak values of wave height,
it is not known clearly what sort of distribution function this accords with. Reference 224) can be referred as
materials relating to the peak values for wave height.
Table 4.8.1 Parameters for Non-exceedance Probability Calculation of Abnormal Waves
Distribution function α β
Gumbel distribution 0.44 0.12
Weibull distribution (k = 0.75) 0.54 0.64
Same as above (k = 0.85) 0.51 0.59
Same as above (k = 1.0) 0.48 0.53
Same as above (k = 1.1) 0.46 0.50
Same as above (k = 1.25) 0.44 0.47
Same as above (k = 1.5) 0.42 0.42
Same as above (k = 2.0) 0.39 0.37
(5) Proposed Example of Fitted Distribution Functions

① Following Petruaskas and Aagaard, in Reference 225), Goda has proposed a method in which eight kinds of
distribution function wherein k = 0.75, 0.85, 1.0. 1.1, 1.25, 1.5 and 2.0 are applied in the Gumbel distribution in
equation (4.8.2) and the Weibull distribution in equation (4.8.3), and the function that accords the most with the
data among these is selected with the correlation coefficient.
(4.8.2)
(4.8.3)
Here, the non-exceedance probability Fm is calculated with equation (4.8.1). The values shown in Table
4.8.1 are adopted for the values of α and β.
Next, from the non-exceedance probability Fm, the standard amount of change is calculated by using equation
(4.8.4) in the case of the Gumbel distribution, and equation (4.8.5) in the case of the Weibull distribution,
respectively.
(4.8.4)
(4.8.5)
If the data completely accord with equation (4.8.2) or equation (4.8.3), a linear relationship exists between
x and ym. Therefore, the estimation equation for the return wave height is calculated by assuming a linear
relationship for equation (4.8.6), and establishing its coefficient by the least square method.
(4.8.6)
Here, Â , B̂ are the estimated value for the coefficients A and B of equation (4.8.2) and equation (4.8.3).
② Moreover, in Reference 226), Goda has proposed the following method, which revises the above-mentioned
procedure.
(a) Modification of the fitted function (introduction of peak value type II)
The peak value type II function is given by the following equation.
(4.8.7)
– 153 –
Here, the examination has been done in a total of nine ways, one way with the Gumbel distribution in
equation (4.8.2), four ways with the Weibull distribution in equation (4.8.3) (k = 0.75, 1.0, 1.4 and 2.0), and
four ways with the peak value type II distribution in equation (4.8.7) (k = 2.5, 3.33, 5.0 and 10.0), as the fitted
functions.
In addition, formulation of the following equation is carried out instead of Table 4.8.1, for α and β in
equation (4.8.1). In other words, it is set as follows.
In the Gumbel distribution:
(4.8.8)
In the Weibull distribution:
(4.8.9)
In peak value type II:
(4.8.10)
(b) Modification of the procedure for selecting the optimal coefficient by introduction of rejection criteria
There are two kinds of criteria for rejecting unsuitable functions, the REC criterion and the DOL criterion.
In practical work a procedure is adopted where when a function has been rejected based on either of these
criteria, the optimal function is selected according not to the value of the simple correlation, but rather the
MIR criterion.
REC criterion, a criterion where the 95% non-exceedance probability of the residual of the correlation
coefficient is calculated beforehand for each distribution function, and when the residual of the correlation
coefficient when the peak value data are fit to this correlation coefficient exceeds this limit value, that function
is rejected as unsuited.
DOL criterion, a criterion wherein the maximum value in the data is made dimensionless with the overall
mean value and standard deviation, and if this is below the 5% value or above the 95% value in the distribution
function to which this value is fitted, that function is rejected as unsuited.
MIR criterion, a criterion consideration is given to the fact that the mean value of the residual relative to
the correlation coefficient of 1 differs depending on the distribution function, and something where the ratio
between the residual of the correlation coefficient of the sample and the residual mean value in the applied
distribution is judged to be most suitable.
(6) Design tide level and design waves of temporary structures

In the performance verification of temporary structures as well, the design waves are basically set based on the
above-described principles. However, since the installation period is limited in the case of temporary structures,
it is possible to set the objective return period of the action shorter. If it is a temporary structure whose period is
about 2 to3 years, it is common for verification to be carried out for action with a return period of about 10 years.
4.8.2 Setting of Wave Conditions for Verification of Harbor Calmness

The ordinary wave properties that are employed for verification of harbor calmness are generally expressed as a joint
frequency distribution table of the wave height and period by wave direction for data broken down by month, by
season and annually from the wave data. In a detailed examination of events in which the effects of the period appear
strongly, for example, the operating rate it is preferable to arrange an occurrence distribution for the equivalent wave
height and wave direction for each period band. Conducting an examination of the wave conditions with observation
data serves as the criterion. When the wave observation data are not available, the wave hindcasting results can be
utilized. However, in the utilization of the wave hindcasting results, it is preferable to undertake the verification by
observation data. It is possible to refer to the manual in Reference 228) as concerns the setting of the ordinary wave
conditions for the verification of harbor calmness.
– 154 –
4.8.3 Setting of Wave Conditions for Verification of Durability, Serviceability Limit State, of the Structural
Members
(1) The waves for verification of the durability (serviceability limit state) of the structural members are set
appropriately as waves acting during the design working lifetime. For the setting of such waves, a joint frequency
distribution table of the wave height and period by wave direction is preferably calculated from wave observation
data broken down by month, by season and annually. However, since wave observation points where, continuous
wave observations have been implemented over a long period of at least three years, and statistical analysis of
the occurrence frequency of individual waves has already been conducted, are extremely rare, usually estimation
must be carried out based on an occurrence frequency of for significant wave height by class. In the event that the
design working lifetime is 50 years, this may be calculated by the following method.
① Wave data
It is possible to employ the NOWPHAS (Nationwide Ocean Wave Information Network for Ports and Harbors)
wave observation data, where wave observations are continuously conducted in ports throughout Japan. The
occurrence frequency statistics by wave height class of the significant waves every two hours are summarized
in the annual Wave Observation Annual Report 229) or Long-Term Statistical Report 230) issued by NOWPHAS.
Estimation of the circumstances of occurrence of individual waves within an observation time of two hours is
carried out based on the significant wave height values provided once in these two hours.
② Estimation of the circumstances of occurrence of individual waves
Since the above-mentioned wave observation materials concern the occurrence frequency of significant waves,
the circumstances of the occurrence of significant waves during the observation period is estimated based on
the following hypothesis.
(a) The occurrence distribution of individual wave height follows a Rayleigh distribution. Assuming that the
significant wave height during two hours is constant, it is possible to assume that the distribution of several
individual wave heights occurring during the two hours follows a Rayleigh distribution where the significant
wave height is equal.
(b) The number of individual waves during the time differs depending on each observation or period, however
since it is extremely difficult to set the number of respective individual waves for each observation for two
hours, it can be hypothesized that the value obtained by dividing two hours or 7,200 seconds by the long-term
mean period of objective wave observation point is the number of waves during two hours.
③ Frequency distribution of individual waves in the design working lifetime
The number of waves occurrence in the design working lifetime is calculated with the mean period of individual
waves during the observation period. The waves for the verification of the serviceability limit state for facilities
whose design working lifetime is 50 years can be set as waves for which the number of waves with a wave height
that or high or above strike is the order of 10 4 , based on the number of the waves set by the above-mentioned
method appear. In the Design Manual for Pre-stressed Concrete Structure for Ports and Harbors Facilities,
these waves are the waves for the verification of the serviceability limit state, 231) based on the provisions of the
International PC Association, and this is applied here as well.
4.8.4 Conditions of Design Waves in Shallow Waters
(1) Utilization of Numerical Calculation

In cases where design waves are determined in shallow waters, estimation with an appropriate numerical
calculation method based on 4.3 Wave Transformations is generally employed.232)
(2) Examination of Stability Against Waves During Construction
It is preferable to use design waves for the facilities in the state of completion, and design waves for verifying the
stability of facilities during construction.
(3) Probabilistic of Offshore Waves
During the verification of stability when the facilities in ports are in service and when they are under construction,
offshore waves that have an appropriate return period must be employed in accordance with the degree of
importance of the facilities. In the case of general facilities of ports, this may be set as probabilistic waves of
50 years in the event that the design working lifetime is 50 years. However, it is necessary to set appropriately
the waves during construction i.e. in cases like when the facilities are left as is for a certain period of time, at an
uncompleted section by considering the construction period of the facilities and the natural conditions of objective
spot, but it is possible to employ something with about probabilistic waves of 10 years, as convenient.
– 155 –
(4) Philosophy about the waves for the verification of stability of facilities
In the performance evaluation of facilities, it is necessary to determine the waves that are acting by considering
the following points:
① Random waves are employed.
② Offshore waves are determined by suitable observations, or wave hindcasting.
③ Offshore waves are set as probabilistic waves considering the return period.
④ Wave deformation calculations are implemented considering the topology of the subject location.
⑤ An appropriate numerical calculation model is employed for the calculation of design waves.
(a) Relatively deep marine waters…… Linear calculation model
(b) Shallow waters with complicated topology…… It is desirable to consider the nonlinearity.
(c) Breaking waves and reflected waves occur markedly …. A hydraulic model test is desirable.
⑥ The design tide level is set appropriately. In cases of damage examples in recent years, it has been common for
facilities for which high tide level has been used as the design tide level in wave force calculations, however,
damages occur in many cases during storm surge.237) Therefore, as in the case of the performance verification
for wave overtopping, it is preferable to consider the simultaneous occurrence with waves and to set this as the
tide level that is severest on the facilities, by for example setting this as a tide level where an appropriate storm
surge height is added to the high tide level.
⑦ Adequate examination is done concerning stability of facilities during construction as well.
⑧ The return year of design waves during construction is set appropriately.
⑨ The correlation of the waves and flow are considered when the effects of river flow are strong.
4.9 Actions on Floating Body and its Motions

4.9.1 General
(1) The motions of the floating body produced by external forces such as those due to winds, currents and waves,
along with the mooring force, should be given due consideration in the performance verification of the floating
body.
(2) In general, a floating body refers to a structure that is buoyant in water and its motions within a certain range is
permitted during use 239). When verifying the performance of a floating body, it is necessary to examine both its
required functions and its stability. It is necessary to pay attention that the setting of the design conditions on each
case is different in general.
(3) Mooring equipment includes a variety of types and is generally composed of a combination of mooring lines,
mooring anchors, sinkers, intermediate weights, intermediate buoys, mooring rods, connection joints, and fenders.
The mooring equipment has a large influence on the motions of a floating body, and so it is important to verify the
stability of the floating body appropriately.
(4) The floating bodies used as port facilities can be divided into floating piers 240), offshore petroleum stockpiling
bases 241), floating breakwaters 242), floating bridges 243), 244) and floating disaster-prevention bases.245), 246)
Moreover, researches for development of very large floating structures 247), 248), 249), 250) are being carried out.
(5) Floating bodies can also be classified by the type of mooring methods. As described below, mooring methods
include catenary mooring (slack mooring), taut mooring, and dolphin mooring.
① Catenary mooring (Fig. 4.9.1(a))
This is the most common mooring method. With this method, the chains or whatever used in the mooring are
given sufficient lengths to make them slack. This means that the force restraining the motions of the floating
body is small, but the mooring system fulfills the function of keeping the floating body in more-or- less the same
position. There are various types of catenary mooring, depending on factors like the material of the mooring
lines, the number of mooring lines, and the presence or absence of intermediate buoys and sinkers.
② Dolphin mooring (Fig. 4.9.1(b))
With this method, mooring is maintained using either a pile-type dolphin or a gravity-type dolphin. In general,
this method is suitable for restraining the motions of a floating body in the horizontal direction, but a large
mooring force acts on the dolphin. This method has been used for mooring floating units of offshore petroleum
stockpiling bases.
– 156 –
③ Taut mooring (Fig. 4.9.1(c))

This is a mooring method that reduces the motions of the floating body greatly; a tension leg platform (TLP) is
an example. With this method, the mooring lines are given a large initial tension so that they do not become
slack even when the floating body moves. The advantages of this mooring method are that the floating body
does not move much, and only a small area is needed for installing the mooring lines. However, it is necessary
to take note of the fact that because a large tensile force is generated in the mooring lines, the design of the lines
becomes the critical factor on the safety of the floating body.
④ Mooring method using a universal joint (Fig. 4.9.1(d))
The mooring system shown in the figure is an example of a mooring method that can be used to moor a large
offshore floating body. Examples of mooring systems that use a universal joint on the sea bottom include a
SALM (Single Anchor Leg Mooring) type single point mooring buoy 251) and a MAFCO (MAritime Facility of
Cylindrical cOnstruction) tower 252).
Fender
W.L. W.L.
Chain
Mooring anchor Dolphin
(a) Catenary mooring (b) Dolphin mooring
W.L. Damper
W.L.
Universal joint
(c) Taut mooring (d) Mooring by universal joint
Fig. 4.9.1 Examples of Mooring Methods for Floating Body
4.9.2 Actions on Floating Body
(1) Types of Actions and Calculation Methods

When a port facility is made of floating structures, it shall be standard to consider the following forces : wind drag
force, drag force by currents, wave-exciting force, wave-drift force, wave-making resistance, restoring force, and
mooring force. These actions shall be calculated by an appropriate analytical method or hydraulic model tests, in
accordance with the mooring method for the floating body and the size of facility.
(2) Wind Drag Force
With a structure for which a part of the floating body is above the sea surface, winds exert an action on the
structure. This action is called the wind drag force or wind pressure, and is composed of a pressure drag and a
friction drag. If the floating body is relatively small in size, the pressure drag is dominant. The pressure drag is
proportional to the square of the wind velocity and is expressed as in the following equation. The subscript k in
the equation refers to the characteristics value:
(4.9.1)
where
FW : wind drag force (N)
ρa : density of air (kg/m3)
AW : projected area of the part of the floating body above the sea surface as viewed from the direction
in which the wind is blowing (m 2)
UW : wind velocity (m/s)
CDW : wind drag coefficient
– 157 –
The wind drag coefficient is a proportionality constant and is also known as the wind pressure coefficient. It
may be determined by wind tunnel tests. However, it is also acceptable to use a value that has been obtained in
the past experiments for a structure with a shape similar to the structure under current study.
Values such as those listed in Table 4.9.1 have been proposed as the wind drag coefficients of objects in the
uniform flow. As can be seen from this table, the wind drag coefficient varies with the shape of the floating body,
but it is also affected by the wind direction and the Reynolds number. Note that it is considered that the wind
pressure acts in the direction of the wind flow, with the point of application being the centroid of the projection
of the part of the floating body that is above the water surface. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the
fact that this may not necessarily be the case if the floating body is large. Moreover, the velocity of the actual
wind is not uniform in the vertical direction, and so the value of the wind velocity UW used in the wind pressure
calculation is set as that at the elevation of 10 m above the sea surface.
Table 4.9.1 Wind Pressure Coefficient
2.0
Square cross-section [1.2]
(0.6)
1.6
Square cross-section [1.4]
(0.7)
1
Rectangular cross-section 2.3
2
(ratio of side lengths = 1:2) [1.6]
(0.6)
2 Rectangular cross-section 1.5

1 (ratio of side lengths = 1:2) (0.6)
Rectangular cross-section
(when one face is in contact 1.2
with the ground)
Circular cross-section 1.2

(smooth surface) (0.7)
(3) Drag Force by Currents

When there is a current such as tidal currents, these currents will exert a force on the submerged part of the
floating body. This force is referred to as the flow pressure or the drag force by currents. Like the wind drag force,
it is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. Note however that since the velocity of the current is generally
small, the current drag force is actually expressed as being proportional to the square of the velocity of the current
relative to the velocity of motion of the floating body as in the following equation. The subscript k in the equation
refers to the characteristics value:
(4.9.2)
where
FC : d rag force by currents (N)
ρ0 : density of fluid (kg/m3)
AC : projected area of the submerged part of the floating body as viewed from the direction of the
currents (m 2)
UC : velocity of the currents (m/s)
U : velocity of motion of the floating body (m/s)
CDC : d rag coefficient with respect to the currents
The drag coefficient CDC is a function of the Reynolds number. When the Reynolds number is large, however,
the values for steady flow in Table 6.5.1 in 6.5 Fluid Force due to Current may be used.
The drag coefficient for the currents varies with the shape of the floating body, the direction of the currents
and the Reynolds number. As with the wind pressure, the direction of the force exerted by the currents and the
– 158 –
direction of the currents itself are not necessarily the same.253) In general, the deeper the draft of the floating
body relative to the water depth, the larger the drag coefficient for the currents becomes. This is referred to as the
shoaling effect, and the drag coefficient increases because the smaller the gap between the sea bottom and the base
of the floating body, the harder it is for water to flow through this gap.
(4) Wave-exciting Force
The wave-exciting force is the force exerted by incident waves on the floating body when the floating body is
considered to be fixed in the water. It is composed of a linear force that is proportional to the amplitude of the
incident waves and a nonlinear force that is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the incident waves.
The linear force is the force that the floating body receives from the incident waves as reaction when the floating
body deforms the incident waves. The velocity potential for the deformed wave motion is obtained using wave
diffraction theory. The nonlinear force, on the other hand, is composed of a force that accompanies the finite
amplitude nature of waves and a force that is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. The former force due
to finite amplitude effect can be analyzed theoretically, but in practice it is often ignored. The latter force that is
proportional to the square of the flow velocity becomes large, in particular when the diameter of the floating body
is small relative to the wavelength; it is necessary to determine this force experimentally.
(5) Wave Drift Force
When waves act on a floating body, the center of the floating body’s motion gradually shifts in the direction of
wave propagation. The force that causes this shift is called the wave drift force. If it is assumed that the floating
body is two-dimensional and the wave energy is not dissipated, then the wave drift force is given by the following
equations. 254) The subscript k in the equation refers to the characteristics value:
(4.9.3)
(4.9.4)
where
h : water depth (m)
L : wavelength (m)
Fd : wave-drift force per unit width (N)
Hi : incident wave height (m)
K R : reflection coefficient
R : wave drift force coefficient
If the dimensions of the floating body are extremely small relative to the wavelength, the wave drift force may
be ignored as being much smaller than the wave-exciting force. However, as the floating body becomes larger, the
wave drift force becomes dominant.
When random waves act on a floating body moored at a system having only a small restraining force, such
as a single point mooring buoy designed for use of supertankers, the wave drift force becomes a dominant factor
as it may give rise to slow drift oscillations. In this case, the long-period fluctuating drift force in the form of the
wave drift force has a large effect to the slow drift oscillations of the floating body. For example, if a random wave
is comprised of waves with two different frequencies, the fluctuating wave drift force is given by the following
equation.255) The subscript k in the equation refers to the characteristics value:
(4.9.5)
where
Fd : wave (fluctuating) drift force per unit width (N)
Hi : incident wave height (m)
R((ω1+ω 2)/2) : wave drift force coefficient by regular waves of cos((ω 1+ω 2)/2)
ω 1 and ω 2 : wave frequency (rad/s)
t : time (s)
(6) Wave-making Resistance Force

When a floating body moves in still water, the floating body exerts a force on the surrounding water, and the
floating body receives a corresponding reaction force from the water; this reaction force is called the wave-making
– 159 –
resistance force. This force may be determined by forcing the floating body to move through the still water and
measuring the force acting on the floating body. In general, however, an analytical method is used whereby
each mode of the floating body motions is assumed to be realized separately, and the velocity potential, which
represents the motion of the fluid around the floating body, is obtained. Only the forces that are proportional to
the motion of the floating body may be determined analytically; the nonlinear forces that are proportional to the
square of the motion cannot be determined analytically. Out of the linear forces i.e., that are proportional to the
motion of the floating body, the term that is proportional to the acceleration of the floating body is called the added
mass term, while the term that is proportional to the velocity is called the wave damping term.
(7) Restoring Force
The static restoring force is the force that makes a floating body return to its original position when the floating
body moves in still water. It is generated by buoyancy and gravity when the floating body heaves, rolls or pitches.
This force is generally treated as being proportional to the amplitude of the motion of the floating body, although
this proportionality is lost if the amplitude becomes too large.
(8) Mooring Force
The mooring force is the force that is generated in order to restrain the motion of the floating body. The magnitude
of this force depends greatly on the displacement-restoration characteristics of the mooring system.
(9) Solution Method for Wave-exciting Force and Wave-making Resistance Force Using Velocity Potential
The method adopted for calculating the wave-exciting force and the wave-making resistance force involves
deriviation of the velocity potential, which represents the motion of the fluid, and then calculating the wave
exciting force and the wave-making resistance force from the potential. The analytical method with the velocity
potential is the same for both the wave-exciting force and the wave-making resistance force, the only difference
being the boundary conditions. The velocity potential may be obtained using any of a number of methods, such as
a region segmentation method, an integral equation method, a strip method, or a finite element method. Outline
of the above mentioned numerical calculation methods are introduced in Reference 256) and 257).
(10) Wave Force Acting on Fixed Floating Body with Rectangular Cross Section
When a floating body is fixed in position, the velocity potential that satisfies the boundary conditions at the sea
bottom and around the floating body can yield the wave force. The wave force acting on a floating body with a
long rectangular cross section such as a floating breakwater can be determined using the approximation theory of
Ito et al.258).
(11) Materials for Mooring and Mooring Force
Reference 259) may be referred for the materials used in mooring and their characteristic features.
(12) Forces Acting on a Very Large Floating Structure
For a very large floating structure, the external forces described in (2) through (11) above are different from
those for a smaller floating body because of its large size and elastic response characteristics of the floating body
structure. It is thus necessary to carry out sufficient examinations on their characteristics.260)
4.9.3 Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force
(1) Calculation Methods of Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force

The motions of a floating body and the mooring force need to be calculated by an appropriate analytical method
or hydraulic model tests, in accordance with the shape of the floating body and the characteristics of the external
forces and the mooring system.
(2) Motions of Floating Body
The motions of a floating body can be determined by solving the dynamic equilibrium equation, with the external
forces taken to be the forces due to winds and waves, the restoring force of the floating body itself, and the reaction
forces of the mooring lines and fenders. If the floating body is assumed to be a rigid body, then its motions are
comprised of the six components shown in Fig. 4.9.2, namely surging, swaying, heaving, pitching, rolling and
yawing. Out of these, the modes that represent motions within the horizontal plane, namely surging, swaying and
yawing, may show long-period motions with the period of a few minutes or more. Such long-period motions have
a large influence on the verification of the anchoring area of ships and the mooring equipment. One may thus give
separate consideration to the long-period motions, taking only the wave-drift force and the long-period fluctuating
components of the winds and waves as the external forces when doing analysis.
If the floating body is very long, elastic deformation may accompany the motions of the floating body and this
should be examined, as necessary.
– 160 –
Yawing Rolling
Heaving
Surging
Pitching
Swaying
Fig. 4.9.2 Components of Motions of Floating Body
(3) Methods of Solving the Equations of Motion

① Steady state solution method for nonlinear equations of motion
The equations of motion for a floating body are nonlinear, meaning that it is not easy to obtain solutions.
Nevertheless, if it is assumed that the motion amplitudes are small and the equations of motion are linearized
by using linear approximations for the nonlinear terms, the solutions can be obtained relatively easily. For
example, for a three-dimensional floating body, one ends up with a system of six simultaneous linear equations
involving the amplitudes and phases of the six modes of motions. Note that if the floating body is assumed to be
a rigid body and its motions are linear, then the motions are proportional to the external forces. In particular, if
there are no currents or wind, then the motions are proportional to the wave height.
② Numerical simulation of nonlinear motions
The wind drag force and the drag force by currents are in general nonlinear, and moreover the restraining forces
of mooring equipment are also often nonlinear. In this case, an effective solution method is to use a numerical
simulation where the equations of motion are progressively solved for a series of time steps. The equations of
motion for the floating body can be divided into the constant coefficient method 261) in which the coefficient
values of the added mass term and wave damping term within the equations of motion is fixed at a specific
frequency, and the phase lag function method 262), 263) in which these terms are changed over time in a simulation
using a phase lag function. The phase lag function method is also called the memory effect function method.
In the numerical simulation, first, the time series data are obtained for the wave-exciting force and the flow
velocity due to the waves from the input of incident wave spectrum as well as the fluctuating wind speed from
the wind spectrum. The external forces obtained from these time series data are then put into the equations of
motions for the floating body, and the time series data for the motion of the floating body and the mooring force
are calculated.
Numerical simulations are used for analyzing the motions of all kinds of floating bodies. For example, Ueda
and Shiraishi 261) have carried out numerical simulations on the motions of a moored ship, and Suzuki and
Moroishi 264) have analyzed the swinging motion of a ship moored at a buoy.
As preconditions to the numerical simulation, it is usually assumed that the fluid is an ideal fluid, that the
amplitudes of motions of the floating body are small and that the incident waves are linear and their superposition
is allowed. If these assumptions cannot be held, it is necessary to carry out hydraulic model tests.
(4) Hydraulic Model Tests
Hydraulic model tests provide a powerful technique for determining the motions of a floating body and the
mooring force. Up to the present time, hydraulic model tests have been carried out for all kinds of floating bodies.
For examples, see references 265) and 266).
When conducting hydraulic model tests of a floating body, attention should be paid to any similarities in the
inertia moments of the floating body and the characteristics of mooring equipment.
(5) Statistical Treatment of Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force
The motions and mooring forces for a floating body obtained by numerical simulation due to random waves and
hydraulic model tests varies irregularly with time. Therefore, the peak values of the motion amplitudes and
mooring forces for the floating body also vary. Even if the wave spectrum is identical, the maximum values
for these vary when the duration time or the series of the waves are different. In other words, since the motion
amplitudes and mooring forces for the floating body are probability variables, statistical treatment should be
performed to estimate the expected values. In the usual statistical treatment, a normal distribution or a Rayleigh
distribution are applied to the probability density distributions of the peak values, and the expected values are
estimated.
(6) Motions and Mooring Force for Rectangular Section Floating Body
Ito’s approximation theory, 258) which is relatively easy to handle, can be applied for calculating the motions and
– 161 –
mooring forces for a rectangular section floating body.
(7) Procedure for Estimating Expected Values of Motions
The expected values for the motions of a floating body, can be estimated by taking into consideration its motion
characteristics and assuming either a normal distribution or a Rayleigh distribution.266) The procedure is described
below.
① Motion simulation
A motion simulation for adequate calculation time is performed, and the values of double amplitudes of the
motions for each wave are calculated. The number of waves needed to estimate accurately the expected value
of the maximum values is approximately 100 or more.
② Assumption of the distribution shape of the motion amplitude
A suitable distribution shape for the double amplitudes of the motions obtained by motion simulation is assumed.
A Rayleigh distribution or a normal distribution shown below may be adopted as the distribution shape.
Rayleigh distribution:
(4.9.6)
Normal distribution:
(4.9.7)
where,
x : A/A*
A : double amplitude
A* : arbitrary base double amplitude
a : A*/(8m0)1/2
8m0 : Arms (square root of the square mean of the double amplitudes)
σ : standard deviation
However, the value of a is 1.416 when the arbitrary base double amplitude A* is the significant value A1/3, and
√π/2 when it is the mean value .
③ Estimation of the expected maximum value
Assuming that the number of waves is N, and that the value at which the exceedance probability becomes
1/N is the expected value of the maximum values at that number of waves, the expected value of the ratios of
double amplitudes of motions in a Rayleigh distribution is approximated by the following equation when N is
sufficiently large.
(4.9.8)
On the other hand, in a normal distribution, the expected value of the double amplitudes is expressed by the
following equation.
(4.9.9)
The expected maximum value varies depending on the number of waves N. Table 4.9.2 shows the values
of xN relative to representative values of N and the values of µN, which is the parameter of the deviation of a
standard normal distribution.
④ Calculation of the expected value of the maximum values
For example, assuming a Rayleigh distribution as the distribution shape, consider a case where the expected
value of the maximum values for the number of waves of 1,000 is calculated. First of all, the significant value
A* of the double amplitudes of motions is calculated from the simulation results. Next, a = 1.416 and N = 1,000
are substituted into equation (4.9.8), and the value of xN is calculated. Finally, the expected value, A is calculated
from xN = A/A*.
(8) Similarity Laws for Mooring Systems
The characteristics of the motions of a floating body vary greatly with the mooring method. When carrying out
hydraulic model tests on a floating body, it is thus particularly important to give appropriate consideration to the
– 162 –
similarity laws for the displacement and reaction force characteristics of the mooring equipment. For example,
with a mooring rope, if the material used in the hydraulic model tests is kept the same as that used in the field and
the size is simply scaled down while maintaining the same shape, then the similarity laws will not hold; rather
it is necessary to scale down the elastic modulus of the material used in the models relative to that used in the
prototype. In practice, however, it will probably be unable to find such a material, in which case various other
measurements must be used.
Table 4.9.2 Values for Estimation of Expected Values
Number of samples N relative to the expected

100 200 500 1000 10000
maximum value
Rayleigh distribution xN 1.52 1.63 1.76 1.86 2.14
Normal distribution µN 2.33 2.58 2.88 3.09 3.96
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Technical Note of PHRI, No.230, pp.45, 1975
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Numerical Simulation, Technical Note of PHRI, No. 636, pp.70, 1988
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pp.118, 1988
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PHRI Vol.20 No.3 1981.9
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H.O. Pub. 601, pp.1-44, 1947
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1958
12) Wilson, B.W.: Numerical prediction of ocean waves in the North Atlantic for December, 1959, Deut, Hydrogr. Zeit, Jahrgang
18, Heft 3, pp.114-130, 1965
13) Goda, Y.: Revisiting Wilson’s Formulas for Simplified Wind-Wave Prediction, Journal of Port, Coast, and Ocean Engineering,
ASCE, Vol.129, Issue 2, pp.93-95, 2003
14) JSCE: The Collected Formula of Hydraulics, JSCE, 1971, p.508
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– 171 –
5 Tsunamis
Public Notice
Tsunamis
Article 9
Tsunamis shall be appropriately defined in terms of the tsunami height and others based on historical tsunami
records or numerical analyses.
[Commentary]
Specification of Tsunamis:
The tsunami parameters shall be specified appropriately based on historical tsunami disaster records and/
or results of numerical analysis that include estimation of initial conditions for tsunamis generated by
earthquakes and others.
[Technical Note]
(1) Definition of Terminology Related to Tsunamis

① Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of waves that mainly occurs when an earthquake causes sudden uplift and subsidence of
the sea bottom, leading to a vertical fluctuation of the sea surface that gets transmitted to the coast. Other causes
of tsunamis are large landslides near the coast and under sea, the eruptions of undersea volcanoes, and other
impacts upon the sea surface including meteorites.
The displacement of the sea bottom due to an earthquake may extend for several tens of kilometers or more
in the relatively shallower water several kilometers deep at most. The bottom movement in the considerably
wide and thin layer is directly transmitted to the sea surface. This sea surface movement becomes the initial
tsunami profile with extremely long wavelength compared to the water depth. The sea surface movement is then
transmitted outward as a long wave.
Terminology of the tsunamis is as shown in Fig. 5.1 Tsunami Terminology.
Highest water level
Tsunami height
Mean water level
Tsunami Estimated tide level

First tsunami arrival time wave height
C.D.L.
Fig. 5.1 Tsunami Terminology
② Estimated tide level (Ordinary tide level)

This is the estimated level of the sea surface when there is no tsunami. It is obtained by smoothing the tide
level on a tide observation record by removing the components that are considered to be of the tsunami and any
oscillation components of shorter period by seiche. The estimated tide level is basically the astronomical tide
level, however it may be deviated from the astronomical tide level calculated from harmonic components of
tide due to factors such as atmospheric pressure changes, winds, and changes in ocean currents near the shore.
③ Tsunami height
The absolute value of the difference between a peak or trough of the actual tide level and the estimated tide level
is referred to as deviation. The maximum value of the deviation when the actual tide level is higher than the
estimated one is referred to as the maximum deviation or the tsunami height. It is necessary to recognize that
the tsunami height is different from the tsunami wave height as described later.
④ Highest water level
The maximum value of the tide level that is measured during a tsunami is called the highest water level.
⑤ Tsunami wave height and period
– 172 –
Time series of tsunami is usually irregular. In the same way as analysis of wind waves, the tsunami can be
analyzed by the zero up-crossing method to define the tsunami wave height and period for an individual wave.
An individual wave is defined to extend from a point where the observed sea surface water level crosses over the
estimated tide level from the negative side to the positive side, to the next such point. The difference between
the highest water level and the lowest water level within the individual wave is defined as the tsunami wave
height, while the time duration of the individual wave is defined as the tsunami period. Finally, the highest value
within a series of tsunami wave heights is called the highest tsunami wave height.
⑥ Initial movement
This refers to the instance at which a tsunami reaches the observation point and the observed tide level starts to
shift from the estimated tide level. When the first observed sea surface water level change due to the tsunami
is higher than the estimated tide level, such initial motion is referred to as the pushing initial motion, when it is
lower than the estimated tide level, the initial motion is called the drawing initial motion.
⑦ Runup height and tsunami trace height
The runup height is the elevation to which a tsunami has runup the land or a structure. The height of tsunami is
often determined by the trace that the tsunami leaves at that location, and the height of that trace is also called
the tsunami trace height.
(2) Tsunami Period
The predominant period of a tsunami depends on factors such as the size of the source area of the tsunami, the
distance from the epicenter, and the resonance characteristics of a bay. Since the tsunami that hits the shore
is generally not regular waves with a simple period, but rather random waves, it may have components whose
periods are the same as the natural frequency periods of the bay or harbor and which are amplified through
resonance. During performance verification, it is necessary to investigate characteristics and effects of tsunamis
that have not only predominant periods of the past and possible tsunamis but also the periods that are the same as
the natural frequency periods of bays and harbors.
(3) Tsunami Wave Celerity
Because a tsunami is a long wave, the tsunami wave celerity C is a function only of the water depth, as in the
following formula:
(5.1)
where
C : wave celerity (m/s)
g : gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h : water depth (m)
For example, the tsunami wave celerity would be 713 km/hour in the average depth of the Pacific Ocean which
is 4000 meters. In 1960, the tsunami that formed off the coast of Chile reached Japan about one day later. At the
shore, with a depth of 20 meters, the wave celerity decreases to 50 km/hour.
If the tsunami arrival times are known at many locations as well as bathymetry then it is possible to calculate
inversely the source area of the tsunami by means of the characteristics that the tsunami wave electricity depends
on the water depth only.
(4) Tsunami Transformation
① Wave shoaling, refraction, and diffraction
In the deep sea, the spatial scale of a tsunami is several tens of kilometers or more, while the vertical fluctuation
is only about several meters. Tsunami is not prominent at the deep sea. However, the tsunami is transformed
by wave shoaling and refraction in the same way as wind waves. This process provides the increase of tsunami
wave height, resulting in being visible near the shore. In addition, it is affected by local topological features
along the shore, on a scale of 200 to 300 meters, making it possible for the tsunami to runup the shore 20 to 30
meters. For example, the tsunami by the 1993 Hokkaido-oki earthquake (the 1993 Okushiri Tsunami) ran up
32 meters at the V-shaped cliff area of Okushiri Island.1), 2) Also, a tsunami can be concentrated in a cape area
due to refraction induced by bathymetry change off the cape. Further, due to diffraction, a tsunami wave may
reach the opposite side of an island, cape or as seen from the direction of approach of the tsunami. For example,
the 1993 Okushiri tsunami approached Okushiri Island from the west side, but tsunami damage also occurred
on the island’s east side as well as the west side, and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami reached Sri Lankan Island
from the east side but the tsunami of about 5 meters also hit the southwest shore.
② Transformation of tsunamis within bays
A tsunami increases its wave height and fluid velocity, if it propagates into a bay where the water depth becomes
shallower and the wave ray becomes narrower toward the end of the bay. If the ratio of the wave height to the
– 173 –
water depth is small then the wave height can be calculated from Green’s law, as shown in equation (5.2):
(5.2)
where
H1 : the tsunami wave height for a cross-section of width b1 and water depth h1
H2 : the tsunami wave height for a cross-section of width b2 and water depth h2
However, equation (5.2) only holds if one assumes that the width and water depth change gradually and there
is no reflected wave, and it does not consider energy loss due to sea bottom friction. It cannot be applied in
places such as shallow water area and the inner portion of a bay where there is a strong effect of the reflected
wave.
(5) Bore Type Tsunamis 3)
A remarkable characteristic of the tsunami by the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake (the 1983 sea of Japan
Earthquake) occurred along the northern shore of Akita prefecture where the shore has a mild bottom slope of
about 1/200 that extends for 30 km. Propagating toward the shore, the tsunami was greatly deformed into a bore,
accompanied by a short periodic waves of about 5 to 10 seconds. On the other hand, when this same tsunami hit
a shore with a relatively steep slope of about 1/50, such as the western shore of Oga peninsula, it did not become
a pronounced bore type tsunami, but rather similar to standing waves. For incoming tsunamis with the same
tsunami height, a bore type tsunami tends to have a greater runup height than a standing-wave type tsunami.
(6) Edge Waves
If propagates onto a continental shelf obliquely from the deep sea, the wave refraction can make the tsunami
reflected from a coast propagate along the coast and consequently part of energy of the tsunami can be trapped
near the coast. Such a wave is referred to as an edge wave. For example, the tsunami by the 2003 Tokachi-oki
earthquake in the sea off Tokachi in Hokkaido, a tsunami that could be considered an edge wave was detected
along the coast from Cape Erimo to Kushiro in the southeastern coast of Hokkaido, Japan. The fact that a tsunami
can continue for a long time due to formation of edge waves means the increase of possibility that the tsunami can
meet a high tide resulting in inundation in coastal areas.4)
(7) Tsunami Wave Force
Tsunami wave force on an upright wall may be determined as in Fig. 5.2, in which the wave pressure distribution
can be assumed as a linear distribution with a value of p = 0 at a height of η* = 3.0 a1 above the still water level
and a value of p1 = 2.2 ρ0gaI at the still water level, and a constant value for the wave pressure below the still
water level.3)
(5.3)

(5.4)
(5.5)
where
η* : wave pressure acting height above the still water surface (m)
aI : incident tsunami height (m)
ρ0g : unit weight of the seawater (kN/m3)
p1 : wave pressure intensity at the still water surface (kN/m 2)
pu : uplift pressure at the lower edge of the front surface (kN/m 2)
For a bore type tsunami, the still water surface is the level of the water just before the incident of the tsunami.
For a non-breaking type of tsunami, the tsunami wave height HI may be related to the incident tsunami height
as follows:
(5.6)
Conducting a numerical simulation with breakwaters, the tsunami wave height in front of the breakwaters
is about twice the value when there are no breakwaters because of adding the reflected tsunami. In this case the
highest water level in front of a breakwater, measured from the still water surface, may be taken as equal to the
incident wave height.
The wave force of the tsunami with soliton fission may be calculated by means of empirical formulae based
on experimental results.5)
– 174 –
η*
aI
Bouyancy
h
pu
p1
Fig. 5.2 Description of the Tsunami Wave Force
(8) Fluid Velocity of Tsunami

For a tsunami, different from the case of a wind wave, water particles can move even near the sea bottom as well as
around the sea surface. Usually, the movement of the sea water due to a tsunami is uniform from the sea surface
to the sea bottom, and the fluid velocity u may be given by equation (5.7). As shown by this equation, the fluid
velocity of tsunami is faster in the shallower water.
(5.7)
where
η : sea surface deviation due to the tsunami (m)
C : wave celerity (m/s)
h : water depth (h)
(9) Tsunamis in Tide Records

① Tide records are extremely useful as records of tsunamis. However, when using such data it is necessary to keep
in mind the following items.1)
② Tsunami records measured at a tide station within a harbor may indicate different characteristics of tsunami,
from those in the area outside the harbor, because they are affected by facilities such as breakwaters.
③ A tsunami with a relatively short wave period will have an energy loss as the water flows through the tide
station’s inlet pipe until it enters the tide well, so that it is measured to be a smaller tsunami wave than the one
that exists around the tide station.
(10) Model Experiments of Tsunamis
In model experiments, by reproducing tsunami profiles determined by numerical simulations at the boundary in
a wave basin or flume, it is possible to investigate the stability and protective effect of tsunami breakwaters 6) and
the effect of topological alterations such as reclamations on tsunamis. The scouring of a breakwater entrance
mound by the 1993 Okushiri tsunami has been investigated in the model experiments.7)
(11) Numerical Simulations of Tsunamis
① Numerical simulations of tsunamis must use appropriate numerical models which are based on fundamental
equations that can reproduce the subject tsunamis. The following two types of theories are mainly used for a
regional tsunamis that occurs near the coast:
(a) Non-dispersive long wave theories 8) : Among these, there are the linear long wave theory that applies to
waves whose wavelengths are long compared to the water depth, and also the ratio of wave height to water
depth is small, and nonlinear long wave theories that apply to long waves when the ratio of wave height to
water depth is not small. According to Shuto, 9) the linear long wave theory may be applied in the water 200
meters or deeper.
– 175 –
(b) Dispersive long wave theories: For a dispersive tsunami, such as the wave observed near the coast for the
tsunami by the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, the phenomenon can be explained better with a non-linear
dispersed-wave theory.10), 11) A nonlinear dispersive wave theory includes factors that take wave dispersion
into account (dispersion terms) to a nonlinear long wave theory.
For a distant tsunami (teletsunami) that originates from a far away source, such as the 1960 Chilean
Tsunami that traveled across the Pacific Ocean from the Chilean coast to Japanese coast, it is possible to use
linear dispersive wave theories, which add dispersion terms to the linear long wave theory. Since the tsunami
is a series of waves whose components have various periods, and a wave component with longer period has
slightly faster wave celerity. The difference of the celerity is usually negligible small for the tsunami traveling
short distance, but is not negligible for those traveling long distance. Further, accurate calculation of a distant
tsunami generally need to consider the Coriolis force and to use the spherical coordinates.
② In numerical simulations of tsunami for a time series of the tsunami is provided as the boundary conditions
for the calculation region, and an initial tsunami profile in the source area as the initial condition. The initial
tsunami profile may be calculated as being the same as displacement of the sea bottom by the earthquake. The
displacement may be calculated from an earthquake fault model 12) by means of the elastic theory of Mansinha
and Smylie 13) and others In another way to setup the initial tsunami profile, the asperity of the fault is recently
considered.
③ In order to calculate the tsunami runup on the land, the method of Iwasaki and Mano, 14) or improvements on
it 15) can be used. If the tsunami overflows structures such as breakwaters or seawalls, it is possible to use the
Honma formula 16), 17) to calculate the amount of overflow for a unit width. In order to evaluate tsunami reduction
effect of breakwaters, and other structures, momentum loss due to such facilities should be considered. The
momentum loss, which is proportional to the mean flow velocity, includes the sea bottom friction that can be
evaluated by Manning’s roughness coefficients and others, and the momentum loss due to abrupt narrowing and
widening of the cross-section as seen in the opening section of breakwater. Comparing model experiments 18)
with numerical simulations for the breakwaters at the entrance to Kamaishi Bay provided a value of 0.5 for the
coefficient of the momentum loss due to the breakwaters.8)
Recently it has also become possible to evaluate the flows near submerged breakwaters in the opening section
of tsunami breakwater as well as the tsunami wave force that acts on the submerged breakwaters 19), 20) by using
non-hydrostatic and three-dimensional numerical models, and by using such models it should be possible to
calculate characteristics and effects of tsunami in detail including direct simulation of tsunami wave force.
(12) Determination of Tsunami for the Performance Verification of Facilities
For establishment of measures to prevent and reduce tsunami damage, it is necessary to presume tsunamis in the
subject area and to estimate tsunami parameters such as tsunami height, wave runup height, and arrival times by
simulations such as appropriate numerical calculations or model experiments.
The tsunamis that are used for performance verification of facilities shall be determined based on the conditions
of the area, such as the coastal landscape, environment, coast use, and economics taking the largest tsunamis that
are estimated by historical tsunami records in the subject region and possible tsunami into consideration. The
expected tsunamis are as follows:
① The largest tsunami that has previously hit the subject region.
② Among recent tsunamis with a comparatively large amount of data, the tsunami whose scale is considered
appropriate for disaster prevention.
③ Expected tsunamis in a seismic gap region which is experienced little or no earthquake activity for a long
period.
With regard to protective facilities such as to safeguard the lives and property of the people of an area, it is
important to evaluate safety and protective ability of the facilities against the largest tsunamis that are expected
to occur in that area. It is necessary to verify the safety and protective ability against the largest tsunamis
calculated by means of fault models of previous earthquakes and possible tsunamis.
Since facilities may often suffer damage by earthquake motion before the arrival of a tsunami, it is important
to consider the earthquake resistance of facilities.
Recently, a GPS buoy system has been developed, where the horizontal and vertical position of the buoy is
determined by analysis of signals from the Global Positioning System. A sampling interval of a second or less,
makes it possible to measure sea surface fluctuation with various periods, such as tide motion, tsunamis, storm
surge, and waves. It is expected that it will be possible to use measurement records of tsunamis in the deep sea
for the performance verification of facilities.
– 176 –
References
1) TAKAYAMA, T., Y. SUZUKI, H. TSURUYA, S. TAKAHASHI, C. GOTO, T. NAGAI, N. HASHIMOTO, T. NAGAO and
T. HOSOYAMADA: Field Investigations of Tsunami Caused by 1993 Hokkaido Nansei-oki Earthquake Technical Note of
PHRI No.775,pp.225,1994
2) Shuto, N. H. Tomimatsu and M. Ubana: Characteristics of Off-Hokkaido Southwest Earthquake and outstanding issues
towards future, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 41, pp. 236-240, 1994
3) TANIMOTO, K., T. TAKAYAMA, K. MURAKAMI, S. MURATA, H. TSURUYA, S. TAKAHASHI, M. MORIKAWA,
Y. YOSHIMOTO, S. NAKANO and T. HIRAISHI: Field and Laboratory Investigations of the Tsunami caused by 1983
Nihonkai Chubu Earthquake, Technical Note of PHRI No.470,pp299,1983
4) TOMITA, T., H. KAWAI and T. KAKINUMA: Tsunami Disasters and Tsunami Characteristics Due to the Tokachi-oki
Earthquake in 2003, Technical Note of PHRI No.1082, pp.30, 2004
5) Ikeno, M. M. Matsuyama and H. Tanaka: Experimental study on the transformation of Soliton wave Tsunami and its wave
forces for the design of breakwater, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol.45, pp. 366-370, 1998
6) TAKAYAMA, T. and T. HIRAISHI: Hydraulic Model Tests on Tsunamis at Suzaki-port, Technical Note of PHRI
No549,pp.131, 1986
7) TSURUYA, K. and Y. NAKAGAWA: Model Experiment for Reproduction of Disaster at Okushiri-Higashi Breakwater by
Hokkaido-Nansei-oki Earthquake Tsunami, Technical Note of PHRI No.789,pp.20,1994
8) GOTO, C. and K. SATO: Development of Tsunami Numerical Simulation System for Sanriku Coast in Japan, Rept of PHRI
Author Chiaki Vol. 32 No. 2, pp.3-44, 1993
9) Shuto, N: Tsunami and countermeasures, Jour. Of the JSCE, No.369/II-5, pp.1-11,1986,
10) Iwase, H, T. Mikami and C. Goto: Practical tsunami numerical simulation model by use of non-linear dispersive wave theory,
Jour. Of JSCE, Vol. 600/11-44,pp.119-124,1998
11) Iwase, H. K. Fujima. T. Mikami, H. Shibaki and C. Goto: Calculation of Central Japan Sea Earthquake Tsunami run-up
considering wave number dispersion effect., Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 49, pp.266-270, 2002
12) Sato, Y., M. Abe, Y. Okada, K. Shimazaki and Y. Suzuki: Handbook of earthquake
13) Mansinha,L., Smylie, D.E.: The displacement fields of inclined faults, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
Vol.61, No.5, pp.1433-1440, 1971
14) Iwasaki, T. and A. Mano: Numerical calculation of 2-dimensional tsunami run-up in Euler coordinates, Proceedings of 26th
Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp.70-74,1979
15) Kotani, Y., F. Imamura and N, Shuto: Calculation of Tsunami Run-up and damage estimation utilizing GIS, Proceedings of
Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 45, pp. 356-360, 1998
16) Honma, M. and K. Aki:shiro: Mononobe Hydraulics, Iwanami Publishing, pp. 232-237, 1962
17) JSCE: The Collected Formula of Hydraulics (1999 Edition), Maruzen Publishing, pp. 713, 1999
18) TANIMOTO, K., K KIMURA and K. MIYAZAKI: Study on Stability of Submerged Dike at the Opening Section of Tsunami
Protection Breakwaters, Rept of PHRI Vol. 27No. 4, pp. 93-122, 1988
19) Masanura, K., K. Fujima, C. Goto and K. Iida: Numerical Analysis of Tsunami by using 2D/3D hybrid model, Jour. Of JSCE,
No.670/II-54,pp.49-61,2001
20) Tomita, T. T. Kakinuma and A. Shimada: Numerical calculation of effect of Tsunami breakwater utilizing 3-dimensional
wave model, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 51,pp. 296-300, 2004
21) Nagai, T., H. Ogawa, Y. Terada, T. Kato and M. Kudaka: Observation of Offshore wave, tsunami and tide utilizing GPS buoy,
22) Nagai, T.: Maritime safety by strengthening wave observation network- GPS wave gauges stationed in Fiscal 2006-, JSCE,
Journal of Civil Eng. Vol. 91, No. 9 (2006. Sep.), pp.78-79, 2006
– 177 –
6 Water Currents
6.1 The Flow of Sea Water in Coastal Zone
Public Notice
Flow of Sea Water
Article 10
Flow of water in the sea or others shall be appropriately defined in terms of the current velocity and direction
based on field measurements or numerical computation.
[Commentary]
Setting Methods for the Flow of Sea Water
In the performance verification of facilities subject to the technical standards, when combining the flow
of sea water, with other actions, out of all the possible flows of sea water that have a high probability of
occurring simultaneously with other actions, specify the current velocities and current directions that would
be the severest conditions from the viewpoint of the stability of the target facilities.
[Technical Note]
(1) General
Movements of sea water are superpositions of currents that have various periods, caused by different natural
actions, and their current velocities and current directions are greatly affected by topography and structures, and
change in complicated ways both in space and in time. Movements of sea water cause sediment on the sea bottom
to move, causing problems such as siltation in navigation channels and basins and scouring of the area around
facilities. Also, the flow of sea water due to coastal development can cause wide-scale changes in the natural
environment, such as water quality, sedimentation changes, and biological changes.
With regard to their origins and their scales over time and space, flows of sea water are classified as ocean
currents, tide currents, wind-driven currents, density currents, and nearshore currents. These currents are greatly
affected by maritime meteorological and geological conditions, showing flow patterns that are unique to specific
regions of the sea.
6.2 Estuarine Hydraulics
Public Notice
Estuarine Hydraulics
Article 11
Influence of estuarine hydraulics shall be assessed with appropriate methods by taking into account the river
flow based on field measurements or numerical computation.
[Commentary]
Effect of Estuarine Hydraulics
Effects of estuarine hydraulics include such factors as tides in rivers, river runoff, density currents at river
mouth, waves entering into river mouth, and siltation. Their evaluation shall be performed appropriately
taking into account of the action from the seaside on estuaries, the river flow and sand discharge from rivers.
[Technical Note]
(1) General
The range over which to define estuarine hydraulics is not necessarily clear, and if it is broadly taken as the
area over which fresh water and sea water interact then that is a large area extending from the limit of tidal
influence in the upstream river to the mouth of the bay. However, from the viewpoint of actions and effects that
are related to port facilities, the estuarine area is generally defined as extending from the upstream point where
salt water reaches by average tidal motion to the front portion of the estuarine terrace that is composed mainly of
sand expelling during floods (hereafter this will simply be called the estuarine areas). In the estuarine area, in
addition to actions such as tidal currents, tide motion, waves, and nearshore currents, there are also river current
fluctuations from the seaside, such as the outflow of river flood or drought. As the state of water motion and
water density change, there are complex hydraulic phenomena such as density currents, and sediment movement
phenomena such as chemical flocculation and settlement. In an estuarine area, organisms live in a fine balance
– 178 –
of the physical environment and chemical environment, and the natural environment and biological environment
in the estuarine area can easily be influenced by human activities, so that the development of facilities requires
sufficient study and continuous monitoring of such influences.
(2) Tidal Motion, Waves, and Water Currents in an Estuary
In an estuary there are complex hydraulic phenomena as a result of the mixture of the actions such as tidal level
fluctuation and tide currents caused by tide motion, water level rises due to waves, and fluctuation of nearshore
currents. There are still many issues to be resolved to take all of these factors into account in calculating the
movement of water, but with regard to the intrusion of tidal currents into river channels, owing to factors such as
the river bed slope and the river current, the duration of flood tide is shorter, and that of ebb tide is longer, so that
the maximum and minimum values of the current velocity and discharge occur later than the times of high and
low water. These various phenomena vary in time and space in accordance with the location of the river mouth,
its shape, and the hydraulic capacity of the river and outer sea. In general, the current at the river mouth can be
characterized as follows.
① The current is strong when the river flood, so that the gradient current of the river is predominant, which is a
uniform flow.
② When the river is ordinary water, the characteristics of the water flow are complicated because that tidal currents
and density currents add into the gradient current.
③ During times of drought the tidal current characteristics take precedence. However, in estuaries where the tidal
range is small, the tide current is not so strong, and the density current characteristic is intensified.
④ In estuaries where the tidal range is large, the tide current characteristics tend to predominate.
(3) Density Currents at River Mouth
In an estuary, where river water meets sea water, the sea water penetrates the lower layer of the river water due
to the difference in their densities, and there is a mixing of their flows in order to achieve dynamic equilibrium.
These flows are called ‘density currents at river mouth’. They are divided into three main types, called weakly
mixing, moderate mixing, and fully mixing, depending on how the density layers form in the river water and sea
water. However, in fact, this changes depending on the time of the tides and the season.
(4) Waves Entering into River Mouth
When waves enter an estuary, the waves are transformed by the effects of the topography and the river currents.
The wave height increases due to refraction and concentration caused by the topography of the estuarine terrace
and due to wave shoaling. The wave propagation is reduced by the river currents that oppose the direction of wave
propagation, increasing the wave height. As the incident waves whose height has been increased run up the river
channel, they are attenuated by the wave breakings, the bottom friction, and turbulent flow. Also, when the river
current is extremely fast, the waves are unable to run up against the current.
(5) Currents in an Estuary and Sediment Movement
The sediment within the estuary of a bay is mostly sand, containing small particles of substances such as clay
and silt. The sediment moves under the action of wave motion, forming characteristic tidal flats, sand spits, river
mouth terraces, and bars in the estuary. Such movement of sand is called littoral drift. Also, the fine particles are
widely dispersed as they are suspended in the currents, accumulating in calm areas such as waterways and basins,
or in places of slower currents in the harbor, causing problems for port facility maintenance and environmental
management.
In places where there is a large accumulation of fine particles, the movement of high density mud and
accumulation of mud due to sediment cohesion is specifically called ‘siltation’. The main difference between
‘siltation’ and ‘littoral drift’ is that mud flocculates through mixing with sea water in the estuary, which greatly
changes its settling characteristics. Also, the mud that deposit to the sea bottom are capable of changing into a
very hard sediment through consolidation over a long period of time. Their ability to be stirred up by the action of
waves and water movement is affected by factors such as mud characteristics, the salt content of the sea water, the
texture, the water content, and the organic material content, all of which change with time after deposition. These
characteristics of mud make difficult to solve problems caused by siltation.
– 179 –
6.3 Littoral Drift 1), 2), 3), 4), 5), 6), 7)

Public Notice
Littoral Drift
Article 12
Influence of littoral drift shall be assessed by appropriate methods based on field measurements or numerical
prediction.
[Commentary]
Effect of Littoral Drift
The evaluation of the effect of littoral drift appropriately takes into account factors such as the sediment grain
size, the threshold depth of sediment movement, the longshore sediment transport rate, and the predominant
direction of longshore sediment transport.
[Technical Note]
6.3.1 General
(1) When port facilities are to be affected by the littoral drift phenomena, characteristic values of littoral drift shall
be established appropriately for sediment grain size, threshold depth of sediment movement, longshore sediment
transport rate, and predominant direction of longshore sediment transport.
(2) Littoral drift refers to either the phenomenon that the sediment composing a sea coast or lakeshore is moved by
the actions of some forces such as waves and currents, or material itself that is moved by the above processes.
(3) Although the movement of sand by winds and the sand itself that is thus moved are referred to as the wind-blown
sand, in the broad definition the littoral drift is also considered to include wind-blown sand at beaches.
(4) Sediment that forms a beach is supplied from nearby rivers, coastal cliffs, and the adjacent coastline. The sediment
is exposed to the actions of waves and currents during the supply process or after it has accreted on the beach.
This is why the sediment shows characteristics that reflect the characteristics of external forces such as waves and
currents. This is referred to as the sediment sorting action by external forces.
(5) As a natural beach is repeatedly subjected to process of erosion when storm waves attack and that of accretion
during periods when waves are moderate, it achieves a relatively balanced topography over a long period. This
balance may be lost by a reduction in the supply of sand owing to river improvements, by changes in sand supply
conditions following construction of coastal structures, and by changes in external forces such as waves and
currents. Then beach deformation will occur as the beach moves toward new equilibrium conditions. When
building structures such as breakwaters, groins, detached breakwaters, and training jetties, careful attention should
be paid to the changes that the construction works will bring about in the balance of the beach. Topographical
changes that might be induced by a construction project should be sufficiently investigated in advance. In addition,
careful attention should be paid to the deformation conditions of the beach both during construction and following
completion of any structure, and appropriate coastal protection countermeasures are recommended to be taken
any time when there are concerns about the possibility for disaster triggered by coastal erosion.
(6) When waves approach a coast from offshore, the movement of water particles near the sea floor does not have
the force to move the sediment in places where the water depth is sufficiently deep. At a certain water depth,
however, the sediment begins to move. The water depth at this boundary where sediment begins to move is called
the threshold depth of sediment movement. Sato 1) studied the movement of sediment by placing radioactive
glass sand on the sea floor and investigating the distribution of their movement. From this study, he defined
two conditions that are called the surface layer sediment movement and the complete sediment movement,
respectively. He applied the former term to the situation in which the sand in the surface layer on the sea floor is
moved collectively in the direction of wave movement. The latter term he applied to the situation that the sand
shows striking movement with a distinctly visible change in water depth.
(7) Longshore sediment transport rate refers to the rate of littoral drift in the direction parallel to the coast that is
caused by waves obliquely incident to a coast.
(8) Longshore sediment moves in either the right or left direction along a coast, corresponding to the direction of
incoming waves. The direction with the larger volume of movement during a year is called the predominant
direction.
(9) Littoral drift parallel to the coastal line is called longshore sediment transport. In the long term, the topographical
changes due to longshore sediment transport are often irreversible. For example, considering topographical
– 180 –
changes near a groin, if waves come in from the right side, looking out toward the sea from the coast, there will be
accumulation on the right side of the groin, and erosion on the left side. Or, if the waves come in from the left side
then the opposite topographical change occurs. Taking the direction perpendicular to the coastline as a standard,
it is the case for most coasts that the energy of the waves coming in from the right is not equal to the energy of the
waves coming in from the left, but rather one of them usually predominates. For example, if the average energy of
the waves coming in from the right is larger than that of the waves coming in from the left, then even though the
right side of the groin sees repeated accumulation and erosion, eventually the amount of accumulation will grow,
while the erosion will increase on the left side of the groin. Therefore, the topographical changes due to longshore
sediment transport can be called irreversible, so that when building port or coastal facilities it is desirable to first
understand the predominant direction of the longshore sediment transport for that coastal, as well as the longshore
sediment transport rate, so as to be able to estimate the degree of coastal deformation in that area.
(10) Coastal Topography
① Terminology for various sections of a beach profile
Typical sections of a sandy beach are defined with the terminology shown in Fig. 6.3.1. The "offshore" is the
area on the offing where normal waves do not break, and in many cases the bottom slope is comparatively gentle.
The "inshore" refers to the area between the landward boundary of the offshore and the ebb tide shoreline, where
waves break and longshore bars or steps are formed. The "foreshore" is the zone from the ebb tide shoreline to
the location where waves will reach normally, and the "backshore" is the zone from the landward boundary of
foreshore to the coastline, where waves will reach during stormy weather with the rise of water level.
The names shown along the top row of Fig. 6.3.1 classify regions based on the type of sediment movement.
In the surf zone the sediment is suspended due to the action of large eddies generated by breaking waves and
carried in sand clouds of high density. As for the littoral drift in the swash zone, when the wave is uprush the
sand is lifted up and carried by the agitation at the front edge of the running-up waves, but when the wave is
downwash the agitation on the sea bottom predominates and the sediment is carried as bedload.
Swash zone Surf zone Offshore zone
Coast Shore Inshore Offshore

Backshore Fore-
shore
High tide shoreline
Ebb tide shoreline
Storm
Wave breaking point
berm
Cliff
Ordinary
berm
Beach scarp Mean high water level
Mean low water level
Longshore bar
Fig. 6.3.1 Terminology of Beach Profile
② Topography of sandy beaches such as longshore bars

A longshore bar is the most distinctive topographical feature of a sandy beach, around which interrelated
sandy beach cross-sections form. Viewing the shape of a coastal sandy beach horizontally, it is either ① long
and linear, roughly parallel to the shoreline as in Fig. 6.3.2 (a), or ② a repeating arch as in Fig. 6.3.2 (b). In
particular, the latter type of coastal sand bar is called a crescentic bar. Also, a coastal sand bar often forms
multiple stages in a sequence leading out to sea, in which case it exists on a large scale as an offshore sand bar.
– 181 –
Mega cusp
Bar Trough Trough
Bar
Fig. 6.3.2(a) Longshore Bar Fig. 6.3.2(b) Crescentic Bar
③ Foreshore topography
As shown in Fig. 6.3.3, when there is continued calmness a nearly horizontal area forms in the foreshore,
somewhat higher than the high tide level, sometimes slanting on the side toward the land. This topography
is called a berm. When conditions are rough the berm is eroded, forming the sand bar called an inner bar
near the position of the last breakers. Inner bars dissipate the wave energy when waves break upon them, and
therefore are thought to prevent further erosion of the foreshore. The sediments of the inner bars that form
during rough conditions gradually return to the foreshore when it is calm, and the foreshore eventually returns
to its condition prior to the rough period.
Berm
calmness rough
Inner bar
Fig. 6.3.3 Foreshore Topography
(11) Form of Littoral Drift Movement

Littoral drift is classified into three categories of bedload and suspended load, and sheet flow according to the
modes of sediment movement.
① Bedload: littoral drift that moves by tumbling, sliding or bouncing along the surface of the sea floor through the
direct action of waves and currents.
② Suspended load: littoral drift that is suspended in seawater by turbulence of breakers and others.
③ Sheet flow: littoral drift that moves as a layer of high density flow near the bed surface
Shallow water zones can be classified into three regions as shown in Fig. 6.3.4, depending upon the physical
properties of waves that provide the external forces for the littoral drift phenomenon. The dominant mode of
the littoral drift movement in each region is as follows.
[Offshore zone] In order for sand to be moved by the action of fluid motion, oscillatory movement, the
current velocity of the fluid must exceed a certain value. This condition is generally called
“the threshold of movement”. For littoral drift the threshold of movement is defined with
the water depth, threshold depth of sediment movement. When the water depth is shallower
than the threshold depth of sediment movement, regular, small undulating topographic
contours that are called the sand ripples will form on the sea bottom surface. When sand
ripples form, vortices are generated by the fluid motion in the vicinity of the sand ripples
and movement of suspended sediment trapped in the vortices occur. As the water depth
becomes shallower, sand ripples are extinguished, and a sheet flow condition occur in which
sediment moves in stratified layers extending several layers below the sea bed surface.
– 182 –
[Surf zone] Inside the surf zone, high-density suspension of sediment is formed by the severe agitation
and action of large-scale vortices that are generated by breakers. The volume of sand
that moves near the seabed surface in a bedload state also increases. For convenience
the sand movement inside the surf zone is divided into a component called the longshore
sediment transport that moves parallel to the shoreline and a component called the cross-
shore sediment transport that is perpendicular to the shoreline. While the time frame
for beach deformation caused by longshore sediment transport is long, the time frame for
cross-shore sediment transport is relatively short, from a few days to about one week, like
that for periods of storms passing.
[Swash zone] The sand movement in a swash zone differs for the times of wave runup and downflow.
During the time of wave runup sand is put in suspension by the agitation at the front of a
wave and transported by running-up water, whereas during the downflow sand is carried
in a bedload mode.
Wave height H
Bed surface current
speed amplitude ub
Swash zone Surf zone Offshore zone

Movement in the swash zone
Agitation by wave breaking
Suspension above sand ripples
Return flow
Nearshore currents
Suspension by wave breaking
Sheet flow
Suspension above sand ripples
Bedload movement
Threshold depth of
sediment movement
Fig. 6.3.4 Changes in Sediment Movement Modes in Cross-Shore Direction
(12) Physical Meaning of and Estimation Formulas for the Threshold Depth of Sediment Movement
In respect of the threshold depth of sediment movement which is required to determine the extension of breakwater
or the water depth at the head and the offshore boundary of beach deformation, Sato and Tanaka 8), 16) conducted
a number of field surveys using radioactive glass sand as a tracer. Based upon their observed results they defined
the littoral drift movement conditions as follows.
(a) Surface layer sediment movement:
As shown in Fig. 6.3.5 (a), the elongation of the isocount lines that show the distribution of radioactive glass
sand after waves acted upon it on the sea floor demonstrates that all of the sand has moved in the direction of
the waves. But the location of the highest count remained at the injection point of glass sand, indicating no
movement. This corresponds to a situation in which the surface layer sand is moved collectively by traction,
parallel to the wave direction.
(b) Complete sediment movement:
As shown in Fig. 6.3.5 (b), this refers to a situation in which both the isocount lines and the portion of the
highest count move in the wave direction. This corresponds to a situation of distinct sand movement with the
result of apparent change in water depth. The threshold depth of complete sediment movement is often used as
the threshold depth of sediment movement for engineering purposes.
– 183 –
Waves Waves
Input point Input point
Highest count
Highest count
Isocount line
Isocount line
(a) Surface layer sediment movement (b) Total sediment movement

Fig. 6.3.5 Spread of Radioactive Glass Sand in Surface Layer Sediment Movement and Total Sediment Movement
Based upon the field data, two equations are proposed by Sato and Tanaka for estimating the threshold depth
of surface layer sediment movement and that of complete sediment movement.
① Threshold depth of surface layer sediment movement
(6.3.4)
② Threshold depth of complete sediment movement
(6.3.5)
where
H0 : equivalent deepwater wave height (m)
L : wavelength at water depth hi (m)
H : wave height at water depth hi (m)
d : sediment grain size, average grain size or median diameter (m)
hi : threshold depth of sediment movement (m)
Repeated calculations are required to estimate the threshold water depths using equations (6.3.4) and
(6.3.5). Calculation diagrams like those in Fig. 6.3.6 (a) and (b) have been prepared so that the depths can
be easily estimated. By specifying d/L0 and H0/L0, it is possible to determine hi/L0. Specific calculation
examples are shown in 1).
0.1 0.5
8 2 1.5
6 0.4
3
0.3
4 4
0.2
3 5
H0 6
2 8
L0 h =0.1 1
10 h/L 0
H0
0 8 0.06
. 0
0.01 0.04
8 5
0.02 0.01 0.00
6
4 -7
10 2 3 4 6 8 10-6 2 3 4 6 8 10-5 2 3 4 6 8 10-4
d/L0
Fig. 6.3.6 (a) Calculation Diagram for Threshold Depth of Surface Layer Sediment Movement 1)
– 184 –
0.1
0.4
8
0.3 2
6
0.2 3
4 4
1.5
= 0.1 0.086 1.0
3 h/H0 5 h/L 0
0.0
6
H0
2 0.04
L0
0.02
0.01 0.01
8 0.00
5
0.5
6
4
10-7 2 3 4 6 8 10-6 2 3 4 6 8 10-5 2 3 4 6 8 10-4
d/L0
Fig. 6.3.6 (b) Calculation Diagram for Threshold Depth of Total Sediment Movement 1)
(13) Longshore Sediment Transport

① The predominant direction of longshore sediment transport is determined using the following information:
(a) Topography of the natural coast and that around coastal structures (see Fig. 6.3.7)
(b) Alongshore distribution of the sediment characteristics such as median diameter, mineral composition, etc.
(c) Direction of movement of fluorescent sand tracers
(d) Direction of incident wave energy flux
Predominant Predominant
direction direction
Groins
River current
Predominant
direction
Predominant
direction
Eroding coast protected Littoral drift Lake

by a coastal revetment accretion
Beach is narrow Beach is wide
Detached Predominant
breakwaters Predominant direction
direction
Sand spit
Beach is narrow Beach is wide
Fig. 6.3.7 Typical Coastal Topography Showing the Predominant Direction of Littoral Drift
② To estimate the longshore sediment transport rate, the following various data must be prepared and sufficiently
investigated:
(a) Continuous observation data of the change in sediment volume around a coastal structure
(b) Data on the alongshore component of wave energy flux
(c) Data concerning the sediment transport rate at the surrounding coast
(d) Data on past dredging volume
– 185 –
(e) Continuous observation data on deposition volume at the experimental dredging site
(f) Data on the volume of movement of fluorescent sand tracers placed within the surf zone
③ Various formulas can be used to estimate an approximate value of longshore sediment transport rate.1), 17), 18), 19)
The formulas are normally given in the expression shown in equation (6.3.6), with the coefficient a for various
formulas being as given in Table 6.3.1.
(6.3.6)
where
Qx : longshore sediment transport rate (m3/s)
Ex : alongshore component of wave energy flux (kN · m/m/s)
Kr : refraction coefficient between the wave observation point and the wave breaking point
nA : ratio of group velocity to wave celerity at the wave observation point
w0 : unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
HA : wave height at the wave observation point (m)
LA : wavelength at the wave observation point (m)
T : wave period (s)
αb : angle of wave incidence at the wave breaking point (°)
Table 6.3.1 Coefficient a for Longshore Sediment Transport Rate Formula
U.S. Army Corps of

Savage 18) Sato and Tanaka 17) Engineers 19)
0.022 0.03 0.04
(14) Littoral Drift Phenomena in the Surf Zone

Inside the surf zone, large quantities of sand move by turbulence caused by breakers, by the increase of the wave
orbital velocity near the bottom due to shallower water depth, and by the existence of nearshore currents.
Komar20), based on longshore sediment transport rates obtained from studies of fluorescent sand, reported
that bed load dominates in the surf zone. Sternberg et.al.21) reported that most of the longshore sediment transport
rate can be explained by suspended load. As a counterpoint to these two conflicting results, Kato et.al.22) used
fluorescent sand to measure local sediment transport rates within the surf zone and found that bed load dominates
when the velocitiy of water particle due to waves is small, while suspended load dominates when the velocity is
large.
The sediment movement when suspended sediment is predominant can be examined by dividing the movement
into two processes.
① Sediment suspension process caused by organized vortices formed by wave breaking.
② Settling process during which sediment is buffeted by random external forces following breakup of organized
vortices.
Fig. 6.3.8 gives the temporal variations of suspended sediment concentration and horizontal current velocity
that were measured by Katoh et al.23) inside the surf zone in the field. The white arrows in the figure point out
the waves that broke on the seaward side of the observation point and the black arrows point out the waves
that passed the observation point and broke on the shoreward side. It is clear that the suspended sediment
concentration increased rapidly when waves broke on the seaward side. This result indicates that sediment
suspension is related to the organized vortices in particular obliquely descending vortices 24) that occur after
waves break.
– 186 –
RUN B C1 8/26 15:22
Cross-shore velocity (m/s) 1
-1
1 2 0 1 1 1 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -3 -1 -5 -1 -2 -3
Concentration
20000ppm
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Time (s)
Fig. 6.3.8 Example of Field Observation of Concentration of Suspended Sediment 23)
(15) Topographical or Shoreline Deformation in the Swash Zone

Horikawa et al 27) investigated the criterion on for shoreline advance and retreat occurring as a result of sand
movement in the swash zone based on laboratory experiments, and proposed equation (6.3.7) which is also
applicable for the field condition.
(6.3.7)
where
H0 : deepwater wave height (m)
tanβ : average bottom slope from the shoreline to a water depth of 20 m
d : sediment grain size (m)
C s : coefficient
Based on equation (6.3.7), a shoreline will retreat when Cs≥ 18 (see Fig. 6.3.9).
H0 －0.27( d ) 0.67
L0 =C (tan β )
18
L0
C=
C=
C=
0.1
Retreat Index based upon
experimental results
( ) Retreat Advance
Atlantic City Coast. New Jersey
H0 Hidaka Coast , Japan
L0 Kashima Coast , Japan
or Kochi Coast , Japan
H 0.01 Mission Beach , California
L0 ( ) Nagas Head , North Carolina
( ) Oceanside , California
Surarhkal Beach , India
Advance
Tokaimura Beach , Japan
( ) West Coast , Taiwan
Prototype Experiment by Saville ( )
0.001 -4
10 10-3 10-2
(tan β ) －0.27(d/L0)0.67
Fig. 6.3.9 Advance and Retreat of Shorelines in the Field 27)
– 187 –
10
-
HoRF 3/12/86～9/11/86 D.L.+1.4m
Predicted values Seaward
0
Measured values
Seaward distance
－10
－20
Shoreward
－30
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Month
Fig. 6.3.10 Comparison of Prediction and Measurement of Shoreline Location 28)
Katoh et al.28) revised equation (6.3.7) using deepwater wave energy flux and presented a model to predict the
daily shoreline change. Fig. 6.3.10 is a comparison of the predicted and measured results of shoreline location.
(16) Relationship between Foreshore Topographical Changes and Groundwater Level
The topographical changes that accompany the changes in the foreshore tide level can be explained as follows by
using Fig. 6.3.11.29) When the tide level changes, the beach groundwater level also changes as a response. But
because of the delay in response time, the groundwater level at the flood tide differs from that at the ebb tide even
though the tide level is the same.
(a) During the flood tide the groundwater level is low, and it is easy for the seawater running up on the beach to
permeate underground. Thus the sediment carried by the seawater when it runs up on the beach will accrete
there.
(b) On the other hand, during the ebb tide the groundwater level is high and it is difficult for seawater to run up
on the beach and to permeate underground. At certain conditions, the groundwater may flow out of the beach
surface during the ebb tide. As shown in Fig. 6.3.11, the result is that the sediment that accreted during the flood
tide will be eroded, and return to its original location.
When waves run up to a high level on a beach during storm periods, a high groundwater level condition
continues throughout the stormy weather period because the run-up seawater permeates into the beach, and the
condition becomes as shown in Fig. 6.3.11 (b). Occurrence of rapid foreshore erosion during such the condition
has been confirmed by field data.
Some shore protection methods make use of this relationship between the foreshore groundwater level and
sand movement; i.e., lowering the groundwater level by forced means or gravity and thus preventing erosion.
The method making use of gravity, a highly water-permeable layer is installed in the foreshore sand to cause the
groundwater flow down offshore and to lower the groundwater level. With this method it is possible to preserve
beach conditions very close to those of a natural beach because no structures are visible above the beach floor.
– 188 –
Accretion
Shoreward sand movement
Permeation
Groundwater surface
Erosion
(a) Flood Tide
Groundwater surface
Seaward sand movement
Water outflow
Accretion
(b) Ebb Tide
Fig. 6.3.11 Relationship between Foreshore Topographical Changes and Groundwater Level
(17) Movement of Longshore Bars

As already mentioned in (10) ③ Foreshore Topography, longshore bars sometimes form in the surf zone.
Longshore bars form periodically and move offshore.32) While longshore bars move offshore, cross-shore sediment
transport may occur offshore or onshore in various places, so that offshore sediment transport occurs near the bar
crests, while onshore sediment transport occurs in trough areas.32) The period of cyclic offshore bar movement
depends on the sea coast, and can range from one year to 20 years.
6.3.2 Scouring around Structures
(1) Scouring shall be taken into consideration when there are concerns that scouring around structures such as
breakwaters, groins, and training jetties may affect the safety and integrity of structures.
(2) Wave characteristics that act on natural beaches can be considered as nearly constant over a long period of time.
Topographies that form in response to these characteristics are nearly stable as well. Scouring will occur when
structures are constructed and the equilibrium between external forces and topography will be disturbed locally
or over a broad area. The mechanism and amount of scouring will change according to the location of a suructure
because the wave action on the structure changes, and hence must be considered carefully when choosing scouring
prevention works.
(3) Scouring in Front of Coastal Revetment
It is well known that scouring in front of coastal revetment has a close relationship with wave reflection coefficient.
For example, Fig. 6.3.12 has been proposed for determining scouring or accretion by means of the reflection
coefficient K and the parameter ( H 0 L0 )(  d50 ) sinα which is defined with the wave steepness H0 / L0, mean
diameter of sediment d50, slope gradient of coastal revetment α, for a vertical breakwater, α= 90º, and the distance
l from the wave runup point on an equilibrium profile to the location of the coastal revetment. The diagram
indicates that all other conditions being equal, it is advantageous against scouring in front of revetment to make
the front surface of revetment inclined.
– 189 –
0.6
S
1/50
0.5
1/30
1/10
0.4
K 0.3
0.2
Scouring
0.1 Accretion
0
10 102 103
Ho 
Lo d50 sin α
Fig. 6.3.12 Threshold Conditions between Scouring and Accretion in Front of Coastal Revetment 36)
(4) Local Scouring around Breakwaters

① Scouring in the surf zone
(a) Local scouring at the breakwater head
Fig. 6.3.13 shows the local scouring conditions around a breakwater head, as analyzed by Tanaka.37) The
maximum scouring depth is found to be nearly equal to the maximum significant wave height (H1/3)max during
the period up to 15 days prior to the time of scouring measurements. In addition, Fig. 6.3.14 shows the
relationship between the water depth around a breakwater head and the scouring depth. The scouring depth
becomes the largest when the water depth at breakwater head is about 3 m to 5 m (namely in the surf zone).
Legend
Water depth(h) –2m
2≤h<3
Scouring depth(m)
3 3≤h<4
4≤h<5
5≤h<6
2
6≤h
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
(H1/3)max (m)
Fig. 6.3.13 Relationship between Scouring Depth at Breakwater Head and

Maximum Significant Wave Height during the Prior 15 Days (H⅓)max
– 190 –
5
West breakwater West breakwater
Inner breakwater
Niigata Inner breakwater Port of Akita
East Port
East breakwater
New south breakwater
4 Port of Kanazawa
North breakwater
Inner breakwater Port of
Kashima Breakwater Port of Mikuni
Scouring depth d(m)
South breakwater
3
h
2
d
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Water depth around the breakwater head h(m)
Fig. 6.3.14 Relationship between Scouring Depth and Water Depth around Breakwater Head
(b) Scouring at front of breakwaters

Fig. 6.2.15 shows the relationship between the scouring depth in front of a breakwater and water depth.37)
The black circles in the figure show the condition of scouring around the oblique part of the breakwater. The
scouring depth shows its maximum at the bend of the breakwater, where the water depth is about 7m, and
gradually decreases seaward. On the other hand, the scouring depth at the front of the straight part of the
breakwater, which is shown by the white circles, has its maximum value at around a water depth of 2m and
decreases in both shallower and deeper water. The location of the maximum scouring depth corresponds to
the location of a longshore bar.
5
Scouring depth (m)
North breakwater and straight part of south breakwater

4 Oblique part of south breakwater
0 5 10 15 20
Water depth (m)
Fig. 6.3.15 Relationship between Scouring Depth and Water Depth 37)
(c) Local Scouring Outside Breakwaters

Fig. 6.3.16 shows examples of places where pronounced local scouring occurs as the result of breakwater
extension:
(i) Breakwater head (especially pronounced when the breakwater head is in the surf zone).
(ii) Around the straight portion of the breakwater (especially pronounced near the point where the breakwater
– 191 –
crosses the longshore bar).
(iii) Around a front mound or a submerged breakwater (especially pronounced outside the harbor).
(iv) Places where the breakwater bends.
Wave
Longshore bar
Longshore bar clearly progressing Longshore bar or unclear bar
Longshore bar clearly progressing
Scouring
Pronounced scouring
Shoreline Shoreline Shoreline at

progressing standstill or receding Shoreline at standstill or receding
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Fig. 6.3.16 Local Scouring Outside the Breakwater 38)
② Scouring in standing wave domain

Scouring depth in front of a vertical wall tends to decrease as the initial water depth in front of the wall increases
and the wave condition is shifted into the standing wave domain. In case of composite type breakwaters, where
the toe of rubble mound is somewhat away from the wave reflection surface of the upright section, scouring at
the toe of rubble mound by standing waves sometimes become a problem. Irie et al.39) carried out experiments
concerning this type of scouring and highlighted the following issues:
(a) The basic parameter is U b /ω, the ratio of the maximum horizontal velocity of water particles at the bottom
by incident waves U b to the settling velocity of sediment ω. When U b /ω > 10, sediment will move from the
location of the node of standing waves to the location of the antinode, with scouring occurring at the node
and accretion taking place at the antinode. It is called L-type scouring. When U b /ω < 10, the opposite
phenomenon will occur. It is called N-type scouring (refer to Fig. 6.3.17). The L-type scouring refers to
the phenomenon where accretion occurs at the antinode of standing waves and scouring occurs at the node,
whereas the N-type scouring refers to the opposite phenomenon where scouring occurs at the antinode and
accretion occurs at the node.
(b) The value of Ub /ω tends to be larger than 10 in the field, and generally scouring at the node of standing waves
is predominant. Normally, because a toe of rubble mound is located at the distance of about 1/4 wavelength
or so from the upright wall, scouring and subsidence of the rubble mound of breakwater will occur at its toe
as the sediment there moves toward the location of antinode at one half wavelength from the upright wall.
L/2
Breakwater
Node Antinode
N-type
Rubble mound
L-type
Fig. 6.3.17 Sketch of Scouring by Standing Waves 39)
– 192 –
6.4 Prediction of Beach Deformation
(1) All the related factors shall be thoroughly investigated when predicting beach deformation, with consideration
given to factors such as the predicted results by an appropriate prediction method and the data of past beach
deformation at the site in question.
(2) Various methods exist as procedures for predicting beach deformation, including empirical prediction techniques,
estimation based on hydraulic model experiments especially with movable bed model experiments, and numerical
simulations. Because beach deformation is strongly governed by the characteristics of the region in question,
however, it is inappropriate to rely on any single method. Efforts are desirably made to predict beach deformation
by combining two or more procedures and by investigating the local data and information as comprehensively as
possible.
(3) Empirical Prediction Techniques
The empirical method is a procedure that, on the basis of collection and analysis of the past examples of beach
deformation, the layout and structural characteristics of structures to be built are compared with the past examples
of similar nature. Based upon the similarities, the potential for beach deformation to be caused by the construction
of structures is judged. Tanaka 37) has carried out research on modeling of the complicated topographical changes
that occur after the construction of structures. He classified characteristics of typical topographical changes in
numerous examples of beach deformation. As a result of this research, it is possible to understand the topographical
changes in the vicinity of Japanese ports in several representative patterns (see Fig. 6.4.1). Exceptions to these
patterns are relatively rare. By judging which pattern in Fig. 6.4.1 is applicable to the coast under investigation,
a qualitative prediction of beach deformation becomes possible.
1 Longshore drift, checked; 2 Accretion near a river mouth 5 Accumulation inside a calm area b With downdrift jetty b With long diagonal breakwater
updrift side accretion, jetty located on one end of a
downdrift side erosion beach
a Depending on the length of jetty
Short 6 Changes of shoreline due to the

formation or deformation of a
cuspate beach or tombolo
8 Change of shoreline due to the
a Formation of cuspate beach
deformation of the entrance of
day or port
10 Accretion between headland
and breakwater on the
downdrift side
3 Accretion on both sides of jetties
constructed at the center of a
Long long and concave beach
b With marked development

of tombolo
Change of topagraphy when 11

the port entrance is changed by Local scour around breakwaters
the extension of breakwater
b Depending on the shape of c Deformation of cuspate beach at the tip
coastline 4 Accumulation near the tip of an
updrift breakwater or at a port
Concave entrance
at a bend part
7 Chages i shoreline position on

the downdrift side of a
hook-shaped breakwater 9 Local erosion and minimizing
updrift accretion by diagonally at a narrow gaps
reflected waves
Convex a Without downdrift jetty
a For diagonally projected
breakwaters
at the front of
diagonal part
Erosion Accretion
Fig. 6.4.1 Classification of Patterns of Topographical Changes after Construction of Structures
– 193 –
(4) Hydraulic Model Experiments particularly Movable Bed Model Experiments
The capability of predicting beach deformation based on hydraulic model experiments, particularly movable
bed model experiments, is limited because the problem of similarity remains unresolved. But the advantage of
model experiments is such that specific topographical changes can be reproduced in a laboratory basin and the
phenomenon to be forecasted can be understood visually.
Because of the similarity problems being unresolved, experiments are carried out with partially distorting
model scales, and by focusing attention on the reproducibility of the area of most concern, based on the comparison
of several formulas on beach deformation similarity, and a topographic model that is judged most reliable is
introduced in a laboratory basin. Before predicting future beach deformation, it will be necessary to verify
the model for reproducibility of the topographical changes that occurred in the past in the study area and to
confirm the model’s kinematic similarity. The degree of kinematic similarity will be judged by the accuracy of
reproduction. The reproductive accuracy of the experiment, therefore, cannot exceed the accuracy of the data
collected on beach deformations in the past.
One can assume that sufficiently effective engineering predictions are possible if sufficient care is taken in
preliminary experiments to study the reproducibility of actual beach deformations, and in particular the following
problems can be addressed:
① The area of topographical changes caused by the construction of coastal facilities.
② Comparisons of alternative plans for measures to prevent coastal erosion, such as groins or detached breakwaters.
③ Qualitative evaluation of shoreline changes due to large-scale sea facilities.
However, predictions of beach deformation are difficult in the following types of cases:
(a) Stable cross-sectional shapes of large-scale artificial beaches that face rough seas.
(b) Deformation problems caused by large-scale sea facilities on beaches that face rough seas.
(c) Siltation rates in navigation channels and harbors.
(d) Countermeasures against siltaiton in small-scale ports such as marinas.
(e) Effects of permeable detached breakwaters and submerged breakwaters on beach stability.
For details concerning movable bed model experiments see Reference 40).
(5) Predictions by Numerical Simulations
At the present time, numerical simulations are divided into two models: those that predict changes in the shoreline
location called shoreline change model, which is also called one-line theory from the fact that it predicts changes
along a single shoreline, and those that predict three-dimensional changes in water depth; i.e., beach topographical
changes called three-dimensional model or coast topographical change prediction model.
(6) Shoreline Change Model (1-line Theory)
Beach sediment is transported by waves and currents both in the offshore and onshore directions and in the
alongshore direction. Because littoral drift is caused mainly from the direct action of waves, littoral drift during
storm periods will be predominantly towards offshore, and the coast will be eroded with a retreat of shoreline.
When the sea becomes calm, however, the sediment will be carried towards the shore and the shoreline will
advance. Along with these movements the beach profile will also change. This topographical change in the
shoreline location and beach profiles caused by the onshore-offshore transport is normally a seasonal one. When
looked at on the average profile over a long period of time, the changes caused by onshore-offshore transport
can mostly be ignored when compared with those caused by longshore transport. Thus, when focusing on beach
erosion or accretion over a period of several years, one can assume there is no change in the shape of beach profile
and that beach erosion and accretion will correspond to the retreat and advance of the shoreline. A prediction
of changes in the shoreline location can then be based on the balance of the deposition and removal of sediment
volume primarily from longshore transport.
Fig. 6.4.2 sketches the calculation principles of a shoreline change prediction model. As shown in the Fig., the
shoreline should be split along the alongshore direction of the shoreline into sections having the width Δy, and the
inflow and outflow of sediment volume between those widths are considered. That is, when the inflow of sediment
volume Q∆t and the outflow of sediment volume during time period ∆t are compared, accretion will occur if the
former is larger and erosion will take place if the latter is larger. By introducing the assumption that the beach
profile remains unchanged over time and any imbalance in the sediment inflow and outflow simply shifts the
beach profile parallel to offshore or onshore, it is possible to express the advance and retreat of the shoreline as the
result of the imbalance. When this is expressed in the continuity of sediment flux, the result is equation (6.4.1).
– 194 –
(6.4.1)
where
xs : shoreline location (m)
t : time (s)
y : coordinate in alongshore direction (m)
Ds : width of the littoral drift movement zone (m)
Q : longshore sediment transport rate (m3/s)
q : cross-shore inflow (q > 0) or outflow (q < 0) of the sediment transport rate across the onshore-
offshore boundary per unit width in the alongshore direction (m3/m/s)
ore
gsh ∆x ∆x Distance offshore
a lon Dist x
nce ∆ y ance Q∆t
ista offs
Longshore coordinate
D hore
Q∆ t x
y
∆y
qs∆ y∆ t qs ∆ y∆t ∆ q0 ∆ y∆ t
q0 ∆ y∆ t M.W.L.
Ds
∂Q ∆V Q
(Q+ ∆y ) ∆ t y (Q+ ∂ ∆ y ) ∆ t
∂y ∂y
(a) Model view (b) Plan view
Fig. 6.4.2 Relationship between Shoreline Change and Sand Movement
The longshore sediment transport rate Q, is often estimated using an equation including the alongshore
component of the incident wave energy flux at the wave breaking point, which is obtained from the wave height
and direction. One of the equations frequently used to estimate Q is equation (6.4.2), which is based on Ozawa
and Brampton 45). This equation incorporates the influence of the current induced by the alongshore gradient of
breaking wave height, which is often observed behind coastal structures.
(6.4.2)
where
HB : breaking wave height (m)
CgB : group velocity at the wave breaking point (m/s)
θB : angle formed by the wave crest line and the shoreline at the breaker point (°)
tanβ : equilibrium beach slope
s : s = (ρs –ρ0)/ρ0
ρs : density of sediment (g/cm3)
ρ0 : density of seawater (g/cm3)
λ : void ratio of sediment
K1,K2 : coefficients
The width of sediment movement zone Ds is the distance perpendicular to the shoreline from the wave runup
point on the beach to the offshore boundary where longshore sediment transport activity becomes significant. The
distance Ds is determined basically by investigating the volume of beach profile area change from the bathymetric
data of the coast in question. When the available data are inadequate, an energy-averaged representative wave
is estimated and its dimensions are substituted into the equations for the runup height and the threshold depth of
sediment movement as a method to conveniently find the distance Ds. Because equation (6.4.2) cannot be solved
analytically except in extremely simple cases, a computer is required to perform the numerical computation. In
the numerical computation Q must be evaluated at each measuring line. For this purpose the wave height and
angle, and water depth at the wave breaking point at each measuring line must be calculated using a separate wave
deformation calculation.
– 195 –
(7) Three-Dimensional Deformation Models or Prediction Model for Bathmetric Change
Prediction model for bathmetric change, which predict the change in the water depth at each point in a calculation
domain, consider not only longshore sediment transport but also cross-shore sediment transport. Several examples
have been presented in prediction model for bathmetric change, but in every model the method of calculation is
to first calculate the fields of waves and nearshore currents and then determine the bathmetric changes. The
determination of nearshore currents may mean the depth average for nearshore current fields, or may also include
their vertical distributions.
Prediction model for bathmetric change are divided into two main types depending on the method of
predicting the bathmetric changes. One type of model is based on local sediment transport rates calculated from
hydraulic factors and sediment particle diameters at the location in question, and the other type of model considers
convection and diffusion of sediment.
The models based on local sediment transport rates determine bathmetric changes based on the difference
between the incoming amount and the outgoing amount of the local sediment transport, and one of these models
is that of Watanabe et.al.46), which uses the sediment transport rate formulas of Watanabe et.al. Other local
sediment transport rate formulas are those of Bijker, 47) and Bailard 48) which separately calculate the bedload and
the suspended-load. The model of Watanabe et.al.46) has been improved several times and has developed into a
model that considers the grain size distribution 49).
Models that consider the convection and diffusion of sediment, either in three dimensions or just for a two-
dimensional, have been proposed, for example, by Sawaragi et.al.50) (hereafter, the Sawaragi model) and by Lesser
et.al.51) (hereafter, the Delft 3D-flow model). In these models, the bathmetric changes are dominated by the
difference between the amount of uplifting of suspended sand and its settling rate, and by the difference between
the incoming amount of bedload and its outgoing amount. The concentration of suspended-load at reference
points near the sea bottom, which is used in the calculation of uplifted amounts of suspended sand, may be found
from the formula of Deguchi and Sawaragi 52) used in the Sawaragi model, or from the van Rijn formula 53) used
in the Delft 3D-flow model. An example of a formula for bedload is the bedload formula of van Rijn 54) (used in
the Delft 3D-flow model).
The main areas of application of prediction model for bathmetric change have been cases where offshore
topographical changes are important, such as the problem of siltation in channels and basins, and bathmetric
changes due to large-scale submerged breakwaters.
6.5 Fluid Force due to Current 55)
(1) General
The fluid force due to the currents acting on members and facilities in the water or near the water surface such
as a pile-supported structure including a pier, a pipeline, or the armor material of a mound is proportional to the
square of the flow velocity. It may be divided into the drag force acting in the direction of the current and the lift
force acting in the direction perpendicular to the current. Generally drag and lift forces are calculated using the
following equations. Note also that a thin, tube-like object in the water may be subject to vibrations excited by
induced vortices.
① Drag force
(6.5.1)
where
FD : d rag force acting on the object in the direction of the current (kN)
CD : d rag coefficient
ρ0 : density of water (t/m3)
A : projected area of the object in the direction of the current (m 2)
U : flow velocity (m/s)
② Lift force
(6.5.2)
where
FL : lift force acting on the object in the direction perpendicular to the current (kN)
CL : lift coefficient
AL : projected area of the object in the direction perpendicular to the current (m 2)
– 196 –
(2) Drag Coefficient
The drag due to currents is expressed as the sum of the surface resistance due to friction, and is expressed as in
equation (6.5.1). The drag coefficient varies according to the shape and the roughness of the object, the direction,
and the Reynolds number of the current, and thus the value appropriate to the conditions in question must be used.
When the Reynolds number is greater than about 103, the values listed in Table 6.5.1 may be used as standard
values for the drag coefficient. Note that for a circular cylinder or sphere with a smooth surface, the value of the
drag coefficient drops suddenly when the Reynolds number is around 105. However, for a circular cylinder with
a rough surface, this drop in drag coefficient is not particularly large, and the drag coefficient settles down to a
constant value that corresponds to the relative roughness. The data for the cube have been obtained from wave
force experiments carried out by Hamada, Mitsuyasu and Hase.56) The values for rectangular cylinders and
L-shaped member placed diagonally to the current can be found in the reference 57).
Table 6.5.1 Drag Coefficients
Object shape Standard area Drag coefficient
Circular cylinder 
(rough surface) D 1.0( > D)
D
Rectangular
cylinder
 B 2.0( > B)
B
π
Circular disk — D2 D 1.2
4
When a/b=1 1.12

'' '' 2 1.15
b '' '' 4 1.19
Rectangular plate ab
'' '' 10 1.29
a '' '' 18 1.40
'' '' ∞ 2.01
π
Sphere — D2 D 0.5–0.2
4
D
Cube D2 1.3–1.6
D D
(3) Lift Coefficient

As with the drag coefficient, the lift coefficient varies with the shape of the object, the direction of the current,
and the Reynolds number. (see 4.7.3 Wave Force Acting on Submerged Members and Isolated Structures).
(4) Current Force Acting on Coping of Submerged Dike at the Opening of tsunami Protection Breakwater
As for the current force acting on the coping of the submerged dike at the opening of tsunami protection breakwater,
Iwasaki et al.58) have measured the pressure and obtained the values of 0.94 for the drag coefficient and 0.48 for the
lift force coefficient. Tanimoto et al.59) have carried out similar measurements, and obtained the values 1.0 to 1.5
for the drag coefficient and 0.5 to 0.8 for the lift coefficient. They have also pointed out that when the flow velocity
in the breakwater opening is large, the effect of the water surface gradient causes the coefficient values to increase.
– 197 –
References
1) Goda, Y.: Ports and Harbours （Second Edition), Easy-to-understand Civil Engineering Lecture, Shokokusha Publishing,
p.321,1998
2) Horikawa, K.: New Edition, Coastal Engineering- Introduction to Offshore Engineering, Tokyo Univ. Press, ,1991
3) Mogi, A.: Basic Lectures of Marine Science 7, Geology in Shallow Water, Shore line and serf zone, Tokyo Univ. Press, pp
109-252,1971
4) Toyoshima, Y.: Coastal Engineering at construction site, Morikita Publishing, 1972
5) Sawaragi, T.: Littoral drift and coastal erosion, Disaster Prevention Series 3, Morikita Publishing, 1992
6) Noda, H. and H. Hashimoto: Littoral drift and shore protection facilities, New Series Civil Engineering 79, Giho-do
Publishing, 1981
7) Honma, M. and K. Horikawa: Coast-environmental engineering, Tokyo Univ. Press, 1985
8) Sato, S.: Study related to port construction, Technical Note of PHRI, No. 5, 1962
9) Sonu, C.J.:Three-dimensional beach changes, Journal of Geology, Vol.81, pp.42-64,1973
10) OZASA, H.: Field Investigation of Submarine Sand Banks and Large Sand Waves, Rept of PHRI Vol. 14 No.2, pp.3-
46,1975
11) Horikawa, K. M. Sunamura: Study of retreat of coastal cliff by aerial photographs, Proceedings of 14th Conference on
Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp315-324,1967
12) Horikawa, K. and M. Sunamura: Experimental study on erosion of sea cliff, Proceedings of 15th Conference on coastal Eng.
JSCE, pp.315-324,1968
13) Horikawa, K. and M. Sunamura: Coastal erosion at Byobuga-ura, Chiba Prefecture (1), (2), & (3), Proceedings of on Coastal
Eng. JSCE Vol..16 pp.137-146, 1969, Vol. 17 pp.289-296, 1970 and Vol. 19 pp.13-17,1972
14) Bascom, W.N,; The relationship between sand size and beach-face slope, Transactions of AGU, Vol.32 No.6, pp.866-874,
1951
15) KATO, K, N. TANAKA, H. KIMURA and M. AKAISHI: Movable-bed Model Experiments of a Large River-mouth and its
Surroundings- On Deformation of Topography at the Yoshino River- Rept of PHRI Vol.22No.2,pp.3-87,1983
16) Sato S. and N. Tanaka: Sand movement on horizontal bed, Proceedings of 9th Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp.95-
100,1962
17) Sato, S. and N. Tanaka: Field investigation on sand drift at Port Kashima facing the Pacific Ocean, Proc.10th Conf. on Coastal
Eng., pp.595-614,1966
18) Savage, R,P.: Laboratory determination of littoral-transpor trate, Proc, of ASCE., Vol.88, WW2,1962
19) U,S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center: Shore Protection Manual Vol.1, Department of the Army Corps of
Engineers,1977.
20) Komar, P.D.: Relative quantities of suspension versus bed-load transport on beaches, Journal of Sediment Petrology, Vol.48,
pp.921-932,1978
21) Sternberg, R.W., N.C. Shi and J,P. Dowing: Field observations of suspended transport in the nearshore zone, Proc. 19th Int.
Conf. on Coastal Eng., pp,1782-1798, 1984
22) Katoh, K., N. Tanaka, T. Kondoh, M, Akaishi and K.Terasaki: Field observation of local sand movement in the surf zone
using fluorescent sand tracer (Second Report), Report of the Port And Harbour Research Institute Vol.2 4No.4, pp.3～63,
1985
23) Katoh, K., N, Tanaka and I. Irie: Field observation on suspended-load in the surf zone, Proc. Of 19th Int. Conf. on Coastal
Eng., pp.1846-1862, 1984
24) Hino, M. K. Nadaoka and A. Omata: Organizational structure of turbulence and water particle motion in the surf zone,
Proceedings of 31stConference on Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp.1-5, 1984
25) Kana, T.W.: Surf zone measurement of suspended sediment, Proc, of l6th Int. Conf. on Coastal Eng., pp.1725-1741, 1978、
26) Dean, R.G.: Heurestic models of sand transport in the surf zone, Proc. Conf. on Eng. Dynamics in the surf zone, pp.208-214,
1973
27) Horiklawa, K., M. Sunamura, H. Kondo and S. Okada: Discussion on 2-dimensional shore line change due to waves,
Proceedings of 22nd Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp.329-334,1975
28) Kato, K. S. Yanagishima, H. Murakami and K. Suetsugu: Trial for modeling of short-term shore line change, Proceedings of
34th Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp.297-301,1987
29) Komar, P.D.: Beach process and sedimentation, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1976,
30) Kato, K., S. Yanagishima: Berm erosion due to infra-gravity waves, Jour. Of JSCE, No.452/II-20,pp.41-50,1992
31) Kato K.: Shore protection by underground permeable layer, Journal of JSCE, February, pp.18-21, 1996
32) Kuriyama, Y.: Long-term cross-shore movement of longshore bar and associated sediment transport, Jour. Of JSCE, No.677,
pp.115-128, 2001
33) Tsuchiya, Y. and Y. Kawada: Wind brown sand transport rate law based on sand particle siltation. Proceedings of 19th
Conference on Hydraulics, pp.7-12,1975,
34) KURIYAMA, Y., T. NAKASHIMA, K. KAMIDOZONO and N. MOCHIZUKI: Field Measurements of the Effect of
Vegetation on Beach Profile Change in the Region from a Backshore to the Foot of the Fore-dune and Modeling of Aeolian
Sand Transport with Consideration of Vegetation, Rept of PHRI Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 47-80, 2001
– 198 –
35) YANAGISHIMA, S.: Field Measurement of the Effect of Vegetation on Beach Profile Change In the Backshore, Technical
Note of PHRI No.1091,p.35,2004
36) Saeki, H., T. Sato, T. Ono and K. Hamanaka: Experimental Study on scoring of foundation of sea walls, Proceedings of 32nd
Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE, pp.440-444,1985
37) Tanaka, N.: Transformation of sea bed and beach near port constructive in sandy beach, Proceedings of Lecture meeting of
PHRI 1974, pp.1-46,1974
38) Sato, S. and I. Irie: Variation of topography of sea-bed caused by the construction of breakwaters, Coastal Engineering in
Japan, Vol.l3, pp.141-152,1970
39) IRIE, I., K. NADAOKA, T. KONDO and K. TERASAKI : Two Dimensional Seabed Scour in Front of Breakwaters by
Standing Waves-A Study from the Standpoint of Bed load Movement- Report of PHRI Vol.23 No.1, pp.3-52, 1984
40) Kato, K.: Movable bed experiment and field observation, Monthly Magazine Marine Science, No,169,pp.417-423,1984
41) Shimizu, T. and T. Takagi, K. Sato and M. Yamada: Mutual comparison of beach deformation models, Proceedings of
Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 44, pp506-510,1997
42) Honma, M. K. Horikawa: Coast-environmental Engineering, Theory of Coastal Process, Observation and Prediction
Methods, Tokyo Univ. Press, 1995
43) TANAKA, N. and K. NADAOKA: Development and Application of a Numerical Model for the Prediction of Shoreline
Changes, Technical Note of PHRI No.436,1982
44) Watanabe, A.: Numerical simulation of beach change, Monthly Magazine Marine Science, Littoral Drift, Vol.
16No.7,pp.409-416,1984
45) OZASA, H. and A. H. BRAMPTON: Models for Predicting the Shoreline Evolution of Beaches Backed by Seawalls, Rept of
PHRI Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 77-103, 1979
46) Watanabe, A., Y. Marutama, Y. Shimizu and T. Sakakiyama: Numerical model for the prediction of s-dimensional beach
transformation due to the construction of structures, Proceedings of the 31st Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. pp.406-
410,1984
47) Bijker, E.W.: Longshore transport computations, J. Waterways, Harbors and Coastal Engineering Division, Vol.97, No.4,
pp.687-703, 1971
48) Bailard, J.A.: An energetics total load sediment transport model for a plane sloping beach, J. Geophys. Res., Vol.82, No.C11,
pp.1O938-10954, 1981
49) Kobayashi, H., T. Honada, S. Sato, A. Watanabe, M. Isobe and T. Ishii: A numerical model of three-dimensional beach
deformation due to graded sediment transport under atilt waves, Jour. Of JSCE No.740/II-64, pp. 157-169, 2003
50) Sawaragi, T. S. Ri, and I. Deguchi: Study on nearshore current around river mouth and model for topographic transformation,
Proceedings of 31st Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. pp 411-415, 1984
51) Lesser, G.R., Roelvink, L.A., van Kester, J.A.T.M. and Stelling, G.S.: Development and validation of a three-dimensional
morphological model, Coastal Eng., Vol.51, pp.883-915, 2004
52) Deguchi, I. and Sawaragi, T.: Calculation of the rate of net on-off shore sediment transport on the basis of fluc concept, Proc.
19th Int. Conf. on Coastal Eng., ASCE, pp.1325-1341, 1984
53) van Rijn, L.C.: Sediment transport: Part II, Suspended load transport, J. Hydraulic Eng. Vol. 11, PP.1613-1641, 1984
54) van Rijn, L.C.: Principles of Sediment Transport in Rivers, Estuaries and Coastal Seas, Aqua Publications,
Amsterdam,1993,
55) JSCE Edition: Guideline and Commentary for Design of Marine Steel Structure (Draft), ,pp.28-58,1973
56) Hamada, T., H. Mitsuyasu and N. Hase: Wave force on structures, Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE
Vol. pp.67-83, 1956
57) Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers: Handbook of Mechanical Engineering, pp,A5-97-106,1989
58) Iwasaki T., A. Mano T. Nakamura and N. Horikoshi: Experimental study on stationary fluid dynamic force acting on mound
material of submerged breakwater and pre-packed breakwaters, Proceedings of 31st Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE,
pp.527-531,1984
59) TANIMOTO, K., K. KIMURA and K. MIYAZAKI: Study on Stability of Submerged Dike at the Opening Section of
Tsunami Protection Breakwaters, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 27 No. 4, pp. 93-102, 1988
– 199 –
7 Other Meteorology Items to be Considered

7.1 Items to be Considered
The following meteorology items should be considered with regard to design and performance verification of port
facilities:
① Rain is a factor in determining the capacity of drainage facilities within the port, and can interfere with cargo
handling and other port operations.
② Fog interferes with ship navigation and the entering and leaving of the harbor, and is a factor that can decrease the
usability of port facilities.
③ Snowfall may need to be considered with regard to its surcharge on port facilities.
④ Atmospheric temperature may affect the stress distribution on port facilities, creating temperature stress.
References
1) Kawabata Y.: Hydro-meteorology, Chijinn Shokan Publishing, ,p.33,1961
2) Yamada, T., T. Hibino, T. Araki and M. Nakatsugawa: Statistical characteristics of rainfall in mountainous basins, Jour. JSCE
No.527, pp.1-13,1995
3) Sasa, K., Mizui, S. and Hibino, T.: A Basic Study on Difficulties of Ship Operation Under Restricted Visibility Due to Heavy
Fog, Journal of Japan Institute of Navigation, Vol. 112, 2005
– 200 –
8 Meteorological and Marine Observations and Investigations

8.1 Meteorological Observations and Investigations
(1) Overview
Port facilities must be designed to have the required performance with regard to natural phenomena such as strong
winds. Therefore, in the performance verification of port facilities, it is necessary to examine items relevant to
that purpose by observing of meteorological elements or conducting numerical simulations.
(2) Planning of Meteorological Investigation and Setting of Natural Conditions
Meteorological investigation includes various methods such as statistical analysis of past data, analysis through
numerical simulations, and on-site meteorological observations, and it is necessary to formulate a plan by generally
considering the following items 1 through 6 in order to decide which methods are desirable:
① Determination of required meteorological elements
② Necessity for real-time on-site meteorological data
③ Possibility to obtain meteorological observation data from the past
④ Possibility to use observational data from the closest meteorological stations or the AMeDAS observation
stations
⑤ Necessity for numerical simulations
⑥ Necessity for on-site meteorological observations
Based on these investigation results, determine which of the following methods to use in order to specify the
natural conditions:
① Statistical analysis of past data
② Analysis by numerical simulations
③ On-site meteorological observations
8.2 Tide Level Observations and Investigation
(1) Purpose of Tide Level Observations

Tide level observations are continuous observations of the ocean surface level 1, eliminating relatively short
frequency variations such as waves. Tide level observations have various purposes, as listed below, so it is
preferable for the observations to be done as appropriate for the purpose.
① Standard Water Level
Through all the stages of planning, design and construction, an appropriate standard water level must be
provided from tide level observations.
② Mean Water Level Monitoring
Recently, ocean surface rise has become a great concern related to global warming. However, there are
great variations in the predictions of the amount of ocean surface rise, so the importance of mean water level
monitoring based on long-term tide level observation has been recognized.
③ Understanding of Tsunamis, Storm Surge and Long-period Waves
When structures along the shore suffer a disaster, the understanding of marine conditions, including tide level
records, is the first step in the process of understanding the cause and planning recovery measures.
④ Construction Management
Tide level observations are important for performing safe and reliable maritime construction.
⑤ Environmental Monitoring
It is also important to understand tide level variations for environmental monitoring.
(2) Analysis of Long-Term Mean Water Level Variations
Fig. 8.2.1 is an example of a graph of monthly mean tide level variations based on long-term tide level observation.
It is known that the mean tide level varies with the season, being higher in the summer and lower in the winter. In
addition to this seasonal variation, the long-term mean tide level increases slowly. The amount of this long-term
mean tide level rise is about 4.4 mm/year.
– 201 –
220
210
200
Tide level(cm)
190
180
170
160 +4.40(mm/年)
150
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
AD (year)
Fig. 8.2.1 Example of Long Term Fluctuation of Monthly Mean Sea Level (Kurihama Tidal Observation Station)
8.3 Wave Observations and Investigation
(1) Overview
In shallow water, waves are deformed by processes such as refraction, breaking and shoaling, so offshore
observations are necessary to understand their actual conditions. Mankind will have more interactions with the
seas in the future than it has had in the past, so it will be necessary to gather wave observation data over longer
periods of time. In this section, an explanation on wave gauges, which measure wave height and period, being
the two most fundamental parameters of waves is introduced. Then measurements of wave direction and the
directional spectrum, and measurements of long-period waves components which have recently been pursued as
important topics are also introduced. 17), 18)
(2) Wave Gauges for observation of wave height and period
① Pressure Type Wave Gauges
Prior to the 1950’s, wave measurements in Japan generally used methods such as step-resistance type wave
gauges and pressure type wave gauges, but the pressure type wave gauges, which measure water pressure
variations on the sea bottom, became the preferred method because they didn’t require facilities such as
observation towers.
However, the movement of water particles induced by deepwater waves does not reach to the sea bottom.
Consequently, water pressure type wave gauges are less sensitive to short-period waves. So, the wave profiles
recorded by these gauges are not the surface waveforms themselves but rather shapes that are the surface
waveforms from which the short-period components have been eliminated. Also, the detection of water pressure
variation is difficult in relatively deep locations, so this type of gauge has the disadvantage of being unsuitable
for taking wave measurements in places of deep water.
More recently, methods of precisely calculating surface wave profile from water pressure variations have
been developed and improved, so the scope of application for the water pressure type wave gauges, which offer
a simple and inexpensive way of measuring waves, has started to grow again. 19), 20), 21)
② Ultrasonic Type Wave Gauges
Ultrasonic type wave gauges, USW, were developed in the 1960’s. USW have an advantage over water pressure
type wave gauges in that they can obtain the surface wave profile directly, and their use has greatly increased.
An ultrasonic type wave gauge is composed of a sensor placed on the sea bottom, an underwater cable that
connects the sensor with a land observation station, and an amplifier, the main body of the wave gauge, located
at the land observation station. Ultrasonic signal pulses are emitted vertically upward from a sensor that is
placed in a fixed location, either on the sea bottom or in the sea at a certain depth, and the ultrasonic signal
reflected by the ocean surface is received at the same sensor location. The time that elapses between emission
and reception is proportional to the distance of the sensor from the ocean surface, so it is possible to measure
the surface wave profile by measuring this time in short intervals, about 0.5 seconds.22), 23)
A problem is that the detection of the ocean surface is difficult when many bubbles are gulfed near the
surface, such as due to breakers, however for normal wave measurements this type of gauge has the advantage
– 202 –
of allowing comparatively inexpensive, accurate, and direct measurement of surface waveforms, without the
need for equipment such as towers. It can also be applied to wave measurements where the sea is deep, and there
are many examples where it has been set up in locations with depths of as much as 50 meters. On the other hand,
a type of gauge has also come into use that is placed on the bottom of the superstructure of pier and measures
the water level variations directly underneath by emitting sound through the air.24)
③ Buoy type wave gauges
It is possible to measure the vertical motion of the water surface with a vertical acceleration meter placed on a
buoy. This has the advantage that it is also possible to measure the wave direction and directional spectrum by
attaching a horizontal acceleration meter. Other advantages are that many buoys can send data wirelessly to the
land observation station, so that cables are not required, and such meters are easy to use even when the water is
deep. However, they cannot detect long-period components such as tsunamis and storm surge that have small
accelerations.
Recently, GPS buoy systems have been developed, so that instead of using the acceleration meter method,
the position coordinates of an antenna placed on a buoy are directly measured by a GPS, with short sampling
intervals of one second or less, making it possible to measure not just waves but also long period components
such as tsunamis, storm surge, and tidal motion.
④ Step-resistance type wave gauges
Step-resistance type wave gauges have electrodes that are insulated from each other, arranged vertically with
constant spacing, that electrically turn on and off as the electrodes sink into the water or are exposed to the air,
thereby detecting the water level in steps. They have the same advantage as ultrasonic type wave gauges in
that they directly obtain the water surface wave profile, and furthermore they don’t need calibration, but their
problem is that a structure such as an observation tower is needed to fix the electrodes in place.
⑤ Capacitance type wave gauges and resistance wire type wave gauges
The principle of a capacitance type wave gauge is to vertically stretch an electric wire covered by a dielectric
from under the water to the air above the sea surface, so that the electrical capacity between the wire and the sea
water will vary as the up and down of the water level. This method converts variations in electrical capacity into
a carrier voltage, which is amplified and recorded after the wave is detected, so its output has good linearity, and
there is also is good response because a high frequency electric wave is used as the transmission wave.
On the other hand, the principle of a resistance wire type wave gauge is to extend a resistance wire vertically
from the air into the water and measure the variation in the shorting distance of the resistance wire due to
the up and down movement of the water level. As in the case of a capacitance type wave gauge, this also is
characterized by good output linearity and response.
⑥ Optical measurement method
These include methods such as taking measurements by stereo photography from the land or air, and float
tracing by memo motion cameras. Recently, surface observation by HF radar has started to be used, and there
is a good possibility that technology will be developed in the future for measuring waves in the coastal area with
remote sensing from artificial satellites.
(3) Observation of Wave Direction and Directional Spectra
① Overview
Although wave direction is one of the three main components of a wave, along with wave height and period,
its measurement is more difficult than that of wave height, so less data has been collected than for wave height.
② Ultrasonic current meter type directional wave recorder (CWD)
The measurement principle of ultrasonic current meter type directional wave recorder is that, when ultrasonic
wave is transmitted between two points in the water, and there is a flow of water, the transmission velocity
will change depending on the current velocity components. The equipment measures the movement of water
particles where the sensor is located, hence measurement is not possible if the wave height is small or the wave
has a short period. Therefore, for the purpose of wave direction measurement, the water depth to be able to
place the sensor is usually 30 meters or less. Hence, it has a major drawback of only being able to measure the
directions of waves in shallow areas affected by refraction and not waves that are offshore, but at present, these
meters have become the most generally used wave direction meters for waves along the coast.
③ Observation with a wave gauge array
Because CWD have the problem mentioned above, in order to observe offshore directional spectra with high
precision and reliability, observations are being performed off the coasts of Iwaki and Niigata in Japan with
arrays of three or four wave gauges.26), 27), 28)
Array observations use cross-spectra of water level variation records of the various wave gauges to estimate
directional spectra. Precision and reliability are excellent, but this is very expensive compared to the usual wave
observations, so it hasn’t been possible to introduce the array method at many observation locations.
– 203 –
④ Doppler-typed wave Directional Meter (DWDM)

An oceanographic meter combines the functions of wave gauges, wave direction meters and current direction-
and-speed meters in a single instrument. It is a wave observation device that employs the Doppler effect on
ultrasonic signals in the water, detecting the difference in frequency between a signal that is emitted and then
received by a sensor on the sea bottom, to detect the current velocity of an arbitrary intermediate layer between
the sea bottom and the surface, and it is possible for a single sensor to precisely calculate the direction spectrum
of an offshore wave without the need for large-scale array observations.29), 30)
⑤ Buoys
By measuring the vertical and horizontal components of a buoy’s acceleration it is possible to measure wave
directions and direction spectra. It is also possible to measure wave directions and directional spectra by
measuring the horizontal displacement of buoys fitted with GPS sensors. However, one must remember that
an acceleration observation method cannot detect long-period components that have small accelerations.
Furthermore, the same is true of both the acceleration observation method and of the GPS method that a buoy’s
movement does not necessarily match the movement of the water particles that accompany waves due to the
effect of winds and mooring systems, so there are cases whereby it may not be possible to measure wave
directions and direction spectra.
⑥ Radar for wave direction observation
Methods for determining wave direction using high resolution millimeter wave radar to display the distribution
of wave crest lines in regions of the sea have been developed, however data analysis remains a problem.
Technology to observe surface direction spectra with HF radar is still under development.
(4) Observation of Tsunamis and Long-period Waves with Offshore Wave Meters
① Recording of offshore tsunami profile
Previously, the only actual measured data at the sites of tsunamis were run-up traces and tide level recordings.
Of course, such data is important for clarifying the actual conditions of tsunamis, but it is not sufficient. In
particular, the tide level variation recordings measured at tide measurement wells within harbors were records
of water level changes through inlet pipes, so in actuality it was extremely difficult to clearly measure vibration
components with short periods of 10 minutes or less. For this reason, obtaining of offshore tsunami wave profile
recordings has a significant meaning.
② Observation of long period waves
Information concerning long-period waves from continuous observation data taken using offshore wave gauges
is expected to be useful not just when tsunamis occur but also at normal times.
It has recently come to be understood that it is impossible to correctly evaluate harbor calmness on the basis
of significant wave height alone, as has been the custom to date. Even when the significant wave height is low
and when the waves appear calm in the port, there have been many reports of cases where mooring ropes broke
making cargo operations impossible or where maritime construction work was unavoidably interrupted because
of large oscillations of ships and operating ships within the port due to the effects of long-period waves. Long-
period waves may greatly affect the calmness of a port even if the wave height is small. This is because they
can cause resonance with the natural periods of the harbor associated with the port’s topography on the order of
several minutes to several tens of minutes, or with the natural period of mooring systems generated by the mass
of the ships and the spring constants of the mooring ropes, again, on the order of several minutes to several tens
of minutes.35)
– 204 –
References
1) Meteorological Agency: Guideline of Ground Weather Observation, Japan Weather Association, p.167,1993
2) Meteorological Agency: Guideline of Ground Weather Observation, Japan Weather Association, p.152,1990
3) Japan Weather association: Ground weather observation Method, p.255,1988
4) Takeuchi, K.: Meteorology of wind, Tokyo Univ. Press ,p.172,1997
5) Nagai, T., H. Ogawa, A. Nakamura, Y. Suzuki and T. Seta: Characteristic of occurrence of wind energy in the coastal areas
based on observation data, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 50, pp, 1306-1310, 2003
6) Nagai, T, I. Ushiyama, Y. Nemoto, K. Kawanishi, T. Nukada, K. Suzuki and T. Otozu: Examination of field application of
lighting system utilizing coastal wind force, Journal of the Japan Society for Marine Survey and Technology Vol. 17 No. 1,
JSMST, 2005
7) Architectural Institute of Japan: Evaluation of Wind environment and planning, Maruzen Publishing, p. 208, 1993
8) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Nukada, T. M. Asaya and T. Nagai: Upgrading of COMINS (Coastal
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38 No. 1, pp. 29-69, 1999
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14) NAGAI, T., K. SUGAHARA, H. WATANABE and K. KAWAGUCHI: Long Term Observation of the Mean Tide Level and
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Gauge Technical Note of PHRI No.998,p.17, 2001
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Singularities of High and Low Wave Condition Rept of PHRI Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 45-113, 1993
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Observation off Niigata- Technical Note of PHRI No.783,p.21,1994
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Deep Seas (2nd Report: 7-Year Statistics of the Directional Wave Spectra off Iwaki), Rept. Of PHRI Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 65-89,
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gauge (Sea bottom placement type wave probe), Proceeding of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 39, pp. 176-180, 1992
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Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 42, pp.1081-1085, 1995
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NOWPHAS Offshore Stations, Report of PHRI, Vol. 32 No. 4, pp. 51-97, 1993
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– 205 –
Tsunami Technical note of PHRI, No.802,p .97, 1995
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Tsunami in 1996, Technical Note of PHRI No.842,p.96,1996
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PHRI No.1070,p.92,2004
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Technical Note of PHRI No.863,p.113,1997
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609/VI-41, PP.1-14, 1998
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NOWPHAS 2002), Technical Note of PARI, No.1069, p.336,2004
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1970- 1999 ), Technical Note of PARI No.1035,p.336,2002
40) Exhibition of Home Page of NOWPHAS wave observation information, The 16th Conference of presentation of study
Results, Japan Society of Marine Surveys and Technology, p. 2, 2004
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No. 4, Coastal Development Institute of Technology, pp.105-108,2004
– 206 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 3 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
Chapter 3 Geotechnical Conditions
Public Notice
Geotechnical Conditions
Article 13
Geotechnical conditions shall be appropriately set in terms of the physical and mechanical properties of the
soil based on the results of ground investigations and soil tests.
[Commentary]
(1) Geotechnical Conditions

The geotechnical conditions are the various conditions that represent the geotechnical characteristics
taken into consideration in the verification of the performance of the facility concerned against the
technical standards. In setting the geotechnical conditions, the reliability is determined based on the
results of a ground investigation and soil tests carried out by appropriate methods.
(2) Ground investigation
The ground investigation for setting the geotechnical conditions takes into consideration the structure,
scale, and importance of the facility that is subject to the technical standards, as well as the nature of the
ground close to the location of the facility.
(3) Soil tests
The soil tests for setting the geotechnical conditions uses methods that enable the geotechnical conditions
taken into consideration in the performance verification of the facility that is subject to the technical
standards to be appropriately set.
[Technical Note]
1 Ground Investigation
1.1 Methods of Determining Geotechnical Conditions
The geotechnical conditions necessary for the performance verification and the construction planning include depth
of the bearing strata, depth of the engineering foundation strata, thickness of weak strata, and other stratigraphical
conditions of the ground, water levels (residual water level), the density (degree of compaction), physical characteristics,
shear characteristics, consolidation characteristics, hydraulic conductivity, liquefaction characteristics, etc. Soil is a
material that is strongly stress-dependent, and its characteristics can change greatly due to consolidation with time, or
changes in overburden, etc. Therefore when necessary a new ground investigation should be carried out. However,
the size of ground investigations is limited, so past ground information (including databases, etc.) obtained from
document surveys should be positively utilized. In this case, it is important to confirm that the geotechnical conditions
have not changed due to changes in overburden or consolidation, or to take into consideration that the geotechnical
conditions have changed.
1.2 Position, Spacing, and Depth of Ground Investigation Locations
(1) The location of a ground investigation, and the spacing and the depth should be determined in accordance with the
size of the facility, the stress distribution in the ground caused by the weight of the facility, and the uniformity of
the stratigraphy of the ground. However, there is also the problem of the construction cost and importance of the
facility, so it is not possible to categorically regulate the number of survey points and their depth. In determining
the number of survey points the uniformity or non-uniformity of the ground is the most important aspect. It
is effective to check the uniformity or non-uniformity of the ground from the results of past investigations, the
topography of the land, and geophysical exploration methods such as sonic wave and surface wave exploration
methods. Automatically determining the spacing of ground investigation points should be avoided as much as
possible, but for reference Table 1.2.1 shows the spacing of ground investigation points for boring and sounding
surveys.
The depth of the ground investigation shall be sufficient to confirm strata with sufficient bearing capacity.
Whether a stratum has sufficient bearing capacity or not varies depending on the shape and scale of the facility,
so it cannot be categorically determined. However, as a guide, for comparatively small scale facilities or when the
foundations are not end bearing piles, the investigation may be terminated if stratum of a few meters thickness
is confirmed with the N-value obtained from the standard penetration test is 30 or higher, or for a large scale
– 207 –
facility where end bearing piles are anticipated the investigation may be terminated if stratum of a few meters
thickness is confirmed with the N value is 50 or higher. Also, for performance verification of seismic-resistance,
the investigation should continue until a stratum of engineering rock with a shear wave velocity of 300m/s or more
is confirmed.
Table 1.2.1 Guideline for Investigation Location and Spacing for Boring and Sounding Investigations
① In the case where the stratigraphical conditions are comparatively uniform both horizontally and vertically (Units: m)
Face line direction Perpendicular to face line direction
Distance from face line
Spacing layout Spacing layout (maximum)
Boring Sounding Boring Sounding Boring Sounding
Preliminary Wide area 300–500 100–300
50 25
survey Small area 50–100 20–50 50–100
Detailed survey 50–100 20–50 20–30 10–15
② When the stratigraphical conditions are complex (Units: m)

Face line direction Perpendicular to face line direction
Distance from face line
Spacing layout Spacing layout (maximum)
Boring Sounding Boring Sounding Boring Sounding
Preliminary survey 50 or less 15–20 20–30 10–15
50–100
Detailed survey 10–30 5–10 10–20 5–10
Note) A sounding survey may or may not require a borehole
The sounding surveys in the table are only those for which a borehole is not necessary.
For sounding surveys that require a borehole, “the boring column” is applicable.
1.3 Selection of Investigation Methods
(1) Investigation methods that are the most suitable for the survey objectives are selected taking into consideration the
extent of the survey, the importance of the facility and economics.
(2) Table 1.2.2 shows the survey methods for each survey objective, and the ground information obtained from
them.
– 208 –
Table 1.2.2 Survey Methods according to Survey Objectives
Classification Survey objective Survey method Survey details

Stratigraphical Confirmation of Boring Foundation depth
conditions stratigraphical Sounding Thickness of weak strata
conditions Geophysical exploration Sequence of strata
Physical Unit weight γt
characteristics Undisturbed sampling Water content w
Classification of
soil properties (structural disturbance is possible for Soil particle density ρs
all except γt) Particle size distribution
Consistency wL , wP, IP
(Hydraulic Hydraulic Undisturbed sampling Hydraulic conductivity k
conductivity) conductivity In-situ tests
Mechanical Bearing capacity Unconfined compressive strength qu
properties Undisturbed sampling τf
Shear strength
Slope stability Sounding Angle of shear resistance
In situ tests Dr
Earth pressure Relative density
Compression index Cc
Consolidation Undisturbed sampling Compression curve e-log p
characteristics Coefficient of consolidation cv
Coefficient of volume compressibility mv
Maximum dry density γdmax

Compaction Disturbed sampling also applicable wopt
Optimum water content
characteristics In- situ tests CBR
Shear modulus G
Dynamic Undisturbed sampling Attenuation coefficient hP
characteristics In- situ tests Liquefaction characteristics
References
1) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport: Guideline for Port Surveys. Japan Port Association, 1987
2) The Japan Geotechnical Society: Methodology and Commentary of Soil Survey, 2004
– 209 –
2 Ground Constants
2.1 Estimation of Ground Constants 1)
(1) General
The ground constants/parameters used in the performance verification are generally estimated in accordance
with the flow shown in Fig. 2.1.1. However, if there is a rational reason based on the characteristics of the ground
investigation and the soil tests, derived values may be used as the characteristic values. For example, as a method
of estimating the derived values from measured values of the N- value obtained from standard penetration tests,
empirical equations or correlation equations have been proposed that take into consideration the variation in
the measured values, so the derived values can be used as characteristic value as they are. Also, for the shear
wave velocity measured by geophysical exploration, the measured values evaluate the complex conditions and
characteristics of the in- situ ground, and the subject being evaluated differs with each measurement location, and
there are cases where the use of statistical processing of many measurement results is not appropriate. In this case
the derived values may also be used as they are as characteristic values.
Partial factors that are multiplied by the characteristic values to calculate design values may be set based on
the variability of the ground parameters and the sensitivity to the verification result of the parameter. Therefore,
partial factors are set for each performance verification method for each facility. Also, for each individual
performance verification, it is difficult to separately take into account the extent of variation of the ground
parameters that depends on ground investigations or the soil test methods. Therefore, the characteristic values
are calculated by applying a correction corresponding to the reliability of the soil test method. This approach is a
device for simplifying the performance verification method by making the partial factors set for each performance
verification method for each facility independent of the ground investigation methods and soil test methods.
However, it is slightly different from the concepts of JGS4001 that makes “the characteristic value is the average
value of the derived values” as a principle.
Direct results of various surveys, tests, measurements,and observations/ monitoring (measurement values)
Application of theory, experience, and correlation,

including primary processing
Estimated ground parameters (derived values)
Classification of strata
Modeling of ground (estimated values)
Statistical processing taking account of limit state

and variation
Representative values of ground parameters (characteristic values)
Apply partial factor
Ground parameter used in foundation and ground model (design values)
Fig. 2.1.1 Example of Procedure for setting the Design Values of Ground Parameters 1)
(2) Methods of Estimating the Derived Values

As shown below, methods of estimating derived values include the method of using the measured values as they
are as the derived values, the method of applying primary processing only to obtain the derived values, and the
method of obtaining the derived values by converting measured values into different engineering quantities.
① The method of using the measurement values as they are as derived values is, literally, direct measurement of
the ground parameters.
② Within the method of applying primary processing only to obtain the derived values, the primary corrections are
an area correction for shear tests, a correction for the effect of strain rate on the shear strength, and the simple
correction corresponds to just multiplying by the coefficients. Also, applying simple processing to test results,
such as applying the primary processing to calculate the water content w, the wet density ρt, the soil particle
density ρs, grain size distribution, obtaining the deformation modulus E from the stress-strain relationship, and
obtaining the consolidation yield stress pc from the e-log p relationship, corresponds to this method.
– 210 –
③ The method of obtaining derived values by converting the measured values into different engineering quantities
is the method of converting the measured results into engineering quantities based on theoretical or empirical
equations, or, obtaining fitting parameters in accordance with theory. Converting N-values into the angle of
shear resistance using empirical equations, and fitting theoretical curves of consolidation to settlement-time
curves to obtain the coefficient of consolidation cv, correspond to this method.
(3) Methods of setting the Characteristic Values
① General
The characteristic values are set generally in accordance with the flow shown in Fig. 2.1.2.
If there is a sufficient number of the derived value data to carry out statistical processing, and if the variation in
the derived values is small, as a rule, the characteristic value may be calculated as the average value, expected
value, of the derived values. Here, if the number of data entries n of the derived values is 10 or more, and the
amount of variation is not large, and if the coefficient of variation CV is less than 0.1, it is considered that a
certain reliability can be guaranteed for the statistical results, and the average value, expected value, of the
derived values may be taken to be the characteristic value. However, if there are an insufficient number of data
entries of the derived values to carry out statistical processing and if the variation in the derived values is large,
it is necessary to set the characteristic value by correcting the average value, expected value, of the derived
values based on the method shown below.
Ground parameters estimated from measured values (derived values)
Modeling of ground (estimated values)

Review of measured values
Variation in estimated values

with respect to derived values CV < 0.1
0.6 ≤ CV 0.1 ≤ coefficient of variation CV < 0.6
Yes
Correction for variation in the data
(0.75 < b1 ≤ 1.0, or 1.0 ≤ b1 < 1.25)
b1 = 1
Is No. of data entries sufficient? Yes

No. of data entries ≥ 10
No
Correction for number of data entries
(0.5 < b2 ≤ 1.0, or 1.0 ≤ b2 < 1.5)
b2 = 1
Representative values of ground parameters (characteristic values) ak =b1×b2×a*)
Fig. 2.1.2 Example of Procedure for setting Characteristic Values of Ground Parameters
② Correction of the average value ,expected value, of the derived values

When the number of derived value data entries is limited, or the variation in the derived values is large, the
characteristic values cannot simply and automatically be taken to be the average value, expected value, of
the derived values, but it is necessary to appropriately set the characteristic values taking into consideration
the estimated error of the statistical average values. In this case the following method may be used. The
uncertainty factors in the characteristic values include errors in the ground investigation or soil tests, estimation
errors in the derived values, and inhomogeneity in the ground itself. Therefore, it is desirable that the ground
investigation conditions such as types of survey equipment, soil test conditions such as types of test equipment,
test methods and condition of test specimen, the soil stratigraphy, and other soil information need to be carefully
examined. The method of correction of the average value ,expected value of the derived values described here
is not limited to the values for stability verification of the facility, but it is supposed that it can be generally
applied to ground constants, including values used for settlement predictions. In JGS4001 a method of setting
the characteristic values in accordance with confidence levels is described, in which a normal distribution is
– 211 –
assumed if the standard deviation of the population is known, and a t-distribution is assumed if the standard
deviation is not known. However, when dealing with ground parameters, the distribution and variation in the
derived values are due to errors in the ground investigation or soil tests, estimation errors in the derived values,
and inhomogeneity in the ground itself, and hence, this is different from dealing with quality indices of factory
products, and simple statistical processing is hardly applicable.
To obtain the ground parameters, which are obtained by adjusting the average values for the statistical errors,
and correspond to the characteristic values, for reliability-based design, it is necessary to obtain a sufficient
number of test results for statistical processing. Also, in order to reflect the soil investigation and soil test results
in the performance verification, it is necessary to model the distribution in the depth direction of the estimated
values a* of the ground parameter a as constant with depth (a*=c1), linearly increasing with depth (a*=c1z+c2),
or as having a quadratic distribution with depth (a*=c1z2+c2z+c3). Here, c1, c2, and c3 are constants. If a certain
range of depth is to be modeled, a sufficient number of tests are 10 or more data entries in order to carry out
statistical processing on the ground model. The reliability of ground parameters obtained from different soil
test methods such as the undrained shear strength of cohesive soils obtained from triaxial tests and unconfined
compression tests differs, so different partial factors should be set accordingly, but it is not known to what extent
the factors should differ. However, it is well known that the coefficients of variation of the two test results are
significantly different. Based on this the characteristic values are calculated not simply as the arithmetic mean,
but by multiplication by a correction coefficient that takes into account the variation of the derived values to the
estimated values. However, this is based on the assumption that there is a sufficient number of data entries to
carry out statistical processing, so if the number of data entries is insufficient, it is necessary to further set the
characteristic values on the safety side , by multiplying by a correction coefficient for the number of data points.
In other words, the characteristic values are calculated from the following equation (2.1.1) or equation (2.1.2).
Here, if it is reasonable to consider the variation on logarithmic axes, equation (2.1.2) is used.
(2.1.1)
(2.1.2)
where
ak : representative value of ground parameter (characteristic value)
b1 : correction coefficient for variation in the derived values
b2 : correction coefficient for number of data points of derived values
a* : model value of the ground parameter (estimated value)
A specific method of setting the correction coefficient is described below. However, when dealing with the
unit weight of the in- situ ground in stability analysis, for determining the values at which the action side and
the resistance side are substantially in balance, the correction coefficients may be taken to be b1=1, b2=1.
③ Method of setting the correction coefficient for variation in the derived values
If the estimated parameter for modeling the distribution of test results is represented by a*, when considering the
variation in test results a, it is convenient to use the standard deviation of (a/a*) which refers to the coefficient of
variation. Here it is assumed that a* is estimated as the average value of a uniform distribution within a stratum
that is modeled, or a distribution in which errors are minimized by the least squares method or similar. It is
known that for a uniform ground, the coefficient of variation of the ground parameters obtained as a result of
taking undisturbed clay test samples using a fixed piston type thin-walled tube sampler, and carefully carrying
out each type of soil test, is 0.1 or less. In other words, even though it is a uniform ground, there is a certain
amount of non-uniformity, and there are errors caused by the soil test methods, so this extent of variation in
the results is inevitable. However, if the variation is greater, if the non-uniformity in the ground is large, if the
disturbance during sampling is large, if the soil test methods are inappropriate, or if the modeling with respect
to depth is inappropriate, the estimated values a* cannot be taken to be characteristic values as they are, but it is
necessary to set the characteristic values on the safety side, taking the uncertainty factors into account.
Therefore, the correction coefficient b1 for variation of the derived values is set corresponding to the coefficient
of variation CV defined as the standard deviation SD of (a/a*). When the parameter a is contributing to the
resistance side such as shear strength, in a performance verification, the correction coefficient b1=1–(CV/2), and
when contributing to the action side such as unit weight of an embankment, and compression index, b1=1+(CV/2)
are set, and the values shown in Table 2.1.1 should be used in the performance verification. This corrects
the value to a value corresponding to about 70% probability of non-exceedance, for use as the characteristic
value. If the coefficient of variation is 0.6 or higher, the reliability is poor, so performance verification cannot
be carried out, interpretation of the test results must be carried out again, and if necessary the modeling of the
ground must be re-investigated. In certain cases it may be necessary to carry out the soil investigation again.
– 212 –
Table 2.1.1 Values of Correction Coefficients
Correction coefficient b1
Coefficient of variation CV When it is necessary to correct the When it is necessary to correct the
characteristic value to a value smaller than characteristic value to a value larger than
the derived values the derived values
≥ 0, < 0.1 1.0 1.0
≥ 0.1, < 0.15 0.95 1.05
≥ 0.15, < 0.25 0.9 1.1
≥ 0.25, < 0.4 0.85 1.15
≥ 0.4, < 0.6 0.75 1.25
≥ 0.6 Re-investigate the interpretation of the results or the modeling, or re-do the survey
The ground parameters include parameters whose results are evaluated as logarithmic distributions, such as
the consolidation yield stress pc, the coefficient of consolidation cv, and the coefficient of volume compressibility
mv. In order to obtain the characteristic values of these parameters, several tests are carried out, and if the
ground is to be treated as uniform, these parameters are distributed as log-normal, so it is reasonable to consider
the variation on the logarithmic axis. In other words, for the parameter a, if the standard deviation of (log a)/(log
a*) is SD, and this becomes the coefficient of variation CV, the values in Table 2.1.1 can be used as they are as
the correction coefficient b1 on the logarithmic axis. On the other hand, for the angle of shear resistance , the
variation of itself is not considered, but the variation of tan is considered. In the case of the angle of shear
resistance of a mound material, if the value used in the performance verification is specified based on experience,
the specified value already has the effect of variation taken into consideration, so it is not necessary to consider a
correction coefficient. The correction coefficients shown here are used after carrying out statistical processing
in order to obtain the characteristic values from the reported soil test results. Therefore, it is necessary to be
aware that the coefficients of variation in Table 2.1.1 do not indicate the level of variation obtained from soil
investigations or soil test results.
④ Method of setting the correction coefficient for the number of data entries of the derived values
For the Method of setting the correction coefficient for variation in the derived values in ③ above, it was
assumed that the number of data points is sufficient to carry out statistical processing. However, in the case
where the number of data points is insufficient for carrying out statistical processing, the correction coefficient
b2 for the number of data entries of derived values is set as follows. In other words, if the number of data entries
n is 10 or more, there will be a certain reliability in the statistical results, but if the number is insufficient the
correction coefficient should be set to b2={1±(0.5/n)}. Here the negative sign is used when it is necessary to
correct the characteristic value of a ground parameter used in performance verification toward smaller values
than the derived values, and the positive sign is used when it is necessary to correct the value toward larger
values than the derived values. For the performance verification there must be at least two or more data entries.
However, even in the case where there is only one data entries, if other parameters for example N- value or grain
size distribution have been obtained, and if the distribution in the depth direction is modeled from a correlation
with these provided only commonly known correlations are used, then that one data entry may be used in the
performance verification. In this case, b1=1, and b2=1±0.5 are assumed.
⑤ Method of setting the characteristic values taking the mode of the performance verification into account
The ground constants for consolidation and the ground constants for shear are not mutually independent. In the
performance verification, if these constants are considered to be independent, the characteristic values can be
obtained taking into consideration the reliability of the respective parameters. However, if a strength increase
due to consolidation is expected for stability evaluation, the parameters in respect of consolidation and the
parameters in respect of shearing must be closely linked. In these circumstances, in the process of obtaining
characteristic values from derived values, the parameters are modeled as mutually linked when modeling the
distribution of soil test results to derive estimated values. For example, the characteristic values must be set by
statistical processing for the variation, to estimate compatible ground parameters, taking into consideration the
relationship cu =m×OCR×σ'v0 between the effective soil overburden pressure σ'v0, the consolidation yield stress
pc, and the undrained shear strength cu, using the strength increase ratio m=cu/pc, and the overconsolidation
ratio OCR=pc/σ'v0.
(4) Method of Calculating Design Values
In the various calculations when the ground parameters are used in performance verification, design values are
obtained by multiplying the characteristic values by a partial factor γ. A value of the partial factor γ may be set
for each performance verification method for each facility, but if not specified otherwise, γ may be taken to be 1.0.
– 213 –
2.2 Physical Properties of Soils

2.2.1 Unit Weight of Soil
(1) The unit weight must be obtained by collecting undisturbed samples on site, or directly obtaining it on site.
(2) The unit weight is normally the weight per unit volume in air, and includes the wet unit weight and dry unit weight.
Also, the unit weight in water (weight per unit volume from which buoyancy is deducted) is referred to as the
immersed unit weight. For the measurement of the unit weight, methods of collecting undisturbed samples of
clay soils have been established, and it is possible to obtain test samples that are representative of the soil in-situ.
Therefore the unit weight of clay soils can be obtained from laboratory tests. However, the unit weight of sandy
soils or sand must be obtained directly in-situ.
The wet unit weight is one of the indices indicating the fundamental properties of a soil, and is used for
recognizing the soil stiffness, and degree of looseness, and for calculating, the weight of a soil mass and the void
ratio.
① Wet unit weight
The wet unit weight is generally expressed as shown in equation (2.2.1), by combining both the weight of soil
particles per unit volume and the weight of water within the void.
(2.2.1)
where
γt : wet unit weight (kN/m3)
ρt : bulk density (t/m3)
ρs : soil particle density (t/ m3)
e : void ratio
Sr : degree of saturation (%)
w : water content (%)
ρw : density of seawater (t/m3)
The approximate values of the unit weight of soils normally encountered in harbor areas in Japan are as
shown in Table 2.2.1.
Table 2.2.1 Unit Weight and Water Content of Representative Soils
Holocene clays Holocene clays Sandy soils

Wet unit weight γt (kN/m 3) 12–16 16–20 16–20
Dry unit weight γd (kN/m 3) 5–14 11–14 12–18
Water content w(%) 150–30 60–20 30–10
② Dry unit weight

Only soil particles are considered in the unit weight, so by putting w=0 or Sr =0, the dry weight per unit volume
is expressed by equation (2.2.2).
(2.2.2)
where
γd : d ry unit weight (kN/m3)
ρd : d ry density (t/m3)
Also, the relationship between the wet unit weight γt and the dry unit weight γd is given by the following
equation.
(2.2.3)
– 214 –
③ Immersed unit weight

If the void is completely saturated with water, the immersed unit weight is expressed by equation (2.2.4) taking
buoyancy into account.
(2.2.4)
where
γ' : immersed unit weight (kN/m3)
γ sat : saturated unit weight (kN/m3)
Although the unit weight of water γ w is somewhat dependent on salt concentration and temperature, its
correct value is known. Therefore, when obtaining the characteristic values of a saturated foundation taking
the variation in unit weight into account, the variation in γ' should be considered, not γ sat. In other words, when
multiplying the characteristic values by a partial factor to obtain the design values, there is no necessity to apply
a partial factor to the unit weight of water γ w, so the immersed unit weight γ' is multiplied by the partial factor,
not the saturated unit weight γ sat.
(3) Measurement of Unit Weight In-situ
Methods for directly obtaining the unit weight in- situ include methods in which measurement is only possible near
the ground surface, and methods of measurement in firm ground. The former includes for example the so-called
sand replacement method, a simple and easy method as prescribed by JIS A 1214 Method of Soil Density Test by
Sand Replacement Method. Also, the latter includes example methods of measurement using radioisotopes (RI).
① Methods using the sand replacement method
The sand replacement method is mainly applied to measurement on land near the ground surface for control of
earthworks, but it can be used down to a certain depth where pits can be excavated. This measurement method
is described in JIS A 1214.
② Radioisotopes (RI)
In recent years the use of RI has become comparatively easy, and although there are strict laws and regulations
such as the Law to Prevent Radiological Hazards Caused by Radioactive Isotopes. (Law No. 167, 1957)
and its associated regulations, there have been many cases of measurement using a γ -ray densitometer as an
in- situ test where it is difficult to obtain undisturbed samples of sand and sandy soil. Incidentally, these legal
restrictions do not apply in the case of sealed radioactive sources whose radiation source strength is 3.7MBq
(megabequerel) or less.
There are two types of γ -ray densitometer that use RI: a surface type and an inserted type, and these are
described in Soil Density Test Methods using RI Equipment, JGS 1614, the Standard of Geotechnical Society
of Japan. The surface type is applied to measurement near the ground surface, as implied by its name, and is
used for control of earthworks same as the sand replacement method. The surface type is further classified
into back scattering types and transmission types. Measuring equipment using the initially developed back
scattering method is frequently used, but in recent years equipment using the transmission method has become
popular because of its accuracy. On the other hand, the insertion type is applied to measuring the density
distribution in the vertical direction, in other words for surveys in the depth direction. For example, it is used
for investigating the density distribution in the depth direction for ground surveys, for determining the soil
improvement effect by density measurement of replaced sand, and measurement of the density of filled sand in
caissons.
The RI method has the advantage that it is a non-destructive test from which the in- situ density can be
directly measured. Also, although the measurement operation itself is simple so it has a high usability value,
on the other hand because there is danger associated with the radioactive material there are many regulations
regarding its handling, so it cannot be simply brought out and used in-situ. In addition, in surveys associated
with port construction, the inserted type is mainly used, so there is an operation of inserting the equipment into
the access pipe. The measurement accuracy is governed by the material and quality of the pipe, or the insertion
accuracy, in other words, the measurement accuracy is governed by the disturbance of the surroundings when
the pipe is inserted, and how good the contact between the pipe and the soil is, so caution is necessary. Recently
the RI cone penetrometer, which incorporates RI in a cone probe, is being developed as a device capable of
directly penetrating into the ground for surveys.
(4) Relative Density
The degree of compaction of sand may be expressed by the relative density using equation (2.2.5).
(2.2.5)
– 215 –
where,
Dr : relative density
emax : void ratio in the loosest state
emin : void ratio in the densest state
e : void ratio in the present state of the test sample
ρdmin : dry density in the loosest state (g/cm3)
ρdmax : dry density in the densest state (g/cm3)
ρd : dry density in the present state of the test sample (g/cm3)
The density of sand is greatly affected by the shape of the particles and by the grain size composition. So
from the unit weights and the void ratios calculated from it, the density of sand cannot be correctly evaluated.
Therefore, the relative density is used to indicate the relative value within the range of void ratios that can be taken
with this soil. Measurement of emax, emin, (ρdmin, ρdmax) for obtaining Dr can be carried out in accordance with
Japanese Industrial Standard JIS A 1224 Method of Measurement of the Minimum and Maximum Density of
Sand.
It is difficult to take undisturbed samples of sand, so the relative density is frequently measured indirectly by
sounding. (see 2.3.4(4) Angle of shear resistance of sandy ground).
2.2.2 Classification of Soils
(1) Soil classification is performed by the grading for coarse soils and by the consistency for fine soils.
(2) Mechanical properties of soil such as strength or deformation have a close relationship with the grading for coarse
soils, and with the consistency for fine soils.
(3) Engineering Classification Method for Subsoil Materials (Japanese Unified Soil Classification System)
The classifying method of soil and rock, and their nomenclature should be in accordance with the engineering
classification method for subsoil material prescribed by the JGS 0051 Japanese Unified Soil Classification
System of the Geotechnical Society of Japan. The grain size classifications and their names are shown in Fig.
2.2.1. The coarse-grained soil refers to soil composed mainly of coarse fraction with a grain size ranging from
75 µm to 75 mm. Soil consisting of components with a grain size less than 75 µm is called the fine-grained soil.
Fig. 2.2.1 and Fig. 2.2.2 show the engineering classification system for soil, and Fig. 2.2.3 shows the plasticity
diagram used in classifying fine-grained soil.
Particle Diameter
5µm 75µm 250µm 425µm 850µm 2mm 4.75mm 19mm 75mm 300mm
Coarse Fine Medium Coarse

Fine sand Medium sand Cobble Boulder
Clay Silt sand gravel gravel gravel
Sand Gravel Stone

Fine grain fraction Coarse grain fraction Stone fraction
(Note) The word "particle" is affixed when referring to a constituent particle belonging to a particular category;
and the word "fraction" is affixed when referring to a component belonging to a particular category.
Fig. 2.2.1 The Grain Size Classifications and their Names (JGS 0051)
(4) Classification by Grain Size

The uniformity coefficient is an index showing the grain size characteristics of sandy soil and is defined by
equation (2.2.6).
(2.2.6)
where
Uc : uniformity coefficient
D60 : grain size corresponding to 60 % passing by mass in grain size distribution curve (mm)
D10 : grain size corresponding to 10 % passing by mass in grain size distribution curve (mm)
A large uniformity coefficient means that the grain size is broadly distributed, and such a soil is called
– 216 –
“well graded”. In contrast, a small value of Uc means that the grain size distribution is narrow or the grain size
is uniform. Such a soil is called “poorly graded”. In the Japanese Unified Soil Classification System, coarse
soil where fine contents are less than 5% of the total mass is further divided into “broadly-distributed soil” and
“uniformed soil”.
Broadly-distributed soil : 10 ≤ Uc
Uniformed soil : Uc<10
2.2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil
(1) When the seepage flow in a completely saturated ground is a steady laminar flow, the hydraulic conductivity shall
be estimated by using Darcy’s law.
(2) The hydraulic conductivity k is calculated by equation (2.2.7), taking into account of the measurement of cross-
sectional area of soil A, hydraulic gradient i and volume of seepage flow in unit time.
(2.2.7)
where
k : coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
q : volume of water flow in soil in unit time (cm3/s)
i : hydraulic gradient,
h : head loss (cm)

L : length of the seepage path (cm)
A : cross-sectional area (cm 2)
The measurement for determining coefficient of permeability k includes a laboratory permeability test of
undisturbed soil samples taken in-situ, or a in-situ permeability test.
(3) Approximate values of the coefficient of permeability
Hazen showed that the effective grain size D10 and the permeability of sand k are related, and gave equation (2.2.8)
to calculate k of relatively uniform sand with the uniformity coefficient of Uc less than 5, and the effective grain
size D10 from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm.5)
(2.2.8)
where
k : coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
C : constant (C=100 (1/cm · s) )
D10 : grain size called as the effective grain size corresponding to 10 percentage passing of mass
in grain size distribution curve (cm)
Terzaghi has pointed out that equation (2.2.8) can also be applied to cohesive soils by using C≒2. The
approximate values of the coefficient of permeability are listed in Table 2.2.2).5)
Table 2.2.2 Approximate Values of Coefficient of Permeability 5)
Soil Sand Silt Clay

Hydraulic
10 -2cm/s 10 -5cm/s 10 -7cm/s
conductivity
– 217 –
2.3 Mechanical Properties of Soil

2.3.1 Elastic Constants
(1) When analyzing soil behavior as an elastic body, the elastic constants are determined with due consideration for
the nonlinearity of stress-strain relation of soils.
(2) When analyzing soil behavior as an elastic body, the deformation modulus and Poisson’s ratio are normally used as
the elastic constants. Because of the strong nonlinearity of stress-strain relationship of soil, the elastic constants
in analysis must be determined by considering the strain level of the ground to be analyzed.
(3) Strain Dependency of Deformation Modulus
The stress-strain relation of soil usually shows a strong nonlinearity. When the strain level is within a range of
10 -5 or less namely 0.001% or less, the deformation modulus is largest and nearly constant. This maximum value
Emax is corresponding to the measured value in the dynamic testing methods such as the elastic wave exploration,
and is called the dynamic elasticity modulus. As the strain level increases, the elasticity modulus decreases. The
secant modulus E50, determined from a conventional unconfined compression test or a triaxial compression test, is
considered as the deformation modulus when the strain is of the order of 10 -3 (0.1%). When conducting an elastic
analysis of soil, it is necessary to determine the elastic constant by considering the strain level of the soil.
(4) Relationship between Undrained Shear Strength and Deformation Modulus
For cohesive soils, the approximate values for the initial tangent elastic modulus Ei, and the secant elastic modulus
E50 can be determined by using equation (2.3.1) and equation (2.3.2).7)
(2.3.1)
(2.3.2)
where
Ei : initial tangent elastic modulus (kN/m2)
E50 : secant elastic modulus (kN/m 2)
cu : undrained shear strength (kN/m 2)
The equation (2.3.1) is applicable only for highly structured marine cohesive soil with high plasticity.
(5) Poisson’s Ratio
For determining Poisson’s ratio of soil, there is no established method currently, although a number of methods
have been proposed. Practically, v = 1/2 is used for undrained conditions of saturated soil, and v = 1/3 – 1/2 is
used for many other situations.
2.3.2 Compression and Consolidation Characteristics
(1) Compression characteristics of soil and the coefficients for estimating settlement of foundations due to consolidation
can be calculated from the values obtained based on JIS A 1217 Test Method for Consolidation Test of Soils
Using Incremental Loading.
(2) When soil is loaded one-dimensionally, compression of the structure with the soil particles which causes
settlement is referred to as compression. If the voids of the soil are saturated with water, it is necessary for the pore
water to be drained in order to contact the structure with the soil particles. For sandy soils with high hydraulic
conductivity, drainage is fast, so contraction occurs immediately after loading and is soon completed. However,
for cohesive soil ground the hydraulic conductivity is very low, so a long period of time is needed for drainage,
and compression settlement occurs slowly. This phenomenon in which compression settlement in cohesive soil
ground occurs over a long period of time is referred to as consolidation.
The consolidation characteristics of soils are used not only for calculating the settlement due to loading, but
also for estimating the increase in shear strength of soils in soil improvement work.
(3) Calculation of the final settlement due to consolidation
When the consolidation pressure and the void ratio when consolidation is completed at that pressure (after 24
hours) in a consolidation test are plotted on semi-logarithmic graph, the so-called e–log p curve or compression
curve is obtained, as shown in Fig. 2.3.1. The “abc” portion of the e–log p curve indicates the loading process, and
is virtually linear. The consolidation state indicated by the “abc” portion is referred to as the normal consolidation
state. On the other hand, if the soil is unloaded from the state at point “b”, the relationship between the void ratio
and the pressure when the equilibrium state is reached under the reduced pressure describes the path “bd”. If
the pressure is increased again, the path “db” is described. The state represented by “bd” and “db” is referred
– 218 –
to as the overconsolidation. When a consolidation test is carried out, the path “d→b→c” is described, the point
“b” is obtained at the boundary of “d→b” indicating the elastic deformation and “b→c” indicating the plastic
deformation, and the pressure corresponding to this boundary is referred to as the consolidation yield stress.
p1 p2 log p
a
d
b
e1
e2
c
e
Fig. 2.3.1 e–log p Relationship during Consolidation
The relationship between the void ratio e and the pressure p for the segment “abc”, normal consolidation
domain in Fig. 2.3.1 is expressed by equation (2.3.3).
(2.3.3)
where
Cc is a non-dimensional number showing the degree of inclination of segment “abc” and is called the
compression index.
The final settlement resulting from the consolidation load can be calculated using three methods: the e-log p
curve method, the Cc method, and the coefficient of volume compressibility mv method.
The decrease in void ratio e when the pressure increases from the overburden pressure in- situ p0 to (p0+ p) can
be determined by directly reading the e–log p relationship curve obtained from consolidation tests. Otherwise, if
the settlement is expected to be overestimated to the safe side, it can also be evaluated by equation (2.3.4) using
equation (2.3.3).
(2.3.4)
In the e-log p curve method, the settlement S is calculated by the following equation using e either read
directly or determined from equation (2.3.4):
(2.3.5)
where
h : thickness of layer
In the Cc method, the settlement S is calculated by the following equation (2.3.6):
(2.3.6)
This equation corresponds to that whereby equation (2.3.4) is substituted in equation (2.3.5).
The coefficient of volume compressibility mv is used for estimating settlement and the amount of compression by
a load is proportional to mv. However, this is effective only with small increases in consolidation pressure such
as where mv can be assumed to be constant, because it would linearize the soil with strong nonlinearity. Equation
(2.3.7) is used to calculate the settlement S using mv.
(2.3.7)
where
mv : coefficient of volume compressibility when the consolidation pressure is p 0 × ( p 0 + ∆p )
– 219 –
Generally, the value of mv during consolidation decreases with the increase of effective overburden pressure.
Under normally consolidated state, the relationship between p and mv plotted on a double logarithmic graph would
almost be a straight line. The mv used in equation (2.3.7) for calculating settlement is the mean value during the
change in effective overburden pressure of the ground from p0 to (p0+ p). Usually, this would be the mv for the
geometric mean of the effective overburden pressure .
(4) Settlement Rate
In Terzaghi’s theory which is a classical theory of consolidation, the method of analyzing the settlement rate is as
follows: When a pressure increment p is added to a saturated cohesive soil under undrained conditions, an excess
pore water pressure equal to the magnitude of p is generated. As consolidation progresses, this excess pore water
pressure gradually dissipates, and at the same time the stress σ' acting between soil particles increases. This stress
is referred to as the “effective stress”. However, the sum of the excess pore water pressure u and the increment
of stress σ' between soil particles is always equal to the increment of loading pressure p, so equation (2.3.8) is
established.
(2.3.8)
Consider the case where highly permeable sand layers exist above and beneath a clay layer of thickness 2H.
When a consolidation pressure increment p is applied, the distribution with depth of σ' and u are as shown in Fig.
2.3.2. In other words, at the time of start of consolidation (t=0), the state is indicated by the line DC with u=p,
σ'=0, and when consolidation is completed the state is as indicated by the line AB, with u=0, σ'=p. The curve AEB
is the pore water pressure distribution at the time t1 after start of consolidation. This curve is called “isochrone”.
As shown in the figure, the parts of soil distant from the drainage layers have relatively slow rate of consolidation.
The ratio of the effective stress increment to the consolidation pressure increment (σ'/p) at a certain depth z
is referred to as the degree of consolidation Uz at that depth. The degree of consolidation at each depth averaged
over the whole layer is referred to as the average degree of consolidation U. The average consolidation is the ratio
of the area of AEBCD to the area ABCD in Fig. 2.3.2.
p p
D A Drainage layer
Tv 1
v＝
t1 T
t 0)
z
(　=　)
H
t ∞
t＝
(　=
E h Clay layer
u
H
'
C B Drainage layer
u h
'
Fig. 2.3.2 Distribution of Pore Water Pressure with Depth
The consolidation is the time-dependent settlement phenomenon. The rate of consolidation for an entire
cohesive soil layer is represented with the parameter U for the average degree of consolidation. The relationship
between U and the non-dimensional time factor Tv is obtained by the theory of consolidation. The relationship
between the non-dimensional time factor Tv and the actual time t is shown by the following equation:
(2.3.9)
where
Tv : time factor
cv : coefficient of consolidation
t : time after the consolidation starts
H* : maximum drainage distance

When the permeable layer exist at both sides of the cohesive soil layer, the maximum drainage distance H*
is the same as H. However, when the permeable layer only exists on one side, H* is equal to 2H. The degree of
consolidation at each depth is shown by the consolidation isochrones in Fig. 2.3.3. Furthermore, Fig. 2.3.4 shows
– 220 –
the theoretical relationship between the average degree of consolidation and the time factor.
0
Tv = 0
5
0.5 = 0.0
0 5 0 0 0
Tv 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
90 48
0.7 0
0.8 0
0
6
0. 0.8
0.
Z
―
H 1
1.5
2.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Degree of consolidation Uz
Fig. 2.3.3 Consolidation Isochrones
u0 u1 u2
Average degree of consolidation U (%)
0 2H
20
u i = u0 u i = u 1 + u2 H - z
H
40
60
80
100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time factor Tv
Fig. 2.3.4 Theoretical Relationship between Average Degree of Consolidation and Time Factor
(5) Primary Consolidation and Secondary Consolidation

If the relationship between amount of settlement and time measured in a consolidation test is shown as degree of
consolidation against time, Fig. 2.3.5 is obtained. However, as shown in the figure, at the final stage of consolidation,
the test curve does not coincide with the theoretical curve. Consolidation until U=100% as determined by the
time settlement relationship virtually agreeing with consolidation theory is referred to as “primary consolidation”,
and the part in which U>100% and consolidation is not in accordance with consolidation theory is referred to as
“secondary consolidation”. Secondary consolidation is considered to be a creep phenomenon, and in this case the
settlement tends to occur linearly with respect to the logarithm of time.
In the performance verification of port facilities, normally the consolidation pressure due to loading reaches
several times the consolidation yield stress of the ground. Under these conditions, the amount of settlement due
to primary consolidation is large, and the amount of settlement due to secondary consolidation is comparatively
small, so in most cases secondary consolidation is not considered when carrying out the performance verification.
Also, if the settlement is large, the effect of the increase in buoyancy with settlement cancels out the effect of
secondary consolidation, so apparently secondary consolidation is not seen. In the following cases, secondary
consolidation must be taken into consideration at the performance verification.
① The advancement in ground settlement with elapse of time subsequent to construction is having serious effects
on the facility.
② As in the case of deep Pleistocene clayey ground, when the consolidation pressure does not exceed the
consolidation yield stress of the soil layer significantly, the contribution of secondary consolidation in an entire
settlement can not be neglected.
– 221 –
Average degree of consolidation U (%)

0
20
40 Primary
consolidation
60 Theoretical curve
80 Experimental curve
U = 100%
100
Secondary t100
120 consolidation
Fig. 2.3.5 Primary Consolidation and Secondary Consolidation
(6) Consolidation Settlement of Very Soft Cohesive Soils

When the landfill is carried out with dredging or disposed sludge, it is necessary to predict the consolidation
settlement of extremely soft deposits. Mikasa’s 8) consolidation theory which takes into account the effect of self
weight of clay layer and the changes in layer thickness during consolidation can be applied to analyze this problem.
. In this case, the amount and speed of settlement cannot be determined analytically; it must be calculated with
the finite differential method.
When the reduction in thickness of a layer due to settlement compared with the original thickness is so large
that it cannot be ignored, the errors in the normal consolidation settlement calculation method become large.
For example, if the reduction in the layer thickness is 10 to 50%, the difference between the normal calculation
method and a calculation that takes into consideration the effect of the change in layer thickness is in the region
3 to 30%. Also, the effect of dead weight is largest after allowing to stand after dredging and filling, and as the
load increases, the effect is reduced relatively. For loading that is twice or more the average own weight of a weak
layer, the effect of self weight becomes very small, and can be virtually ignored.
In order to estimate the consolidation parameters of very soft cohesive soil, there is a constant rate of strain
consolidation test in which displacement is continuously applied as stipulated in JIS A 1227 Test Method for One-
dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils using Constant Rate of Strain Loading. For cohesive soils
with a large aging effect, or for cohesive soils of which settlement can be suddenly seen after the consolidation
yield stress, the constant rate of strain consolidation test from which a continuous e–log p curve can be obtained
is a very useful method for obtaining the consolidation yield stress 9) However, the e–log p curve is strongly
affected by the strain rate, and the e–log p curve obtained from this test is normally greatly shifted to the large
consolidation pressure side compared with the e–log p curve obtained from an icremental loading consolidation
test as stipulated in JIS A 1217. Therefore it is necessary to be aware that the consolidation yield stress becomes
larger.
(7) Correlation between the Compression and Consolidation Coefficients and the Physical Properties
Of all the soil tests, the consolidation test requires the longest amount of time. If the results of consolidation test
can be estimated from physical test results, which require only disturbed test samples, and is a comparatively
simple test method, and moreover whose results can be quickly obtained, this would be very useful. Skempton
has proposed the correlation equation (2.3.10) as the relationship between the compression index Cc and the liquid
limit wL.
(2.3.10)
Equation (2.3.10) is applicable to clay that is re-molded and re-consolidated in the laboratory, or young clay
ground formed by artificial filling, but it tends to either over or underestimate the compression characteristics of
naturally deposited clays.
The reason why natural cohesive soil grounds have larger compression index values than young clay is
because in the process of sedimentation which occurs over many years, a structure is formed due to aging effects
such as cementation. When this structure is destroyed as a result of the consolidation pressure exceeding the
consolidation yield stress, high compressibility is demonstrated.
– 222 –
2.3.3 Shear Characteristics
(1) The shear strength parameters of soil are determined by classifying soil into sandy soil and cohesive soil. The
shear strength of sandy soil is determined under drained conditions, while the shear strength for cohesive soil is
determined under undrained conditions.
(2) In general, the hydraulic conductivity of sandy soil is 103 – 105 times that of cohesive soil. For sandy soil layer, the
excess water in pores is considered to be completely drained during construction. For cohesive soil layer, on the
other hand, almost no drainage is expected during construction because the hydraulic conductivity is significantly
low. Thus in many cases for sandy soil layer the shear strength is evaluated using the angle of shear resistance in
drained condition D and the cohesion in drained condition cD. Because the value of cD is usually very small,
practically cD is ignored and only D is used as the strength parameter.
In the case of saturated cohesive soil layer, the shear strength of the layer undergoes almost no change between
before and after construction, as the drainage cannot take place during construction. The undrained shear strength
before construction is therefore used as the strength parameter. For intermediate soil that has the permeability
somewhere between those of sandy soil and cohesive soil, the soil should be viewed as sandy soil or cohesive soil
based on the coefficient of permeability and construction conditions.
(3) Considerations on Shear Strength
The shear strength τ f of a soil is generally expressed by the following equation.
(2.3.11)
where
τf : shear strength
c : cohesion or apparent cohesion
: angle of shear resistance (°)
σ : normal stress on the shear surface
When a stress is applied to a soil, the stress acting on the skeletal structure of the soil particles, referred to as
the effective stress, and the pore water pressure,) both change. If the total stress applied to the soil denotes σ, the
effective stress denotes σ', and the pore water pressure denotes u, the following relationship can be established.
(2.3.12)
(2.3.13)
In equation (2.3.11), the strength constants such as cand , vary depending on the conditions during the
shear tests, but the condition that has the greatest effect is the drainage condition of the soil. Because soil has the
tendency of changing volumes which is known as “dilatancy” while being sheared, shear strength of soil is greatly
dependent upon whether a volume change takes place during the shear or not. The drainage condition is classified
into the following three categories and different strength parameters are used for each case:
① Unconsolidated, Undrained condition (UU condition)

② Consolidated, Undrained condition (CU condition)
③ Consolidated, Drained condition (CD condition)
In Fig. 2.3.6, pattern diagrams are shown for the shear strength when direct shear tests are carried out under
the drainage condition ①, ②, ③.10) In the figure, the change in shear strength under increased or reduced normal
stress σ is shown on the soil samples consolidated in advance to the pressure p0. As shown in the figure, under
the unconsolidated undrained condition ①, the strength is constant and does not depend on σ. In the case of the
consolidated undrained condition ②, within the range p0<σ the strength increases linearly as σ increases. Under
the consolidated drained condition ③, the strength is overall greater than ①, ②, and this is because the void
ratio is reduced by consolidation or shearing in the case of weak cohesive soil or loose sand. However, when σ is
significantly smaller than p0 (in the figure this limit of the normal stress is indicated as σ*), the strength under the
consolidated drained condition is smaller than the strength under the consolidated undrained condition due to the
effect of swelling during shearing. Summarizing this relationship for the range of σ the following is obtained.
In the range p0< σ , namely the applied loading is larger than the pre-consolidation pressure ; ①<②<③
In the range σ*< σ <p0 , namely the applied loading is somewhat smaller than the preceding consolidation
– 223 –
pressure ; ②<①<③ or ②<③<①

In the range σ <σ* ,namely the applied loading is significantly smaller than the preceding consolidation pressure
; ③<②<①
Fig. 2.3.6 Relationship between Drainage Conditions and Shear Strength
The shear strength used for the performance verification of ground should be the shear strength for the most
dangerous drainage conditions expected under the given load. The drainage condition and shear strength are then
as in the following:
(a) When loading takes place rapidly on the cohesive soil ground:
Because consolidation progresses and shear strength increases with the elapse of time, the most dangerous
time will be immediately after the loading when almost no drainage has occurred. This is called the short-
period stability problem. The shear strength τ f at this time is the shear strength cu that is determined from
unconsolidated undrained (UU) tests using the sample before loading. The parameter cu (undrained shear
strength) is also called the apparent cohesion, and the analysis using cu is also called the “ =0 method”.
Constructions of seawalls or breakwaters without excavation, landfill, and embankments on soft cohesive soil
ground fall in this category.
(b) When ground permeability is large or when drainage from consolidated layer is almost completed during
construction period because the loading is carried out very slowly:
Because drainage from the layer occurs simultaneously with loading and an increase in strength of the
layer is expected along with the loading, the performance verification of structures should be carried out
using cD and D determined under consolidated and drained (CD) conditions. Constructions of seawalls or
breakwaters, landfill and embankments on sandy soil belong to this category.
(c) When the hydraulic conductivity of the ground is poor and the load is removed to decrease the normal stress
σ on the shear plane:
In this case, the most dangerous situation is after a long time has elapsed, when the soil absorbs water,
expands, and loses its shear strength, this is called the long-term stability problem. As shown in Fig. 2.3.6,
undrained shear strength becomes the lowest after water absorption and soil expansion when the over-
consolidation ratio is small, in other words, σ is a little less than p0. In this situation, therefore, the cu value
should be used with consideration of soil swelling. Earth retaining and excavation in clayey ground or
removal of preloading on cohesive soil ground belongs to this category. On the other hand, in the case of
heavily over-consolidated ground where σ is very small compared to p0, the parameters cD and D are used
for performance verification because the shear strength under consolidated, drained condition is the smallest.
Usually, this often applies to cases where cut earth methods are employed but it also applies to construction
works in coastal areas such as works to deeper quaywall depth and dredging works on seabed soil.
In almost all cases for normal construction conditions of port facilities, the undrained strength in UU
conditions of (a) is used in the performance verification for cohesive soils and the strength parameter in the
CD conditions of (b) is used for sandy soils. The following equations show the strength calculation methods
respectively:
1) For cohesive soil with the sand content is less than 50%
(2.3.14)
– 224 –
where
τ: shear strength
cu: undrained shear strength
2) For sandy soil with the sand content is higher than 80%
(2.3.15)
where
τ : shear strength
σ : normal stress to shear plane
u : hydraulic pressure at the site
D : angle of shear resistance for drained conditions (º)
Furthermore, because soil with a sand fraction ranging from 50% – 80% displays intermediate
characteristics between sandy soil and cohesive soil, it is called the intermediate soil. The evaluation of
shear strength of intermediate soil is difficult compared with that of sandy soil or cohesive soil. Hence, the
shear strength for such soil should be evaluated carefully by referring to the most recent research results.
With respect to intermediate soil that can be treated as cohesive soil, it is preferable to utilize results of
triaxial CU tests etc. rather than evaluate shear strength from unconfined compressive strength.
(4) Shear Strength of Sand
Because sandy soil has high hydraulic conductivity and is regarded in completely drained condition, the shear
strength of sand is represented by equation (2.3.15). The angle of shear resistance D for drained conditions
can be determined using a triaxial CD test under consolidated and drained condition. Because the value of D
becomes large when sand’s void ratio becomes small and its density becomes high, the void ratio e0 in- situ should
be accurately determined. Therefore, it is best to take and test an undisturbed sample. Although the D values
of sand with the same density will vary a little with the shear conditions, the value of D determined by a triaxial
CD test, which is conducted with the consolidation pressure corresponding to design conditions with undisturbed
sample, can be used as the design parameter for stability analysis. However, in the case of bearing capacity
problem for foundation, which is much influenced by progressive failure, the bearing capacity is over-estimated in
some cases if the value of D determined by a triaxial CD test is directly used as the design parameter.
Compared with the case of cohesive soil, sampling of undisturbed sand samples is technically difficult and
also very expensive. This is the reason that the shear strength for sandy soil is frequently determined from the
N-value of standard penetration test rather than from a laboratory soil test. For the equation to determine D from
N-values, refer to 2.3.4 (4) Angle of shear resistance of sandy ground.
(5) Shear Strength of Cohesive Soil
Here, soil of which the clay and silt fraction by percentage is greater than 50% is regarded as cohesive soil.
There are several methods, as presented below, to determine the undrained shear strength cu of cohesive soil.
An appropriate method should be chosen in consideration of such factors as the past experiences, the subsoil
characteristics and the importance of the structures.
① qu method:
This method uses the average value of unconfined compressive strength determined from undisturbed samples.
The undrained shear strength cu used for the performance verification is given by the following equation:
(2.3.16)
In this equation, qu is the average value of unconfined compressive strength. In unconfined compression
tests, confining pressure is not applied on the test sample and therefore, the strength result obtained may be
remarkably small due to disturbance of the sample. Application is particularly difficult on clayey soil sampled
from depth such as stiff Pleistocene clayey soil in which cracks can appear easily. Caution is also needed for
application on intermediate soil with high sand content as effective stress may not be maintained in the test
sample and consequently, a remarkably small shear strength may be obtained. In this case, it is preferable to
employ other test methods such as triaxial test or direct shear test.
② Method of using strength by triaxial tests taking initial stress and anisotropy into consideration:
Consider the stability analysis of a embankment on the clayey ground using a circular slip, as shown in Fig.
2.3.7. Directly below the embankment shearing is caused by the increase in vertical stress, so it is possible to
evaluate the shear strength corresponding to this by the triaxial consolidated undrained compression test (CUC
test), although strictly speaking there are differences in the plane strain and axial symmetry. On the other hand,
shearing occurs at the end point of the circular arc, in other words near the base of the slope, due to the increase
in horizontal stress, so it is possible to evaluate this by the triaxial consolidated undrained extension test (CUE).
– 225 –
Of course, there are differences in the plane strain and axial symmetry, and there is the major difference that
in contrast to the triaxial extension test in which the axial force reduces, in the failure of an embankment the
horizontal stress increases. Near the bottom of the circular arc, the deformation mode is not compression nor
extension., but virtually horizontal shearing is produced. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate this by a direct
shear test or a simple shear test.
The shear strength su* used in the performance verification may be the average value of the shear strength
suc obtained from a compression test and the shear strength sue obtained from an extension test as given by the
following equation
(2.3.17)
or the direct shear strength sus may be used as the representative value.
su * = sus
For most soils, the triaxial extension strength sue is about 70% of the triaxial compression strength suc.
Triaxial Triaxial
extension compression
sue suc
Box shear
sus
Fig. 2.3.7 Stability Problem and Strength Anisotropy for an Embankment Constructed on a Clayey Ground
Disturbance of a test specimen during sampling is inevitable to a certain extent, even if efforts are made to
minimize it. Also, it has been said for a long time that the unconfined compression test is lacking in reliability,
but the performance verification methods are frequently based on them, as in the present situation other
methods cannot be adopted. As a method of determining the undrained shear strength, the method known as
the “recompression method” 11) is said to be the most reliable among the test methods currently proposed. This
method is based on the thinking that by reproducing the same stress state as the sampled test specimen in the
original location, the effect of disturbance in the test specimen can be made smaller by consolidation.
Elements within a ground are subject to the vertical overburden effective stress σ'v0, and the horizontal
earth pressure at rest σ'h0 (=K0σ'v0). A sampled test specimen has zero stress under atmospheric pressure, and
an isotropic residual effective stress due to suction remains to a certain extent. However, by consolidation to
σ'1=σ'v0, σ'3=K0σ'v0 in triaxial test apparatus, undrained shear tests can be carried out with the same effective
stress state as the original position reproduced. The effective overburden pressure σ'v0 can be calculated from
the unit weight of the sampled test specimens. However, a problem at this stage is how to obtain the coefficient
of earth pressure K0. Several methods for obtaining it from in-situ tests have been proposed, but it can also be
obtained from a laboratory by a K0 consolidation test using a triaxial cell.12) Here, the K0 consolidation test is
a test in which the cell pressure σ 3 is controlled so that the cross-sectional area of the test specimen does not
change when the axial pressure σ1 or the axial strain ε1 increases. However, K0 obtained by this method is K0 for
the normally consolidated state, frequently expressed as K0NC, so it is necessary to be aware that it is not the K0
for soil with the aging effect as in a real ground. In Japanese clays, K0 under normally consolidated conditions
is mostly in the range 0.45 to 0.55.
The recompression method is also possible with the direct shear test. In this case, the change in the diameter
of the test specimen is constrained by the shear ring, so by simply making the consolidation pressure equal to
the effective overburden pressure σ'v0, there is no particular need to be aware of K0.
Although the undrained shear strength (qu/2) obtained from a unconfined compression test has a large amount of
variation, the average value is virtually the same as the average value value of suc and sue of the undrained shear
strength obtained from triaxial compression and extension tests by the recompression method with consolidation
of σ'v0 and K0σ'v0, which is capable of reproducing the same stress state as the test specimen in the original
location. The reliability of the test results using triaxial compression and extension tests by the recompression
method whose mechanical basis is clearer, is slightly higher than that of the unconfined compression tests. In
section 2.1 Estimation of Ground Constants, it is expected that triaxial tests, from which results with small
– 226 –
variation can be obtained, are preferable for the performance verification.
③ Method using strength from a direct shear test:
This method uses the strength τDS determined by a direct shear test after undisturbed sample is consolidated one-
dimensionally under in-situ effective overburden pressure. The direct shear test can be conducted according
to the JGS 0560 Method for Consolidation parameters Pressure Direct Direct shear test on Soil of the
Geotechnical Society of Japan. The undrained shear strength cu used for the performance verification is given
by the following equation:
(2.3.18)
In this equation, 0.85 is a correction factor related to shear rate effect. The measured values have therefore
undergone primary processing to arrive at the derivative values.
④ Methods combining unconfined compressive strength and strength from triaxial compression tests:
One problem with the qu method is that the test’s reliability is low in soil with no past records, because the test is
subject to the influence of disturbance during sampling. To resolve this problem, a combination method can be
used to determine the strength by comparing the qu of undisturbed samples with the strength from a triaxial CU
test and evaluating the quality of the sample. In this method, the sample is isotropically consolidated by in- situ
mean effective stress of 2σ'v0/3 when K0=0.5, after which triaxial CU test is performed in undrained compression
condition. The undrained shear strength thus obtained must be empirically corrected by multiplying 0.75. In
other words, as is the case with the direct shear test, for this triaxial test, measured values must undergo primary
processing to arrive at the derivative values. This method is used for natural soil ground and cannot be applied
to unconsolidated reclaimed ground. For more details see the references 13) and 14).
⑤ Method for determining undrained shear strength from an in-situ vane shear test:
A vane shear test is conducted as described in 1.3 Selection of Investigation Methods. The average value of
the obtained shear strength cu(v) can be used in the performance verification as the undrained shear strength cu
15). An in-situ vane shear test can be carried out rather easily with mobility at a field site. The test is able to
determine the shear strength for very soft clay for which an unconfined compression test cannot be performed
due to the difficulty in making a specimen freestanding. It can thus be applied, for example, to the construction
management where soil is being improved using vertical drains. Although the test method and principle are
simple, attention must be given to the effect of friction on the rod. Ways of reducing the friction and calibrating
its effect need to be devised.
Each method has its own characteristics, which must be duly considered in order to select the most appropriate
one.
The undrained shear strength cu of cohesive soils increases as consolidation progresses, and the higher the
consolidation load the larger the cu after consolidation. Therefore, the consolidation pressure increases with
depth as the overburden pressure increases, so normally the cu of a clay ground increases with depth, and the
distribution of undrained shear strength used in the performance verification is frequently expressed by the
following equation.
(2.3.19)
where
cu : undrained shear strength at depth z from the surface of the clay layer
cu0 : undrained shear strength at surface of the clay layer
k : rate of increase of cu with depth z
z : depth from the surface of the clay layer
(6) Increase in Cohesive Soil Strength due to Consolidation
The undrained strength of cohesive soil will increase with the progress of consolidation. For soil improvement
methods such as the vertical drain method, the ratio of strength increase cu/p by consolidation is an important
parameter because the strength is increased by the drainage of pore water by consolidation. Naturally sedimented
cohesive soil ground can be somewhat overconsolidated, or even if it is normally consolidated in terms of stress
history, it can appear to be overconsolidated with large consolidation yield stress pc due to aging effect. For
this reason, the ratio of strength increase becomes the cohesive soil's specific parameter in the case of slight
overconsolidation through normalizing, not by the effective overburden pressure σ'v0 equivalent to the consolidation
pressure, but by the consolidation yield stress pc (m=cu/pc). The larger the value of cu/pc, which is a soil property
parameter used in the vertical drain method for increasing strength, the larger the increase ratio of the strength
and the more effective soil improvement are expected. From the past experiences in the field and research results
for marine clay in Japan, the value of cu/pc lies in a range shown by the following equation, regardless of plasticity.
– 227 –
(2.3.20)
In view of the fact that the overconsolidation ratio OCR of naturally sedimented cohesive soil is normally in
the range from 1.0 to 1.5, and σ'v0=pc/OCR, therefore, the data in Fig. 2.3.8 15) provides substantiation for equation
(2.3.20).
0.4
cu / σ'v0 0.3
0.2
Triaxial compression
0.1 Direct shear
Triaxial extension
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Plasticity Index Ip
Fig. 2.3.8 Relationship between Plasticity Index and cu /σ'v0
(7) Decrease of Strength of Cohesive Soils due to Swelling

If part of the load is removed after consolidation, cohesive soils absorb water and swell with time, which causes
the cu to reduce. In addition, the time required for swelling is considerably shorter than the time required for
consolidation. The drainage conditions of this case correspond to the left of ③ as shown in Fig. 2.3.6, so it is
necessary to evaluate the likely strength decrease after swelling.16) Specifically, the removal of load at the end of
consolidation in soil improvement works such as the vertical drain method or the preload method, excavation for
earth retaining structures, 17) and dredging to deeper the sea bottom, etc., correspond to this situation.
(8) Strength of Intermediate Soil
Soil with a sand content in the range of 50% - 80% is intermediate soil between sandy soil and cohesive soil.10)
For this type of soil, the hydraulic conductivity and design conditions are taken into consideration to determine
whether the soil is sandy soil or cohesive soil. Then the shear strength is determined accordingly. For intermediate
soil with a large sand fraction or with coral gravel, the hydraulic conductivity determined from an incremental
loading oedometer test generally gives an underestimated value, because of the limitations of test conditions. It is
preferable not only to improve the test procedure, but also to conduct an in-situ permeability test or an electrical
cone test to determine the hydraulic conductivity.19)
When the hydraulic conductivity determined by this kind of procedure is greater than 10 -4 cm/s, the ground
is regarded permeable. Hence, the value of D determined from an electrical cone penetration resistance or a
triaxial CD test can be used as design parameters regarding cD = 0. According to experience in investigating the
properties of intermediate soils in Japan, the value of D is greater than 30º in many cases.20), 21), 22)
When the hydraulic conductivity is less than 10 -4 cm/s, the performance verification of the intermediate soil
should be conducted as a cohesive soil. Because the influence of stress release during sampling in intermediate
soil is much greater than that in cohesive soil, the shear strength determined by qu method is underestimated. A
correction method is used for the strength of such intermediate soil with a large sand fraction by means of clay
fraction and plasticity index.23) However, it is preferable that the combined method with unconfined compression
test and triaxial compression test or the direct shear test be used as the method for evaluating the strength of
intermediate soil.24)
2.3.4 Interpretation Method for N Values
(1) The angle of shear resistance for sandy soils is calculated using the following equation from a standard penetration
test value.
(2.3.21)
where
: angle of shear resistance of sand (º)
– 228 –
N : standard penetration test value
σ'v0 : effective overburden pressure at the depth where the standard penetration test is performed
(kN/m 2)
(2) Relationships between the N-value and many soil parameters have been established by the data at various sites.
When using these relationships, however, it is necessary to consider the background of their derivation and the
ground conditions of the data and to confirm the range of their applicability. As can be seen in Dunham’s equation,
which has commonly been used for many years, the value of was determined directly from the N-values
without considering the effective overburden pressure σ'v0. However, because the relative density Dr varies with
σ'v0 as seen in Fig. 2.3.9, σ'v0 must be taken into consideration to determine Dr from an N-value. This concept
was incorporated in the judgment of liquefaction. In this judgment, liquefaction resistance is examined from N65,
the equivalent N-value converted into N-value when effective overburden pressure σ'v0=65kN/m 2. Similarly, it
is known that even in grounds with the same , the N-value increases with the increase in effective overburden
pressure. Therefore, the influence of σ'v0 must be taken into account when determining from the N-values.
50
: Terzaghi
: Gibbs, Holtz (dry sand, wet sand)
'v0=200kN/m2
: Yanase (wet fine sand)
40 : " (saturated fine sand)

σ'v0 : effective overburden pressure 'v0=100kN/m2
30
N-value
2
'v0=200kN/m
'v0=100kN/m2
20
'v0=0
10
0
0 40 60 80 100
Relative density Dr (%)
Fig. 2.3.9 Influence of Effective Overburden Pressure and Relative Density on N-Values
(3) Factors Affecting the N-values

The factors that affect N-values mutually overlap, and methods for quantitatively correcting for these factors
have not yet been established. However, for understanding of N-values, the extent of the effect of the important
influencing factors is as follows:
① Density
As the density, relative density, of the subsoil increases, in particular for sandy soils, the N-value increases.
② Water content
Apart from well compacted fine sand and silty soils, the N-value increases in the order of saturated sand, dry
sand, and wet sand.
③ Effective overburden pressure
The N-value increases as the effective overburden pressure increases.
④ Effect of groundwater level
As the groundwater level fluctuates, the effective overburden pressure and the degree of saturation of the soil
varies, so the N-values vary accordingly.
⑤ Other influencing factors
The N- value varies in accordance with the soil particle shape, the grain size distribution, and the mineral
composition of the soil.
– 229 –
(4) Angle of Shear Resistance of Sandy Ground
The angle of shear resistance is an important constant for the performance verification of grounds, similar
to the undrained shear strength of clay soils. However, is a complex value that is governed by many factors,
and even the same soil will not have a constant value. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate sufficiently the
background to establishing the performance verification methods, such as what conditions are assumed in the
performance verification methods using .
(5) N- value of Cohesive Soil Ground
Compared with sand ground, the N- value of a cohesive soil is small, and its reliability is low. According to past
experience and test results, if the qu is 100kN/m2 or lower the measurement of N- value is difficult. In cohesive
soils with qu of this value, when soft cohesive soils are found by taking test specimens with a standard penetration
test type sampler during a preliminary investigation, or when tests are carried out to know the physical properties,
this has significance, but the strength and other mechanical subsoil constants cannot be determined from the N-
values only. In the case of a Pleistocene clay soil with high strength, the past deposition environment and stress
history has changed several times, so even within the same stratum the properties of the soil are not uniform,
and an overconsolidated state that is unrelated to the present effective overburden pressure is frequently found.
Therefore, the N- values and soil properties change greatly with only small changes in position or depth. Also,
techniques for sampling stiff soils are difficult, and cracks can easily be firmed in the test specimens. In Japan
the strength of stiff cohesive soil is frequently evaluated using the qu value, but the qu value is very easily affected
by the quality of the test specimens.
2.4 Dynamic Analysis

2.4.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation
(1) For seismic response analysis, an appropriate dynamic modulus of deformation of soils shall be determined to
prescribe the relationship between the shear stress and shear strain of soil.
(2) The performance verification of seismic-resistant can be broadly classified into the static performance verification
methods and the dynamic performance verification methods. One example of static performance verification
methods is the seismic coefficient method of which the seismic force is assumed to act on the ground or structures
in the form of a static inertia force, and stability is examined from the equilibrium of forces. In the dynamic
performance verification methods, on the other hand, dynamic magnification factors or amplification values of
acceleration, speed, and deformation of subsoils shallower than bedrock and foundation ground for structures are
calculated to examine the stability of ground or structures. As for the seismic response analysis method, both the
time domain analysis and the frequency domain analysis are used. For either method, the relationship between
the shear stress and shear strain of the soils is required.
Normally the relationship between the shear stress and shear strain in ground subjected to dynamic actings
is described by a skeleton curve and a hysteresis curve, as shown in Fig. 2.4.1 (a). A skeleton curve will display
remarkable nonlinearity as the shear strain amplitude becomes larger. Since the dynamic modulus of deformation
prescribes this relationship between the shear stress and shear strain, it must be appropriately applied when
conducting a seismic response analysis.
(3) Relationship between Dynamic Shear Stress and Shear Strain of Soil
There are many models to apply the shear stress and shear strain curves of soil into analysis, such as the hyperbolic
model called Hardin-Dornevich model, and the Ramberg-Osgood model.29)
(4) Expression Method of Deformation Properties in the Equivalent Linear Model
To estimate the behavior of ground during an earthquake, the nonlinearity of the relationship between the dynamic
stress and strain of soil for a wide range of the shear strain amplitude must be appropriately assessed and modeled.
The relationship of the dynamic stress and strain of soil is expressed with two parameters: the shear modulus and
the damping factor in the equivalent linear model. The shear modulus G and the damping factor h are defined with
the shear strain amplitude by equation (2.4.1) and equation (2.4.2) as shown in Fig. 2.4.1 (b).
(2.4.1)
(2.4.2)
where
G : shear modulus (kN/m2)
τ : shear stress amplitude (kN/m 2)
γ : shear strain amplitude
– 230 –
h : damping factor
W : strain energy (kN/m2)
W : damping energy (kN/m 2)
Since the values of shear modulus G and damping factor h vary nonlinearly depending on the value of γ, a G/
G0 ~γ curve and a h ~γ curve are normally drawn as shown in Fig 2.4.2, where G0 is the shear modulus at γ≒10 -6.
Shear stress τ
Skeleton curve
Shear strain γ
Hysteresis curve
Fig. 2.4.1 (a) Stress Strain Curve

Shear stress τ
G : Elastic shear
coefficient
h : Damping G
constant
A 1
W
-
2
0 B Shear strain γ
W
1 W
h = --
2 W
Fig. 2.4.1 (b) Shear Modulus and Damping factor
1.0
0.3
G/G0
0.2
G/G0
0.5
h
h 0.1
0
10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2
Shear strain amplitude γ
Fig. 2.4.2 Shear Modulus, Damping Factor and Shear Strain Amplitude
– 231 –
(5) Measurement of the Shear Modulus and the Damping Factor
The shear modulus and the damping factor must be determined by laboratory tests such as the resonance test
or cyclic triaxial test, or by the in-situ tests using elastic waves such as the PS logging method or the cross hole
velocity measurement method. The laboratory tests can be used to measure the shear modulus and damping factor
for a wide range of shear strain amplitudes from the shear strain of 10 -6 to the failure although undisturbed samples
from the field must be obtained. The tests can also be used to evaluate the change in the modulus of dynamic
deformation due to construction of structures. With the cyclic triaxial test, the shear modulus is determined from
equation (2.4.3) together with Poisson’s ratio v.
(2.4.3)
where
σa : axial stress amplitude (kN/m 2)
εa : axial strain amplitude
For v, the value of 0.33 is normally used for a drainage condition and 0.45 is used for an undrained
condition.
The damping factor is calculated from equation (2.4.2) with W and W obtained from the stress-strain curve
similar to that shown in Fig. 2.4.1 (b).
In-situ tests are limited to measurements of the shear modulus that only corresponds to 10 -6 level of shear
strain amplitude. Such tests have not been put to practical application to measure the shear modulus and damping
factor for the large shear strain amplitude. But the tests possess the advantage of being able to measure the values
in- situ directly. They are also used to correct the shear modulus obtained from laboratory tests. The elastic
constant of subsoil is obtained by equations (2.4.4) to (2.4.6) from the data of elastic wave velocity measurements
by a seismic exploration using bore holes.
(2.4.4)
(2.4.5)
(2.4.6)
where
Vp : longitudinal wave velocity (m/s)
Vs : t ransverse wave velocity (m/s)
G0 : shear modulus (kN/m 2)
E0 : Young’s modulus (kN/m 2)
ν : Poisson’s ratio
ρ : density (t/m3)
γt : wet unit weight (kN/m3)
There are various items requiring attention relating to the taking of measurements when carrying out elastic
wave exploration on soft seabed ground. These include vibration induction and reception methods for elastic
waves such as longitudinal and transverse waves, accuracy of wave profile readings and methods for protecting
bore holes.
(6) Simple Estimation of Shear Modulus and Damping Factors
In cases where it is difficult to directly measure the shear modulus and the damping factors of soils from laboratory
tests or in-situ tests, there are methods for estimating from the plasticity index, the void ratio, the unconfined
compressive strength, and the N-value.30) However, it is necessary to be aware that in the method of estimating
from the N-value, the variation in the estimated values is large, and the coefficient of variation is about 0.2. For
example, on the basis of the variation of N-value and S wave velocities by Imai, 31) for each ground type, accuracy
examination of estimation error of S wave velocity is shown for Holocene sandy and clayey soil in Fig.2.4.3.
The horizontal axis shows the ratio of estimated values of S wave velocity converted from the N- values and the
actual values. For Holocene sandy soils the average value of the ratio is 1.12 with a standard deviation of 0.29, an
– 232 –
extremely large variation. For Holocene clay soils the average value of the ratio is 0.95 with a standard deviation
of 0.32. In both cases the statistical distribution may be regarded as a log-normal distribution.32)
20 30
Holocene Holocene
sandy soil clay soil
frequency
frequency
20
10
10
0 0
0 1 2 0 1 2
Vs_ cal/Vs Vs_ cal/Vs
Fig. 2.4.3 Estimation Accuracy for S Wave Velocity
2.4.2 Dynamic Strength Properties
(1) Soil strength against dynamic external actions is normally determined through laboratory tests. In this case, the
properties of the external forces and the subsoil conditions need to be appropriately determined.
(2) The typical dynamic external actions encountered in ports and harbors are seismic movement and wave
force. Seismic movements are characterized by a short period and few cyclic repetitions, while wave forces
are characterized by a long period and many cyclic repetitions. At present these dynamic external actions are
normally converted into static actions like in the seismic coefficient method. There are the cases, however, in
which it is necessary to treat them as dynamic loads like in liquefaction analysis or in strength decrease analysis
of cohesive soil of foundation ground beneath structures exposed to waves. In such cases the dynamic strength
of soils are normally obtained by cyclic triaxial tests. When conducting cyclic triaxial tests, the cyclic undrained
triaxial test method explained in the Soil Testing Methods and Commentary of the Geotechnical Society of
Japan can be used.33)
References
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based on for performance-based design, Jour. JSCE C Vol. 63,No.2, pp. 553-565, 2007. (in Japanese)
2) Ogawa, F. and Matsumoto, K.: The correlation of the mechanical and index properties of soils in harbour districts, Rept. of
PHRI, Vol.17 No3, pp.31-35, 1978. (in Japanese)
3) Japan Geotechnical Society Edition: Soil test methods and commentary, 342p., 2000. (in Japanese)
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hydraulic conductivity of a glacial till, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vo1.37, No.6, pp. 1184-1194, 2000.
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compression, Proceedings of International Symposium on Prefailure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, pp.189-
195, 1994.
7) Nakase, A., Kobayashi, M. and Kanechika, A. : Undrained shear strength and secant modulus of clays Rept. of PHRI, Vol.
11, No.2, pp.243-259, 1972. (in Japanese)
8) Mikasa, M.: Consolidation of soft clay, Kajima Publications, 1966. (in Japanese)
9) Umehara, Y: Study on the consolidation characteristics of soils and consolidation test methods, Technical Note of PHRI
No.469, 1983. (in Japanese)
10) Mitaji, T.: Strength constant in designing, Chapter 2 Estimation of and reinterpretation of shear strength, pp.15-68, 1988. (in
Japanese)
11) Berre, T. and Bjerrum, L.: Shear strength of normally consolidated clays, Proceedings of 8th International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, pp.39-49, 1973.
12) Watabe, Y., Tanaka, M., Tanaka, H. and Tsuchida, T.: KO -consoliation in a triaxial cell and evaluation of in-situ KO for marine
clays with various characteristics, Soils and Foundations, Vol.43, No.1, pp. 1-20, 2003.
13) Tsuchida, T., Mizukami, J., Oikawa, K. and Mori, Y.: New method for determining undrained strength of clayey ground by
means of unconfined compression test and triaxial test, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 28 No.3, pp.81-145, 1989. (in Japanese)
14) Tsuchida, T.: Study on determination of undrained strength of clayey ground by mean of triaxial test, Technical Note of
PHRI, No.688, 1990. (in Japanese)
– 233 –
15) Tanaka, H. and Tanaka, M. : Determination of undrained shear strength of clayey ground measured by vane shear tests, Rept.
of PHRI, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp.1-17, 1994. (in Japanese)
16) Nakase, A., Kobayashi M. and Katsuno M.: Change in shear strength of saturated clays through consolidation and rebound,
Rept. of PHRI, Vol.8, No.4, pp.103-143, 1969. (in Japanese)
17) Tanaka, H.: Behavior of braced excavations in soft ground, Technical Note of PHRI, No.734, p.21, 1992. (in Japanese)
18) Kurata, S., Morishita, T., Goto, K., Suzuki, K. and Fukazawa, K.: Study on engineering characteristics of sand-clay mixed
soil, Rept. of Transport Technical Research Institute, Vol. 11, No.9, pp.36, 1961. (in Japanese)
19) Tanaka, H., Sakakibara, M., Goto, K., Suzuki, K. and Fukazawa, K.: Properties of Japanese Normally Consolidated marine
clays obtained from static piezocone penetration test, Rept. of PHRI, Vol.31, No.4, pp.61-92, 1992. (in Japanese)
20) Kobayashi, M., Tsuchida, T. and Kamei, Y.: Intermediate soil-Sand or clay?-Geotech-Note 2, Japanese Society of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation, 1992. (in Japanese)
21) Tsuchida, T., Kobayashi, M., Ifuku, S. and Fukuda, I.: Engineering properties of coral soils in Japanese south western islands,
International Conference on lime containing soil, 1988. (in Japanese)
22) Tsuchida, T: Consolidation compression and permeability characteristic of intermediate soil, Tsuchi-to-Kiso, Vol.41, Japanese
Geotechnical Society, 1993. (in Japanese)
23) Nakase, A., Katsuno M. and Kobayashi, M.: Unconfined compression strength of soils of intermediate grading between sand
and clay, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 11 No.4, 1972. (in Japanese)
24) Tanaka, H., Tanaka, M. and Tsuchida, T.: Strengthening characteristics of undisturbed intermediate soil, Jour. JSCE, No.589/
III-42, pp.195-204, 1998. (in Japanese)
25) Iwasaki, T.: Problems related to standard penetration test, The Foundation Engineering & Equipment, Vol.18, No.3 pp.40-48,
1990. (in Japanese)
26) Meyerhof, G. G.: Discussion on soil properties and their measurement, Discussion2, Proc. of the 4th International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. III, p.110, 1957.
27) Iai, S., Koizumi, K. and Tsuchida, H. : Affiliation a new criterion for assessing liquefaction potential using grain size
accumulation curve and N-value, Rept. of PHRI, Vol.25, No.3, pp.125-234, 1986. (in Japanese)
28) Meyerhof, G. G.: Compaction of sands and bearing capacity of piles, ASCE, Vol.85, No.SM6, pp. l-29, 1959.
29) Ishihara, K: Fundamentals of soil dynamics. Kajima Publishing, pp.7-34,1976. (in Japanese)
30) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Handbook of countermeasure against liquefaction of reclaimed land
(Revised edition), CDIT, pp.60-77, 1997. (in Japanese)
31) Imai, T. : P and S wave velocities of the ground in Japan, Proc.IXth ICSMFE, 1977.
32) Nagao, T. et al.: Reliability design method against Level 1 earthquake motion of piers, Proceeding of Structural Eng. Vol.52A,
2006. (in Japanese)
33) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Soil test methods and commentary, pp,421-450,1990 (in Japanese)
34) Ishihara, K.: Fundamentals of Soil Dynamics. Kajima Publishing, pp.1-6, 1976 (in Japanese)
35) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Soil test methods and commentary, pp.421-457, 1990. (in Japanese)
36) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Handbook of countermeasure against liquefaction of reclaimed land
(Revised edition), CDIT, pp.60-77, 1997. (in Japanese)
– 234 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 4 EARTHQUAKES
Chapter 4 Earthquakes
Public Notice
Earthquake Ground Motions
Article 16
Level 1 earthquake ground motions shall be appropriately set in terms of the probabilistic time history wave
profiles based on actual measurements of earthquake ground motions and by taking into consideration the
hypocenter characteristics, the propagation path characteristics, and the site characteristics.
2 Level 2 earthquake ground motions shall be appropriately set in terms of the time history wave profiles
based on actual measurements of the earthquake ground motions, scenario parameters of earthquake
hypocenters, and/or others, and by taking into consideration the hypocenter characteristics, the propagation
path characteristics, and the site characteristics.
[Technical Notes]
1 Ground Motion
1.1 General
The three important factors that affect ground motion are the effect of the rupture process on the fault surface, namely
source effects, the effect of the propagation path from the source to the seismic bedrock, namely propagation path
effects, and the effect of the sediments on the seismic bedrock, namely site effects (see Fig. 1.1.1). Here the seismic
bedrock is strata generally made of granite having an S wave velocity of 3km/s or more. The acceleration Fourier
spectrum O( f ) of the ground motion measured on the ground surface is given in general by the product of the source
effects S( f ), the propagation path effects P( f ), and the site effects G( f ).
(1.1.1)
Here f is the frequency. Also, the group delay time tgrO ( f ) measured on the ground surface is given by the sum of
the source effects tgrS ( f ), the propagation path effects tgrP ( f ), and the site effects tgrG ( f ).1)
(1.1.2)
Here the group delay time is the derivative of the Fourier phase with respect to the angular frequency ω =2π f,
having the units of time, and is approximately the arrival time of the frequency component f. In this case the arrival
time is the time measured from the start of the time history used in the analysis. The superscripts in equation (1.1.2)
have the following meanings: O is the actual measured value on site, S is the source effect, P is the propagation path
effect, and G is the site effect. The existence of sediments affect both the Fourier amplitude and phase of the ground
motion as shown above, but in this part the term used for the effect on the Fourier amplitude, in other words G( f )
, is “site amplification factors”, and in this part the term used for the effect on the ground motion overall is the “site
effects”.
– 235 –
Site characteristics
Generation and
propagation of Site
surface waves
Locak soil
Ground surface
deposit
Top of firm ground
Amplification Firm ground
Sedimennts
of body wave Vs>300m/s
Seismic bedrock
Vs>3000m/s
Propagation
path effects
Source
effects
Fig. 1.1.1 Source Effects, Propagation Path Effects, and Site Effects
1.1.1 Source Effects
(1) ω-2 Model (Omega Squared Model)

A generally accepted model for the source effects of ground motions is the ω-2 model.2) In the ω-2 model, the
acceleration Fourier amplitude spectrum of the seismic wave radiating from the source, the acceleration source
spectrum, is expressed by the following equation
(1.1.3)
where
M0 : seismic moment
fc : corner frequency
ρ : density of the medium of the seismic bedrock
Vs : S wave velocity in the seismic bedrock
C : constant (see equation (1.3.5)).
Fig. 1.1.2 illustrates source spectra of the displacement, velocity, and acceleration in accordance with the ω-2
model. As can be understood from equation (1.1.3) and Fig. 1.1.2, the acceleration source spectrum depending on
the ω-2 model is proportional to the square of the frequency for frequencies lower than fc, and is flat for frequencies
higher than fc. This corner frequency fc is the frequency corresponding to the bend in the source spectrum. The
seismic moment M0 is a physical measure to express the size of the earthquake, and is defined by the following
equation.3)
(1.1.4)
where
µ : shear modulus of the rock in the source region
A : area of the source fault
D0 : average value of the final of slip on the fault surface
On average the corner frequency fc is inversely proportional to M0 to the power of 1/3. Therefore in the
ω-2 model, the Fourier amplitude spectrum of the seismic wave radiating from the source is proportional to the
seismic moment on the long period side, and is proportional to the seismic moment to the power of 1/3 on the short
period side. Every time the Magnitude is increased by 1, M0 increases by a factor of about 30, so the long period
component of the ground motion radiating from the source, that is proportional to M0, becomes about 30 times and
the short period component that is proportional to M0 to the power of 1/3, becomes about 3 times. In other words,
as the magnitude of the earthquake increases, the long period component increases most of all. When analyzing
long period structures, such as high rise buildings, long span bridges, oil tanks, base isolated structures, etc. that
– 236 –
are easily affected by the long period component of ground motions, it is particularly necessary to pay attention to
large Magnitude earthquakes.
The maximum value of

the velocity source
On the high ← spectrum is near the
↑ frequency side, it corner frequency Large M flat on high frequency side.
reduces inversely
log (displacement Fourier spectrum)
flat on the low
log (acceleration Fourier spectrum)

proportional to ↑
frequency side. the square of the
log (velocity Fourier spectrum)

↓ frequency. On Corner frequency, it
log-log axes, a Large M depends on the magnitude
straight line with of the earthquake. The
gradient -2. difference of source
↑ spectrum with M is more
Corner frequency, ↓ prominent on the low
it depends on the Small M Small M frequency side.
↑
magnitude of the ↑
earthquake. The On high frequency
difference of source Large M On the low side, it reduces
spectrum with M is frequency side, it inversely
proportional to ↑
more prominent on increases
the low frequency proportional to the frequency, with On the low frequency side, it increases
side. frequency, with log-log axes, proportional to the square of the
log-log axes, straight line with frequency, on log-log axes, a straight
straight line with gradient -1. line with gradient2
gradient 1.
Small M
log (frequency) log (frequency) log (frequency)
Fig. 1.1.2 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Source Spectra Depending on the ω -2 Model
(2) Directivity
The source of a large earthquake is not a single point, but is a fault surface having a definite extent of spread.
Rupture starts at a point on the fault surface, and spreads to the surroundings. At this time, the S wave velocity
in the source region and the rupture propagation velocity are about the same, so at a harbor in the direction of
propagation of the rupture, the energy of the seismic waves successively released from the fault surface arrive
at about the same time, so the amplitude becomes large. This phenomenon is referred to as the directivity of the
ground motions.
Associated with this, it is known that in the areas where the amplitude is large as a result of the effect of
directivity, it has been reported that the oscillations in the direction normal to the direction of strike of the fault
tend to be strong.5), 6), 7), 8)
(3) Asperities
It is known that the slip on the fault surface of a large earthquake is not uniform, but non-uniform. The area on the
fault surface where the slip is particularly large is referred to as an asperity. Models that express the non-uniform
distribution of the final slip on the fault surface include the variable slip model, which expresses of final slip by a
continuous function, and the characterized source model which arranges several rectangular asperities on the fault
surface, and within these asperities the amount of slip is uniform.
1.1.2 Propagation Path Effects

The effect of propagation path on the amplitude of ground motion is frequently given by the combination of attenuation
(1/r) as the wave spreads from the source in a spherical form, and inelastic damping. The following expresses this in
the form of an equation
(1.1.5)
where
r : distance from the source
Q : Q value on the propagation path.
The Q value is a quantity expressing the magnitude of inelastic damping caused by scattering and conversion to
heat of the seismic wave on the propagation path. The larger the value of Q, the smaller the inelastic damping on
the propagation path. It is necessary to be aware of situations where geometric attenuation in the form above does
not apply due to the effect of Lg waves, a type of seismic wave propagated by reflection within the earth’s crust at a
distance from the source.12)
1.1.3 Site Effects

The sediments near the ground surface, see Fig. 1.1.1, have a large effect on the amplitude of the seismic waves, period
characteristics, duration, etc. The effect of the sediments is referred to as the site effects.
– 237 –
1.1.4 Nonlinear Behavior of Local Soil Deposit

Normally the properties of local soil deposit vary with the level of applied strain, and when strong ground motions
are acting, the shear modulus reduces, and the damping coefficient increases. This phenomenon is referred to as the
nonlinear behavior of the local soil deposit.
1.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of Facilities

The Level 1 earthquake ground motion is normally set using a probabilistic seismic hazard analysis taking into consideration
the source effects, the propagation path effects, and the site amplification factors between the seismic bedrock and the top of
firm ground. The set ground motion is a wave whose amplitude is double that of the seismic wave incident on the top of the
firm ground from below (2E wave).14) In the probabilistic seismic hazard analysis, if a probabilistic Green function method is
used to evaluate the ground motion for each expected earthquake, it is desirable that the site amplification factors estimated from
earthquake observation records obtained at the harbor, or seismic observation records obtained from K-NET, 15) KiK-net, 16) or
other seismic networks, near the harbor, within 2km of the harbor, are used as the site amplification factors, after confirming by
microtremor measurements that the ground motion characteristics at the observation point do not differ greatly from those at
the location of the facilities. If such site amplification factors cannot be used, it is desirable that short term seismic observations
are made at the harbor, see ANNEX 3 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors (1), and the site amplification factors are
evaluated using the method stated in ANNEX 3 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors (3). If these seismic observations
cannot be made due to the imminent construction period, etc., the site amplification factors of the harbor may be estimated from
the site amplification factors of nearby observation points, using empirical relationships. However, it is necessary to be aware
that the evaluation accuracy of the ground motion in this case is greatly reduced compared with estimates based on the seismic
observations.
1.3 Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of Facilities

1.3.1 Outline
The Level 2 earthquake ground motion is mainly set to determine whether the seismic resistance is at a rational level
from the viewpoint of safety of the public, and is the must damaging ground motion among the estimated ground
motions at the site from scenario earthquakes. The Level 2 earthquake ground motion is normally set by a strong
motion evaluation taking into consideration the source effects, the propagation path effects, and the site amplification
factors between seismic bedrock and top of firm ground. The term “safety of the public” used here is a concept that
includes maintenance of the function of facilities that are necessary for emergency measures after an earthquake,
and is a broader concept than “safety”, which is a concept in contrast to “usability” or “reparability”. The set ground
motion is a so called 2E wave having double the amplitude of the seismic wave incident on the top of the firm ground
from below.14) If probabilistic Green functions are used in the strong motion simulation, it is desirable that site
amplification factors estimated from earthquake observation records obtained at the harbor, or earthquake observation
records obtained from observation points near the harbor, within 2km of the harbor, such as K-NET, 15) KiK-net, 16) or
other networks, are used as the site amplification factors, after confirming using microtremor measurements that the
ground motion characteristics at the observation points do not differ greatly from those at the facility location. If these
site amplification factors cannot be used, it is desirable that short term seismic observation, see ANNEX 3 Evaluation
of Site Amplification Factors (1), be carried out at the harbor, and the site amplification factors are evaluated by the
method described in ANNEX 3 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors (3). If seismic observations cannot be
carried out due to the imminent start of construction, for example, the site amplification factors at the harbor may be
estimated from the site amplification factors at nearby observation points, using empirical relationships. However, in
this case it is necessary to be aware that the evaluation accuracy of the ground motions is greatly reduced compared
with estimates based on the seismic observations. The procedure for calculating the Level 2 earthquake ground
motion is shown in Fig. 1.3.1.
The evaluation results of the ground motion from the method described below and the evaluation results of the
ground motion by another organization assuming a similar scenario earthquake may not be the same, but this is mainly
caused by differences in the method of evaluating the site effects. The following method may be used for calculating
the ground motion for seismic performance evaluation of harbor facilities.
– 238 –
If records of earthquake motion If records of earthquake

If records of earthquake
at the harbor have been obtained motion at the harbor have been
motion at the harbor have
and site amplification factor has obtained but site amplification
not been obtained
been evaluated has not been evaluated
Seismic observatios from 1 to several years

(1.2.2 (1))
Select scenario earthquakes Evaluation of Site amplification

(1.3.2) factor
(1.2.2 (3))
Set source parameters

Site amplification factor
(1.3.3) If seismic observations cannot be carried out
due to imminent construction period etc.
(1.2.2 (4))
Calculate strong ground motion

(1.3.5)
Level 2 seismic motion
Fig. 1.3.1 Procedure for Calculating the Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
1.3.2 Scenario Earthquakes for the Level 2 Ground Motion

It is necessary to select the scenario earthquake for the level 2 ground motion comprehensively taking into consideration
information on past earthquakes and information on active faults. In particular, at the time of performance verification,
the active faults should be based on the latest survey results. Regarding past earthquakes, references 53) and 54) are
comprehensive documents. Reference 35) is a document that summarizes the fault parameters for the main past
earthquakes. References 33) and 34) are comprehensive documents regarding active faults. In addition to these,
after the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake, active faults were surveyed, and the results were made public by the
Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion and local governments. By referring to the above documents, the
following should be considered:
(a) The recurrence of earthquakes that have caused significant damage in the past
(b) Earthquakes due to the activity of active faults
(c) Other earthquakes for which there is a concern over occurrence from a seismological or geological viewpoint
(d) Earthquakes postulated by the national organizations such as the Central Disaster Prevention Council and the
Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion
(e) Earthquakes postulated in the local disaster plans
(f) M6.5 earthquakes 55)
There may be some duplication within (a) to (f). From these, scenario earthquake for the level 2 ground motion
should be selected as the earthquake capable of inducing the most damaging ground motion at the harbor. It
can be difficult to decide which of the postulated earthquakes in (a) to (f) above can induce the most damaging
ground motion at the harbor. For example, deciding which of a nearby comparatively small earthquake or a distant
comparatively large earthquake can induce the most damaging ground motion at the harbor is not necessarily
easy. Also, ground motions have various aspects, such as amplitude, frequency characteristics, duration etc., so
determining which earthquake has the largest effect on a facility is sometimes only known after first evaluating
the ground motions, and then carrying out seismic response analysis. Therefore, it is not necessary at this stage to
make great efforts to shortlist the scenario earthquakes to a single earthquake, but several candidate earthquakes
should be selected. In this case, the ground motion that has the greatest effect on the facility based on the results
– 239 –
of the seismic response analysis will ultimately become the level 2 earthquake. When the number of earthquakes
to be considered is large, one method is to carry out in advance a simple evaluation of the ground motions using
attenuation equations, and eliminate earthquakes whose effect is clearly small. For the earthquakes postulated in
(d), refer to the following homepages:
Central Disaster Prevention Council: http://www.bousai.go.jp/jishin/chubou/index.html
Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion: http://www.jishin.go.jp/main/p_hyoka02.htm
The reasons for considering M6.5 right below earthquakes are as follows.55) An active fault is the trace of
an earthquake fault, referred to as a surface fault trace, that has appeared in the ground surface due to a large
earthquake in the past. However, in the case of comparatively small scale earthquakes, surface fault trace do not
appear, so even in locations where there is no active fault, there is the possibility of occurrence of a comparatively
small scale earthquake. Takemura et al.56) investigated the relationship between the scale of an earthquake and the
probability of appearance of surface fault trace, and the relationship between the scale of an earthquake and the
extent of damage, 32) see Fig. 1.3.2, for earthquakes within the earth’s crust of M>5.8 occurring in Japan between
1885 and 1995. According to their results, earthquakes of M<6.5 have a very low probability of appearance of
surface fault trace, but earthquakes of M≥6.8 have a probability of appearance of surface fault trace of nearly
100%. Also, focusing on the fact that earthquakes of M = 6.6 and 6.7 are very few, it is inferred that this is because
the earthquake fault penetrates to the ground surface. Therefore it is considered appropriate that the scale of the
earthquake postulated at locations where there is no active fault should be about M6.5.
Fig. 1.3.2 Relationship between Scale of Earthquakes and Probability of Appearance of Surface Faults 56)
Among harbor facilities, there are some for which it is required that a tsunami be expected following the
ground motion, and the performance in these circumstances is prescribed. In this case, the ground motion to
be combined with the tsunami does not necessarily have to be the most damaging ground motion, i.e., Level
2 earthquake ground motion, expected for the harbor. For example, at a certain harbor, both an earthquake at
an active fault on land and an subduction-zone earthquake may be expected, and it may be expected that the
earthquake at the active fault on land will bring the most damaging seismic motion. In this case, a tsunami does
not accompany the earthquake at the active fault on land, so it is not rational to expect that immediately after
the ground motion of the earthquake at the active fault on land, a tsunami will attach, and this would result in
excessive investment. Therefore, there may be situations where it is necessary to evaluate the ground motions that
precede a tsunami, apart from the level 2 earthquake motion. In this case the method of evaluating the ground
motions may be to simply change the earthquake from that for the level 2 earthquake motion to the earthquake
that is the cause of the tsunami, and apply the following evaluation method as it is.
1.3.3 Setting the Source Parameters

The source parameters necessary for evaluating the Level 2 earthquake ground motion include macroscopic hypocenter
parameters, such as position of the base point, strike, dip, length, width, area and seismic moment, microscopic source
parameters, such as number of asperities, area of asperities, seismic moment of asperities and rise time, etc., and other
parameters, such as rupture starting point, rupture velocity and rupture propagation type. The meaning of these
parameters is shown in Fig. 1.3.3. The source parameters may be set in accordance with the standard method of
setting the parameters shown below, or they may be set by carrying out a separate detailed survey.
– 240 –
Up
Ground surface
North
Strike φ
Dip δ slip
Final slip D0
Final slip D0
Rake angle λ Width W
Fault surface
Length L Rise time Tr Time
(a) Explanation of fault parameters (1) (b) Explanation of fault parameters (2)
Fig. 1.3.3 Meaning of Source Parameters
(1) When the Recurrence of an Earthquake that has Caused Significant Damage in the Past is Expected
If the recurrence of an earthquake that has caused significant damage in the past is postulated, such as the Tonankai
and Nankai earthquakes, it is desirable that documents concerning the earthquakes that have actually occurred in
the past, referred to as past events, be used as much as possible.
Regarding the macroscopic source parameters, if parameters of the past events are known, those parameters
may be used. The macroscopic source parameters of many past earthquakes are contained in Reference 35).
When only one of the seismic moment M0 and the fault area S is given and the other must be estimated, the
following equation 57), 58) may be used. By combining equation (1.3.1) and Esherby’s equation for a circular
crack, 59) the average stress drop for the entire fault surface is 3MPa.
(1.3.1)
Regarding the microscopic source parameters such as asperity location, etc., an appropriate approach should
be taken depending on the volume of data for the past events. Firstly, if the microscopic source parameters for the
past events have been investigated well using wave profile data, etc., those parameters may be used. For example,
this is the case when considering the recurrence of the 1923 Kanto Earthquake, 60) recurrence of the 1968 Tokachi
Oki Earthquake, 44) or recurrence of the 1978 Miyagi Ken Oki Earthquake.44) Next, if wave profile data from
the past event is not available, and if the earthquake intensity distribution is known from historical documents,
microscopic source parameters set to be consistent with this earthquake intensity information may be used. For
example, this is the case when considering the recurrence of the Hoei Earthquake, the Ansei Tokai Earthquake, or
the Ansei Nankai Earthquake. As an example of the microscopic source parameters defined so as to be compatible
with the earthquake intensity distribution, there are the microscopic source parameters for the expected Tonankai
and Nankai earthquakes the Central Disaster Prevention Council, see Fig. 1.3.4.
The other parameters such as rupture start point etc. are dealt with in the same way as the microscopic source
parameters.
In the case of an earthquake occurring at an active fault, the average interval between activities is long, so in
almost all cases it is not possible to refer to the past events. However, as an exception, if expecting a recurrence of
the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake or similar, the above consideration may be used, without using (2) When
an Earthquake is Expected to Occur at an Active Fault.
– 241 –
Tonankai earthquake
Nankai earthquake
Fig. 1.3.4 Source Model of the Tonankai and Nankai Earthquakes Expected by the Central Disaster Prevention Council 61)
(2) When an Earthquake is Expected to Occur at an Active Fault

The macroscopic source parameters for an earthquake occurring at an active fault may be set in accordance
with the following concepts. First, the strike and dip angle δ of the fault are obtained based on the results
of geological, topographical, and geographical surveys. Also, the total length of fault segments with a high
possibility of simultaneous occurrence is set as the fault length L. If the dip angle δ is unknown, in case of a strike
slip fault, it may be assumed 90°, in case of a high angle reverse fault, it may be assumed 60°, in case of a low
angle reverse fault, it may be assumed 30°, and in case of a reverse fault that is neither high angle nor low angle, it
may be assumed 45°. The fault width W of an earthquake occurring at an active fault is limited by the thickness
H of the seismogenic layer in the upper earth’s crust, so when L<H/sinδ, W=L, and when L>H/sinδ, W=H/sinδ may
be assumed.58), 62) When the thickness H of the seismogenic layer is unknown, 20km may be assumed. The fault
area S is obtained from the estimated fault length L and fault width W. The seismic moment M0 may be obtained
from the fault area S using the following empirical equation.63)
(1.3.2)
The microscopic source parameters for an earthquake occurring at an active fault may be defined as follows.
First, the total area of asperities as a percentage of the total fault area is assumed to be 22%.58), 62), 63), 64), 65) The
number of asperities is assumed to be 1 or 2.58) If the magnitude of the postulated earthquake is M7 or larger,
the number of asperities is assumed to be 2. When the number of asperities is assumed to be 2, the larger one
is assumed to be 16% of the total fault area, and the smaller one is assumed to be 6%.58), 64) The shape of the
asperities are taken to be rectangular as much as possible.58), 63) The seismic moment of the asperity is assumed
to be 44% of the total seismic moment.58), 63), 64) When there are two asperities, the seismic moment of the larger
one is assumed to be 36% of the total seismic moment, and the seismic moment of the smaller one is assumed to
be 8%.58), 64) The rise time τ of the asperity is defined from the width Wa of the asperity and the rupture velocity
Vr using the following equation.58)
(1.3.3)
The layout of the asperity is arranged in relationship to the rupture strong point, which is discussed later,
so that the rupture of one of the asperities propagates towards the harbor. This is because due to the effect of
directivity, a particularly strong ground motion is generated in the direction of propagation of the rupture of the
asperity, and a strong ground motion generated in this way resulted in devastating damage in the 1995 Hyogo-ken
Nambu Earthquake.4) Specifically, the asperity is arranged as shown in Fig. 1.3.5. The depth of the center of the
asperity is taken to be 10km.
Of the other parameters, the rupture starting point is located as shown in Fig. 1.3.5 in relation to the location
of the asperity. The rupture velocity is assumed to be 80% of the S wave velocity in the source region.58) The
rupture is assumed to propagate radially.
– 242 –
Harbor Fault line on active fault map Harbor

↓ Ground surface
δ Top surface of seismogenic layer
(depth of about 3-4km)
Depth of center of
asperity 10km Asperity width W
Asperity
Rupture starting point

Asperity length L
Bottom surface of seismogenic layer
(depth of about 20km)
Cross-sectiondiagram Diagram viewed from this direction
Fig. 1.3.5 Arrangement of Asperity and Rupture Starting Point
(3) When M6.5 Earthquake is Expected to Occur just Beneath the Site
The seismic moment M0 can be calculated from the Magnitude using the following equation.66)
(1.3.4)
Therefore, the fault area S may be obtained from equation (1.3.2). The dip angle δ may be assumed to be 90°.
What follows is the same as in (2) When an Earthquake is Expected to Occur at an Active Fault. The number
of asperities is taken to be 1.
1.3.4 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors

The site amplification factors can be evaluated in accordance with ANNEX 4 Analysis of Seismic Motion for the
Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
– 243 –
2 Seismic Action
2.1 Modeling and Seismic Action of the Ground - Structure System
The ground motions described in Section 1 Ground Motion are ground motions that are independent of the facilities,
and do not depend on the type of the facilities or analysis method. This is referred to as a “reference ground motion”
in ISO 23469.1) In contrast, the seismic action, the term used in ISO 23469, necessary for performance verification
of port facilities is defined differently depending on the facility or analysis method as stated below. When setting
the seismic action for seismic performance verification, firstly the ground motion is evaluated by Section 1 Ground
Motion for the case where the facilities do not exist, and next the seismic action is evaluated corresponding to the type
of facilities or analysis method.
Normally, the analysis methods used in seismic performance verification of port facilities can be classified as
equivalent static analysis and dynamic analysis. Also, the analysis methods can be classified as simple analysis or
detailed analysis depending on whether ground-structure interaction is taken into consideration. As a result the
analysis methods used in seismic performance verification can be classified into 2×2=4 categories. Here, simplified
analysis focuses on a part of the ground – structure system, and analyzes its behavior, and the seismic action is defined
as the effect on the part under consideration from outside its boundary. On the other hand, in detailed analysis, the
total behavior of the ground – structure system, for example the gray part in Fig. 2.1.1(b), is analyzed, and in this
case the seismic action is defined as the ground motion input to the bottom end of the analysis domain. For example,
in a simplified equivalent static analysis, namely seismic coefficient method, of a caisson type quaywall, as indicated
in gray in Fig. 2.1.1(a), the part of the whole on which the focus is applied is the wall, and analysis of its behavior is
carried out. In this case the seismic action is the inertia forces, earth pressure and hydrodynamic pressure during
the earthquake acting on the wall from the external domain. In a detailed dynamic analysis, mainly effective stress
analysis, of the caisson type quaywall, as indicated in gray in Fig. 2.1.1(b), the focus is on the entire system comprising
the caisson, the backfill, the seawater, and the foundation grounds below the caisson, and its behavior is analyzed. In
this case the seismic action is the ground motion input to the bottom end of the analysis domain. In detailed dynamic
analysis, the earth pressure and hydrodynamic pressure during the earthquake acting on the caisson wall are produced
as the response analysis results, and are not set as an action.
The types of analysis method used for seismic performance verification of port facilities and the method of defining
the seismic action in accordance with the analysis method are discussed below.
Hydrodynamic pressure Inertia force Earth pressure
Sea
Sea Caisson
Caisson
Sea bottom
Sea bottom
Film ground
Film ground Seismic motion
(a) Simplified Equivalent static analysis (b) Detailed dynamic analysis

(seismic coefficient method) (effective stress analysis)
Fig. 2.1.1 Seismic Action in the Seismic Coefficient Method and Effective Stress Analysis
(Example of a Caisson Type Quaywall)
2.2 Seismic Action in the Seismic Coefficient Method 2)

As shown in Fig. 2.2.1, this method is considered when a rigid object is on a rigid ground. Assume the mass of the
object is m, and its weight is W. If the ground moves to the right with an acceleration α, an inertia force αm acts on
the object to the left. At this time a friction force of αm must act on the bottom surface of the object, in order that it
will not slide. If the static friction coefficient on the bottom surface is not sufficiently large, the object will slide, and
in most cases, depending on the changes of the acceleration force afterwards, a residual displacement will occur. At
this time, when checking whether sliding will occur, it is possible to apply a static force α m to the object. This is the
fundamental idea of the seismic coefficient method.
The following equation shows the magnitude of the inertia force acting in the seismic coefficient method.
(2.2.1)
If kh is written instead of α /g, the following equation is obtained.
(2.2.2)
– 244 –
In other words, the inertia force due to the ground motions is obtained by multiplying the weight of the facility
by the coefficient kh. This kh is referred to as the seismic coefficient. The seismic coefficient set for performance
verification is referred to as the seismic coefficient for verification.
Fig. 2.2.1 Concept of the Seismic Coefficient Method
In the classification of analysis methods given in 2.1 Modeling and Seismic Action of the Ground - Structure
System, The seismic coefficient method is a simplified equivalent static analysis. Problems of the stability of facilities
in an earthquake can be converted into static equilibrium problems and conveniently analyzed, so the method is
used widely, not only for ports. In the field of ports, this method is used for the performance verification of gravity
quaywalls, sheet pile quaywalls, and cell type quaywalls subject to the Level 1 earthquake ground motions. When
applied to gravity type quaywalls, it is necessary to consider the inertia forces acting on the wall, as well as the earth
pressure and hydrodynamic pressure during the earthquake, as shown in Fig. 2.1.1(a).
For the level 1 earthquake motion, when carrying out seismic performance verification using the seismic coefficient
method, it is not necessary to take the value of the expected maximum acceleration of the ground divided by the
acceleration of gravity as the seismic coefficient for verification to be applied to the structure. For example, substituting
α =215Gal into equation (2.2.1) gives k=0.22. However, it is known from experience 2), 4) that when a ground motion
with a maximum acceleration exceeding 215Gal acts on a quaywall with a seismic coefficient for verification of 0.22,
a residual deformation does not necessarily occur. The reasons for this have not been phenomenologically explained
sufficiently, but it is considered that one of the reasons is that even if a 215Gal acceleration acts on the quaywall,
if the action is instantaneous, it is difficult to cause a visible residual deformation to the quaywall. The method of
converting the acceleration time history of the scenario Level 1 earthquake ground motions to the seismic coefficient
for verification varies depending on the structural form of the mooring facility. For gravity quaywalls refer to Part III
Chapter 5, 2.2.2 Actions, and for sheet piles quaywalls refer to Part III Chapter 5, 2.3.2 Actions.
When carrying out a seismic performance verification using the seismic coefficient method, the earth pressure
during the earthquake and the foundation ground properties are as discussed later. However, with the seismic
coefficient method normally it is assumed that liquefaction does not occur in the ground behind the wall or in the
foundations, and the earth pressure during the earthquake and foundation ground properties are set based on this
assumption. Therefore, when carrying out seismic performance verification by the seismic coefficient method for the
Level 1 earthquake ground motion, an analysis to predict whether liquefaction will occur in the ground behind the wall
or in the foundations is carried out, and if it is determined that liquefaction may occur, it is necessary to take measures
against it.
As can be understood from its principle, the seismic coefficient method is a method for determining whether
deformation will occur in specific modes, such as sliding, overturning, insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation
ground etc., based on static equilibrium of forces. If deformation does occur, it is not possible to calculate by the seismic
coefficient method how much residual deformation is caused. This is a limitation of the seismic coefficient method,
and because of this limitation it is not practical to apply the seismic coefficient method to the Level 2 earthquake
ground motion. Normally, for very strong ground motions, such as Level 2 earthquake ground motions, it is assumed
that the facility will suffer some damage, and it is necessary to investigate the process of this damage when carrying
out the seismic performance verification.5), 6) The same applies to port facilities such as mooring facilities etc., in
which it is assumed that deformation will be caused by the Level 2 earthquake ground motion, and it is required to
carry out the design to limit the deformation to be equal to or less than the allowable amount. In order to meet this
requirement, it is necessary to carry out a seismic response analysis of the ground – structure system, as described
later, not the analysis by the seismic coefficient method.
– 245 –
2.3 Seismic Action in the Modified Seismic Coefficient Method 2)
In the case of the seismic coefficient method, the acceleration acting on the facility is equal to the acceleration acting
on the ground. In contrast, in the case of a flexible structure as shown in Fig. 2.3.1, the acceleration α' acting on the
facility is not the same as the acceleration α acting on the ground. In this case, if the dynamic characteristics of the
facility, such as the natural periods, etc., and the time history of the ground acceleration are given, it is possible to
calculate the response acceleration of the facility. By applying to the facility the equivalent static force obtained by
multiplying the maximum value of the response acceleration of the facility by its mass m, it is possible to replace the
actual phenomenon with static equilibrium of forces to carry out the seismic design. When the scope of the seismic
coefficient method is expanded in this way to structures with flexibility, it is called the modified seismic coefficient
method. Using the time history of the expected ground acceleration, if a response calculation is carried out in advance
for facilities with various natural periods, and if the maximum value of the response acceleration of the facility is
arranged as a function of the natural period, the result is referred to as an acceleration response spectrum.
Fig. 2.3.1 Concept of the Modified Seismic Coefficient Method
The modified seismic coefficient method is classified as a simplified equivalent static method in the classification
of analysis methods in 2.1 Modeling and Seismic Action of the Ground - Structure System. For obtaining the
response acceleration of the facility in the modified seismic coefficient method, it is frequently assumed that the
restoring force characteristics of the facility are linear. However, when a very strong earthquake acts on the structure,
the restoring force characteristic of the facility actually becomes nonlinear, as a result of plasticity in the structural
members. Therefore, the response acceleration obtained under the assumption of linearity becomes meaningless.
Therefore the modified seismic coefficient method is unsuitable for very strong ground motions, such as the Level 2
earthquake ground motion.
2.4 Seismic Action in the Seismic Deformation Method 2)

In extended, long facilities such as buried pipelines or immersed tunnels, etc., where the apparent weight per unit
volume and stiffness are comparatively small, the acceleration applied to the facility is seldom a problem. The weight
and stiffness of these facilities is small, so the effect of the existence of these facilities on the surrounding ground
is small, and the displacements in the facility tend to be governed by the displacements in the surrounding ground.
When the displacement in the surrounding ground is not uniform, strain is caused in the facility. This is a problem
for seismic design.
In the seismic deformation method, first the displacement of the ground for the case where the facility does not
exist there is obtained, and next the displacement and stress in the facility is obtained based on the assumption that
the displacement of the facility is the same as the displacement of the ground. In other words, in contrast to the
seismic coefficient method in which the equivalent static load is applied to the facility as the seismic action, in the
seismic deformation method the displacement of the ground is applied to the facility as the seismic action. In cases
where the stiffness of the subsurface structure is quite high, and the error in the assumption that the facility deforms
exactly the same as the ground is large, the displacement of the ground can act on the facility via springs. The seismic
deformation method is classified as a simplified equivalent static analysis in the classification of analysis methods
given in 2.1 Modeling and Seismic Action of the Ground - Structure System.
– 246 –
2.5 Seismic Action in the Seismic Response Analysis of Ground - Structure Systems
Each of the methods described so far simplify the actual phenomena, but seismic response analysis that more truely
reproduces the overall ground - structure system behavior can also be carried out. This is classified as detailed
dynamic analysis in the classification of analysis methods given in 2.1 Modeling and Seismic Action of the Ground
- Structure System. Seismic response analysis of ground - structure systems is frequently based on the finite element
method, in particular the effective stress method, as shown in Fig. 2.5.1. In this case the seismic action is the ground
motion input at the bottom end of the analysis domain.
In general, the ground motion at the bottom end of the analysis domain is the sum of an upcoming wave E and a
downgoing wave (F). Methods of applying the input ground motions to the bottom end of the analysis domain include
the method in which the actual seismic wave motions E+F are applied to the bottom end of the analysis area, and the
method in which an seismic wave having an amplitude twice that of the seismic wave incident from below is applied to
the bottom end of the analysis domain, namely 2E wave input method. When carrying out a calculation to reproduce
damage actually incurred, or when carrying out a simulation of a shake table rest, there may be measurements of the
ground motions at the bottom end of the analysis domain, including the upcoming wave and the downgoing wave, and
in these cases the E+F wave input method can be used. However, for seismic response analysis of ground structure
systems carried out for seismic performance verification the 2E wave input method is used. In this case, if directly
below the analysis domain there is ground that can be considered to be firm ground, the ground motion at the firm
ground obtained in Section 1 Ground Motion may be used as it is. However, if directly below the analysis domain
there is ground that cannot be considered to be the firm ground, it is necessary that the ground motion defined at the
firm ground be converted to a 2E wave directly below the analysis domain by a seismic response analysis for the local
soil deposit, and this 2E wave is then inputted.
Inclination angle
4.1°
Horizontal displacement
3.5m
Vertical displacement 1.5m +4.0m
-36.0m
Fig. 2.5.1 Example of Residual Displacement of a Gravity Quaywall Calculated by Effective Stress Analysis
References
1) International Organization for Standardization: ISO 23469, Bases for design of structures- Seismic actions for design ng
geotechnical works, 2005
2) Tsuchida, H. and S. Iai: Earthquake Engineering for construction engineers, Sankai-do Publishing
3) Sano, T. : Structural theory of houses (Vol. I & II), Disaster prevention survey committee, Vol. 83, 1916
4) Noda, S., T. Uwabe and T. Chiba : Relation between seismic coefficient and ground acceleration for gravity quaywalls, Rept.
of PHRI Vol.l4 No4, 1975
5) JSCE: Proposals on criteria of earthquake resistance, JSCE, 1996
6) JSCE: The third proposal and commentary on seismic design of civil engineering structures, JSCE, 2000
– 247 –
ANNEX 3 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors

1 Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors
The following is an explanation of the fundamental method of evaluation of the site amplification factor based on
seismic observation records, for the case that there is an observation point on the rock that can be regarded as the
seismic bedrock near the harbor, based on Fig. A-3.1. The site amplification factor between seismic bedrock and
ground surface at the observation point at the harbor can be obtained from the ratio of the Fourier amplitude spectra
at the observation point at the harbor and an observation point on the nearby rock. When the site amplification factors
between seismic bedrock and the top of firm ground are necessary the amplification factors from the top of firm ground
to the ground surface are evaluated by linear multiple reflection theory, 14), 17) based on ground data at the observation
point in the harbor. Then by dividing the site amplification factors between seismic bedrock and ground surface by the
amplification factors from the top of firm ground to the ground surface, the site amplification factors between seismic
bedrock and top of the firm ground can be obtained. In this case the damping factor may be taken to be 3%.
However, normally there is no observation point on the rock that can be considered to be the seismic bedrock near
the harbor, so normally the amplification factors from the seismic bedrock to the ground surface is evaluated using
techniques such as spectral inversion techniques, as described later.
Site characteristics
Observation point on rock O2 ( f ) Generation and propagation of Observation point at harbor O1 ( f )

surface waves
Ground surface
Local soil
deposit Top of firm ground
Amplification of Sediments
Firm ground
body wave Vs>300m/s
Seismic bedrock
Vs>3000m/s
Propagation path
effects
Source
effects
G( f ) =O 1 ( f ) / O 2 ( f )
Fig. A-3.1 Fundamental Concept Regarding Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors
(1) Seismic Observation for Evaluation of Site Amplification Factors

It is desirable that the site amplification factors be evaluated based on seismic observation records for the harbor.
Observation of strong seismic motion is carried out at the major harbors in Japan, see Fig. A-3.2, and the site effects
can be evaluated by using these records. Observation of strong ground motion is a type of seismic observation
which uses equipment that will withstand very strong motion from damaging earthquakes. Observation records
of strong motion earthquake observation in Japanese harbor areas can be downloaded from the National Institute
for Land and Infrastructure Management homepage (http://www.eq.ysk.nilim.go.jp).
If the harbors are not subject to designated strong ground motion observation points and if no seismic
observation records can be obtained in nearby points within 2km of the harbor in advance of performance
verification of an important facility, it is desirable that seismic observation records be obtained for evaluation of
site effects by carrying out seismic observations. In this case, it is desirable to confirm that the ground motion
characteristics at the observation point do not differ greatly from those at the facilities installation location, by
microtremor measurement carried out in advance. The time period necessary for seismic observations depends
on the seismicity of that area, but in general in Japan’s case, if from one to several years’ observation is carried
out, it is possible to obtain sufficient records of medium and small earthquakes or distant large earthquakes in
order to evaluate the site effects. In order to obtain many records in a short observation period, normally the
trigger level, the level of vibration that initiates the seismometer observation, is set lower than that normally
used for observation of strong earthquakes. In order to avoid the effect of extraneous vibrations from nearby,
one method is to use a mechanism in which the trigger is operated when the velocity exceeds a certain level,
not the acceleration. Another method is to carry out continuous measurement regardless of whether there is an
earthquake or not, and to extract the data later after an earthquake has occurred.
– 248 –
Mombetsu
Abashiri
Rumoi
Nemuro
Otaru
Kushiro
Tokachi
Setana
Muroran Urakawa
Okushiri
Tomakomai
Hakodate
Aomori Hachinohe
Miyako
Akita
Kamaishi
Ofunato
Sakata
Niigata Sendai
Soma
Onahama
Fushikitoyama
Kanazawa Hitachinaka
Tsuruga Kashima
Osaka Tokyo
Amagasakinishinomiyaashiya Chiba
Kobe Kawasaki
Sakiaminato Yokohama
Yokosuka
Mikawa
Hiroshima
Kinuura Shimoda
Nagoya Tagonoura
Yokkaichi Shimizu
Wakayama Omaezaki
Oita Kochi Komatsushima
Matsuyama
Hososhima
Miyazaki
Kagoshima
Shibushi
Naha Nakagusuku
Hirara
Ishigaki
Fig. A-3.2 Strong Motion Earthquake Observation in Japanese Harbor Areas
(2) Spectral Inversion

Assuming that M earthquakes have been observed at N observation points, the Fourier amplitude spectrum of
the observation records can be expressed by the following equation as the product of the source effects, the
propagation path effects, and the site effects.18)
(A-3.1)
where
Si ( f ) : source effects of the ith earthquake
– 249 –
Pij( f ) : propagation path effects from the hypocenter of the ith earthquake to the seismic bedrock of the
jth observation point
Gj ( f ) : site amplification factors of the jth point
The propagation path effects Pij( f ) can be expressed by the following equation, taking into consideration
geometric attenuation, 1/r, of the wave spreading in spherical form from the hypocenter and inelastic damping.
(A-3.2)
where
rij : distance from the hypocenter of the ith earthquake to the jth observation point
Q : Q value on the propagation path
Substituting equation (A-3.2) into the right hand side of equation (A-3.1), and taking common logarithms of
both sides, the following equation is obtained.
(A-3.3)
In order to simplify the expression shown here, the f which indicates dependence on frequency has been
omitted. Equation (A-3.3) includes M+N+1 number of unknowns, including the source effects Si, the site
amplification factors Gj, and the Q value. Therefore, if there are more equations, namely the number of records
that can be used, than the number of unknowns, it is possible to obtain the combination of unknowns for each
frequency f, by the method of least squares so that the residual error of equation (A-3.3) is minimized. The above
is the basic concept of spectral inversion. It is also possible to have the Q value as a known quantity, and obtain
M+N number of unknown quantities.
However, there is a trade-off relationship between the source effects Si and the site amplification factors Gj in
equation (A-3.3). For example, assuming that a certain combination of Si and Gj is a solution, the combination Si/2
and 2Gj is also a solution. As a method for avoiding this, there is the method of assuming that the site amplification
factors are 1 at a rock observation point, referred to as the standard observation point, selected in advance. At this
time it is necessary to carefully consider the selection of the reference point. The following points19 are useful for
selecting the reference point. Firstly, select the point with the smallest site amplification characteristics for each
frequency as the reference point based on the results of preliminary analysis. However, as the amplification in
the high frequency range in weak grounds is small, the point selected as the reference point should be limited to
points with sufficiently large S wave velocities. Specifically, the reference point should be selected from points
for which the average S wave velocity from the ground surface to the depth of 10m is 400m/s or higher. Also,
in order to avoid the characteristics of each individual record greatly affecting the results, the reference point
should be limited to those points for which records of several, about 5 earthquakes, measurement records have
been obtained. Besides basing the selection of the reference point on the above criteria, it is necessary to make
the decision based on an examination of whether the low frequency part of the source effects Si obtained from the
actual inversion results is compatible with Centroid Moment Tensor, CMT, solution 20）, for example, that of the
F-net of the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention.
In addition, the points to note when actually carrying out the spectral inversion are as follows:
In spectral inversion it is normally assumed that there is geometric attenuation, 1/r, of the wave spreading in
spherical form from the hypocenter. However, at distant observation points, geometric attenuation in the form
above becomes inapplicable as a result of the effect of Lg waves transmitted by reflection within the earth’s
crust.12) In order to avoid this, it is necessary to exclude records of earthquakes that occur far away, about 150 -
200km or farther.
The records of small scale earthquakes frequently do not have good S/N ratio in the low frequency range.
When considering harbor facilities, there are times when it is necessary to ensure accuracy down to 0.2Hz on the
low frequency range, so it is necessary to use records of M4.5 or larger. Also, it is desirable to check the S/N ratio
on the low frequency range of each of the records used in the analysis.21) On the other hand, the records of large
scale earthquakes are affected by the rupture process of the fault, so it becomes inappropriate to consider a single
source effect S i, unaffected by direction. Therefore, it is desirable to avoid records for M6.0 or larger. As a result
of the above, earthquakes in the range M4.5 – M6.0 are frequently used in spectral inversion.
In order to avoid nonlinear behavior of the local soil deposit, it is desirable to avoid the use of records with
large amplitude. It is also necessary to pay attention to the length of the records used in the analysis. It is also
possible to extract by some method the “S wave part” of the observed ground motion, and use its Fourier spectrum
in the analysis. However, when considering harbor facilities, it is necessary to obtain the amplification factors of
the Fourier spectrum including later phases by analyzing not only the S wave, but also surface waves.
Nozu and Nagao 22) applied spectral inversion to a data set that contained strong motion earthquake records in
Japanese harbor areas as well as K-NET, KiK-net, and other strong ground motion records, and obtained the site
– 250 –
amplification factors between seismic bedrock and ground surface of the strong ground motion observation points
in each area, in particular harbors. The results are available on CD-ROM.22)
(3) Method of Evaluating the Site Amplification Factors from Simultaneous Records from the Harbor and its
Surroundings
If records have been obtained for the same earthquake at the harbor and a nearby observation point, and if the site
amplification factors have already been evaluated at the nearby observation point, the site amplification factors
at the harbor can be evaluated by the following method. Firstly, in order to be able to explain the record at the
nearby observation point, the source effects of the earthquake under consideration are appropriately set. Next, it
is possible to obtain the site amplification factors at the harbor by dividing the Fourier amplitude spectrum at the
harbor by the source effects and by the propagation path effects. 23) It is necessary to be aware that if the harbor
and the nearby observation point are in fairly different directions from the hypocenter, then it is possible that the
accuracy of the evaluation will be reduced by the dependence on direction of the source effects of the earthquake.
If the earthquake has occurred sufficiently far away, the source effects and the propagation path effects of the
harbor and the nearby measurement point can be considered to be common, so evaluation of the source effects
may be omitted, and the site amplification factors of the harbor may be evaluated by taking the ratio of the spectra
of the two points. The records of large earthquakes that have occurred particularly far away are not suitable for
spectral inversion, but the S/N ratio is frequently good down to the low frequency range, so they can frequently
be used in this manner. Fig. A-3.3 shows a comparison of the ratio of the site amplification factors obtained
from SZO013, K-NET Shimizu, and SZO014, K-NET Shizuoka, from the records of the Kii Hanto Nanto Oki
Earthquakes with M7.1 and M7.4, which occurred on 5th September 2004, and the ratio of the site amplification
factors based on spectral inversion. It can be seen that the ratios of the site amplification factors obtained by the
two methods agree well.
Ratio of G( f ) Ratio of G( f )
2004/9/5 W7.1 2004/9/5 W7.4
SZ0013/SZ0014
SZ0013/SZ0014
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Fig. A-3.3 Comparison of the Ratio of Site Amplification Factors Evaluated by Two Methods
(4) Evaluation of the Site Amplification Factors when Seismic Observation Records have been Obtained at Several
Locations Near the Harbor
If ground motion records can be obtained at several locations near the harbor, it is possible to obtain several
site amplification factors. In this case, it is necessary to carry out zoning on the several site amplification factors.
In coastal areas, sudden changes are sometimes seen in the bedrock depths, due to the basin structure, so it is
necessary to be aware that if zoning is carried out according to whether the physical distance is long or short, it is
possible to make the evaluation on the dangerous side. The use of microtremors can be considered as a means of
carrying out simple zoning. There are many examples of research into the use of microtremors to determine the
subsurface structure. Among them is research focused on the ratio of the spectra of the horizontal component and
the vertical component, hereafter referred to as the H/V spectrum, obtained by measurement of three components
of microtremors, 26) and research focused on the average S wave velocity obtained from array measurements, 27)
however these are mainly for investigating the shallow subsurface structure. Also, research examples focused on
the deep subsurface structure using microtremors frequently use phase velocity by array measurement.28) There
are comparatively few examples of research on the deep subsurface structure using the H/V spectrum from 3
component measurements, but for Sato et al.29) have indicated that the microtremor spectral peak appearing in
the range with period equal to or greater than 1 second can be explained by the H/V spectral peak in the Rayleigh
wave down to the seismic bedrock, based on measurement records at Sendai.
It is considered that of the microtremor measurements, 3-component measurement is suitable for investigating
– 251 –
the subsurface structure because of the simplicity of the measurements. For the deep subsurface structure, it is
also possible to consider zoning by focusing on the peak in the long period side of the microtremor H/V spectrum.

2 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
The uniform hazard Fourier spectrum at the top of firm ground and the corresponding time history can be calculated
in accordance with the procedure shown in Fig. A-3.4.31) The following is an explanation of the flow.
Earthquake catalog data Active fault data Fault model data

(earthquakes whose sources are (earthquakes whose sources (earthquakes whose
difficult to specify in advance) can be specified) sources can be specified)
Earthquake generation model: Poisson process Earthquake generation model: For example, Poisson
Earthquake magnitude: random (Gutenberg-Richter process
equation) Earthquake magnitude: fault specific
Distance: random Distance: fault specific
Attenuation relation: theoretical seismic

Attenuation relation: theoretical motion for point source (seismic wave from a subfault)
seismic motion for point source
(Fourier amplitude spectrum)
Extent of fault: probabilistic Greens function method
Amplitication due to deep subsurface structure: by spectral inversion

Phase delay: source with highest contribution + phase delay due to site effects
Logic tree
Uniform hazard Fourier amplitude spectrum Group delay time (Fourier phase spectrum)
Probabilistic design ground motion (uniform hazard waveprofile)
Fig. A-3.4 Method of Calculating the Uniform Hazard Fourier Spectrum and the Corresponding Time History 31)
Firstly, the sources of earthquakes that could occur in the future near the harbor are classified into those that cannot
be easily defined and those that can be defined, and each of the sources are modeled. Here modeling the sources means
setting the position and size of the sources. To model the former, earthquake catalog data 32) that records earthquakes
that have occurred near the site in the past are used. To model the latter, active fault data 33), 34) obtained from
topographical and geological surveys and fault model data for past earthquakes 35) are used. For sources that cannot
be easily defined in advance, the sources may be equally spread over an area that appears to be seismically active,
hereafter referred to as a seismic area, or sources may be randomly set within the seismic area, see Fig. A-3.5(a). On
the other hand, for the sources that can be defined, the position and size of the source is set, see Fig. A-3.5(b).
After modeling the sources, the earthquake Magnitudes that could occur at these sources in the future and the
frequency of their occurrence are evaluated. In the case of sources that are difficult to define in advance, the model of
the Gutenberg-Richter equation, namely b value model, see Fig. A-3.6(a), is assumed in which specifies relationship
between the logarithm of the frequency of occurrence of an earthquake, N, and the Magnitude, M. The earthquake
Magnitudes are the Magnitude values obtained from the earthquake Magnitude-frequency relations. Also, the
frequency of occurrence within the seismic area can be obtained from the number of occurrences of earthquakes in
the earthquake catalog data and their time of measurement. In the case of sources that can be defined, the maximum
Magnitude model, maximum moment model, see Fig. A-3.6(b), in which the magnitude of the earthquakes that
occur is constant is frequently used. The Magnitude and frequency of earthquakes occurring on active faults are
frequently calculated from information on the length of the active fault, the average slip rate, and other topographical
and geological information.
– 252 –
M2
M1
M3 X2 M
X1
X3
X3
Evaluation ground point X2
X1
Evaluation ground point
(a) Earthquakes for which the sources (b) Earthquakes for which
are difficult to define in advance the sources can be defined
Fig. A-3.5 Modeling of Sources
For each of the postulated earthquakes, the Fourier amplitude spectrum at the top of firm ground is calculated
taking into consideration the source effects, the propagation path effects, and the site amplification factors between
seismic bedrock and top of firm ground. For sources that can be defined, it is desirable that the Fourier amplitude
spectrum is calculated by a method capable of taking into account the finiteness of the fault, such as the probabilistic
Green function method. For sources that cannot be easily defined in advance, it can be assumed that the source effects
of the earthquakes follow the ω-2 model.
As a result of the above, many Fourier amplitude spectra are evaluated with probabilities, see top figures of Fig.
A-3.7. Therefore, these can be arranged so that the relationship between the Fourier amplitude spectrum and the
annual probability of exceedance hazard curve, can be obtained for each frequency, see Fig. A-3.7. When these
are overlayed the hazard surface is obtained, see Fig. A-3.7, so that focusing on a particular annual probability of
exceedance a uniform hazard Fourier amplitude spectrum is obtained, see Fig. A-3.7. There are 4 samples in the
top figures of Fig. A-3.7. This means that although these are earthquakes from the same source, their manner of
occurrence is not the same.
In order to investigate the extent of uncertainty in the evaluation results due to the selection of assumptions and
models used in the above evaluation process, a logic tree may be used. In a logic tree, the combinations of model and
parameter values are appropriately set, and analysis is carried out, and the reliability is evaluated from the variation in
the analysis results.
To obtain the time history corresponding to a uniform hazard Fourier amplitude, information regarding Fourier phase
is necessary. In this case it is desirable that the Fourier phase be defined taking into consideration the characteristics
fo Fourier phase at the evaluation point.
b value model Maximum Magnitude model

Frequency of occurence (log(N))
Occurrence frequency (log(N))
Magnitude (M) Magnitude (M)
(a) Earthquakes for which the sources (b) Earthquakes for which the sources
are difficult to define in advance can be defined
Fig. A-3.6 Evaluation of Magnitude of Earthquake and Frequency of Occurrence
– 253 –
Fourier amplitude spectrum

Earthquake 1 Earthquake 2 Earthquake 3
Sample 1 Sample 1 Sample 1

f1 Frequency f1 Frequency f1 Frequency
Frequency f = f1
Annual frequency of occurence
Accumulated values for all earthquakes
Hazard curve for

Earthquake 3
each frequency
Earthquake 2
Earthquake 1
f = f1
f = f2
p0 Annual probability of exceedence
f = f3
f = f4
f = f5
Hazard surface

Uniform hazard Fourier amplitude

spectrum for hazard level p0
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 Frequency
Fig. A-3.7 Procedure for Calculating the Uniform Hazard Fourier Amplitude Spectra
– 254 –
ANNEX 4 Analysis of Seismic Motion

1 Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit
Normally the Level 1 earthquake ground motion is set as the incident wave, 2E waves, on the top of the firm ground.
However, when the acceleration, velocity, displacement, shear stress, shear strain, etc., are needed at other depths of
the local soil deposit, they can be obtained by a seismic response analysis of the local soil deposit. The following
is a description of the seismic response analysis for this purpose. For seismic response analysis for performance
verification of seismic-resistant, see Part III, Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities. Normally seismic response analysis
of the local soil deposit is carried out by modeling the local soil deposit above the firm ground. However, the range
in S wave velocity of the firm ground can be considerable, so it is necessary to confirm that the S wave velocity of
the firm ground considered when setting the Level 1 earthquake ground motion and the S wave velocity of the firm
ground considered for the seismic response analysis are consistent to a certain extent. Also, when carrying out seismic
response analysis for the purpose of predicting liquefaction, conventionally the wave was converted to correspond to
SMAC-B2 before inputting. However, henceforth this conversion is not necessary. Conventionally a wave profile of
past strong motion records was input with amplitude adjustment, and in this case the reference maximum acceleration
was equivalent to SMAC-B2, so the wave profile was converted to correspond to SMAC-B2.
(1) Types of Seismic Response Analysis for Local Soil Deposit
(a) Classification according to the dimensions considered in the calculation
Depending on the dimensions considered in the calculation, seismic response analysis may range from
1-dimensional to 3-dimensional. Normally when investigating the seismic response of the ground only, for
natural grounds or artificial grounds with a horizontally layered structure, 1-dimensional seismic response
analysis is frequently carried out. In coastal areas it is frequently possible to assume that horizontal stratification
is predominant. In these cases, it is considered that calculation results with sufficient accuracy for practical
purposes can be obtained from a 1-dimensional model.
Also, related to this, frequently the type of seismic wave used in the calculation is the S wave that is propagated
vertically. Normally in coastal areas, the S wave velocity in the ground near the surface is low, so the ray of the
seismic wave near the surface becomes almost vertical, see Fig. 1.1.1. Also, the same tendency can be seen in
the case of surface waves. Although this is a slightly detailed discussion, surface waves can be considered to be
a superposition of P waves and S waves within the local soil deposit. At this time the rays of the P wave and S
wave also approach the vertical near the surface. Therefore, by considering an S wave transmitting vertically,
it is considered that the calculation will have sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.
(b) Classification according to modeling of the soil stress-strain relationship
Seismic response analysis of local soil deposit is classified into equivalent linear analysis and nonlinear analysis,
from the viewpoint of modeling of the soil stress-strain relationship. Equivalent linear analysis takes account
of the dependence of the shear modulus and the damping factor of the soil on the amplitude, strictly speaking
the strain of the soil, of the ground motion, see Chapter 3, 2.4.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation, Fig.
2.4.2. However, in this calculation method it is assumed that during the time of the earthquake their values are
constant. Of course this assumption is different from the reality, but at the time that equivalent linear analysis
was developed, the performance of computers was not as high as today, so these assumptions were made for the
convenience of the calculation. In contrast to this, in nonlinear analysis the calculation takes into consideration
that the shear modulus etc. of the soil varies throughout the time of the ground motion. If the intention is to be
as close as possible to the actual phenomena then it is necessary to carry out nonlinear analysis, but if the strain
in the soil is not too large, it is considered that equivalent linear analysis can provide response analysis results
that are close to the actual phenomena to a certain extent. The level of strain at which equivalent linear analysis
can be applied depends on the method, but is about 0.5 to 1.0% or less.36), 37) Therefore, if as a result of carrying
out equivalent linear analysis it is found that the strain obtained exceeds this amount, it is necessary to change
the analysis method to nonlinear analysis.
In equivalent linear analysis the following repeated calculations are carried out. First, the effective shear
strain is obtained from the maximum shear strain for each layer, in case of 2-dimensions or higher, for each
element, calculated at a particular step, from the following equation.
(A-4.1)
where
γmax : maximum shear strain
γeff : effective shear strain
α : coefficient (normally 0.65)
– 255 –
Next, from the effective shear strain, the shear modulus and the damping factor are modified taking into
consideration the strain dependence of Fig. 2.4.2 of Chapter 3, 2.4.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation, and
the routine proceeds to the next step. This operation is repeated until the shear modulus converges. The earliest
equivalent-liner seismic response analysis program is SHAKE.38) When SHAKE was first developed, there were
no other competing programs, and it was widely used in design practice. Also, FLUSH, 39) the 2-dimensional
version of SHAKE, is widely used. However, in recent years the problems with SHAKE have gradually become
apparent, as a result of comparison of SHAKE calculation results with actual seismic observation records.40)
One of these problems is that the high frequency components are under-estimated. When trying to estimate
the incident waves on the firm ground based on the seismic wave observed at the surface, the high frequency
component is over-estimated). FDEL, 41) DYNEQ, 42) and other programs that are improved over SHAKE
in this respect have been proposed. In these programs the problem of under- or over-estimation of the high
frequency component is solved by using frequency dependent shear strain, instead of the effective shear strain
obtained from equation (A-4.1).
Nonlinear analysis is an analysis method that can be applied when the strain in the ground is large, about
0.5 – 1.0% or larger. However, whether the nonlinear analysis gives the correct result or not naturally depends
on the constitutive equation used and whether the soil constants are appropriate or not. There are various
types of analysis program for nonlinear analysis, using various constitutive models. It is important to use an
analysis program that has successfully reproduced vertical array observation records obtained under similar
conditions, soil properties and strain levels, in the past with good accuracy.36) Nonlinear analysis can be
classified into effective stress analysis and total stress analysis. When excess pore water pressure appears in a
ground, the effective stress is reduced. As a result, the stress state of the soil changes, so the soil restoring force
characteristics and damping characteristics are changed, so the response characteristics of the ground are also
changed. Effective stress analysis is capable of expressing this type of situation, and is a method that is capable
of directly obtaining the excess pore water pressure generated in a ground by calculation. On the other hand,
in total stress analysis, the excess pore water pressure is not calculated in the calculation process, so it is not
possible to take account of the change in seismic response due to the change in effective stress. If excess pore
water pressure is generated more than a certain level, about 0.5 or higher in the effective stress ratio, there is a
large possibility that the total stress analysis results will significantly differ from the actual seismic response.
Therefore, if the intention is to analyze the actual phenomena truely, it is necessary to carry out an effective
stress analysis.
One of the analysis programs for effective stress analysis is FLIP.43) Fig. A-4.1 shows the results of a
calculation 44) using FLIPver.3.3 to reproduce the vertical array records obtained at Port Island in Kobe Port
during the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake. Port Island records were obtained at the four depths: GL-83m,
GL-32m, GL-16m, and ground level. Here the NS component wave observed at GL-83m was used as the input
wave, and the waves at the other levels, GL-32m, GL-16m, and ground level, were calculated and compared with
the observed waves. The capability to reproduce the observed waves was very good. From this result, analysis
results for the 1993 Kushiro Oki Earthquake, 45) and others, it is judged that FLIP is an analysis program that
can give accurate results, provided the soil constants are appropriately set. However, in each individual case,
whether the FLIP results are correct or not depends on whether the soil constants have been properly set or not.
velocity (cm/s)
velocity (cm/s)
Ovserbed wave Ovserbed wave

50 FLIP
50 FLIP
0 0
-50 -50
Port Island GL-0m(NS) Port Island GL-16m(NS)
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)
velocity (cm/s)
velocity (cm/s)
Ovserbed wave Ovserbed wave(Imput wave to the FLIP)

50 FLIP
50
0 0
-50 -50
Port Island GL-32m(NS) Port Island GL-83m(NS)
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig. A-4.1 Reproduction of the Vertical Array Records at Port Island during the 1995
Hyogoken Nambu Earthquake using FLIP 44)
– 256 –
(c) Classification according to type of numerical solution method
Seismic response analysis of local soil deposit can be classified according to numerical solution method into
multireflection theory and the finite element method.
As shown in Fig. A-4.2, multireflection theory is a method that considers a horizontally layered ground, and
it is assumed that a shear wave incident on the ground propagetes upwards, and at the boundary of each layer
reflection and transmission repeatedly occurs, and the coefficients of the analytical solution are determined at
each layer, so that the boundary conditions are satisfied. The formulation is described in, for example, Reference
17), in an easy to understand manner. In multireflection theory, normally the soil stress-strain relationship is
limited to linear or equivalent linear type. The calculation is normally carried out in the frequency domain.
SHAKE, 38) FDEL, 41) DYNEQ, 42) use multireflection theory as the numerical solution method.
Time (s)
Weight per
unit volume
(kN/m3)
Thickness
(m)
Soil type
Vs (m/s)
Symbol
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0 a7
Sand 6 19.8 120 a6 a8
Sand 14 19.3 200
a5 a9
20
Silty
12 16.1 150
Depth (m)
clay
a4 b4 a10
Silty
40 sand 14 10.7 220
a3 b3 a11
Sandy
clay 14 18.5 220
a2 b2 a12
60
Sand 12 20.6 310
a1 b1
Sandy
gravel 23.5 630
(a) Soil boring log (b) Time sequence of reflection and transmission
Fig. A-4.2 Multireflection Theory 14)
As shown in Fig. A-4.3, the finite element method is a method in which the ground is divided into a finite
number of elements, and the differential equations governing the system is converted into algebraic equations
in terms of the response of the system at the nodes and then solved. The finite element method is used not only
for grounds, but is used in a wide range of fields. The characteristic of this method is that it is capable of dealing
with the 2-dimentional and 3-dimentional changes in soil properties and layer thickness. FLUSH 39), FLIP 43),
and others use the finite element method as the numerical solution method. The calculations are conducted in
the domains of frequency and time.
Clay
Rock
(a) Ground cross-section (b) Cross-section on left divided into elements
Fig. A-4.3 Finite Element Method
(2) Ground Modeling for Seismic Response Analysis of Local soil deposit
The following is an explanation of the modeling of the ground and method of determining the parameters necessary
for obtaining a solution for a seismic response analysis for the local soil deposit, focusing on 1-dimension.
① Outline
To carry out a seismic response analysis for the local soil deposit, the ground at the objective point is modeled by
dividing it into several layers. For each layer, the layer thickness, density, and shear modulus under small strain
are necessary parameters regardless of the solution method. In addition, in the case of equivalent linear analysis,
the strain dependence of the shear modulus and the damping factor are necessary. The parameters necessary
for nonlinear analysis depend on the method of modeling the stress-strain relationship of the soil, but in the
case of FLIP, in addition to the above parameters, the modulus of volume, angle of shear resistance, the upper
limit value of hysteretic damping factor, and parameters to define liquefaction are necessary characteristics.
Of these, the parameters to define liquefaction characteristics are necessary only for carrying out an effective
stress analysis.
– 257 –
② Modeling procedure
The engineering bedrock is set taking the results of the soil investigation into account. At this time the S wave
velocity of the ground selected as the engineering bedrock must not differ significantly from the S wave velocity
of the ground selected as the engineering bedrock when setting the ground motion. The ground is divided into
layers corresponding to the changes in the soil properties. In this case, even if the soil classification is the same,
if S wave velocity, N value, or qu value differs significantly, they are considered to be separate layers. Each
ground is classified into either sandy soil, clay, or gravel. In an actual ground, it is rare for a soil to comprise
sand or clay only, and usually gravel, sand, silt, and clay are mixed in various proportions. Here soil with a fine,
particle size 75µm or less, content of 20% or less is considered to be sandy soil, and others are considered to be
cohesive soils. Rubble stones used in mounds and backfilling is considered to be gravel.
As for soil density of each layer for which undisturbed sampling of a soil has been carried out, the density
of the soil is measured from the soil test sample, and this value is used. However, if the density has not been
measured, the values shown in Table A-4.1 may be used for convenience. The standard values shown in Table
A-4.1 are standard values for seismic response analysis, and it is necessary to be aware that they may not be used
for other analyses in which density is a governing factor.
Table A-4.1 Standard Values of Soil Density 46)
Soil type Condition Density (g/cm3)

Water content ≥60% 1.5
Cohesive soil
Water content ≥60% 1.7
Higher than ground water
1.8
Sandy soil level
Below ground water level 2.0
Rubble stones backfilling 2.0
The shear modulus under small soil strain, shear strain about 10-6, used in the response analysis can be
calculated from the S wave velocity obtained by in-situ investigation.
(A-4.2)
where
G0 : elastic shear modulus under small soil strain
ρ : density
VS : S wave velocity
If the S wave velocity has not been obtained by in-situ investigation for a sandy soil, the shear modulus can
be estimated from the N value using the following equation.
(A-4.3)
However, this equation shows the average value obtained from number of actual data, so it is necessary to
be aware that there was a significant amount of variation 47). For details, refer to Chapter 3, 2.4.1 (6) Simple
Estimation of Shear Modulus and Damping Factors.
If the unconfined compressive strength (qu) of cohesive soils has been obtained, the shear modulus may be
estimated from the following equation 48).
(A-4.4)
When the S wave velocity shall be estimated using the N value, if the N value prior to construction is only
available, such as for the grounds underneath a wall, the N value after construction shall be estimated, taking
into consideration the effect of the effective overburden pressure due to the wall or a mound. The following
equation may be used in the estimation.
(A-4.5)
– 258 –
where
N : N value after construction
N0 : N value before construction
σ ν' : effective overburden pressure after construction (kN/m 2)
σ ν0' : effective overburden pressure before construction (kN/m 2)
Where the ground conditions change before and after the construction, and when PS logging is carried out
only before construction, the S wave velocity after construction may be estimated from the following equation,
which takes into account the effect of the change in effective overburden pressure, and uses the S wave velocity
measured before the construction.
(A-4.6)
where
VS : S wave velocity after construction
VS0 : S wave velocity before construction
σ ν' : effective overburden pressure after construction (kN/m 2)
σ ν0' : effective overburden pressure before construction (kN/m 2)
B is 0.25 in the case of a sandy soil or a cohesive soil with a plasticity index Ip = 30 or less, and is 0.5 in the
case of a cohesive soil with plasticity index Ip = 30 or higher.
The measurement of the S wave velocity of rubble mound and backfill is difficult, but for rubble mound and
backfill to large quaywalls at a water depth of about -10m, the following values of S wave velocity obtained
from the calculation equation 49) derived from the results of seismic observations on a composite breakwater
may be used.
S wave velocity of the rubble mound : VS =300 m/s

S wave velocity of the backfill : VS =225 m/s
Also, there is an example 50) in which the value of the S wave velocity for both the rubble mound and the
backfill is 300m/s for a reference mean effective confining pressure of 98kN/m 2.
When a caisson is considered as a kind of ground, the following values may be used as the S wave velocity of
the caisson.
S wave velocity of caisson : VS =2000 m/s
It is known that the shear modulus under small soil strain is proportional to the power of the effective
confining pressure. Equation (A-4.2) shows a relationship between the shear modulus and the S wave velocity,
so it may be inferred that the S wave velocity is proportional to the power of the effective confining pressure.
This relationship is obtained as follows from past element tests.48), 51)
(a) The shear modulus for a cohesive soil with plasticity index of Ip = 30 or higher is proportional to the effective
confining pressure to the power of 1.
(b) The shear modulus for a sandy soil or a cohesive soil with plasticity index of Ip = 30 or less is proportional to the
effective confining pressure to the power of 0.5.
On the other hand, Fig. A-4.4 shows a graph of the average S wave velocity for Toyoura standard sand
obtained by centrifugal model tests corresponding to the confining pressure at the middle of sand ground. The
solid line in the graph is the correlation curve VS = K(σc')a. The average value of the S wave velocity of a sand
ground increases as the centrifugal acceleration increases, which demonstrates the significant dependence on
the confining pressure. Fig. A-4.5 shows the distribution of the S wave velocity with depth determined for the
same test sample. The broken line in the graph is the curve of the case where the S wave velocity is proportional
to the confining pressure to the power of 0.25, and this curve was obtained using the S wave at the middle
in the sand ground as reference. In both cases the S wave velocity increases as the depth increases, and the
change with respect to depth is approximately proportional to the power of 0.25. These results were obtained by
applying centrifugal acceleration varying from 10G to 50G to a 24cm thick layer of soil to artificially vary the
effective confining pressure.52)
– 259 –
450
Case 1 (Dr = 48%)
Case 2 (Dr = 50%)
Average shear wave velocity of sand ground (m/s)

400
350
300
250
Vs =100.6 (σc')0.341
Vs =167.3 (σc')0.341
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Confining pressure at middle of sand ground σc' (KN/m ) 2
Fig. A-4.4 Relationship between the Average S Wave Velocity of a Sand Ground and the Confining Pressure 52)
Shear wave velocity (m/s) Shear wave velocity(m/s)

0 0 500
-4 -4
Depth (m/s)
Depth (m/s)
-8 -8
-12 -12
Case 1 Case 2
Fig. A-4.5 Distribution of S Wave Velocity in a Sand Ground 52)
(c) Strain dependence of shear modulus and damping factor

Normally when the shear strain is small, the shear modulus is large and the damping factor is small, but as
the strain increases, the former reduces and the latter increases, see Chapter 3, 2.4.1 Dynamic Modulus of
Deformation, Fig. 2.4.2. The strain dependence characteristics of the shear modulus and the damping factor
vary with the confining pressure and the soil properties of each stratum etc. Therefore, the shear modulus and
damping factor values used should be obtained from soils tests corresponding to the shear strain level, as much
as possible.
(d) Parameters necessary for nonlinear analysis
The parameters necessary for nonlinear analysis may be set based on Part III, Chapter 5, 2.2.3 Performance
verification (9) Performance Verification for Ground Motions (detailed method).
– 260 –
ANNEX 5 Evaluation of Ground Motion

1 Evaluation of Strong Ground Motion
(1) Outline
Methods for evaluating strong ground motions taking into consideration the source effects, the propagation path
effects, and the site amplification factors include theoretical methods and semi-empirical methods. The theoretical
methods model the medium from the source to the harbor as an elastic body, and evaluate the ground motions at
the harbor based on the theory of elastodynamics. Among the semi-empirical methods, the empirical Green’s
function method is a method in which the measured ground motion from a medium or small earthquake, whose
mechanism and propagation path is common with a large earthquake, is considered to be a Green function, and
the ground motion for the large earthquake is synthesized by superposition.67), 68), 69) At this time, if a suitable
medium or small earthquake record is not available to be used, the stochastic Green’s function method has been
proposed in which an artificial medium or small earthquake record is created, and then superposed, 70) and this
may be also classified as a semi-empirical method. In addition there are broad band hybrid methods in which the
long period components of the ground motions are calculated by theoretical methods, the short period components
are calculated using semi-empirical methods, and the two are superposed.71) In each of the above methods, it is
known that if theoretical methods are applied to areas with comparatively well-known subsurface structures to
periods longer than about 1 second, observed ground motions can be reproduced with good accuracy.72) However,
although information on the subsurface structure has been collected activity, 73) at present the areas for which the
subsurface structure is sufficiently well known to enable theoretical methods to be applied are very limited. On the
other hand, of the semi-empirical methods, in the empirical Green’s function method, the effect of the subsurface
structure included in the records of medium and small earthquakes is directly reflected in the prediction results.
Also, in the probabilistic Green function method, which is likewise classified as a semi-empirical method, it is
possible to utilize the site amplification factors evaluated from spectral inversion 18) or similarly based on strong
motion records at the site.74) Based on the above, at harbors for which there are comparatively plentiful strong
motion records, it is desirable that semi-empirical methods are used in evaluating the design ground motion. In
areas where the subsurface structure is comparatively well known, it is possible to use theoretical methods or
broad band hybrid methods, but in this case the appropriateness of the subsurface structure model should be
verified in advance from the viewpoint of consistency with the strong motion records.
Determining whether the results of a strong motion evaluation are valid or not should, as a rule, be carried
out from the viewpoint of whether the calculation conditions and calculation procedure are in accordance with
the contents of this section. However, comparison of the calculation results with strong motion records obtained
under similar conditions is useful. For example, one can refer to strong motion records in the near source region
of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake or the 2004 Niigata-ken Chuetsu Earthquake. However, normally
the ground motions depend greatly on the source effects and the site effects, so because of these conditions it
is possible for the amplitude of the calculated ground motions to differ greatly from the existing strong motion
records. If a calculated result whose amplitude differs greatly from the existing strong motion records is obtained,
it should be investigated whether it is possible to rationally explain the difference by the difference in the source
effects, such as differences in the size of the earthquake or the site effects, and if it is possible to rationally explain
the difference in this way, the results can be accepted. If a rational explanation is difficult, there should be a
check for errors in inputs etc. In this way, comparison with the existing strong motion records is useful from
the viewpoint of preventing simple errors. When carrying out a comparison with the existing strong motion
records, comparison of the maximum acceleration should be avoided. This is because normally the maximum
acceleration of a ground motion is easily affected by the high frequency component at 2Hz or higher. However,
the high frequency component at 2Hz or higher does not have much effect on harbor facilities, so even though
the maximum accelerations are compared, this does not verify the calculation results in the frequency range that
has a large effect on the harbor facilities. Normally the maximum velocity is a better index than the maximum
acceleration. Incidentally, the maximum velocity of the ground motions observed at the ground surface on
sediments in the near source region of the 1995 Hyogoken Nambu Earthquake and the 2004 Niigata-ken Chuetsu
Earthquake was about 100 to 150cm/s.
(2) Probabilistic Green Function Method
The probabilistic Green function method is a method in which first ground motions at the site are evaluated for a
small earthquake, which are then superposed to obtain the motions for a large earthquake. The specific procedure
is as follows.
– 261 –
r r0 rij subfault ij
1~N
ξij
W
small event
1~N
L
large event
Fig. A-5.1 Probabilistic Green Function Method
First, focusing on one of the asperities, namely large event in Fig. A-5.1 for the expected earthquake , the
asperity is divided into N×N. Then a small earthquake having the same area as each sub-fault of the asperity,
namely small event in Fig. A-5.1, is considered. The Fourier amplitude of the ground motion from the small event
at seismic bedrock which is equivalent to the probabilistic Green function at seismic bedrock, is defined as the
product of the source spectrum of the small earthquake equation (A-5.1) and the propagation path effects equation
(A-5.2).75)
(A-5.1)
(A-5.2)
where
M0e : seismic moment of small earthquake
fc : corner frequency of small earthquake
ρ : density at the seismic bedrock
VS : S wave velocity at the seismic bedrock
R : radiation coefficient
FS : amplification effect due to the free surface (=2)
PRTITN : effect of partition of the ground energy into two horizontal components
r : hypocentral distance of the small earthquake
Q : Q value of the medium on the propagation path
When considering an earthquake occurring at an active fault, ρ =2.7g/cm3 and VS =3.5km/s may be assumed.
An average value in all directions of 0.63 may be used for R . When estimating the ground motion near the fault
of an earthquake occurring at an active fault within about 10km from the fault, PRTITN =0.85 for the component
normal to the strike direction, and 0.53 for the component parallel to the strike direction. These values are defined
taking into consideration that in the near source region of an earthquake occurring at an active fault, the Fourier
amplitude of the component normal to the strike direction is about 1.6 times 8) that of the component parallel to
the strike direction. When evaluating the ground motions far from an earthquake occurring at an active fault,
and when evaluating the ground motions due to other earthquakes, PRTITN = 0.71 may be used assuming that the
energy of the ground motion is equally distributed to the two horizontal components. In any case, it is necessary
to set PRTITN so that the sum of squares of the two horizontal components is 1. Table A-5.1 shows the standard
values of PRTITN.
Table A-5.1 Standard Values of PRTITN
Near the fault Except near the fault
Subduction-zone earthquake 0.71 0.71
0.85 (component normal to strike)

Inland active fault earthquake 0.71
0.53 (component parallel to strike)
M6.5 earthquake just beneath
0.71 0.71
the site
– 262 –
The seismic moment of the small earthquake M0e can be obtained by dividing the seismic moment of the
asperity by N 3. The corner frequency fc of the small earthquake can be obtained from the following equation by
Brune.76), 77)
(A-5.3)
where
Se : r upture area of the small earthquake
Equation (A-5.3) is “Brune’s equation (36)” 76) as it is. By combining equation (A-5.3) and Esherby’s equation
for a circular crack, 59) it is possible to derive the well-known equation that expresses the corner frequency as a
function of the seismic moment and the stress drop. In equation (A-5.2), an appropriate regional Q value should
be used .
The wave profile that satisfies the Fourier amplitudes at the seismic bedrock defined as above is obtained by
Boore’s method 75) or by Nozu and Sugano’s method, 44) and this is taken to be the stochastic Green’s function at
the seismic bedrock.
Next, the ground motion from the small event, the stochastic Green’s function, at the ground surface is
obtained. In this case the effect of the sediments on both the Fourier amplitude and phase of the ground motion,
namely the site effects, is taken into account. Specifically, it can be calculated by the following method.74) As
stated previously, normally the Fourier amplitude of the ground motion is given by the product of the source
effects, the propagation path effects, and the site effects, and the group delay time of the ground motion is given
by the sum of the source effects, the propagation path effects, and the site effects.1)
(see 1.1.1)
(see 1.1.2)
Now if an earthquake whose size and hypocentral distance are sufficiently small is observed at the site under
consideration, it is considered that expect for the shift along time axis, the group delay time in the record practically
expresses the third term on the right side of equation (1.1.2), in other words the site effects. Therefore, if the
Fourier transform of the stochastic Green’s function previously obtained for the seismic bedrock is multiplied
by G( f ), and the Fourier transform of the record satisfying the above conditions after adjusting its amplitude in
the frequency domain to 1, then its inverse Fourier transform gives the stochastic Green’s function at the ground
surface. Expressing this process in the form of a specific equation gives the following.
(A-5.4)
where
A( f ) : Fourier transform of the stochastic: C Green’s function at the ground surface (complex
number)
Ab( f ) : Fourier transform of the stochastic: C Green’s function at seismic bedrock (complex number)
G( f ) : site amplification factors between seismic bedrock and ground surface (real number)
OS ( f ) : Fourier transform of medium or small earthquake record obtained at the site (complex
number)
It is desirable that the medium or small earthquake record for the site used at this time should have an incident
angle to the site as similar to that of the scenario earthquake under consideration as possible. This is because in
this way it is possible to more appropriately take into consideration the effect of the sediments on the riser phase
of the ground motions.
When evaluating the stochastic Green’s function at the ground surface by this method, it is necessary that
the site amplification factors G( f ) be evaluated in advance. For evaluating the site amplification factors, there are
two main approaches. One approach is to extract the S wave component from the ground motion by some kind of
method, and obtain its amplification factors.18) The other approach is to include not just the S wave component but
also the surface waves component in the analysis, and to obtain the amplification factors of the Fourier spectrum
including later phases.23) Which approach is taken depends on the objectives, but when carrying out strong
motion prediction taking the contribution not only of the S waves but also the surface waves into account, the latter
approach is necessary. In particular, if the method described above is used, the contribution of the S wave and the
contribution of the surface waves are blended together in the group delay time of the medium or small earthquake
record obtained at the site, so it is necessary to consider the contribution of both to the amplitude also.
The ground surface for the ground motion from the asperity can be calculated by superposing the Green’s
– 263 –
function at the ground surface using the following equations, 81) see Fig. A-5.1. By carrying out this superposition,
the directivity effect in the direction of rupture propagation is taken into account.
(A-5.5)
(A-5.6)
(A-5.7)
where
(t) : ground motion from asperity
U
u (t) : stochastic Green’s function at the ground surface
f (t) : f unction to correct for the difference in the slip velocity time function between a large earthquake
and a small earthquake
r : hypocentral distance of small earthquake
rij : distance from element ij to the site of interest
N : number of sub-divisions (Fig. A-5.1)
τ : rise time
n' : integer for removing the apparent periodicity that appears when superposing the waves
r0 : distance from the rupture starting point of the asperity to the site of interest
ξij : distance from the rupture starting point to the ijth element
VS : S wave velocity of the seismic bedrock
Vr : r upture velocity
When there are several asperities, the same procedure is followed for each asperity, and the linear Level 2
earthquake ground motion at the ground surface is calculated by adding the contributions from each asperity.
Finally, the Level 2 earthquake ground motion, 2E wave, at the top of the firm ground is calculated by seismic
response analysis of the local soil deposit. The contribution of the background areas can normally be ignored
without problem for the purpose of performance verification of port facilities.
In the above calculation process, the linear Level 2 earthquake ground motion at the ground surface is calculated
at once, but this does not include the nonlinear behavior of the local soil deposit during a large earthquake, so it
is necessary to be aware that this normally results in an overestimation. In order to calculate more realistic Level
2 earthquake ground motion at the ground surface, normally the Level 2 earthquake ground motion at the top of
the firm ground is obtained at once, then a seismic response analysis is carried out again taking into account the
nonlinear behavior of the local soil deposit.
Examples of the application of the method described here to past earthquakes are introduced in Reference 44).
Also, a calculation program for the method described here is available on CD-ROM.44)
(3) Empirical Green Function Method
The empirical Green function method is a method for evaluating the ground motions at the site of interest due to a
large earthquake for the case where the records of small earthquakes that have occurred near the large earthquake
under consideration have been obtained at the site of interest, by superposing these records. The small earthquake
records used for superposition at this time are referred to as empirical Green’s functions. The records obtained at
the site of interest naturally include the effect of the propagation path effects and the site effects, so a major feature
of this method is that the ground motions due to a large earthquake can be evaluated with good accuracy without
evaluating these propagation path effects and the site effects. However, this method cannot be applied if it is not
possible to obtain suitable small earthquake records at the site of interest. Also, as stated below, there are some
items that require rather specialized consideration.
For superposition of the wave profiles, equations (A-5.5) to (A-5.7) of the stochastic Green’s function method
can be applied virtually as they are. However, for equation (A-5.5) it is necessary to substitute the following
equation which contains a correction coefficient C, in order that the small earthquake be appropriately reflected.81)
(A-5.9)
The parameters N and C associated with the superposition are defined so as to satisfy the following equation.
– 264 –
(A-5.10)
where
M0a : seismic moment of the asperity
M0e : seismic moment of the small earthquake
Sa : area of the asperity
Se : r upture area of the small earthquake
As can be understood from the above, when applying the empirical Green function method, it is necessary
to appropriately estimate the parameters of the small earthquake. For the seismic moment M0e of the small
earthquake, it is possible to refer to CMT solutions, 20) for example, of the F-net by the National Research Institute
for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention. The rupture area Se of the small earthquake can be obtained from the
corner frequency fc using equation (A-5.3). To obtain the corner frequency of the small earthquake, the method 82)
of obtaining the ratio of the spectra of earthquakes with different magnitudes that occurred nearby may be used.
Other points to note when applying the empirical Green function method include the radiation coefficient
problem. The radiation coefficient of the seismic wave from the source has direction dependence according to
theory, 20), 83) and depending on the mechanism of the small earthquake such as strike, dip and rake angle, and, by
chance, the site of interest may correspond to a trough in the radiation coefficient. In that case, if the records are
superposed as they are, it is possible that the large earthquake ground motions will be underestimated. Therefore,
it is necessary to pay sufficient attention to the mechanisms of the small earthquakes used.
As described above, evaluation of ground motions by the empirical Green function method requires several
specialist type judgments, so it is necessary to pay attention to these points.
2 Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit

Seismic response analysis of local soil deposit may be carried out in accordance with the description in ANNEX 4, 1
Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit. However, when the Level 2 earthquake ground motion is acting,
the strain level in the local soil deposit tends to become particularly large, so it is necessary to pay particular attention
to the analysis method.
3 Spatial Variations in the Ground Motion Considered in Performance Verification of Facilities

If the ground is significantly non-uniform in the horizontal direction within the area occupied by a structure, spatial
variation in the ground motion may be brought about as a result. Therefore, it is desirable that the non-uniformity in
the horizontal direction of the ground conditions within the area occupied by the structure be evaluated, and if the
non-uniformity is significant, the spatial variation in the ground motion should be evaluated taking the effect of the
non-uniformity into account. For this, it is also desirable to take into consideration the effect of the non-uniformity
in the horizontal direction of the ground below the top of the firm ground. If the non-uniformity of the ground in
the horizontal direction is significant, the most effective specific method for evaluating the spatial variation of the
ground motion is the method of evaluating the ground motion at several points using the method stated in ANNEX
5, 1 Evaluation of Strong Ground Motion (2) and (3), based on the records of seismometers installed at several
points. Another method when the subsurface structure is sufficiently well-known is to carry out an evaluation using
an appropriate numerical analysis method such as the finite element method or the finite difference method. This is a
rather specialist discussion, but when applying the method described in ANNEX 5, 1 Evaluation of Strong Ground
Motion (2) , it is necessary to pay sufficient attention to ensure that the physical meaning of the phase differences
in the ground motions evaluated at the several points is not lost. The physical meaning of the phase differences in
the ground motions evaluated by the method described in ANNEX 5, 1 Evaluation of Strong Ground Motion (2)
can be lost if the stochastic Green’s functions at the seismic bedrock of several points are separately evaluated, and
randomness is contained in the phases of the stochastic Green’s functions.75) It is also possible if the origin of the
time axes of the medium and small earthquake records used in equation (A-5.4) have been shifted, for example, if the
trigger time is different at different ground points. Methods for dealing with the former include the method of taking
the same stochastic Green’s functions at the seismic bedrock for two points that are not too far distant.
The above considerations can also be applied in cases where the non-uniformity of the ground conditions in the
horizontal direction is not significant, but a more convenient approach can be applied as described below.
If the non-uniformity in the horizontal direction of the ground conditions is not significant, the main cause of spatial
variation in the ground motion is the wave propagation effect in the horizontal direction. The strain ε(ω) in the ground
caused by the wave propagation effect is a function of the amplitude of the ground motion velocity v(ω) and the
apparent wave propagation velocity c(ω), where ω is the angular frequency.
(A-5.11)
– 265 –
As can be seen from equation (A-5.11), ε(ω) is a decreasing function of c(ω), so the smaller the value of c(ω), the
more disadvantageous it is for the structure. The seismic waves that cause a wave propagation effect include the
surface waves and S waves, but at an arbitrary ω, the phase velocity of surface waves is lower than the phase velocity
of S waves. Also, among the surface waves, the phase velocity is lowest in the fundamental mode of the Love wave or
the fundamental mode of the Rayleigh wave. Therefore, taking into consideration the fundamental mode of the Love
wave or the fundamental mode of the Rayleigh wave is the most disadvantageous for the structure.
The phase velocity of the surface waves depends on the frequency. If it is assumed that c(ω) does not depend on
ω, either the effect of the high frequency component on the ground strain will be underestimated, or the effect of the
low frequency component will be underestimated. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the frequency dependence
of the phase velocity. It is desirable that the frequency dependence of the phase velocity be evaluated based on the
results of in-situ array measurements, on the microtremor or the earthquake motion, or based on the elastic wave
velocity structure above and below the top of the firm ground. As an example, Fig. A-5.2 shows the relationship
between the phase velocity of the Love wave and frequency at a certain location in Tokyo Bay. The solid line is the
theoretical phase velocity calculated from the S wave velocity structure model in Table A-5.2. The S wave velocity
structure model in Table A-5.2 includes the deep sediments down to the upper crust. If a model that excludes the deep
sediments is used in the calculation, the phase velocity on the long period side is underestimated. The ■ mark in Fig.
A-5.2 are the phase velocities obtained from the array measurement results. At this point, the phase velocity of the
fundamental mode of Love wave is about 400m/s at a period of 1 second, and about 750m/s at a period of 3 seconds.
Therefore, if a constant value of 400m/s is used as the phase velocity which does not vary with frequency, the effect
of the Love wave at a period of 3 seconds will be overestimated. Conversely, if a constant value of 750m/s is used, the
effect of the Love wave at a period of about 1 second will be underestimated.
Fig. A-5.2 Relationship between the Phase Velocity of the Love Wave and Frequency at a Certain Location in Tokyo
Bay 84)
Table A-5.2 S Wave Velocity Structure Model 84)
Density
Thickness (m) S-wave velocity (m/s)
(t/m3)
50 250 1.8
120 410 1.9
1580 800 1.9
1250 1200 2.1
3100 2600 2.6
– 3400 2.6
Normally the ground motions evaluated by the methods of 1.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motions used
in Performance Verification of Facilities, and 1.3 Level 2 earthquake ground motions used in Performance
Verification of Facilities include several frequency components, and each frequency component can cause a
wave propagation effect. In this case, the spatial variation of a ground motion can be simply evaluated taking into
– 266 –
consideration the frequency dependence of the phase velocity by the following method. Assume the ground motion
time history evaluated at a reference point (x=0，y=0) at the relevant depth of the horizontally layered ground based
on the methods of 1.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of Facilities, and
1.3 Level 2 earthquake ground motions used in Performance Verification of Facilities, is a0(t). Also, assume the
frequency dependent phase velocity corresponding to the point is c(ω). In these circumstances the ground motion time
history a(t) at an arbitrary point (x, y) at the same depth can be defined as follows:
(1) Take the Fourier transform of a0(t).
(2) Calculate the Fourier transform of a(t) from the following equation.
(A-5.12)
(A-5.13)
(A-5.14)
where
0(ω) : fourier transform of a0(t)
A
A(ω) : fourier transform of a(t)
θ : angle between the positive direction of the x-axis and the direction of propagation of the seismic
wave
(c) Take the inverse Fourier transform of A(ω) to obtain a(t).
Ideally, c(ω) should be defined taking into account the type of seismic waves included in the ground motions a0(t)
evaluated at a certain point by the methods of 1.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance
Verification of Facilities, and 1.3 Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions used in Performance Verification
of Facilities. However, in reality the evaluated seismic wave frequently includes various types of wave, such as
surface waves and S waves, etc., so it is not easy to extract the surface waves only. Therefore, considering the
most disadvantageous conditions for the facilities, the smaller of the phase velocity of the fundamental mode
of Love wave and the fundamental mode of Rayleigh wave may be used as the c(ω) in equation (A-5.13) and
equation (A-5.14). The angle θ may be taken to be the direction that is most disadvantageous for the facility.
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81) Irikura, K., T. Kagawa and T. Sekiguchi: Improvement of strong motion prediction method utilizing empirical Green’s
function, Proceedings of Conference of Seismologic Society of Japan No.2, B25, 1997
82) Miyake, H., Iwata, T. and Irikura,K.: Source characterization for broadband round-motion simulation: kinematic
heterogenious source model and strong motion generation area, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
Vol.93,pp.2531-2545,2003
83) Study Group of Theoretical Earthquake Motion Edition: Earthquake motion- synthesis and profile processing. Kajima
Publications, 1994
84) Nozu, A., M. Yasunaka, Y. Satou and T. Kanno: Characteristics of Ground Motions Observed at Haneda Airport(First
Report)Characteristics of Surface Waves, Technical Note of PARI, No.1022, 2002
– 270 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 5 EARTH PRESSURE AND WATER PRESSURE
Chapter 5 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure
Public Notice
Earth Pressure and Water Pressure
Article 14
1 Earth pressure shall be set appropriately based on the ground conditions in consideration of the structure
of the facilities concerned, imposed loads, the action of earthquake ground motions, and others.
2 Residual water pressure shall be set appropriately in consideration of the structure of the facilities
concerned, the surrounding ground conditions, tide levels, and others.
3 Dynamic water pressure shall be set appropriately in consideration of the structure of the facilities
concerned, the action of earthquake ground motions, and others.
[Technical Note]
1 Earth Pressure
1.1 General
The behavior of soil varies with physical conditions such as grain size, void ratio and water content, and with stress
history and boundary conditions, which also affect earth pressure. The earth pressure discussed in this chapter is the
pressure by ordinary soil. The earth pressure generated by improved soil and reinforced soil will require separate
consideration. The earth pressure during an earthquake for design mentioned herein, is based on the concept of the
seismic coefficient method and is different from the actual earth pressure generated during an earthquake caused
by dynamic interaction between structures, soil and water. However, this earth pressure can generally be used in
performance verifications as revealed by analyses of past damage due to earth pressures during earthquakes. The
hydrostatic pressure and dynamic water pressure acting on a structure should be calculated separately.
(1) Earth Pressure (Relating to Item 1 of the Public Notice Above)
In setting earth pressure, appropriate consideration should be given to the earth pressure state, namely whether it
is an active or a passive earth as a result of structure behavior etc., and the design situation, in accordance with the
type of soil quality such as sandy or cohesive soil and the structural characteristics of the subject facility.
(2) Residual Water Pressure (Relating to Item 2 of the Public Notice Above)
Residual water pressure mentioned herein refers to the water pressure arising from the difference in water levels
on the front side and rear side of the facility. This difference must be given due consideration in setting residual
water pressure.
(3) Dynamic Water Pressure (Relating to Item 3 of the Public Notice Above)
In verifying the performance of facilities subject to the technical standard, proper consideration should be given,
as required, to the effect of dynamic water pressure.
(4) Other
In verifying the performance of facilities subject to the technical standard, buoyancy should be considered, as
required, in addition to these settings.
1.2 Earth Pressure at Permanent Situation

1.2.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil
(1) The earth pressure of sandy soil acting on the backface wall of structure and the angle of sliding surface shall be
calculated by the following equations:
① Active earth pressure and the angle of failure surface
(1.2.1)
(1.2.2)
– 271 –
where
② Passive earth pressure and the angle of failure surface.
(1.2.3)
(1.2.4)
where
with
pai, ppi : active and passive earth pressures, respectively, acting on the backface of the wall at the
bottom level of the i-th soil layer (kN/m 2)
φi : angle of internal friction of the i-th soil layer (°)
γ i : unit weight of the i-th soil layer (kN/m3)
hi : thickness of the i-th soil layer (m)
Kai, Kpi : coefficients of active and passive earth pressures, respectively, in the i-th soil layer
ψ : angle of batter of backface wall from vertical line (°)
β : angle of backfill ground surface from horizontal line (°)
δ : angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall (°)
ζ i : angle of failure surface of the i-th soil layer (°)
ω : uniformly distributed surcharge on the ground surface (kN/m 2)
(2) The earth pressure at permanent situation is based on Coulomb's earth pressure theory.
(3) Earth pressure at rest as expressed by equation (1.2.5) may be used when there is little displacement because of
the wall being confined.
(1.2.5)
where
K0 : coefficient of earth pressure at rest
(4) Angle of Internal Friction of Soil
The angle of internal friction of backfill soil normally has a value of 30°. In case of especially good backfilling
material, it can be set as large as 40°. It is possible to use the results of soil tests and /or to estimate the angle of
internal friction of soil by reliable estimation formulas.
(5) Angle of Friction between Backfilling Material and Backface Wall
The angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall normally has a value of ±15–20°. It may be
estimated as one-half of the angle of internal friction of backfilling material.
(6) Unit Weight of Soil.
The unit weight of soil normally has a value of 18 kN/m 3 as unsaturated soil such as a soil above the residual water
level, and 10 kN/m 3 as saturated soil below it.
(7) Calculation Formula for Resultant Force of Earth Pressure
The resultant force of earth pressure is calculated at each layer. The objective force for the i-th layer can be
calculated using equation (1.2.6).
(1.2.6)
Moreover, the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force of earth pressure can be calculated
using equations (1.2.7) and (1.2.8).
(1.2.7)
– 272 –
(1.2.8)
where
Pih: horizontal component of the resultant force of earth pressure
Piv: vertical component of the resultant force of earth pressure
Fig. 1.2.1 Schematic Diagram of Earth Pressure Acting on Retaining Wall
1.2.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil
(1) The earth pressure of cohesive soil acting on the backface wall of structure shall generally be calculated by
following equations:
① Active Earth Pressure
(1.2.9)
② Passive Earth Pressure
(1.2.10)
where
pa : active earth pressure acting on the bottom level of the i-th soil layer (kN/m 2)
pp : passive earth pressure acts on the bottom level of the i-th soil layer (kN/m 2)
γ i : unit weight of the i-th soil layer (kN/m3)
hi : thickness of the i-th soil layer (m)
ω : uniformly distributed surcharge on the ground surface (kN/m 2)
c : cohesion of soil (kN/m 2)
(2) The earth pressure of cohesive soil is very complex. The equations above are based on expedient calculation
methods and must be applied with care.
(3) Active earth pressure can be calculated using equation (1.2.9). If a negative earth pressure is obtained by
calculation, the pressure should be assumed to be zero down to the depth where positive earth pressure exerts.
(4) Equation (1.2.11) may be used for earth pressure at rest.
(1.2.11)
where
– 273 –
(5) Cohesion of Soil
Cohesion of soil should be determined using an appropriate method, refer to Chapter 3, 2.3.3 Shear Characteristics.
For example, equation (1.2.12) should be used when using results of unconfined compression tests.
(1.2.12)
where
qu : unconfined compressive strength (kN/m 2)
(6) Angle of Friction between Backfilling Material and Backface Wall
In case of cohesive soil, the cohesion between backfill and backface wall should be ignored.
(7) Unit Weight of Cohesive Soil
The unit weight of cohesive soil should be estimated by soil test. The wet unit weight γ t should be used for soils
above the residual water level, and the submerged unit weight γ ' be used for soils below the residual water level.
1.3 Earth Pressure during Earthquake

1.3.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil
The earth pressure of sandy soil acting on a backface wall of structure during an earthquake and the angle of failure
surface shall be calculated by following equations:
(1) Active Earth Pressure and the Angle of Failure Surface from the Horizontal Surface
(1.3.1)
(1.3.2)
where
(2) Passive Earth Pressure and the Angle of Failure Surface from the Horizontal Surface
(1.3.3)
(1.3.4)

where
The notations pai，ppi，Kai，Kpi，ζ i，ω，γi，hi，ψ，β，δ and φi, are the same as those defined in 1.2 Earth
Pressure at Permanent Situation, equation (1.2.1) to (1.2.4). Also, θ is defined as follows.
θ : composite seismic angle (º) shown as following (a) or (b):

(a) θ =tan–1k
(b) θ =tan–1k'
where
k and k' are as shown below;
k : seismic coefficient
k' : apparent seismic coefficient
– 274 –
(3) Apparent seismic coefficient shall be in accordance with 1.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient.
(4) Earth pressure during an earthquake is based on the theories proposed by Mononobe 1) and Okabe.2)
(5) Angle of Friction Between Backfilling Material and Backface Wall
Angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall normally has a value of ± 15and below. It may
be estimated as one-half of the angle of internal friction of backfilling material.
(6) Earth Pressure below Residual Water Level
Generally, the earth pressure distribution above the residual water level and below the residual water level should
be determined by using the seismic coefficient in air and the apparent seismic coefficient shown in 1.3.3 Apparent
Seismic Coefficient respectively. The composite seismic angle k is used for soils above the residual water level,
and k’ is used below it.
(7) Coefficient of Earth Pressure
The coefficient of earth pressure and angle of failure surface can be obtained from the diagrams in Fig. 1.3.1.
(8) The earth pressure theory assumes that the soil and the pore water behave integrally. Thus the equations mentioned
above cannot be applied to liquefied soil. It is necessary for liquefied soil to evaluate the seismic stability of the
ground and structures with dynamic effective stress analysis or model tests.
– 275 –
Fig. 1.3.1 Coefficient of Earth Pressure and Failure Angle
– 276 –
1.3.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil

The earth pressure of cohesive soil acting on a wall of the structure during an earthquake and the angle of the failure
surface against the horizontal surface shall generally be calculated as follows:
(1) Active Earth Pressure
Active earth pressure shall be calculated using an appropriate earth pressure formula which takes the seismic
coefficient into account so that the structural stability will be secured during an earthquake. Generally, the active
earth pressure can be calculated using equation (1.3.5) and the angle of failure surface using equation (1.3.6).
(1.3.5)
(1.3.6)
where
pa : characteristic value of the active earth pressure (kN/m 2)
γ i : unit weight of the soil (kN/m3)
hi : thickness of the soil layer (m)
ω : surcharge load per horizontal surface area (kN/m 2)
c : cohesion of the soil (kN/m 2)
θ : expressed as composite seismic angle θ = tan −1 k (°) or θ = tan −1 k ′ (°).
ζ a : angle of the failure surface (°)
(2) Passive Earth Pressure
Passive earth pressure shall be calculated using an appropriate earth pressure formula so that the structural
stability will be secured during an earthquake.
There are many unknown factors concerning the method for determining the passive earth pressure of cohesive
soil during an earthquake. Conventionally, however, equation (1.2.10) in 1.2.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil
for obtaining the earth pressure of cohesive soil is used in line with methods for earth pressure calculation at
Permanent situation. At present, equation (1.2.10) can be used as an expedient method.
(3) The apparent seismic coefficient should be used to calculate the earth pressure of cohesive soil down to the sea
bottom during an earthquake. The apparent seismic coefficient may be set as zero when calculating the earth
pressure at the depth of 10 m from the sea bottom or deeper. However, if the earth pressure at the depth of 10 m
below the sea bottom becomes less than the earth pressure at the sea bottom, the latter should be applied.
1.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient
(1) The earth pressure acting on the soil below the water level during an earthquake can be calculated according to the
procedures outlined in 1.3.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil and 1.3.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil, by using
the apparent seismic coefficient which is generally determined by the following equation:
(1.3.7)
where
k'
: apparent seismic coefficient
γ t
: unit weight of soil layer above the residual water level (kN/m3)
hi
: thickness of the i-th soil layer above the residual water level (m)
γ
: unit weight in the air of saturated soil layer (kN/m3)
hj
: thickness of the j-th soil layer above the layer for which earth pressure is being calculated below
the residual water level (m)
ω : surcharge load per unit area of the ground surface (kN/m 2)
h : thickness of soil layer for which earth pressure is being calculated below the residual water level (m)
– 277 –
(2) Presently, equation (1.3.7) 3) is generally used for calculating earth pressure during an earthquake, as it can be
applied to light-weight filling material and other new materials, and is believed to be the most rational method.
(3) On the assumption that soil grain and water move in an integrated manner with respect to soil under the water
level during an earthquake, the force of the ground motion acting on the soil would be the product of the soil's
saturated weight multiplied by the seismic coefficient. Moreover, since the soil under the water level is endowed
with buoyancy, the vertical force acting on the soil is the soil's under-water weight. Therefore, the resultant force
on the soil under the water level during an earthquake would be different from that in the air. When calculating
earth pressure during an earthquake, the equation for determining earth pressure during an earthquake for soil in
the air can also be used with soil under water by applying apparent seismic coefficient deduced from the composite
seismic angle.
The vertical force acting on soil under water includes the weight of the soil layers above the layer for which
earth pressure is being calculated as well as the surcharge load. Hence apparent seismic coefficient is affected by
these factors.
First stratum
hi First i stratum
Residual water level R.W.L.
First stratum
Second stratum
hj First j stratum
Stratum for which earth

h pressure will be calculated
Fig. 1.3.2 Symbols for Apparent Seismic Coefficients
References
1) Mononobe, N.: Seismic Civil Engineering, Riko-Tosho Publishing, 1952
2) Okabe, S.: General Theory on Earth Pressure and Seismic Stability of Retaining Wall and Dam, Journal of JSCE Vol. 10, No.
6, p.1277, 1924
3) Arai, H. and T. Yokoi : Study on the characteristics of earthquake-resistance of sheet pile wall (Third Report)Proceedings of
3rd conference of PHRI, Vol. 1l4 No 4, 1975
– 278 –
2 Water Pressure
2.1 Residual Water Pressure
(1) When mooring facilities etc. have watertight structures or when backfilling material and backfilling soil
(hereinafter referred to in this paragraph as "backfilling") have low permeability, there is a time delay in the water
level changes in the backfilling as opposed to the water level at the front and the difference of water level appears.
When carrying out performance verifications on mooring facilities etc., what needs to be checked is the conditions
that develop when the water level in the backfilling is higher than that at the front and when that difference is at
its greatest. Residual water pressure refers to the water pressure acting on the mooring facilities etc. under this
condition.
The magnitude of the residual water-level difference varies depending on the permeability of the walls and
surrounding materials making up the mooring facility etc. as well as the tidal range. The general values for
residual water-level difference by structural type are shown in sections relating to performance verification of the
respective facilities. Values other than these general values may be used when determining residual water-level
difference from surveys conducted on similar structures nearby or from permeability checks carried out on the
walls and surrounding ground.
(2) The residual water pressure caused by the time delay of water level changes between the sea level and the residual
water level can be calculated using the following equation:
① When y is less than hw
(2.1.1)
② When y is equal to or greater than hw
(2.1.2)
where
pw : residual water pressure (kN/m 2)
ρwg : unit weight of seawater (kN/m3)
y : depth of soil layer from the residual water level (m)
hw : water level difference between the water level in front and behind the facility (m)
Residual Water Level R.W.L

hw
Residual Water Press
ρwghw
Fig. 2.1.1 Schematic Diagram of the Residual Water Pressure
(3) The residual water level is determined in consideration of factors such as permeability of backfill soil, and tidal
range. Normally the height hw will be 1/3 - 2/3 of the tidal range.
(4) After a facility is completed, the permeability of its walls and surrounding materials may diminish with time.
Therefore, when the anterior tidal range is sizeable, it would be preferable to take that into consideration in
determining residual water-level difference.
– 279 –
2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure
(1) Items (2) through (8) below should be followed when using performance verification equations that make use of
characteristic values of dynamic water pressure whereas item (9) should be followed in performing verifications
that use techniques such as the finite element method for taking the effects of dynamic water pressure into
consideration.
(2) Normally, methods based on the dynamic water pressure on steady oscillation 1) are used for calculating the
characteristic values of the dynamic water pressure. However, in view of the phase relationship of other actions,
when a particular need arises, the dynamic water pressure on irregular oscillation should be calculated.
Also, if a liquid occupies spaces inside the facility, the dynamic pressure of the liquid must be taken into
consideration. If dynamic water pressure is acting on both sides of the facility, the sum of the resultant force of
the dynamic water pressure becomes two-fold. Dynamic water pressure needs not be considered in the following
cases:
① When performance verifications can be performed without taking dynamic water pressure directly into
consideration due to structural characteristics;
② When using verification methods that do not take dynamic water pressure directly into account. This would
require sufficient records of results.
More specifically, this would be in the following cases:

(a) Dynamic water pressure of pore water in the caisson filling
(b) Dynamic water pressure of pore water in backfilling materials and backfilling soil of mooring quaywalls etc.
(c) Dynamic water pressure for the bottom slab reinforcement design of caisson
(3) The dynamic water pressure during an earthquake for structures in water and facilities with interior spaces that
are partially or fully filled with water can be calculated using the following equation:
(2.2.1)
where
pdw : dynamic water pressure (kN/m 2)
kh : seismic coefficient
γw : unit weight of water (kN/m3)
H : height of structure below the still water level (m)
y : depth of the dynamic water pressure calculation level from the still water level (m)
The resultant force of dynamic water pressure and its acting height can be calculated by the following
equation:
(2.2.2)
Here, Pdw and hdw are the following values and kh, pw and H are equal to the values of kh, pw and H in item
(3) above respectively.
: resultant force of dynamic water pressure (kN/m)

hdw : depth of the acting point of the dynamic water pressure resultant force from the still water level
(m)
(4) The action of the dynamic water pressure both in the front and the back of the wall is directed towards the sea.
(5) In the case of structures using 1.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient (equation (1.3.7)), the dynamic water pressure
acting on the front side of the wall should be directed seawards, and dynamic water pressure on the rear side of the
wall needs not be considered.
(6) Where the wall is inclined, the dynamic water pressure acting on that surface is smaller than that acting on a vertical
wall. This is because, the direction of motion of the water particles are diverted diagonally upwards along the inclined
surface. Dynamic water pressure in this case can be calculated using the method proposed by Zanger 2) et al.
– 280 –
References
1) Westergaaard, H.M.: Water Pressures on Dams during Earthquakes, Journal of ASCE. Transactions, No,1835, pp.418-
472,1933
2) Zanger, C.N.: Hydrodynamic Pressure on Dams due to Horizontal Earthquake, Proc. Exper. Stress Analysis, Vol.lO,
No.2,1953
3) Iai, S., Matsunaga,Y. and Kameoka, T.: Strain space plasticity model for cyclic mobility, Soils and Foundation, Japanese
Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol.32, No.2, PP.1-15, 1992
4) Zienkiewicz, O.C.: Matrix Finite Element Method, Third Edition, Bai-fu Kan Publishing, 1984
– 281 –
Chapter 6 Ground Liquefaction
Public Notice
Ground Liquefaction
Article 17
The possibility and extent of ground liquefaction shall be assessed with appropriate methods based on the
ground conditions and by taking account of the actions from earthquake ground motions.
[Commentary]
(1) Effects of Liquefaction in the Case of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motions

As for the consideration of liquefaction in the case of level 2 earthquake ground motions, measures
against liquefaction are taken to protect the ground concerned when liquefaction is predicted and judged
to occur, taking account of the effects of liquefaction on structures and the surrounding situations of the
facilities concerned.
(2) Effects of Liquefaction in the Case of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions
As for the consideration of liquefaction in the case of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, the methods
of taking measures against liquefaction and the necessity of their implementation are determined based
on a comprehensive evaluation of the situations of the facilities concerned.
[Technical Note]
1 General
The subjects described in this Chapter may refer to Handbook of Liquefaction Measures for Reclaimed Land
(Revised Edition).1)
The following methods are for the study of ground liquefaction in the case of Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
As for the consideration of liquefaction in the case of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, the methods of taking
measures against ground liquefaction and the necessity of their implementation shall be determined based on a
comprehensive evaluation of the situations of the facilities concerned. Refer to Chapter 4 Earthquakes of this Part
II and the description on the performance verification of facilities in Part 3 for the evaluation.
2 Prediction and Judgment of Liquefaction
(1) The prediction and judgment of whether or not the ground is liquefied are generally performed by proper methods
using grain sizes and standard penetration test values or the results of cyclic triaxial tests.
(2) Methods of Prediction and Judgment of Liquefaction
Liquefaction prediction and judgment methods include the method using grain sizes and N values or that using the
results of cyclic triaxial tests. The method using grain sizes and N values is simple and easy and can be generally
used for predicting and judging liquefaction. The method using the results of cyclic triaxial tests is more detailed
and can be used when the prediction and judgment using grain sizes and N values have been found difficult and
more detailed approaches are needed.
(3) Prediction and Judgment of Liquefaction Using Grain size and N-values.2)
① Judgment based on grain size
The subsoils should be classified according to grain size, by referring to Fig.2.1, to which application depends
on the value of the uniformity coefficient. The threshold value of the uniformity coefficient (Uc = D60 /D10) is
3.5, where Uc is the uniformity coefficient, and D60 and D10 denote the grain sizes corresponding to 60% and
10% passing, respectively. Soil is judged not to liquefy when the grain size distribution curve is not included in
the range “possibility of liquefaction” in Fig. 2.1.
– 282 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 6 GROUND LIQUEFACTION
For soil with large uniformity coefficient (Uc　 3.5)

100
Percentage passing by mass (%) 75

Very large possibility
of liquefaction
50
Possibility of
liquefaction
25
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Grain size (mm)
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
0.005 0.075 2.0
Fig. 2.1(a) Range of Possible Liquefaction (Uc ≧ 3.5)
For soil with small uniformity coefficient (Uc 3.5)

100
Percentage passing by mass (%)
75
Very large possibility
of liquefaction
50
Possibility of
liquefaction
25
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Clay Silt Sand Gravel

0.005 0.075 2.0
Grain size (mm)
Fig. 2.1(b) Range of Possible Liquefaction (Uc < 3.5)
When the grain size distribution curve spans the “possibility of liquefaction” range, a suitable approach is
required to examine the possibility of liquefaction. For soil with a large portion of fine grain size distribution, a
cyclic triaxial test should be carried out. For soil with a large gravel portion, the soil is determined not to liquefy
when the coefficient of permeability is 3 cm/s or greater. When there are subsoils with poor permeability such
as clay or silt on top of the target subsoil in this case, however, it should be treated as soil that falls within the
range of “possibility of liquefaction”.
A permeability test for the soil with the permeability of larger than 3cm/s shall be a special method.3) A
method of indirect estimation of permeability is available when the permeability measurement is difficult.
However, care about the soil characteristics, such as content of fine particles shall be paid to apply the indirect
estimation method.
② Prediction and judgment of liquefaction using equivalent N-values and equivalent acceleration
For the subsoil with a grain size that falls within the range “possibility of liquefaction” shown in Fig. 2.1, further
investigations should be carried by the descriptions below.
– 283 –
(a) Equivalent N-value
The equivalent N-value should be calculated from equation (2.1).
(2.1)
where
(N)65 : equivalent N-value
N : N-value of the subsoil
σ v' : effective overburden pressure of the subsoil (kN/m 2)
(The effective overburden pressure used here should be calculated with respect to the ground
elevation at the time of the standard penetration test.)
Fig. 2.2 shows the relationship given by equation (2.1). When using equation (2.3) described below, the N
values themselves of the soil layer are assumed to be equivalent N values.
50
kN/m2 )
effective overburden pressure (　
100
(N
) 65
=3
(N) 6
150 0
5
(N) 6
=2
5
5=
(N) 65
200
20
(N)65
= 15
(N)65 = 2
(N)65 =
(N)65 =
250
= 10
7
5
300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
N-value
Fig. 2.2 Calculation Chart for Equivalent N-value, the Straight Lines show the Relationship between N-values and
Effective Overburden Pressures when Relative Densities are Constant
(b) Equivalent accelerations

Equivalent accelerations are calculated from equation (2.2). They are calculated for each soil layer using the
maximum shear stresses obtained from the results of the seismic response analyses of the ground.
(2.2)
where
αeq : equivalent acceleration (Gal)
τmax : maximum shear stress (kN/m 2)
σV ’ : effective overburden pressure (kN/m 2) (Note that the effective overburden pressures used for
calculating equivalent accelerations are obtained based on the ground heights at the time of
earthquakes.)
g : gravitational acceleration (980 Gal)
(c) Predictions and judgment using the equivalent N-value and equivalent acceleration
The subject soil layer should be classified according to the ranges labeled I – IV in Fig. 2.3, using the equivalent
N-value and the equivalent acceleration of the soil layer.
– 284 –
30
Ⅳ
(333,25)
25
Equivalent N-value
Ⅲ
20
(300,16)
15 (450,16)
Ⅱ
Ⅰ
10
(66,7) (100,7)
(150,7)
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Equivalent acceleration (Gal)
Fig. 2.3 Classification of Soil Layer with Equivalent N-Value and Equivalent Acceleration
③ Prediction, judgment and correction of N-values when the fraction of fines content is relatively large.
(a) When the fines content, grain size of 75 μm or less, is 5% or greater, the equivalent N-value should be
corrected before applying Fig. 2.3, then the subject soil should be evaluated to which range of I to IV in Fig.
2.3 it falls. Corrections of the equivalent N-value are divided into the following three cases.
(b) Case 1: when the plasticity index is less than 10 or cannot be determined, or when the fines content is less
than 15%;
The equivalent N-value, after correction, should be set as (N)65/cN. The correction factor cN is given in
Fig. 2.4. The equivalent N-value, after correction, and the equivalent acceleration are used to determine the
range in Fig. 2.4.
for equivalent N-value CN
1.0
Compensation factor
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Fines content FC (%)
Fig. 2.4 Correction Factor of Equivalent N-Value Corresponding to Fine Contents
(c) Case 2: when the plasticity index is greater than 10 but less than 20, and the fines content is 15% or higher;
The equivalent N-value, after correction, should be set as both (N)65/0.5 and N + ΔN, and the range should be
determined according to the following situations, where the value for ΔN is given by the following equation:

(2.3)
1) when N + ∆N falls within the range I, use range I.
2) when N + ∆N falls within the range II, use range II.
3) when N + ∆N falls within the range III or IV and (N)65/0.5 is within range I, II or III, use range III.
4) when N + ∆N falls within range III or IV and (N)65/0.5 is within range IV, use range IV.
(d) Case 3: when the plasticity index is 20 or greater, and the fines content is 15% or higher;
The equivalent N-value, after correction, should be set as N + ∆N. The range should be determined according
to the equivalent N-value, after correction, and the equivalent acceleration.
(e) Fig. 2.5 shows the relationship between fines content and plasticity index which is described above (b), (c) and
(d).
– 285 –
No corrections
Correction with CN in Fig. 2.4

Plasticity index Ip
20 Correction with ΔN in Equation (2.3)
Correction with CN in Fig. 2.4 and ∆N

by equation (2.3)
10
0 5 15
Fine contents FC (%)
Fig. 2.5 N-Value Correction Methods by Fine Contents and Plasticity Index
④ Prediction and judgment of liquefaction

Since liquefaction predictions must also consider the factors other than physical phenomena such as what degree
of safety should be maintained in the structures, it is not possible to unconditionally establish any criterion for
judgments regarding various prediction results. Table 2.1 shows the judgment that is considered as standard.
In this table the term “prediction of liquefaction” refers to the high or low possibility of liquefaction as a
physical phenomenon. In contrast, the term “judgment of liquefaction” refers to the consideration of the high or
low possibility of liquefaction and determination of whether or not the ground will liquefy.
Table 2.1 Prediction and Judgment of Liquefaction for Soil Layer According to Ranges I to IV
Range shown in
Prediction of liquefaction Judgment of liquefaction
Fig. 2.3
Possibility of liquefaction
I Liquefaction will occur
occurrence is very high
Either to judge that liquefaction will occur
Possibility of liquefaction
II or to conduct further evaluation based on
occurrence is high
cyclic triaxial tests.
Either to judge that liquefaction will not
occur or to conduct further evaluation based
on cyclic triaxial tests. For a very important
III Possibility of liquefaction is low
structure, either to judge that liquefaction
will occur or to conduct further evaluation
based upon cyclic triaxial tests.
Possibility of liquefaction is very
IV Liquefaction will not occur
low
(4) Prediction and Judgment Based on the Results of Cyclic Triaxial Tests
① When it may be difficult to predict and judge the possibility of subsoil liquefaction of the subject ground from
the results of grain size and N-values, the prediction and the judgment for subsoil liquefaction should be made
with the results of a seismic response analysis and cyclic triaxial tests conducted on undisturbed soil samples.
② The proper consideration of the stress state in the ground and the irregularity of the actions caused by ground
motions is important for the results of the seismic response analyses of the ground and those of cyclic triaxial
tests to show actual phenomena in the ground.
(5) Judgment of Overall Liquefaction
In the judgment of overall subsoil liquefaction for a site consisting of soil layers, the comprehensive decision
should be made based on a judgment for each layer of subsoil.
(6) Liquefaction Prediction and Judgment in the Case of Long-duration Ground Motions
The liquefaction prediction and judgment method using grain sizes and N-values is an empirical approach for the
cases of ground motions whose principal motions have duration of about 20 seconds. It should be noted that this
– 286 –
method is likely to give prediction and judgment results on the danger side in the cases where the ground motions
concerned have long duration.
(7) Liquefaction Prediction and Judgment in the Cases of Long-period Ground Motions
The liquefaction prediction and judgment method using grain sizes and N-values is an empirical approach for the
cases of ground motions whose principal motions have a period of about one second. It should be noted that this
method is likely to give prediction and judgment results on the danger side for cohesive soil in the cases where the
ground motions concerned have a long period.
References
1) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Handbook of liquefaction of reclaimed land (Revised Edition), 1997
2) Yamazaki, H., K. Zen and F. Koike Study of the Liquefaction Prediction Based on the Grain Distribution and the SPT
N-value, Technical Note of PHRI, No.914,1998
3) The Japan Geotechnical Society: Soil Testing Methods and Commentary, pp.271-288,2000
4) Japan Geotechnical Society: Geotechnical Engineering Handbook, pp.16-20,1999
– 287 –
Chapter 7 Ground Subsidence
Public Notice
Ground Subsidence
Article 15
Influence of ground subsidence shall be assessed with appropriated methods based on the ground conditions
in consideration of the structures of the facilities, imposed load, and the surrounding situations of the
facilities concerned.
[Technical Note]
1.1.1 Ground Subsidence
Ground subsidence includes immediate settlement, consolidation settlement, uneven settlement, lateral
displacement etc. The effects of ground subsidence shall be evaluated based on ground conditions using
proper methods and properly taking account of the structures of the facilities concerned, surcharges, and
the actions caused by ground motions. The evaluation of ground subsidence may refer to Chapter 3
Geotechnical Conditions of Part II and 2.5 Settlement of Foundation in Chapter 2 of Part III.
– 288 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 8 SHIPS
Chapter 8 Ships
Public Notice
Dimensions of Design Ships and Related Matters
Article 18
1 The dimensions of design ships (hereinafter refers to the ships used as the input data in the performance
verification of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards) shall be set according to the methods
provided in the subsequent items:
(1) In the case where design ships are identifiable, their dimensions shall be used.
(2) In the case where design ships are unidentifiable, the dimensions shall be properly set based on the
statistical analyses of the dimensions of ships in operation.
2 The actions from ship berthing, ship movements, and the traction by ships shall be set according to the
methods provided in the subsequent items corresponding to a single action or the combinations of two or
more actions to be considered in the performance criteria and the performance verification of the facilities
concerned:
(1) The actions from ship berthing shall be set with appropriate methods by taking account of the dimensions
of design ships, the structures of the facilities concerned, berthing methods, berthing velocities, and/or
others.
(2) The actions from ship movements shall be set with appropriate methods by taking account of the
dimensions of design ships, the structures of the facilities concerned, mooring methods, characteristics
of mooring system, and the winds, waves, water currents, and/or others acting on design ships.
(3) The actions from the traction by ships shall be set with appropriate methods by taking account of the
dimensions of design ships, mooring methods, and the winds, waves, water currents, and/or others
acting on design ships.
[Commentary]
(1) Principal Dimensions of Design Ships

Design ships are those, among the ships using the facilities concerned, which are assumed to have the
most significant effects on the performance verification of the facilities. It should be noted that design
ships vary depending on performance criteria to be applied even for the same facilities and that they
are not always the ships with the largest gross tonnage.
(2) Actions due to Ship Berthing and the Traction by Ships
① Actions caused by ship berthing
The actions caused by ship berthing to mooring facilities shall be properly considered. In setting the
actions caused by ship berthing, ship berthing energy can be calculated using proper methods based
on ship masses, ship berthing velocities, virtual mass factors, eccentricity factors, flexibility factors,
and the berth configuration factors.
② Actions caused by ship movements
The actions caused by ship motions to mooring facilities shall be properly determined. Methods to
be considered are oscillation calculation etc.
③ Actions due to the traction by ships
The traction caused by ships to mooring facilities shall be properly determined. The setting of the
traction by ships properly takes account of the actions caused by moored and berthed ships.
[Technical Note]
1 Principal Dimensions of Design Ships
(1) Design ships are those, among the ships expecting to use the facilities concerned, which are assumed to have
the most significant effects on the performance verification of the facilities. Therefore, in the case where design
ships are identifiable, their principal dimensions may be used.
– 289 –
(2) In the case where design ships are unidentifiable in advance such case as the public port facilities, the
standardized values of tonnages, lengths overall, lengths between perpendiculars, molded breadths, and full
load drafts by ship type shown in Table 1.1 may be used for the designs. The standard values in Table 1.1 are
prepared based on the statistical analysis of the dimensions of the existing ships with a coverage ratio of 75%
for each tonnage category. The data on the dimensions of small cargo vessels used for the standard values vary
widely, hence the dimensions of small cargo vessels should be set using the values in Table 1.2 as references
and taking into consideration the trends of ships in ports. The gross tonnage, GT, given in Table 1.1 basically
means international gross tonnage, but in some cases it refers to domestic gross tonnage depending on the
characteristics of the data used for setting the standard values. Such cases, where the gross tonnage, means the
domestic gross tonnage, are clearly indicated in Table 1.1. The table uses the commonly used tonnage, gross
tonnage or dead weight tonnage, of each ship type as the representative index. Fig. 1.1 shows the principal
dimensions used in the tables.
Length overall (Loa)
Full load water line

W..L Length between perpendiculars (Lpp)
Forward perpendicular
After perpendicular
Molded breadth (B)
W.L
Full load draft (d)
Molded depth
Fig. 1.1 Principal Dimensions of Ships
Table 1.1 Standard Values of the Principal Dimensions of Design Ships
1 General cargo ships
Dead Weight Length between

Tonnage Length overall perpendiculars Molded breadth Full load draft
DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
1,000 67 61 10.7 3.8
2,000 82 75 13.1 4.8
3,000 92 85 14.7 5.5
5,000 107 99 17 6.4
10,000 132 123 20.7 8.1
12,000 139 130 21.8 8.6
18,000 156 147 24.4 9.8
30,000 182 171 28.3 10.5
40,000 198 187 30.7 11.5
55,000 217 206 32.3 12.8
70,000 233 222 32.3 13.8
90,000 251 239 38.7 15
120,000 274 261 42 16.5
150,000 292 279 44.7 17.7
– 290 –
2 Container ships
Reference:
Dead Weight Container
Length overall Length between Molded breadth Full load draft
Tonnage perpendiculars carrying
capacity
DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m) (TEU)
10,000 139 129 22.0 7.9 500 – 890
20,000 177 165 27.1 9.9 1,300 – 1,600
30,000 203 191 30.6 11.2 2,000 – 2,400
40,000 241 226 32.3 12.1 2,800 – 3,200
50,000 274 258 32.3 12.7 3,500 – 3,900
60,000 294 279 35.9 13.4 4,300 – 4,700
100,000 350 335 42.8 14.7 7,300 – 7,700
3 Tankers

DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
1,000 63 57 11.0 4.0
2,000 77 72 13.2 4.9
3,000 86 82 14.7 5.5
5,000 100 97 16.7 6.4
10,000 139 131 20.6 7.6
15,000 154 146 23.4 8.6
20,000 166 157 25.6 9.3
30,000 184 175 29.1 10.4
50,000 209 199 34.3 12.0
70,000 228 217 38.1 12.9
90,000 243 232 41.3 14.2
100,000 250 238 42.7 14.8
150,000 277 265 48.6 17.2
300,000 334 321 59.4 22.4
4 Roll-On Roll-Off (RORO) ships
Length between
Gross Tonnage Length overall perpendiculars Molded breadth Full load draft
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
3,000 120 110 18.9 5.8
5,000 140 130 21.4 6.5
10,000 172 162 25.3 7.7
20,000 189 174 28.0 8.7
40,000 194 174 32.3 9.7
60,000 208 189 32.3 9.7
(3,000, 5,000, and 10,000 GT are in Japanese gross tonnage)
– 291 –
5 Pure Car Carrier (PCC) ships
Length between
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
3,000 112 103 18.2 5.5
5,000 130 119 20.6 6.2
12,000 135 123 21.8 6.8
20,000 158 150 24.4 7.9
30,000 179 175 26.7 8.8
40,000 185 175 31.9 9.3
60,000 203 194 32.3 10.4
(3,000 and 5,000 GT are in Japaese gross tonnage)
6 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) carriers
Length between
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
3,000 98 92 16.1 6.3
5,000 116 109 18.6 7.3
10,000 144 136 22.7 8.9
20,000 179 170 27.7 10.8
30,000 204 193 31.1 12.1
40,000 223 212 33.8 13.1
50,000 240 228 36.0 14.0
7 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carriers
Length between
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
20,000 174 164 27.8 8.4
30,000 199 188 31.4 9.2
50,000 235 223 36.7 10.4
80,000 274 260 42.4 11.5
100,000 294 281 45.4 12.1
8 Passenger ships
Length between
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
3,000 97 88 16.5 4.3
5,000 115 104 18.6 5.0
10,000 146 131 21.8 6.4
20,000 186 165 25.7 7.8
30,000 214 189 28.2 7.8
50,000 255 224 32.3 7.8
70,000 286 250 32.3 8.1
100,000 324 281 32.3 8.1
– 292 –
9 Ferries
9-1 Short-to-medium distance ferries (navigation distance of less than 300 km in Japan)
Length between
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
400 56 47 11.6 2.8
700 70 60 13.2 3.2
1,000 80 71 14.4 3.5
3,000 124 116 18.6 4.6
7,000 141 130 22.7 5.7
10,000 166 155 24.6 6.2
13,000 194 179 26.2 6.7
(All are in domestic gross tonnage)
9-2 Long distance ferries (navigation distance of 300 km or more in Japan)
Length between
GT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
6,000 147 135 22 6.3
10,000 172 159 25.1 6.3
15,000 197 183 28.2 6.9
20,000 197 183 28.2 6.9
(All are in domestic gross tonnage)
Table 1.2 Reference Values of the Principal Dimensions of Design Ships

10 Small cargo vessels

DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
500 53 47 9.4 3.3
700 58 53 9.5 3.3
(3) The table for the standard values of the principal dimensions of design ships shows the principal dimensions of
ships for stepwise tonnage categories. These dimensions are obtained from statistical analyses by Takahashi et
al.1), 2) with overall coverage ratio of 75%. Some ships therefore have larger dimensions than those of the same
tonnage category ships given in the table, and some other ships with the tonnage category larger than that set for
design ships have dimensions smaller than those given in the table.
(4) The data of “LMIU Shipping Data (2004.1)” 3) and “Japanese Register of Ships (2004)” 4) are used for determining
the principal dimensions of design ships.
(5) Tonnage 5)
The definitions of the various types of tonnage are as follows:
① Gross Tonnage
The measurement tonnage of sealed compartments of a ship, as stipulated in the “Law Concerning the
Measurement of the Tonnage of Ships”.
② Dead Weight Tonnage
The maximum weight, expressed in tons, of cargo that can be loaded onto a ship.
③ Displacement Tonnage
The amount of water, expressed in tons, displaced by a ship when it is floating at rest.
(6) The regression equations for gross tonnages, GT, and displacement tonnages, DSP, are shown in Tables 1.3 and
1.4, 1), 2), 6) respectively. They are applicable on the condition that the coefficients of determination R2 and the
standard deviations σ around the regression equations are taken into consideration. The regression equations
– 293 –
for each ship type in the tables are applicable within the range of the tonnages shown in Table 1.1.
(7) The container ships of under-panamax, panamax, and over-panamax types have characteristic dimensions
peculiar to each type, and hence the setting of their dimensions may refer to Tables 1.5 to 1.9. The setting of
the dimensions of very large crude oil carrier may refer to Table 1.10.
(8) The heights of the ships differ considerably even in case of the same type and the same tonnage. The performance
verification of bridges and other structures crossing waterways should therefore take account of the heights of
design ships from the sea surface to the highest points. The heights of ships can refer to the findings of the study
by Takahashi et al.7), 8).
Table 1.3 Regression Equations for Dead Weight Tonnages (DWT) and Gross Tonnages (GT) 1), 2)
Regression Coefficient of Standard

Ship type
equation determination R2 deviation σ(t)
General cargo ship GT = 0.529DWT 0.988 2,202
Container ship GT = 0.882DWT 0.971 3,735
Tanker GT = 0.535DWT 0.992 4,276
International
GT = 1.780DWT 0.752 7,262
Gross tonnage
RORO ship
Domestic Gross
GT = 1.409DWT 0.825 1,528
tonnage
International
GT = 2.721DWT 0.826 7,655
Pure car carrier Gross tonnage
(PCC) Domestic Gross
GT = 1.241DWT 0.781 676
tonnage
LPG carrier GT = 0.845DWT 0.988 1,513
LNG carrier GT = 1.370DWT 0.819 12,439
Passenger ship GT = 8.939DWT 0.862 12,285
Medium distance ferry GT = 2.146DWT 0.833 1,251
Long distance ferry GT = 2.352DWT 0.816 1,988
Table 1.4 Regression Equations for Dead Weight Tonnages (DWT) or Gross Tonnages (GT) and Displacement
Tonnages (DSP) 6)
Ship type Regression equation Standard deviation σ

General cargo ship DSP = 1.139DWT 0.052DWT
Container ship DSP = 1.344DWT 0.060DWT
Tanker DSP = 1.138DWT 0.145DWT
RORO ship (International Gross Tonnage)* DSP = 0.880GT 0.211 GT
Pure car carrier (PCC) (International Gross Tonnage)* DSP = 0.652GT 0.147 GT
LPG carrier DSP = 1.114GT 0.425 GT
LNG carrier DSP = 1.015GT 0.154 GT
Passenger ship DSP = 0.522GT 0.076 GT
Medium distance ferry DSP = 1.052GT 0.337 GT
Long distance ferry DSP = 1.150GT 0.135 GT
* Only international gross tonnage values are shown.
– 294 –
Table 1.5 Principal Dimensions of Container Ships (under panamax) 1), 2)
Reference:
Dead Weight Length between Container
Length overall perpendiculars Molded breadth Full load draft carrying
Tonnage
Lpp B capacity
DWT Loa (m) (m) d
(t) (m) (m) (TEU)
5,000 109 101 17.9 6.3 300 – 500
10,000 139 129 22.0 7.9 630 – 850
20,000 177 165 27.0 10.0 1,300 – 1,500
30,000 203 191 30.4 11.4 2,000 – 2,200
40,000 225 211 30.6 12.5 2,600 – 2,900
Table 1.6 Principal Dimensions of Container Ships (panamax) 1), 2)
Reference:
Tonnage Length overall perpendiculars Molded breadth Full load draft carrying
capacity
DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m) (TEU)
30,000 201 187 32.3 11.3 2,100 – 2,400
40,000 237 223 32.3 12.0 2,800 – 3,200
50,000 270 255 32.3 12.7 3,400 – 3,900
60,000 300 285 32.3 13.4 4,000 – 4,600
Table 1.7 Principal Dimensions of Container Ships (over panamax) 1), 2)
Reference:
Length Container
Dead Weight Molded
Length overall between Full load draft carrying
Tonnage breadth
perpendiculars capacity
DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m) (TEU)
60,000 275 / 285 260 / 268 37.2 / 40.0 12.7 / 13.8 4,300 – 5,400
70,000 276 / 280 263 / 266 40.0 / 40.0 14.0 / 14.0 5,300 – 5,600
80,000–100,000 300 / 304 285 / 292 40.0 / 42.8 13.5 / 14.5 6,300 – 6,700
* This table does not show the results of statistical analyses, but shows the 1/4th and 3/4th values in ascending order.
Table 1.8 Principal Dimensions of Container Ships Over 100,000 DWT
Reference:
Length overall perpendiculars Molded breadth Full load draft carrying
Tonnage
capacity
DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m) (TEU)
100,870 324.0 324.0 42.0 13.0 8,000
101,570 334.1 319.0 42.8 14.5 8,204
101,612 334.0 319.0 42.8 14.5 8,100
104,696 346.0 331.5 42.8 14.5 6,600
104,700 346.0 331.5 42.8 14.5 6,600
104,750 346.0 331.5 42.8 14.5 7,226
107,500 332.0 － 43.2 14.5 8,400
109,000 352.0 336.4 42.8 14.5 10,150
110,000 336.7 321 42.8 15.0 9,200
115,700 366.9 351.1 42.8 15.0 7,929
156,907 397.6 376.0 56.0 16.5 11,000
* This table is prepared based on “LMIU Shipping Data (2006.8).” As of August 2006, 100 container ships have a
tonnage of over 100,000 DWT. In this table, each DWT category represents a case where there are three or more
ships with the same DWT category, and shows the principal dimensions of the ship with the largest container carrying
capacity among them except one ship of 156,907 DWT.
– 295 –
Table 1.9 Principal Dimensions of the Container Ships with a Container Carrying Capacity of Over 8,000 TEU
Container Reference:
carrying Length overall Length between Molded breadth Full load draft Self weight
capacity perpendiculars Tonnage
Loa Lpp B d DWT
(TEU) (m) (m) (m) (m) (t)
8,000 324.0 324.0 42.0 13.0 100,870
8,030 324.8 – 42.0 14.5 104,904
8,063 323.0 308.0 42.8 14.5 99,615
8,100 335.5 – 42.8 14.6 103,800
8,152 335.0 – 42.8 13.5 97,612
8,154 275.0 263.0 37.1 12.5 68,363
8,189 334.0 – – 14.5 101,906
8,200 334.1 314.7 – 14.5 101,818
8,204 334.0 319.0 – 14.5 110,000
8,238 335.0 319.0 42.8 11.5 97,430
8,400 332.4 317.2 – 14.5 108,180
9,200 350.6 336.8 42.8 14.5 112,062
9,415 349.0 353.3 42.8 14.5 117,800
9,600 337.0 – – – 115,000
10,150 352.0 336.4 42.8 14.5 109,000
11,000 397.6 376.0 56.0 16.5 156,907
* This table is prepared based on “LMIU Shipping Data (2006.8).” As of August 2006, 90 container ships have a capacity
of over 8,000 TEU. In this table, each TEU category represents a case where three or more ships with the same TEU
capacity exist. The principal dimensions of the ship with the largest DWT among them are indicated in the table except
the largest ship of 11,000 TEU ship.
Table 1.10 Principal Dimensions of Tankers Over 400,000 DWT

DWT Loa Lpp B d
(t) (m) (m) (m) (m)
423,000 380 366 68.0 24.5
441,893 380 366 68.0 24.5
441,823 380 – 68.0 24.5
442,470 380 – 68.0 24.5
* This table shows the data of a particular ship.
References
1) Takahashi, H., Goto, F. and Abe, M.: Study on ship dimensions by statistical analysis- standard of main dimensions of design
(Draft)- National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.28, 2006
2) Lloyd’s Marine Intelligence Unite: LMIU Shipping Data (2004.1), 2004
3) Japan Shipping Exchange, Inc.: The Annual “Register of Ships” (SENPAKU MEISAISHO)2004, 2004
4) Japan Institute of Navigation: Glossary of basic navigation terms, Kaibun-do Publishing, 1993
5) Takahashi, H., A. Goto, M. Abe: Study on Standards for Main Dimensions of the Design Ship, Technical Note of National
Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No,309,2006
6) Yoneyama, H., Takahashi, H. and Goto, A.: Proposition of Partial Factors on Reliability-Based Design Method for Fenders,
Technical Note of PARI No.1115, 2006
7) Takahashi, H. and F. Goto: Study of ship Height by statistical analysis standard of ship height of design ship (draft)- Research
Report of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.31, 2006
8) Takahashi, H., A. Goto: Study on Ship Height by Statistical Analysis, Report of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure
Management No.33, 2007
– 296 –
2 Actions Caused by Ships

2.1 General
2.1.1 Ship Berthing
(1) The actions caused by berthing ships to mooring facilities shall be determined using appropriate methods, taking
account of the dimensions of design ships, berthing methods, berthing velocities, the structures of mooring
facilities, etc.
(2) The actions caused by berthing ships to mooring facilities shall include those by ship berthing. The performance
verification of mooring facilities, in general, shall take account of the berthing forces by ships.
(3) The berthing forces caused by ships to mooring facilities can generally be calculated based on the berthing energy
of ships using the displacement-restoring force characteristics of fender systems.
(4) In the normal performance verification of fender systems, in general, the berthing forces of ships are dominant
actions. The types of design ships, berthing velocities, berthing methods etc. have significant effects on berthing
forces, and hence it is preferable for the performance verification to thoroughly study the conditions of design
ships.
(5) In general, the actions caused by ships rarely dominate in the performance verification of mooring facilities. In
verifying the performance of offshore berths for mooring large tankers and large ore carriers, piled piers designed
with small seismic actions and mooring facilities for ship refuge, however, the actions caused by ships sometimes
dominate in designing the structure. Careful attention should be paid in these cases.
2.1.2 Ship Motions
(1) The actions caused by moored ships to mooring facilities shall be determined using appropriate methods, taking
account of the dimensions of design ships, the structures of mooring facilities, mooring methods, the characteristics
of mooring equipment, and the winds, waves and water current etc. acting on design ships.
(2) The actions caused by moored ships to mooring facilities shall include those by ship motions. The performance
verification of mooring facilities, in general, shall take account of the impact forces and tractive forces on the
mooring facilities caused by the motions of moored ships. The motions are generated by the action of the wave
forces, wind pressure forces, and water current pressure forces on the ships. In the cases of the mooring facilities
constructed at the port facing the open sea and expecting the invasion of long period waves, or constructed in
the open sea or port entrance such as the offshore berths or constructed for ship refuge, the wave forces have a
significant effects on moored ships. These effects shall be fully taken into consideration.
(3) The impact forces and tractive forces caused by the motions of moored ships can usually be obtained by motion
simulation based on wave forces, wind pressure forces, water current pressure forces, and the characteristics of
mooring equipment.
(4) The normal performance verification of fender systems shall take account of not only dominating berthing forces
of ships but also the impact forces caused by the motions of moored ships. In the performance verification
of mooring posts, the tractive forces due to the motions of moored ships caused by the wind pressure forces
are important. The impact forces caused by the motions of moored ships are strongly affected by the types of
design ships, wave characteristics, the displacement-restoring force characteristics of fender systems etc., and
wind pressure forces are strongly affected by the types of design ships, hence it is preferable for the performance
verification to thoroughly study the conditions of design ships, wave characteristics, the structures of quaywalls,
the characteristics of mooring equipment etc.
2.2 Actions Caused by Ship Berthing
(1) Berthing Energy of Ship

① The actions caused by ship berthing are generally calculated from the berthing energy of ships. The berthing
energy of a ship can be calculated from the following equation by using the mass of the ship, the berthing velocity
of the ship, the eccentricity factor, the virtual mass factor, the flexibility factor, and the berth configuration
factor. The subscript k in the equation refers to the characteristics value.
(2.2.1)
– 297 –
where
Ef : berthing energy of ship (kNm)
M s : mass of ship (t)
V b : berthing velocity of ship (m/s)
C m : virtual mass factor
Ce : eccentricity factor
C s : flexibility factor
Cc : berth configuration factor
② There are methods of estimating the berthing energy of ships such as statistical methods, methods using
hydraulic model tests, and methods using fluid dynamics models in addition to kinetic energy of method.1)
However, regarding these alternative methods, the data necessary for design are insufficient and the values
of the various factors used in the calculations may not appropriately properly given. Thus, the kinetic energy
method is generally used.
③ If it is assumed that a berthing ship moves only in the abeam direction, then the kinetic energy Es (kNm)
becomes equal to M sVb2 2 . However, when a ship is berthing at a dolphin, a quaywall or a berthing beam
equipped with fender systems, the energy absorbed by the fender systems, i.e., the berthing energy Ef of the ship,
will become Esf considering the various relevant factors, where f = Cm Ce Cs Cc
(2) Mass of Ship
The mass of ship in the calculation equation of the berthing energy of ships means the full load displacement of
the ship. Equation (2.2.2) may also be used to show the relations between the characteristic values of the full
load displacements (DT) and dead weight tonnages (DWT) or gross tonnages (GT) of ships. They were calculated
as the regression equations covering 75% of the total statistical data of full load displacements (DT) with respect
to dead weight tonnages (DWT) or gross tonnages (GT), using the regression equations and standard deviations
shown in Table 1.4 Regression Equations for Dead Weight Tonnages (DWT) or Gross Tonnages (GT) and
Displacement Tonnages (DSP) in 1. Principal Dimensions of Design Ships. These relations are applicable
within the range of tonnage shown in Table 1.1. The subscript k in the equations refers to the characteristic values.
General cargo ships DT k =1.174DWT

Container ships DTk =1.385DWT
Tankers DTk =1.235DWT
Roll-on roll-off (RORO) ships DTk =1.022GT
Pure car carriers (PCC) DTk =0.751GT
LPG carriers DTk =1.400GT
LNG carriers DTk =1.118GT
Passenger ships DTk =0.573GT
Short-to-medium distance ferries (navigation distance of less than 300 km) DTk =1.279GT
Long distance ferries (navigation distance of 300 km or more) DTk =1.240GT
(2.2.2)
where
DT : full load displacement of ship (t)
GT : gross tonnage of ship (GT)
DWT : dead weight tonnage of ship (DWT)
(3) Berthing Velocity
① It is preferable to determine the characteristic values of the berthing velocities of ships based on actual
measurements or references on the previous measurements of berthing velocities, taking account of the types of
design ships, loaded conditions, the locations and structures of mooring facilities, meteorological phenomena
and oceanographic phenomena, the usage of tugboat assistance and their sizes etc.
② When large general cargo ships or large oil tankers berth, they come to a standstill temporarily, lined up parallel
to the quaywall at a certain distance away from it. They are then gently pushed by several tugboats until they
come into contact with the quaywall. When there is a strong wind toward the quaywall, such ships may berth
being pulled outwards against wind by the tugboats. When such a berthing method is adopted, it is common to
use the berthing velocity of 10 to 15 cm/s based on the past design examples.
③ Special ships such as ferries and roll-on roll-off ships and small cargo ships often use berthing methods different
from large ships, as such that they berth by themselves without using tugboats or they shift parallel to the face
lines of quaywalls if they are equipped with bow or stern lamps. The berthing velocities hence shall be carefully
determined based on actual measurements taking account of their berthing methods.
– 298 –
④ Fig. 2.2.1 shows the relationship between the ship maneuvering conditions and berthing velocity by ship size.
2) It has been prepared based on the empirical data collected. This figure shows that the berthing velocity must
be set high in such case that the mooring facilities are not sheltered by breakwaters and are being used by small
ships.
Difficult berthing
00D T
exposed
mooring facilities being sheltered or not
T,100,0
0DT
Good berthing
T
exposed
00D
20,00
30,000D
DT
Difficulty of ship maneuvering /
80,000DT
10,0
00
5,0
Easy berthing
DT
exposed
00
1,0
Difficult berthing
sheltered
Good berthing
sheltered
0 20 40 60 80
Berthing velocity (cm/s)
Fig. 2.2.1 Relationship between Ship Maneuvering Conditions and Berthing Velocity by Ship Size 2)
⑤ According to the study reports 3), 4) on berthing velocity, the berthing velocity is usually less than 10 cm/s
for general cargo ships, but only in a few cases are over 10 cm/s (see Fig. 2.2.2). The berthing velocity only
occasionally exceeds 10 cm/s for large oil tankers that use offshore berths (see Fig. 2.2.3). Even for ferries
which berth under their own power, the berthing velocity in many cases is less than 10 cm/s. Nevertheless, since
there are a few cases in which the berthing velocity is over 15 cm/s, due care must be taken when verifying the
performance of ferry quays (see Fig. 2.2.4). Based on the above-mentioned study reports, the cargo loading
condition has a considerable influence on the berthing velocity. In other words, when a ship is fully loaded,
which results in small under-keel clearance, the berthing velocity tends to be lower, whereas when it is lightly
loaded, which results in a large under-keel clearance, the berthing velocity tends to be higher.
15
○…Open type quay
×…Wall type quay (sheet pile, gravity types)
10
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

Displacement tonnage DT (tons)
Fig. 2.2.2 Berthing Velocity and Displacement Tonnage for General Cargo Ships 3)
– 299 –
15

10
0
10 15 20 25 30
Displacement tonnage DT (10,000 tons)
Fig. 2.2.3 Berthing Velocity and Displacement Tonnage for Large Oil Tankers 4)
20
:Stern berthing
:Bow berthing
15
10
0 2,000 5,000 8,000

Displacement tonnage DT (tons)
Fig. 2.2.4 Berthing Velocity and Displacement Tonnage for Longitudinal Berthing of Ferries 3)
According to the survey by Moriya et al.5), the average berthing velocities for general cargo ships, container
ships, and pure car carriers are as listed in Table 2.2.1. The relationship between the dead weight tonnage and
berthing velocity is shown in Fig. 2.2.5. This survey also shows that the larger the ship, the lower the berthing
velocity tends to be. The highest berthing velocities observed were about 15 cm/s for ships under 10,000 DWT
and about 10 cm/s for ships of 10,000 DWT or over.
Table 2.2.1 Dead Weight Tonnage and Average Berthing Velocity 5)
Dead Weight Berthing velocity (cm/s)

Tonnage General cargo
(DWT) Container ships Pure car carriers All ships
ships
1,000class 8.1 – – 8.1
5,000class 6.7 7.8 – 7.2
10,000class 5.0 7.2 4.6 5.3
15,000class 4.5 4.9 4.7 4.6
30,000class 3.9 4.1 4.4 4.1
50,000class 3.5 3.4 – 3.4
All ships 5.2 5.0 4.6 5.0
– 300 –
R=－0.38 General cargo ships

A=－0.0009 Container ships
20 B= 66.1 Pure car carriers
Y=AX+B
15
V (cm/s)
10
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT )
Fig. 2.2.5 Relationship between Dead Weight Tonnage and Berthing Velocity 5)
⑥ Fig. 2.2.6 shows a berthing velocity frequency distribution obtained from actual measurement records of
berthing velocities at offshore berths used by large oil tankers of around 200,000 DWT. It shows that the highest
measured berthing velocity was 13 cm/s. If the data are assumed to follow a Weibull distribution, then the
non-exceedence probability of the berthing velocity below the value of 13 cm/s would be 99.6%. The mean μ is
4.4cm/s and the standard deviation σ is 2.08 cm/s. Application of the Weibull distribution yields the probability
density function f(V b) as expressed in equation (2.2.3):
(2.2.3)
From this equation, the berthing velocity corresponding to the expected probability of 1/1000 becomes 14.5
cm/s. At the offshore berths where the berthing velocities were actually measured, a design berthing velocity
was set at either 15 cm/s or 20 cm/s.6)
N=738
%
Poisson distribution m = 3
30
Poisson distribution m = 4
Weibull distribution N
200
Normal distribution
185
μ=4.41
σ=2.08
20 148 150
123
100
91 89
10
53
50
40
20
17 11 7
1 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
V (cm/s)
Fig. 2.2.6 Frequency Distribution of Berthing Velocity 6)
⑦ Small general cargo ships approach to berths by controlling their positions under their own power without
assistance of tugboats. Consequently, the berthing velocity is generally higher than that of larger ships, and
in some cases it may even exceed 30 cm/s. Hence, it is necessary to pay attention to this. For small ships in
particular, it is necessary to carefully determine the berthing velocity based on actually measured data.
– 301 –
⑧ In cases where cautious berthing methods such as those described above are not taken, or in the case of berthing
of small or medium-sized ships under influence of currents, it is necessary to determine the berthing velocity
based on actually measured data considering the ship drift velocity by currents.
⑨ Some studies proposed the regression equations for the berthing velocities of ships with respect to daed weight
tonnages.7), 8) Since the ranges of ship types and tonnages to which the regression equations of berthing velocities
are applicable are limited, the results of the above studies should be carefully used.
(4) Virtual Mass Factors
① Virtual mass factors can be calculated from the following equations:
(2.2.4)
(2.2.5)
where
Cb : block coefficient
: displacement volume of ship (m3)
Lpp : length between perpendiculars (m)
B : molded breadth (m)
d : f ull load draft (m)
The calculation requires the use of the lengths between perpendiculars Lpp, molded breadths B, and full load
drafts d of design ships. The cases where design ships are of a standard ship type may use the values shown in
Table 1.1 Standard Values of the Principal Dimensions of Design Ships included in Commentary.
② When a ship berths, the ship with mass of Ms and the water mass of Mw surrounding the ship simultaneously
decelerate. Accordingly, the inertial force corresponding to the water mass is added to that of the ship itself.
The virtual mass factor is thus defined as in equation (2.2.6).
(2.2.6)
where
Cm : virtual mass factor
Ms : mass of ship (t)
Mw : mass of the water surrounding the ship, added mass (t)
Ueda 9) proposed equation (2.2.4) based on the results of model tests and field measurements. The second
term in equation (2.2.4) corresponds to Mw / Ms in equation (2.2.6).
(5) Eccentricity Factor
① Eccentricity factors can be calculated from the following equation:
(2.2.7)
where
l : distance from the ship’s contact point to the center of gravity of the ship measured parallel to
the face line of the mooring facility (m)
r : radius of rotation around the vertical axis passing through the center of gravity of the ship (m)
② During the berthing process, a ship is not aligned perfectly along the face line of the berth. This means that
when the ship comes into contact with the fender systems, it starts yawing and rolling. This results in the loss
of a part of the ship’s kinetic energy. The amount of energy loss by rolling is negligibly small compared with
that by yawing. Equation (2.2.7) thus only considers the amount of energy loss by yawing.
③ r/ Lpp is a function of the block coefficient Cb of the ship and can be obtained from Fig. 2.2.7.10) Alternatively,
one may use the linear approximation shown in equation (2.2.8).
(2.2.8)
– 302 –
where
r : radius of rotation (radius of gyration); this is related to the moment of inertia Iz around the
vertical axis of the ship by the relationship Iz =Msr 2
Cb : block coefficient
The calculation requires the use of the lengths between perpendiculars Lpp of design ships. The cases where
design ships are of a standard ship type may use the values shown in Table 1.1 Standard Values of the
Principal Dimensions of Design Ships included in Commentary.
Radius of gyration in the longitudinal direction ( r )

0.30
Length between perpendiculars (Lpp) 0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Block coefficient Cb
Fig. 2.2.7 Relationship between the Radius of Gyration around the Vertical Axis and the Block Coefficient 9)
④ As shown in Fig. 2.2.8, when a ship comes into contact with the fenders F1 and F2 being the ship closest to
the quaywall at point P, the distance l from the point of contact to the center of gravity of the ship as measured
parallel to the mooring facilities is given by equation (2.2.9) or (2.2.10) 11); l is taken to be L1 when k >0.5 and
L2 when k < 0.5. When k = 0.5, l is taken as whichever of L1 or L2 that gives the higher value of Ce in equation
(2.2.7).
Lpp
α Lpp
A
B l keLppcosθ
θ center of gravity
P F1
Q F2
A
B
eLppcosθ
Fig. 2.2.8 Schematic Illustration of Ship Berthing 11)
(2.2.9)
(2.2.10)
where
L1 ： distance from the point of contact to the center of gravity of the ship as measured parallel to
the mooring facilities when the ship contacts with fender F1 (m)
L2 ： distance from the point of contact to the center of gravity of the ship as measured parallel to
the mooring facilities when the ship contacts with fender F2 (m)
θ• ： berthing angle (the value of θ is given as a design condition; it is usually set somewhere in the
range of 0 to 10º)
– 303 –
e ： ratio of the distance between the fenders, as measured in the longitudinal direction of the ship,
to the length between perpendiculars
α ： ratio of the length of the parallel side of the ship at the height of the point of contact with the
fender to the length between perpendiculars; this varies according to factors like the type of
ship, and the block coefficient etc., but is generally in the range of 1/3 to 1/2.
k ： parameter that represents the relative location of the point where the ship comes closest to the
mooring facilities between the fenders F1 and F2 ; k varies 0<k<1, but it is generally taken at
k = 0.5.
(6) Flexibility Factor
The flexibility factor Cs is the ratio of the berthing energy absorbed by the deformation of ship hull to the berthing
energy of the ship. The characteristic value of the flexibility factor Csk may normally be set as Csk = 1.0, assuming
that there is no energy absorption by the deformation of ship hull.
(7) Berth Configuration Factor
The water mass compressed between berthing ship and mooring facility behave like a cushion and decrease
the energy to be absorbed by fender systems. The berth configuration factor Cc needs to be determined taking
account of this effect. This phenomenon is considered to relate to berthing angles, the shapes of ship hull, under-
keel clearances, and berthing velocities, but only limited quantitative studies on the phenomenon have been made.
The characteristic value of berth configuration factor Cck may normally be set as Cck = 1.0.
2.3 Actions Caused by Ship Motions
(1) Motions of Moored Ships

① Actions caused by the motions of moored ships are generally calculated by motion calculation, by appropriately
setting wave forces, wind pressure forces, and water current pressure forces.
② The ships moored to the mooring facilities constructed in the open sea or close to port entrances or in ports
where long period waves invade and those moored in rough weather are possible to move by the actions of waves,
winds, and water currents. The kinetic energy generated by the motions of moored ships sometimes exceeds
the berthing energy. In such cases, it is preferable for the performance verification of mooring posts and fender
systems to take account of the tractive forces and impact forces generated by the motions of moored ships.12)
In the ports facing the open sea in particular, it has been frequently reported that the long period oscillations of
moored ships caused by the long period waves resulted in a difficulty with smooth cargo handling.13), 14) Care
should be taken in such ports.
③ As a general rule, the oscillations of a moored ship should be analyzed through numerical simulation in
consideration of the random variations of the actions and the nonlinearity of the displacement-restoring force
characteristics of the mooring system. However, when such a numerical simulation of ship motions is not
possible, or when the ship is moored at a system that is considered to be more-or-less symmetrical, one may
obtain the displacement of and loads on the mooring system either by using frequency response analysis for
regular waves or by referring to the results of motion calculation on a floating body moored at a system that has
displacement-restoring force characteristics of bilinear nature.15)
④ The wave force acting on a ship consists of the wave-exciting force due to incident waves and the wave-making
resistance force accompanied by the motions of the ship.16) The wave-exciting force due to incident waves is the
wave force calculated for the case that the motions of the ship are restrained. The wave-making resistance force is
the wave force exerted on the ship when the ship undergoes a motion of unit amplitude for each mode of motions.
The wave-making resistance force can be expressed as the summation of two factors, one is proportional to the
acceleration of the ship and the other is proportional to the velocity. The former can be expressed as an added
mass when it is divided by the acceleration, while the latter can be expressed as a damping coefficient when it is
divided by the velocity.17) In addition, the nonlinear fluid dynamic force that is proportional to the square of the
wave height acts on the ship, see 4.9 Actions on Floating Body and its Motions in Chapter 2.
⑤ For ships that have a block coefficient of 0.7 to 0.8 such as large oil tankers, the ship can be replaced with an
elliptical cylinder for an approximate evaluation of the wave force.18)
⑥ For box-shaped ships such as working crafts, the wave force can be obtained by assuming the ship to be either
a floating body with a rectangular cross section or a rectangular prism.
(2) Wave Forces Acting on Ship
① The wave force acting on a moored ship shall be calculated using an appropriate method, considering the type
of ship and the wave parameters.
– 304 –
② The wave force acting on a moored ship is calculated using appropriate analysis methods such as the strip
method, the source distribution method, the boundary element method, or the finite element method; the most
common method used for ships is the strip method.
③ Wave Forces by the Strip Method 15), 16), 17), 19)
(a) Wave force of regular waves acting on the ship
The wave force acting on the ship is given by the summation of the Froude-Kriloff force and the diffraction
force.
(b) Froude-Kriloff force
The Froude-Kriloff force is the force derived from the progressive waves around the ship. It is given by the
summation of the force of the incident waves and the force of the reflected waves from the quaywall.
(c) Diffraction force
The diffraction force acting on a ship is the force that is generated by the change in the pressure field when
incident waves are scattered by the ship. The diffraction force can be estimated by replacing this change in
the pressure field with the radiation force, namely the wave-making resistance force when the ship moves at
a certain velocity on a fluid at rest, for the case that the ship is moved relative to fluid. It is assumed that the
velocity of the ship in this case is equal to the relative velocity of the ship to the water particles in the incident
waves. This velocity is referred to as the equivalent relative velocity.
(d) Force acting on the ship as a whole
The wave force acting on the ship as a whole can be calculated by integrating the Froude-Kriloff force and the
diffraction force acting on a cross section of the ship in the longitudinal direction from x=-Lpp/2 to x=Lpp/2
④ Wave forces by diffraction theory 18)
In the case of very fat ship, i.e., it has a block coefficient Cb of 0.7 to 0.8, there are no reflecting structures such
as quaywalls behind the ship, and the motions of the ship are considered to be very small, the wave force can be
calculated using an equation based on a diffraction theory 18) by replacing the ship with an elliptical cylinder.
(3) Wind Loads Acting on Ship
① The wind load acting on a moored ship shall be determined using an appropriate calculation formula.
② It is preferable to determine the wind load acting on a moored ship in consideration of the time fluctuation of the
wind velocity and the characteristics of the wind drag coefficients in respect of the cross-sectional shape of the
ship.
③ The wind loads acting on a ship are calculated from equations (2.3.1) to (2.3.3) using wind drag coefficients CX
and CY in the X and Y directions, respectively, and wind pressure moment coefficient CM around the midship.
The subscript k in the equations refers to the characteristic values.
(2.3.1)
(2.3.2)
(2.3.3)
where
CX : wind drag coefficient in the X direction (bow direction)
CY : wind drag coefficient in the Y direction (side direction)
CM : wind pressure moment coefficient around midship
R X : X-direction component of wind load resultant force (kN)
RY : Y-direction component of wind load resultant force (kN)
R M : moment of wind load resultant force around midship (kNm)
ρa : air density, which may be set as ρa = 1.23 x 10 -3 (t/m3)
U : wind velocity (m/s)
AT : above-water bow projected area (m 2)
AL : above-water side projected area (m2)
– 305 –
④ It is preferable to determine the wind drag coefficients CX, CY, and CM through wind tunnel tests or water tank
tests on design ships. However, since such tests require time and cost, it is acceptable to use the calculation
equations for wind drag coefficients 21), 22) that are based on wind tunnel tests 20) or water tank tests that have
been carried out in the past.
⑤ The maximum wind velocity, 10-minute average wind velocity, may be used as the wind velocity U.
⑥ Since the wind velocity varies both in time and space, it should be treated as fluctuating wind in the motion
calculation of a moored ship. Davenport 23) and Hino 24) have proposed the frequency spectra for the time
fluctuations of the wind velocity. The frequency spectra proposed by Davenport and Hino are given by equations
(2.3.4) and (2.3.5), respectively.
(2.3.4)
(2.3.5)
where
S u( f ) ： frequency spectrum of wind velocity (m 2/s)
U10 ： average wind velocity at the standard height of 10 m (m/s)
K r ： friction coefficient for the surface defined with the wind velocity at the standard height; on
the sea , it is considered that Kr = 0.003 is appropriate.
α ： power exponent when the vertical distribution of the wind velocity is expressed by a power
law [U∝(Z/10)α]]
z ： height above the surface of the ground or the water (m)
m ： correction factor relating to the stability of the atmosphere; m is taken to be 2 in case of a
storm.
(4) Water Current Pressure Forces Acting on Ship
① The current pressure force due to water currents acting on a ship shall be determined using an appropriate
calculation formula.
② Current pressure force caused by currents from the bow
The current pressure force developed between a ship and currents from the bow can be calculated from equation
(2.3.6).
The subscript k in the equation refers to the characteristic value.
(2.3.6)
where
Rf : current pressure force (kN)
S : submerged surface area (m 2)
V : current velocity (m/s)
③ Current pressure force caused by currents from the side

The current pressure force caused by currents from the side can be calculated from equation (2.3.7).
The subscript k in the equation refers to the characteristic value.
(2.3.7)
– 306 –
where
R : current pressure force (kN)
ρo : density of seawater (t/m3)
C : current pressure coefficient
B : under-water side projected area of ship (m 2)
④ Water current pressure force consists of frictional resistance and pressure resistance. The currents from the bow
and the side mostly generate frictional and pressure resistances, respectively, but these two resistances cannot
be rigorously distinguished. Equation (2.3.6) is a simplified one substituting ρo = 1.025 t/m3, t = 15°C, and ρo
= 0.14 into equation (2.3.8) called Froude’s formula. The subscript k in the equation refers to the characteristic
value.
(2.3.8)
where
Rf : current pressure force (kN)
t : temperature (°C)
S : submerged surface area (m 2)
λ : coefficient, which can be set as λ = 0.14741 for a length overall of 30 m and λ = 0.13783 for a
length overall of 250 m.
⑤ The current pressure coefficient C varies according to the relative current direction θ ; the values obtained from
Fig. 2.3.1 may be used as a reference.
6.0
5.0
Current pressure coefficient C
Water depth h
4.0 draft d = 1.1
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
7.0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Relative current direction θ (º)
Fig. 2.3.1 Current Pressure Coefficient C
(5) Characteristics of Mooring System

① For the motion calculation of a moored ship, the displacement-restoring force characteristics of the mooring
system such as mooring ropes and fenders shall be modeled appropriately.
② The displacement-restoring force characteristics of the mooring system such as mooring ropes and fenders is
generally nonlinear. Moreover, the displacement-restoring force characteristics of fenders may possess hysterisis
nature. In that case, it is preferable to model these characteristics appropriately for the motion calculation of a
moored ship.25)
– 307 –
2.4 Actions due to Traction by Ships
(1) The values given in Table 2.4.1 shall generally be used for the standard values of the tractive forces caused by
ships to mooring posts and bollards.
(2) In case of the mooring post, it shall be assumed that the tractive forces by ships specified in the Item (1) act in the
horizontal direction, and the half of the tractive forces act in the vertical direction at the same time.
(3) In case of the bollard, it shall be assumed that the tractive forces by ships specified in the Item (1) act in all
directions.
Table 2.4.1 Standard Values of Tractive Forces by Ships
Tractive force acting on Tractive force acting on

Gross tonnage of ship
mooring post bollard
(t)
(kN) (kN)
Over 200 and
150 150
not more than 500
Over 500 and
250 250
not more than 1,000
Over 1,000 and
350 250
not more than 2,000
Over 2,000 and
350 350
not more than 3,000
Over 3,000 and
500 350
not more than 5,000
Over 5,000 and
700 500
not more than 10,000
Over 10,000 and
1,000 700
Over 20,000 and
1,500 1,000
Over 50,000 and
2,000 1,000
(4) Mooring posts are installed away from the face line of quaywall, around the both ends of a berth so that they
may be used for mooring a ship in a storm. Bollards, on the other hand, are installed close to the face line of the
mooring facilities so that they may be used for mooring, berthing, or unberthing a ship in normal operations.
(5) Regarding the layout and names of mooring ropes of a ship, 2.1.1 (1) Dimensions of Wharves in Part III, Chapter
5 may be referred.
(6) Regarding the layout and structure of mooring posts and bollards, see 9.1 Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings in
Part III, Chapter 5.
(7) It is preferable to calculate the tractive forces acting on mooring posts and bollards based on the breaking loads
of the mooring ropes of design ships, meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the installation places of
mooring facilities, ship dimensions etc., taking account as necessary of the forces caused by berthing ships, the
wind pressure forces acting on moored ships, and the forces caused by the ship motions.9), 15) The tractive forces
may also be determined according to the following Items (8) to (12).
(8) In case that the gross tonnage of a ship exceeds 5,000 tons and there is no risk of more than one mooring rope
being attached to a bollard that is used for spring lines at the middle of mooring facilities for which the berthing
ships are designated, the tractive force acting on a bollard may be taken as one half of the value listed in Table
2.4.1.
(9) The tractive forces by the ships of a gross tonnage of less than 200 tons or more than 100,000 tons, which are not
given in Table 2.4.1, those applied to the mooring facilities capable of mooring ships in rough weather, and those
applied to the mooring facilities installed in the open sea area where meteorological and oceanographic conditions
are rough need to be determined, taking account of meteorological and oceanographic conditions, the structures
of mooring facilities, measurement records of tractive forces, etc.
(10) The tractive force acting on a mooring post has been determined based on the wind pressure force acting on
– 308 –
a ship in such a way that a lightly loaded ship should be able to be moored safely even when the wind velocity is
25 to 30 m/s, with the assumption that the mooring posts are installed at the place away from the face line of the
quaywall by a ship’s width and that the breast lines are stretched in a direction of 45º to the ship’s longitudinal axis.
26), 27) The tractive force so obtained corresponds to the breaking strength of one to two mooring ropes, where the
breaking strength of a mooring rope is evaluated according to the Steel Ship Regulations by the Nippon Kaiji
Kyokai. For a small ship of gross tonnage up to 1,000 tons, the mooring posts can withstand the tractive force
under the wind velocity of up to 35 m/s.
The tractive force acting on a bollard has been determined based on the wind pressure force acting on a ship in
such a way that even a lightly loaded ship should be able to be moored using only bollards under the wind velocity
of up to 15 m/s, with the assumption that the ropes at the bow and stern are stretched in a direction at least 25º to
the ship’s axis. The tractive force so obtained corresponds to the breaking strengths of one mooring rope for a ship
of gross tonnage up to 5,000 tons and two mooring ropes for a ship of gross tonnage over 5,000 tons, where the
breaking strength of a mooring rope is evaluated according to the Steel Ship Regulations by the Nippon Kaiji
Kyokai.
The tractive force for a bollard that is used for spring lines and is installed at the middle of a berth, for which
the berthing ships are designated, corresponds to the breaking strength of one mooring rope, where the breaking
strength of a mooring rope is evaluated according to the Steel Ship Regulations by the Nippon Kaiji Kyokai.
In the above-mentioned tractive force calculations, in addition to the wind pressure force, it has been assumed
that there are water currents of 2 kt in the longitudinal direction and 0.6 kt in the transverse direction.
(11) When determining the tractive force of a small ship of gross tonnage up to 200 tons, it is preferable to consider the
type of ship, the berthing situation, the structure of the mooring facilities, etc.28) For the performance verification
of mooring posts and bollards for ships of gross tonnage up to 200 tons, it is common to take the tractive force
acting on a mooring post to be 150 kN and the tractive force acting on a bollard to be 50 kN.
(12) When calculating the tractive force in case of ships such as ferries, container ships, or passenger ships, caution
should be taken in using Table 2.4.1, because the wind pressure-receiving areas of such ships are large.
References
1) PIANC: Report of the International Commission for Improving the Design of Fender Systems, Supplement to Bulletin,
No.45, 1984
2) Baker, A.L.L.: The Impact of Ships When Berthing, Proc. Int'l Navig. Congr. (PIANC), Rome, Sect.II, Quest.2, pp.111-142,
1953
3) Mizoguchi, M. and Nakayama, T.: Studies on the Berthing Velocity, Energy of the Ships, Technical Note of Port and Harbour
Research Institute, No.170, 1973 (in Japanese)
4) Otani, H., Ueda, S., Ichikawa, T. and Sugihara, K.: A Study on the Berthing Impact of the Big Tanker, Technical Note of Port
and Harbour Research Institute, No.176, 1974 (in Japanese)
5) Moriya, Y., Yoshida, Y., Ise, H., Miyazaki, K. and Sugiura, J.: Field Observations on the Berthing Velocities of Ships, Proc.
of Coastal Engineering, JSCE, Vol.38, pp.751-755, 1991 (in Japanese)
6) Ueda, S.: Study on Berthing Impact Force of Very Large Crude Oil Carriers, Report of Port and Harbour Research Institute,
Vol.20 No.2, pp.169-209, 1981 (in Japanese)
7) Ueda, S., Umemura, R., Shiraishi, S., Yamamoto, S., Akakura, Y. and Yamase, S.: Study on the Statistical Design Method for
Fender System, Proc. of Coastal Engineering, JSCE, Vol.47, pp.866-870, 2000 (in Japanese)
8) Ueda, S., Hirano, T., Shiraishi, S., Yamamoto, S. and Yamase, S.: Reliability Design Method of Fender for Berthing Ship,
Proc. Int'l Navig. Congr. (PIANC), Sydney, pp.692-707, 2002
9) Ueda, S. and Ooi, E.: On the Design of Fending Systems for Mooring Facilities in a Port, Technical Note of Port and Harbour
Research Institute, No.596, 1987 (in Japanese)
10) Myers, J.: Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969
11) Japan Port and Harbor Association: Design Calculation Examples of Port and Harbour Structures (Vol.1), pp.117-119, 1992
(in Japanese)
12) Ueda, S. and Shiraishi, S.: On the Design of Fenders Based on the Ship Oscillations Moored to Quay Walls, Technical Note
of Port and Harbour Research Institute, No.729, 1992 (in Japanese)
13) Shiraishi, S.: Low-Frequency Ship Motions Due to Long-Period Waves in Habors, and Modifications to Mooring Systems
That lnhibit Such Motions, Report of Port and Harbour Research Institute, Vol.37 No.4, pp.37-78, 1998
14) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Manual for Impact Assessment of Long Period Waves in a Port, 2004 (in
Japanese)
15) Ueda, S.: Analytical Method of Ship Motions Moored to Quay Walls and the Applications, Technical Note of Port and
Harbour Research Institute, No.504, 1984 (in Japanese)
16) Motora, S., Koyama, T., Fujino, M. and Maeda, H.: Dynamics of Ships and Offshore Structures -revised edition-, Seizando,
17) Ueda, S. and Shiraishi, S.: Method and Its Evaluation for Computation of Moored Ship's Motions, Report of Port and Harbour
– 309 –

18) Goda, Y., Takayama, T. and Sasada, T.: Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Wave Forces on a Fixed Vessel
Approximated with an Elliptic Cylinder, Report of Port and Harbour Research Institute, Vol.12 No.4, pp.23-74, 1973 (in
Japanese)
19) Kobayashi, M., Yuasa, H., Kishimoto, O., Abe, M., Kunitake, Y., Narita, H., Hirano, M. and Sugimura, Y.: A Computer
Program for Theoretical Calculation of Sea-keeping Quality of Ships (Part 1-Method of Theoretical Calculation), Mitsui
Technical Review, No.82, pp.18-51, 1973 (in Japanese)
20) Tsuji, T., Takaishi, Y., Kan, M. and Sato, T.: Model Test about Wind Forces Acting on the Ships, Report of Ship Research
Institute, Vol.7 No.5, pp.13-37, 1970 (in Japanese)
21) Isherwood, R.M.: Wind Resistance of Merchant Ships, Bulletin of the Royal Institution of Naval Architects, pp.327-338, 1972
22) Ueda, S., Shiraishi, S., Asano, K. and Oshima, H.: Proposal of Formula of Wind Force Coefficient and Evaluation of the
Effect to Motions of Moored Ships, Technical Note of Port and Harbour Research Institute, No.760, 1993 (in Japanese)
23) Davenport, A.G.: Gust Loading Factors, Proc. of ASCE, ST3, pp.11-34, 1967
24) Hino, M.: Relationships between the Instantaneous Peak Values and the Evaluation Time -A Theory on the Gust Factor-,
Transactions of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, No.117, pp.23-33, 1965 (in Japanese)
25) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Technical Manual for Floating Structures, pp.37-55, 1991 (in Japanese)
26) Inagaki, H., Yamaguchi, K. and Katayama, T.: Standardization of Mooring Posts and Bollards for Wharf, Technical Note of
Port and Harbour Research Institute, No.102, 1970 (in Japanese)
27) Fukuda, I. and Yagyu, T.: Tractive Force on Bollards and Storm Bitts, Technical Note of Port and Harbour Research Institute,
No.427, 1982 (in Japanese)
28) Japan Fishing Port Association: Standard Design Method for Fishing Port Structures, 1984 (in Japanese)
– 310 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 9 ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIONS
Chapter 9 Environmental Actions
Public Notice
Environmental Influences
Article 19
Environmental influences shall be assessed with appropriate methods by taking account of the design
working life of the facilities, material characteristics, environmental conditions, maintenance methods, and
the conditions to which the facilities concerned are subjected.
[Technical Note]
The evaluation of the effects of environmental actions may refer to Part I, Chapter 2, 3 Maintenance of Facilities
Subject to the Technical Standards and Chapter 11, 2.3 Corrosion Protection for steel and Part III, Chapter 2,
1.1 General for concrete.
– 311 –
Chapter 10 Self Weight and Surcharge
Public Notice
Self Weight and Surcharge
Article 20
1 Self weight shall be appropriately set based on the unit weight of the material.
2 Surcharge shall be appropriately set by considering the assumed usage conditions of the facilities and
others.
[Technical Note]
1 General
(1) When verifying the performance of port facilities, self weight and surcharge shall be considered, as necessary.
(2) Self weight and surcharge are defined respectively as follows.
① Self weight: the weight of the structure itself
② Surcharge: the weight loaded on top of the structure. This is divided into static load and live load.
(a) Static load
The actions such as general cargo and bulk cargo loaded on aprons, transit sheds, and warehouses are included
in static load. In regions with heavy snowfall, the snow on the aprons is regarded also as a kind of static load.
(b) Live load
The following shall be considered as live load as necessary, when verifying the performance of port facilities.
1) train load
2) vehicle load
3) cargo handling equipment load
4) sidewalk live load
(3) The self weight and surcharge used in the performance verification of port facilities must be set in due consideration
of the type of actions on the objective facilities and their loading conditions. In particular, the self weight and
surcharge have a large effect on the performance verification of circular slip failure of quaywalls, beams and
slabs of piers. Therefore, sufficient care should be taken when determining the types and sizes of self weight and
surcharge.
2 Self Weight
(1) Self Weight

In the performance verification of the facilities to which the technical standards apply, the self weight must be
appropriately set based on the unit weight of the material.
(2) As the characteristic values of the unit weight used in the calculation of self weight, the values given in Table 2.1
1) may be generally used. However, in cases where the unit weight can be specified in preliminary survey or other
ways, the values in Table 2.1 are not always applicable.

(3) Unit weights of stone, sand, gravel, and rubble depend on the stone quality, while unit weights of materials other
than metals such as steel and aluminum vary according to individual cases. When using these materials, the
characteristic values for unit weight must be decided with care.
– 312 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 10 SELF WEIGHT AND SURCHARGE
Table 2.1 Characteristic Values of Unit Weights of Materials 1)
Material Characteristic values of unit weight ( kN/m3 )

Steel and casting steel 77.0
Casting iron 71.0
Aluminum 27.5
Reinforced concrete 24.0
Un-reinforced concrete 22.6
Timber 7.8
Asphalt concrete 22.6
Stone (granite) 26.0
Stone (sandstone) 25.0
Sand, gravel, and rubble (dry) 16.0
Sand, gravel, and rubble (wet) 18.0
Sand, gravel, and rubble (saturated) 20.0
References
1) Japan Port Association: Handbook of Construction of port facilities, p,140, 1959
– 313 –
3 Surcharge
3.1 Static Load
(1) Surcharge
Surcharge used here means the actions such as static load, snow load, train load, vehicle load, cargo handling
equipment load, and sidewalk live load, and when setting them it is necessary to appropriately consider the
assumed usage conditions of the facility.
(2) Characteristic values of surcharge shall be set appropriately, considering the usage conditions of port facilities,
such as the type, volume and the handling methods of the cargo handled.
(3) Static Load
① Static load in permanent situation
(a) When determining the characteristic values static load in permanent situations, it is preferable to adequately
consider the factors such as type of cargo handled, type of packing, volume, handling methods, and loading
time.
(b) Generally, in the performance verification, a mean value for each section in an apron, a shed, or a warehouse
is used as the static load. However in the performance verification of structural materials, the static load itself
is often used. The static load acting on an apron has a large effect on the stability verification of mooring
facilities, so it is necessary to consider it separately from the static loads on other facilities such as sheds and
warehouses. For an apron, the mean value of the static load per one block usually stays constant by the scale
of the mooring facility and the type of cargo handled, and the mean value may be determined with reference
to the previous examples of verifications. In the case of general-purpose wharves, the values from about 10
to 30 kN/m 2 are often used as the characteristic values of the static load acting on aprons. As for the aprons
where heavy cargo such as containers and steel is handled, it is preferable to determine the value of the static
load based on the study of usage conditions.
(c) The characteristic values of unit weights for bulk cargo have been obtained based on surveys of the past actual
conditions, which are listed in Table 3.1.1. 1)
Table 3.1.1 Characteristic Values of Unit Weights for Bulk Cargo 1)
Commodity Characteristic values of unit weight ( kN/m3 )

Coke 4.9
Coal (lump) 8.8-9.8
Coal (fine) 9.8-11.0
Iron ore 20.0-29.0
Cement 15.0
Sand, gravel and rubble 19.0
② Static load during ground motion

(a) It is preferable to determine characteristic values of the static load during ground motion in variable and
accidental situations by adequately predicting whether a static load will act or not when the design earthquake
occurs in future. Existence or nonexistence of a static load differs from the facilities including sheds,
warehouses, open storage yards and aprons. It is assumed that the size of the static load during design ground
motion is under control of a probabilistic concept.
(b) Static load during ground motion for sheds, warehouses, open storage and yards may be set according to their
types of usage. On the other hand, for facilities such as aprons used as cargo handling facilities where cargo is
only placed temporarily, the static load will vary tremendously depending on whether cargo loading operations
are underway or not. Moriya and Nagao 2) performed on-site measurements to study the moment-to-moment
change of the static load of bulk cargo that was loaded on an apron, and evaluated the design values for static
load during ground motion. According to their results, if the design value for static load during ground motion
is calculated in accordance with ISO2394 and Eurocodes, the value becomes 0kN/m2, but adoption of 0 kN/
m2 as the design value for static load during ground motion results in underestimation of the static load.2)
Therefore, when using static load during ground motion for a level 1 reliability based design method, it is
preferable to assume the mean value of the static load as the characteristic value and to multiply this value by
– 314 –
the partial factor 0.5.
③ Unevenly Distributed Load
(a) When verifying the performance of a structure as a whole, the unevenly distributed load may be converted to
a uniform load in an area of an apron, transit shed or warehouse. However, where a large concentrated load
acts on the structure, it should be considered as the concentrated load.
(b) It is not usually the case where materials such as cargo are evenly loaded over the entire area. However, as an
example, when steel is placed on timber pillows, it can be assumed that its weight acts as a line load. In this
case it is preferable to assume the weight is a concentrated load such as line load or point load.
(c) When considering a given area, even though the mean value of unevenly distributed load may fall within
the value of the replaced uniform load, it is necessary to take account of the case where uneven load acts
as a concentrated load. For example, in the case of a sheet pile quaywall, it may be dangerous if a large
concentrated load acts on the back of the quaywall. Similarly, in the case of a piled pier, if a concentrated load
acts in the center, the pier may break. Such possibilities should be considered when setting the static load.
④ Snow Load
(a) After heavy snowfall, the snow piled up on an apron is compacted and hardened by automobiles, and then
it may be a static load. Therefore it is preferable to set an appropriate snow load in line with the actual
conditions.
(b) For quaywalls where snow removal operations will be carried out, it is often sufficient to determine the snow
load with the accumulated weight of snow over one night. In this case the snow load may be determined by
the engineer taking into consideration the past snowfall records, general climatic conditions during snowfall,
snow quality and snow removal
(c) In most cases the snow load is set as 1 kN/m2. This is equivalent to, for example, approximately 70 - 100 cm
thickness of dry and new powder snow.
(d) The relationship between normal snow conditions and snow unit weight, described in the Railway Structure
Design Standards and Commentary,3) is shown in Table 3.1.2.
Table 3.1.2 Normal Snow Conditions and Characteristic Value of Unit Weight of Snow 3)
General Snow Condition Characteristic Value of Unit Weight（kN/m3）

Dry powder snow compressed under own weight 1.2
Dry powered snow subject to wind pressure 1.7
Fairly wet snow compressed under own weight 4.5
Very wet snow compressed under own weight 8.5
– 315 –
3.2 Live Load
(1) Train Load

Train load shall be applied in such a way to induce the maximum effect on the structures or their members, by
taking into consideration the net weight, loaded weight, and axle arrangement of the train or cars which are
generally used for the objective section of track. In doing so, train load shall be applied as a full set of multiple
loads in succession without dividing it into two or more separate sets.
(2) Vehicle Load
① The vehicle load specified here corresponds to that (T load and L load) specified in the Highway Bridge
Specifications and Commentary.5)
② The international regulations concerning the dimensions and maximum gross mass of containers are set out by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as listed in Table 3.2.1.
Table 3.2.1 Standard Dimension of Containers 6)
Rating
Length (L) Width (W) Height (H)
(gross mass)
Type
Allowance Allowance Allowance Allowance Allowance Allowance
mm ft in mm ft mm ft in kg lb
mm i in mm i in s mm s in
0 0
1AAA 2,896* 9 6*
-5 -3/16
0 0
1AA 0 0 0 0 2,591* 8 6*
12,192 40 2,438 8 -5 -3/16 30,480* 67,200*
-10 -3/8 -5 -3/16
0 0
1A 2,438 8
-5 -3/16
1AX <2,438 <8
0 0
1BBB 2,896* 9 6*
-5 -3/16
0 0
1BB 0 0 0 0 2,591* 8 6*
9,125 29 11 1/4 2,438 8 -5 -3/16 30,480* 67,200*
-10 -3/16 -5 -3/16
0 0
1B 2,438 8
-5 -3/16
1BX <2,438 <8
0 0
1CC 2,591* 8 6*
-5 -3/16
0 0 0 0 0 0
1C 6,058 19 10 1/2 2,438 8 2,438 8 30,480* 67,200*
-6 -1/4 -5 -3/16 -5 -3/16
1CX <2,438 <8
0 0
1D 0 0 0 0 2,438 8
2,991 9 9 3/4 2,438 8 -5 -3/16 10,160* 22,400*
-5 -3/16 -5 -3/16
1DX <2,438 <8
* Some countries regulate the total height of the vehicle and container.
– 316 –
1) 8' 6'' Flat Bed Chassis
6.06m
2.59m
2.44m
3.93m
Container Dimensions
(Length: 20' ×Width: 8' ×Height: 8' 6'')
2) 8' 6'' Low-Bed Chassis
2.59m
3.795m
6.06m
(Length: 20' × Width: 8' ×Height: 8' 6'')
3) 9' 6''-40' Specialized Chassis
2.869m
4.018m
12.92m
(Length: 40' ×Width: 8' ×Height: 9' 6'')
Fig 3.2.1 Tractor-Trailer Height, etc., when Loading a Container
(3) Cargo Handling Equipment Load

① General
(a) Cargo handling equipment load is classified into three types: mobile, rail mounted and fixed equipment, and
the respective actions can generally be considered as follows:
1) As the characteristic values of mobile cargo handling equipment load, the total self weight, the maximum
wheel load, the maximum load of the outrigger operation, or the maximum ground contact pressure load
of crawler of the mobile cargo handling equipment may be used.
2) As the characteristic values of rail mounted cargo handling equipment load, the total self weight or the
maximum wheel load considering the wheel interval and number of wheels may be used.
3) As the characteristic values of fixed cargo handling equipment load, the maximum hoisting load may be
used.
(b) Cargo handling equipment continues to grow in size, and it is preferable to appropriately set the design
conditions after fully studying the size of cargo handling equipment that is expected to be used in the objective
facilities.
② Mobile Cargo Handling Equipment Load
(a) Mobile cargo handling equipment includes tire-mounted multi-purpose jib cranes, rough-terrain cranes,
all-terrain cranes, tractor cranes, crawler cranes, container cargo handling equipment (including straddle
carriers, transfer cranes, front fork lifts, and side rollers), fork lifts, and log loaders. Machines such as tire-
mounted multi-purpose jib cranes and tractor cranes that use an outrigger give a relatively large concentrated
load, so it is preferable to assume the most dangerous loading arrangement for the performance verification.
Table 3.2.2 shows examples of the dimensions of multi-purpose tire-mounted jib cranes.
(b) Examples of the mobile cargo handling equipment are shown in Fig. 3.2.2 to 3.2.8 and Tables 3.2.2 to 3.2.7.
– 317 –
Table 3.2.2 Examples of Dimensions of Tire-mounted Multi-Purpose Jib Cranes
Main Chassis Dimensions (m)

Total Maxi- Maximum Wheel Maximum Ground
Rated Weight mum Total Total
Type Wheel Load When Moving Contact Pressure During
Load (t) Equipped Opera- Width Tread Height
Base (kN/wheel) Operation (*3) (kPa)
(t) ting (*1) (*2)
Radius
34.0 289 24.0 8.8 8.0 4.0 37.5 217 527
34.1 395 30.0 11.0 25.2 3.5 48.0 255 174
Jib Crane
38.0 349 32.0 11.5 8.5 3.4 51.4 147 882
40.0 370 34.0 12.0 9.7 4.3 59.5 320 (axle load) 280
34.0 406 30.0 13.0 15.0 5.0 42.5 142 358
Double Link 34.1 402 30.0 12.8 15.0 5.0 45.0 139 301
Drawing
Crane 34.5 425 28.0 11.7 10.0 4.5 39.0 294 314
37.5 417 32.6 12.0 8.0 5.5 52.0 139 293
Notes : (*1)“Total width” is the total width of the moving portion.
(*2)“Total height” is the height of the highest portion of the jib at the smallest operating radius.
(*3)“Maximum ground contact pressure during operation” is the contact pressure of the outrigger during operation.
Fig. 3.2.2 Example of a Rough-Terrain Crane
Fig. 3.2.3 Example of an All-Terrain Crane
– 318 –
Fig. 3.2.4 Example of a Tractor Crane
Table 3.2.3 Examples of Dimensions of Rough-Terrain Cranes, All-Terrain Cranes, and Tractor Cranes
Main Chassis Dimensions (*1) (m)

Maximum Total Weight Maximum Axle
Type Total Total Total Wheel
Lift Load (t) Equipped (t) Tread Load (*2) (kN)
Length Width Height Base
16 19.7 8.23 2.20 3.14 3.20 1.82 97.5
25 26.5 11.21 2.62 3.45 3.65 2.17 131.2
Rough-
35 32.6 11.57 2.75 3.55 3.90 2.24 163.9
Terrain Crane
50 37.8 11.85 2.96 3.71 4.85 2.38 185.3
60 39.6 12.29 3.00 3.74 5.30 2.42 194.4
100 60.0 13.53 2.78 3.95 6.00 2.32 147.1
160 87.5 16.58 3.00 3.98 8.80 2.56 171.6
All-Terrain
360 90.0 17.62 3.00 4.00 10.24 2.55 154.9
Crane
400 126.0 18.29 3.00 4.10 11.30 2.56 179.5
550 132.0 18.00 3.00 4.25 11.30 2.56 198.1
120 94.7 15.38 3.40 4.00 7.38 2.76/2.52 392.8
Tractor Crane 160 131.4 16.72 3.40 4.05 7.30 2.83/2.54 543.8
360 114.0 17.52 3.40 4.34 9.25 2.83/2.54 297.7
Notes : (*1) “Main chassis dimensions” are the dimensions when moving inside the yard.
(*2) “Maximum axle load” is the maximum value of the axle loads when moving inside the yard
– 319 –
Fig. 3.2.5 Example of a Straddle Carrier
Table 3.2.4 Examples of Dimensions of Straddle Carriers
Main Chassis Dimensions (m) Maximum

Total
Machine Handled Rated Operating
Weight Total Total Total Wheel
Name Containers (ft) Load (t) Wheel Load
Equipped (t) Length (*1) Width Height Base (kN/wheel)
A 20, 40 35 60 15.8 4.5 13.6 8.1 117
B 20, 40 40 59 12.2 5.3 12.6 7.4 122
C 20, 40, 45 35 59 17.4 4.5 13.7 8.0 124
Notes : (*1) “Total length” is the total length when handling a 40-foot container.
– 320 –
Fig. 3.2.6 Example of a Crawler Crane
Table 3.2.5 Examples of Dimensions of Crawler Cranes
Main Chassis Dimensions (m) Crawler Ground

Total Weight
Lift Load (t) Crawler Total Crawler Total Crawler Shoe Contact Pressure
Equipped (t) Total Height
Length Width Width (kPa)
30 33 4.72 4.49 3.30 0.76 54
45 45 5.12 5.40 4.30 0.76 60
50 49 5.25 5.57 4.35 0.76 61
70 71 6.18 5.99 4.83 0.80 80
80 85 6.56 6.32 4.90 0.90 86
90 89 6.64 6.40 4.90 0.85 91
100 122 7.92 7.88 6.17 0.92 90
150 161 8.49 8.49 7.07 1.07 89
200 193 8.49 9.18 7.07 1.07 103
300 284 9.83 9.76 8.22 1.22 127
350 294 7.82 10.14 8.79 1.29 120
450 390 10.12 11.51 9.50 1.50 122
800 1,190 – 14.68 12.80 2.00 127
– 321 –
Fig. 3.2.7 Example of a Transfer Crane
Table 3.2.6 Examples of Dimensions of Transfer Cranes
Main Chassis Dimensions (m) Maximum Number

Total
Machine Handled Rated Operating Wheel of Wheels
Weight Total Total Total Wheel
Name Containers (ft) Load (t) Load (Wheels/
Equipped (t) Length Width Height Base
(kN/ wheel) Corner)
A 20, 40 36.0 133 26.1 12.0 21.5 6.4 281 2
B 20, 40, 45 40.6 119 26.0 11.3 21.1 6.4 275 2
C 20, 40, 45 40.6 129 26.3 12.2 21.8 6.4 293 2
D 20, 40, 45 40.6 140 25.8 11.7 24.4 6.4 295 2
E 20, 40, 45 51.0 150 25.8 12.7 28.3 8.0 327 2
F 20, 40, 45 40.6 129 26.0 11.3 21.1 6.4 142 4
G 20, 40, 45 50.0 150 26.0 10.7 21.8 6.4 167 4
③ Rail-Mounted Cargo Handling Equipment Load

(a) Rail-mounted cargo handling equipment includes container cranes, pneumatic unloaders, double link luffing
cranes, and double link unloaders. In the case of large cargo handling equipment such as gantry cranes and
ore unloaders, it is necessary to appropriately consider items such as the actions of seismic movement, wind
load, and impact loads during cargo handling.
(b) Fig. 3.2.8 and Table 3.2.7 show examples of rail-mounted cargo handling equipment. Fig. 3.2.8 and Table
3.2.7, which are based on studies of the Japan Association of Cargo-Handling Machinery Systems, show
examples of the dimensions of types of rail-mounted cargo handling equipment that are actually in use.
– 322 –
Top of Sea Side-Facing Rail
Fig. 3.2.8 Example of a Container Crane
Table 3.2.7 Examples of Dimensions of Container Cranes
Main Chassis Dimensions (m) Maximum Number

Handled
Machine Rated Total Weight Operating of Wheels
Containers Out- Back- Total Total Wheel
Name Load (t) Equipped (t) Span Wheel Load (Wheels/
(ft) reach reach Width Height Base (kN/wheel) Corner)
A 20, 40 30.5 580 31.0 16.0 10.0 27.0 68.0 18.0 406 8
B 20, 40 30.5 627 31.0 16.0 9.0 28.0 72.0 18.0 314 8
C 20, 40 30.5 668 31.0 16.0 9.5 27.0 46.0 18.0 314 8
D 20, 40 30.5 635 40.0 16.0 11.0 27.0 80.5 18.0 343 8
E 20, 40 40.6 1,127 50.0 30.0 15.0 27.0 73.1 18.0 577 8
F 20, 40, 45 40.5 890 47.1 30.0 15.0 28.0 100.0 18.0 558 8
G 20, 40, 45 40.6 965 50.0 30.5 15.0 28.0 102.3 18.0 394 10
H 20, 40, 45 40.6 1,030 50.5 30.0 14.0 26.5 65.0 18.0 720 8
I 20, 40, 45 50.0 993 52.0 30.0 15.0 26.5 105.0 18.0 744 8
J 20, 40, 45 65.0 1,360 63.0 30.0 16.0 26.5 127.2 16.5 711 8
④ Stationary Cargo Handling Equipment Load

Stationary cargo handling equipment includes stationary jib cranes and stationary pneumatic unloaders.
(4) Sidewalk Live Load
Characteristic values for sidewalk live load may usually be 5 kN/m 2. However, it is preferable to appropriately set
the characteristic values for special kinds of facilities by considering the usage conditions of the facilities.
– 323 –
References
1) Japan Port Association: Handbook of Construction of port facilities, p,140, 1959
1) Japan Port Association: Handbook of Construction of port facilities, pp,303-304,1959
2) Moriya Y. and T. Nagao: Earthquake loads of reliability design of mooring facilities, Proceedings of Offshore Development
Vol.19, pp.713-718, 2003
3) Railway Technical Research Institute: Standard and commentary of design of railway structures- Concrete structures,
Maruzen Publishing, pp58-59,2004
4) Railway Technical Research Institute: Standard and commentary of design of railway structures- Concrete structures,
Maruzen Publishing, pp.31-36, 2004
5) Japan Road Association,: Specifications and commentary for Highway Bridges Part. I, General, p.p. 11-20, pp. 82, 2004
6) Japan Container Association: Containerization, No.291,p.15,1996
– 324 –
PART II ACTIONS AND MATERIAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS, CHAPTER 11 MATERIALS
Chapter 11 Materials
Public Notice
Fundamentals of Performance Verification
Article 3 (excerpts)
2 The performance verification of the facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be made in principle
by executing the subsequent items taking into consideration the situations in which the facilities concerned
will encounter during the design working life:
(1), (2) (omitted)
(3) Select the materials of the facilities concerned in consideration of their characteristics and the
environmental influences on them, and appropriately specify their physical properties.
[Commentary]
Corrosion of Steel:
In the performance verification of facilities subject to the Technical Standards, appropriately consider the
corrosion of steel depending on conditions such as the natural environment. In general, steel that is used
in facilities that are subject to the Technical Standards are placed under severe corrosive environmental
conditions, and appropriate corrosion protection must be performed, using methods such as cathodic
protection and covering/coating.
[Technical Note]
1 General
Steel used in port facilities shall be selected from appropriate materials taking into account effects on actions,
deterioration, working life time, shape, constructability, economy and environment.
2 Steel
2.1 General
(1) Steel used in port facilities must have the necessary qualities to satisfy the required functionality of the facilities.
Steel that comply with the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) may be given as examples that satisfy such
requirements.
Table 2.1.1 and Table 2.1.2 list the steel complying with the Japanese Industrial Standard that are most often
used in port facilities.1) For each of them, JIS specifies many types of steel.
(2) In general, structural steel with a tensile strength of 490 N/mm 2 or more is called high-strength steel. High-
strength steel has an important characteristic that the higher the strength it has the larger is its yield ratio, namely
the ratio of the yield strength to the tensile strength.
(3) Corrosion resistant steel has excellent resistance to particles of seawater salt above the sea level, and they may be
either W type for uncoated use or P type for coated use.
– 325 –
Table 2.1.1 Quality Standards for Steel Materials (JIS) 1)
Type
of steel Standard Symbols Applications
material
Steel bar, shaped steel, steel plate,
JIS G 3101 Rolled steel for general structures SS400
flat steel, steel strips
Structural SM400, SM490, SM490Y, Shaped steel, steel plate, flat steel,
JIS G 3106 Rolled steel for welded structures
steel SM520, SM570 steel strips
Hot-rolled atmospheric corrosion SMA400, SMA490,
JIS G 3114 Shaped steel, steel plate
resisting steels for welded structure SMA570
Carbon steel tubes for general –
Steel pipe JIS G3444 STK400, STK490
structural purposes
JIS A 5525 Steel pipe piles SKK400, SKK490 –
Steel pile SHK400, SHK400M,
JIS A 5526 Steel H piles –
SHK490M
JIS A 5528 Hot rolled steel sheet piles SY295, SY390 U-shaped, Z-shaped, H-shaped, flat
Sheet pile
JIS A 5530 Steel pipe sheet piles SKY400, SKY490
JIS G 3201
Carbon steel forgings for general use SF490A, SF540A
Cast or Carbon steel castings
JIS G 5101
forged Carbon steel for machine structural SC450 Mooring posts, chains, etc
JIS G 4051
items use S30CN, S35CN
Gray iron castings FC150, FC250
JIS G 5501
JIS Z 3211 Covered electrodes for mild steel – SS400, SM400, SMA400
Covered electrodes for high tensile –
JIS Z 3212 SM490, SM490Y, SM520, SMA490
strength steel
Welding Submerged arc welding solid wires – –
JIS Z 3351
rods for carbon steel and low alloy steel
Submerged arc welding fluxes for – –
JIS Z 3352
carbon steel and low alloy steel
MAG welding solid wires for mild – –
JIS Z 3312
steel and high strength steel
Hexagon head bolts and hexagon head – –
JIS B 1180
Steel screws
materials JIS B 1181 Hexagon nuts and hexagon thin nuts – –
used for Sets of high strength hexagon bolt,
joining JIS B 1186 hexagon nut, and plain washers for F8T, F10T –
friction grip joints
Piano wire, oil tempered wire, PC
JIS G 3502 Piano wire rods SWRS steel and stranded steel wire, wire
rope
Hard steel wire, oil tempered wire,
JIS G 3506 High carbon steel wire rods SWRH
Wires PC high carbon steel wire, wire rope
JIS G 3532 Low carbon steel wires SWM –
SWPR1, SWPD1,
JIS G 3536 PC steel wire and strands SWPR2, SWPD3. –
SWPR7, SWPR19
SR235, SR295, SD295A, –
JIS G 3112 Steel bars for concrete reinforcement
SD295B, SD345
Rerolled steel bars for concrete SRR235, SRR295, –
JIS G 3117
reinforcement SDR235
Type A2:
Steel bar SBPR 785/1030
Type B1:
SBPR 930/1080 –
JIS G 3109 PC Steel bars
Type B2:
SBPR 930/1180
Type C1:
SBPR 1080/1230
Notes : A symbol for steel may come in varieties in JIS, for example, for SM400 there are three varieties SM400A,
SM400B, and SM400C, but in this table these symbol suffixes that follow the number are omitted.
The carbon steel for machine structures, S30CN and S35CN, are obtained from the materials S30C and S35C specified in
JIS G 4051 by a normalizing heat treatment to satisfy the mechanical properties specified in the explanatory attachment to that
standard.
– 326 –
Table 2.1.2 Shape Specifications for Steel (JIS) 1)
Type of steel Standard Materials used

Steel bar JIS G 3191 SS400
SS400, SM400, SM490, SM490Y, SM520,
Shaped steel JIS G 3192
SM570, SMA400, SMA490, SMA570
Structural steel
SS400, SM400, SM490, SM490Y,
Steel Plate and Steel Strips JIS G 3193
SM520, SM570, SMA400, SMA490
Flat steel JIS G 3194 SS400, SM400, SM490, SM490Y, SM520
Steel pipe pile JIS A 5525 SKK400, SKK490
Steel pile
H-shaped steel pile JIS A 5526 SHK400, SHK400M, SHK490M
Hot rolled steel sheet pile JIS A 5528 SY295, SY390
Sheet pile
Steel pipe sheet pile JIS A 5530 SKY400, SKY490
Hexagonal head bolts JIS B 1180
Steel materials Hexagonal shape nuts JIS B 1181
used for joining
Sets of high strength hexagonal head
JIS B 1186 F8T, F10T
bolts for friction grip joints
Steel bar for reinforced concrete JIS G 3112 SR235, SR295, SD295, SD345
Steel bar Recycled steel bar for reinforced
JIS G 3117 SRR235, SRR295, SDR235
concrete
Prestressed PC steel wire and strands JIS G 3536 SWPR, SWPD
concrete PC steel bars JIS G 3109 SBPR, SBPD
Materials for Wire rope JIS G 3525 SWRS, SWRH
mooring Electrically welded anchor chains JIS F 3303
Wire mesh Welded wire mesh JIS G 3551 WFP, WFR, WFI
(4) When rolled steel for general structures, rolled steel for welded structures, or corrosion resistant hot rolled steel
for welded structures is used, thickness may be chosen from Fig. 2.1.1.2) When steel with thicknesses less than
8 mm are used, follow the standards in Specifications for Highway Bridges.3) In general, for reasons such
that steel with large thicknesses require a large amount of carbon for a specific strength, and during rolling fine
crystallization may be insufficient and the notch brittleness may become greater, a usable upper bound for the
thickness is specified in JIS for each steel.
Thickness (mm)
6 8 16 25 32 40 50 100
Steel type
Steel for
non-welded SS400
structures
SM400A
SM400B
SM400C
SM490A
SM490B
SM490C
SM490YA
SM490YB
SM520C
Steel for welded
structures SM570
SMA400AW
SMA400BW
SMA400CW
SMA490AW
SMA490BW
SMA490CW
SMA570W
Fig. 2.1.1 Standards for Selecting Thickness Based on the Steel Grade 2)
– 327 –
(5) Strength standards for PC steel wire and stranded PC steel wire are specified in JIS G 3536, and the standards for
the chemical compositions of steel are presented in JIS G 3502, Piano Wire.
(6) In facilities that have many welded portions for example, facilities with joint construction, it is necessary to pay
attention to the chemical composition and weldability of the steel. In general, welded steel materials use JIS G
3106, Rolled Steel for Welded Structures, or JIS G 3114, Corrosion Resistant Hot Rolled Steel for Welded
Structures. On the other hand, SS400, which belongs to JIS G 3101, Rolled Steel for General Structures,
should be limited to non-welded portions.
2.2 Characteristic Values of Steel
(1) Characteristic values for various constants of the steel and cast steel required for performance verification are
appropriately specified by considering factors such as strength characteristics.
(2) In general, characteristic values for the Young’s modulus, the shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and the linear
expansion coefficient of steel and cast steel can use the values given by Table 2.2.1.4) Also, the constants for steel
used in reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete can refer to the values given in the Standard Specification
for Concrete Structures.5)
Table 2.2.1 Mechanical Characteristics for Steel 4)
Young’s modulus E 2.0 × 105 N / mm 2

Shear modulus G 7.7 × 104 N / mm 2
Poisson’s ratio ν 0.30
Linear expansion coefficient α 12 × 10 -6 1 / °C
(3) Characteristic Values of Yield Strength

Characteristic values of yield strength for steel and cast steel are appropriately specified based on test results.
① Structural steel
(a) Generally, the values listed in Table 2.2.2 can be used as characteristic values of yield strength for structural
steel based on the grade of steel and the thickness.6)
– 328 –
Table 2.2.2 Characteristic Values of Yield Strength for Structural Steel (JIS) 6)
Tensile yield Compressive on Bearing yield strength between

Type of Thickness Shear yield strength Tensile strength
strength yield strength steel plate and steel plate
steel mm N/mm 2 N/mm 2
N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2
≤ 16 ≥ 245 ≥ 245 141 368
16 to 40 ≥ 235 ≥ 235 136 353
SS400 400 to 510
40 to 100 ≥ 215 ≥ 215 124 323
≥ 100 ≥ 205 ≥ 205 118 308
≤ 16 ≥ 245 ≥ 245 141 368
16 to 40 ≥ 235 ≥ 235 136 353
SM400 40 to 75 ≥ 215 ≥ 215 124 323 400 to 510
SMA400 75 to 100 ≥ 215 ≥ 215 124 323 (to 540) *1
100 to 160 ≥ 205 ≥ 205 118 308
160 to 200 ≥ 195 ≥ 195 113 293
≤ 16 ≥ 325 ≥ 325 188 488
16 to 40 ≥ 315 ≥ 315 182 473
40 to 75 ≥ 295 ≥ 295 170 443
SM490 490 to 610
75 to 100 ≥ 295 ≥ 295 170 443
100 to 160 ≥ 285 ≥ 285 165 428
160 to 200 ≥ 275 ≥ 275 159 413
≤ 16 ≥ 365 ≥ 365 211 548
16 to 40 ≥ 355 ≥ 355 205 533
SM490Y 40 to 75 ≥ 335 ≥ 335 193 503
490 to 610
SMA490 75 to 100 ≥ 325 ≥ 325 188 488
100 to 160 ≥ 305 ≥ 305 176 458
160 to 200 ≥ 295 ≥ 295 170 443
≤ 16 ≥ 365 ≥ 365 211 548
16 to 40 ≥ 355 ≥ 355 205 533
SM520 520 to 720
40 to 75 ≥ 335 ≥ 335 193 503
75 to 100 ≥ 325 ≥ 325 188 488
*1:The figure within parentheses ( ) shows the value for SMA400.
(b) The von Mises yield criteria are used to calculate the shear yield strength.
(c) When the contact mechanism between two steel is a flat surface against a flat surface including cylindrical
surfaces and curved surfaces that are nearly flat, the bearing yield strength may be taken as 50% more than the
tensile yield stress. If necessary, when there is a very small contact surface between a spherical surface or a
cylindrical surface, and a flat surface, it is possible to use the Hertz formula in the Specification for Highway
Bridges.7)
② Characteristic values for steel pile and steel pipe sheet pile
(a) As characteristic values of yield stress for steel pile and steel pipe sheet pile, generally the values of Table
2.2.3 can be used, based on the types of steels and stresses.8)
Table 2.2.3 Characteristic Values of Yield Strength for Steel Pile and Steel Pipe Sheet Pile (JIS) 8)
(N/mm2)
SKK400 SKK490
Steel grade
SHK400 SHK490M
SHK400M SKY490
Type of stress
SKY400
Axial tensile stress (per net cross-sectional area) 235 315
Bending tensile stress (per net cross-sectional area) 235 315
Bending compression stress (per total cross-sectional area) 235 315
Shear stress (per total cross-sectional area) 136 182
(b) When it is necessary to combine the axial stress and shear stress, yield strength may be determined by
referencing the to Specifications for Highway Bridges.9)
(c) Buckling strength depends on the condition of the member and is specified appropriately during the verification
of facility.
– 329 –
③ Steel sheet pile

(a) As characteristic values of yield strength for steel sheet pile, generally the values of Table 2.2.4 can be used,
based on the types of steels and stresses.10)
Table 2.2.4 Characteristic Values of Yield Strength for Steel Sheet Pile (JIS) 10)
(N/mm2)
Steel
SY295 SY390
Type of stress
Bending tensile stress (per net cross-sectional area) 295 390
Bending compression stress (per total cross-sectional area) 295 390
Shearing stress (per total cross-sectional area) 170 225
④ Cast and forged items

(a) As characteristic values of yield strength for cast and forged structures, generally the values of Table 2.2.5
can be used, based on the types of steels and stresses.11)
Table 2.2.5 Yield Strength for Cast and Forged Structures (JIS) 11)
(N/mm2)
Type of iron steel Cast Steel materials for
Forged steel Cast iron
material steel machine structures
Type of strength SF490A SF540A SC450 S30CN S35CN FC150 FC250

Axial tensile strength
245 275 225 275 305 70 105
(per net cross-sectional area)
Axial compression strength
245 275 225 275 305 140 210
(per total cross-sectional area)
Bending tensile strength
245 275 225 275 305 70 105
(per net cross-sectional area)
Bending compression strength
245 275 225 275 305 140 210
Shearing strength
141 159 130 159 178 54 88
(b) When calculations are performed with the Hertz formula, the method of calculating the bearing yield strength
follows the Highway Bridge Specifications and Commentary.12)
⑤ Yield strength for welded portions and steel materials used for joining
(a) As characteristic values of yield strength for welded portions, the values in Table 2.2.6 can be referred, based
on the types of steels and strength. When joining steel of different strengths generally the value for the steel
with lower strength shall be used.
Table 2.2.6 Characteristic Values of Yield Strength for Welded Portions (JIS)
(N/mm2)
Steel SM490Y
SM400 SM570
Type of welding SM490 SM520
SMA400 SMA570
Type of strength SMA490
Compression
235 315 355 450
Full penetration groove strength
welding Tensile strength 235 315 355 450
Shop
Shearing strength 136 182 205 260
welding
Fillet welding, partial
penetration groove Shearing strength 136 182 205 260
welding
1) As a rule, use the same values as for factory welding.
On-site welding
2) For steel pipe pile and steel pipe sheet pile, use 90% of the factory value.
(b) Technologies for on-site welding have improved, and adequate execution management and quality control have
been achieved on-site, so that on-site welding has attained the same management level as factory welding,
– 330 –
and therefore for yield strength it has been decided that one can take the same values for on-site welding as
for factory welding can be taken, as specified in Specification for Highway Bridges 13). In locations where it
is difficult to verify that the environmental conditions are good for the welding of materials such as steel pipe
pile and steel pipe sheet pile, the yield strength for on-site welding can be taken to be 90% of the value for
factory welding.
(c) Table 2.2.7 lists the characteristic yield strength for anchor bolts and pins.
Table 2.2.7 Yield Strength for Anchor Bolts and Pins

(N/mm2)
Type of steel
Type SS400 S35CN
Type of stress
Anchor bolts Shearing 100 133
Bending 320 438
Pins Shearing 168 235
Bearing 353 470
(d) It is assumed that the specified anchor bolts are used as embedded in concrete. Since construction using
anchor bolts can often be insecure, and it is necessary to maintain a strength balance with the concrete that
they support, the calculation of design values should sufficiently include an extra margin of safety.
(e) Since pins do not use bolt holes as in sheet or shaped steel, and usually do not use notches, there is no concern
that they will concentrate stress. Also, although pins are often verified for shear and bearing, their limit
values are not lowered for shear accompanied by sliding. With these considerations in mind, values for shear
yield strength are specified larger than the values listed in Table 2.2.2 and Table 2.2.5.
(f) Table 2.2.8 lists the characteristic yield strength for finished bolts.
Table 2.2.8 Yield Strength for Finished Bolts

(N/mm2)
Strength categories according to JIS B 1051
4.6 8.8 10.9
Type of stress
Tensile 240 660 940
Shearing 140 380 540
Bearing 360 990 1410
2.3 Corrosion Protection

2.3.1 Overview
(1) Corrosion protection should be taken into consideration when using steel because of the harsh corrosive
environmental conditions. Severe localized corrosion occurs particularly in sections immediately below the mean
low water level and, therefore, appropriate measures should be taken.
(2) The distribution of corrosion rate with respect to the depth of steel driven into the sea generally is shown in Fig.
2.3.1. 16) The corrosion is particularly heavy in the splash zone, where the structure is exposed to sea water
splashes and there is an adequate supply of oxygen. In particular, the rate of corrosion is the highest in the section
immediately above the high water level.
Among the submerged sections in Fig. 2.3.1, the corrosion rate is the highest in the section immediately below
the intertidal zone. However, the corrosion rate in this section differs greatly depending on the environmental
conditions and the cross-sectional shape of the structure. In steel sheet piles and steel pipe pile structures
submerged in clean sea water, the corrosion rate in the section immediately below the mean low water level,
MLWL, is often not much different from that in submerged zone. Depending on the environmental conditions of
the structure, however, the corrosion rate in the section immediately below MLWL may be much larger than that
in the submerged zone, and in some cases may even exceed the value in the splash zone. This remarkable local
corrosion is called the concentrated corrosion.
(3) For all aspects of corrosion control, reference may be made to “Manual on Corrosion Prevention and Repair
for Port and Harbor Steel Structures (revised edition)” 15) published by the Coastal Development Institute of
Technology in Japan.
– 331 –
Marine atmospheric zone
Splash zone
H.W.L
Intertidal zone
L.W.L
Submerged zone
Sea bottom
Under seabed
Corrosion rate
Fig. 2.3.1 Distribution of Corrosion Rates of Steel Structures 15)
2.3.2 Corrosion Rates of Steel
(1) The corrosion rate of steel shall be determined as appropriate in view of the environmental conditions of the site
where structures are placed because the corrosion rate depends on the corrosive environmental conditions.
(2) The corrosion rate of steel used in port and harbor structures is influenced by the environmental conditions
including the weather conditions, the salinity and pollution level of the sea water, the existence of river water
inflow, etc. Therefore, the corrosion rate should be determined by referring to past cases in the vicinity and survey
results under similar conditions.
(3) The corrosion rate of steel should generally be determined by referring to the standard values listed in Table 2.3.1,
which has been compiled on the basis of survey results on the existing steel structures. However, the values in
Table 2.3.1 are the average ones, and the actual corrosion rate may exceed them depending on the environmental
conditions of the steel material. Therefore, when determining the corrosion rate of steel, the results of corrosion
surveys under similar conditions should be referred to. It should also be noted that the values in Table 2.3.1 refer
to the corrosion rate for only one side of the steel section. Thus, when the both sides of steel section are subject
to corrosion, the sum of the corrosion rates of the both sides estimated on the basis of the values in Table 2.3.1
should be employed.
(4) The values for “HWL or higher” in Table 2.3.1 refer to the corrosion rate immediately above HWL. The corrosion
rate between the HWL and the seawater sections should be determined by referring to actual corrosion rates in
the properties of sea water around the structures. This is because past corrosion surveys have shown that the
corrosion rate varies depending on the properties of sea water and the depth of water. The values in Table 2.3.1
are listed as references with a range of variation. In general, the corrosion in the intertidal zone should be dealt
with separately from that in the submerged zone because of the differences in the environmental conditions. The
appropriate boundary between them is around 1.0 m below LWL.
In cases of the concentrated corrosion, the corrosion rate greatly exceeds the values listed in Table 2.3.1, and
thus these values are not applicable to such cases.
(5) In oxygen-isolated spaces such as the inside of steel pipe piles, it may be assumed that corrosion cannot occur
because there is no supply of oxygen.
– 332 –
Table 2.3.1 Standard Values of Corrosion Rates for Steel 15)
Corrosive environment Corrosion rate (mm/year)

HWL or higher 0.3
Seaside
HWL – LWL -1 m 0.1–0.3
LWL -1 m – seabed 0.1–0.2
Under seabed 0.03
Land side
Above ground and exposed to air 0.1

Underground (residual water level and above) 0.03
Underground (residual water level and below) 0.02
(6) Sand abrasion is a phenomenon in which the rust layer on the steel surface is removed by the movement of sand
to expose the bare steel and to result in increasing the corrosion rate.17) There are examples where steel sheet pile
was used as a sediment control groin and the mean corrosion rate due to sand corrosion directly above the sand
surface was from 1.25 to 2.39 mm/year.18) When the vertical motion of the sand surface is small, the sections of
abrasion are limited to areas immediately above the sand surface and so it is said that the corrosion rates become
larger in these sections.
2.3.3 Corrosion Protection Methods
(1) Corrosion protection methods for steel shall be undertaken as appropriate by employing the cathodic protection
method, the covering/coating method, or other corrosion prevention method, depending on the environmental
conditions in which the steel material exists. For the sections below the mean low water level, the cathodic
protection shall be employed. For the sections above the depth of 1.0 m below L.W.L., the covering/coating
method shall be employed.
(2) In the intertidal zone and submerged zone, there is a risk of concentrated corrosion, depending on the corrosive
environmental conditions. Therefore, in principle, corrosion protection by means of the thickness allowance
should not be undertaken as a corrosion protection method for steel structures in Japan. However, in the case of
temporary structures, it is acceptable to employ the corrosion allowance method as corrosion prevention.
(3) The backfilling side of steel sheet pile has a slower corrosion rate than that of the seaward side, and thus no
corrosion protection is required in particular. In cases where a strongly corrosive environment is conjectured
due to the influence of waste material in the backfill, however, surveys should be conducted in advance and
appropriate measures should be taken.
(4) For the most effective actual corrosion protection, the covering/coating method is used for sections above 1 m
below L.W.L., while cathodic protection is used for submerged sections below M.L.W.L and for sections in the
sea bottom soil, and their reliability has been verified. When the covering/coating method is used underwater it
is necessary to pay attention to durability when selecting the covering/coating material and to watch for damage,
such as during construction or from collisions with driftwood. In cases where the covering/coating is used both in
the air over the sea and in sections within the water, while the cathodic protection is used in the sea bottom soil, if
a margin to estimate the degradation and damage of the covering/coating material is specified for the performance
verification of the cathodic protection and then cathodic protection can compensate the degraded and damaged
parts of the portions that use covering/coating protection.
2.3.4 Cathodic Protection Method
(1) Range of Application

① The range of application of the cathodic protection shall in principle be at or below M.L.W.L.
② Above the MLWL, corrosion control must be carried out by covering/coating. The zone between M.L.W.L and
the L.W.L. is submerged for a shorter time than that below L.W.L., and thus the corrosion rate is slightly lower.
Also, because the sections immediately below L.W.L. are susceptible to corrosion, the covering/coating should
extend to a certain depth below L.W.L. and should be combined with the cathodic protection.
③ During port construction there may be a period with no corrosion protection after steel pipe pile and steel sheet
pile have been driven in and before the superstructure has been constructed, and there may be periods of no
corrosion protection when the anodes used for cathodic protection are replaced. During such periods of no
corrosion protection the steel may have been exposed to concentrated corrosion, so sufficient care should be
taken.
– 333 –
④ As listed in Table 2.3.2, the effect of the cathodic protection, the corrosion rate increases when the period of
immersion of the steel subject to corrosion in sea water is longer and decreases when it is shorter. The seawater
immersion ratio and the corrosion rate are expressed in equation (2.3.4) and (2.4.5), respectively.
(2.3.4)
(2.3.5)
Table 2.3.2 Corrosion Control Ratio of the Cathodic Protection Method
Seawater immersion ratio(%) Corrosion control rate

below 40 % below 40 %
equal to or greater than 40 % but below 80 % equal to or greater than 40 % but below 60 %
equal to or greater than 80 % but below 100 % equal to or greater than 60 % but below 90 %
100% equal to 90 % or over
⑤ In general, 90% is used for the standard corrosion efficiency rate for the area below M.L.W.L.
⑥ The cathodic protection is divided into a galvanic anode method and a impressed current method. Under the
galvanic anodes method, aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn) and other alloy are electrically connected
to the steel structure and the electric current generated by the difference in potential between the two metals
is used as a corrosion protection current. This method is applied almost universally in cathodic protection of
port steel structures in Japan, mainly because of ease of maintenance. The characteristics of the galvanic anode
materials are listed in Table 2.3.3. Aluminum alloy anodes offer the highest flux of current generated per unit
of mass, are outstandingly economical, and are suited to both the seawater zone and seabed environments.
Therefore, aluminum alloy anodes are most commonly used for port steel structures.
Under the impressed current method, an electrode is connected to the positive pole of an external DC power
source and the steel structure is connected to the negative pole. Then a protective current is applied towards the
steel structure from the current electrode. In sea water, a platinum or oxide coating electrode is often used as
the working electrode. Since the output voltage can be arbitrary adjusted with the impressed current method,
it can be applied to the environments featuring pronounced fluctuations such as strong currents or the inflow of
river water, and the places where a fine potential control is required.
Table 2.3.3 Characteristics of Galvanic Anode Materials 15)
Pure Zn, Zn
Characteristics Al-Zn-In Mg-Mn Mg-6Al-3Zn
alloy
Specific gravity 2.6–2.8 7.14 1.74 1.77
Open circuit anode voltage (V) (SCE) 1.08 1.03 1.56 1.48
Effective voltage to iron (V) 0.25 0.20 0.75 0.65
Theoretical generated electricity flux (A·h/g) 2.87 0.82 2.20 2.21
In seawater with Generated electricity flux (A·h/g) 2.30 2.60 0.78 1.10 1.22
1mA/cm 2 Consumed amount (kg/A)/year 3.8 3.4 11.8 8.0 7.2
In soil with 0.03mA/ Generated electricity flux (A·h/g) 1.86* 0.53 0.88 1.11
cm2 Consumed amount (kg/A)/year 4.71 16.5 10.0 7.9
Note)*Fluctuates depending on material composition.
⑦ In the galvanic anode method, the attachment of the anode to the steel material is usually accomplished by
underwater welding. There have been reports on the steel sheet pile quaywalls where the underlying soil became
liquefied during an earthquake so that an excessive amount of soil pressure acted upon the steel sheet pile and the
portion that had been welded underwater suffered brittle fracture.15) Therefore, preventative measures should
be applied, such as (1) modifying the chemical composition of steel sheet pile to adapt it to underwater welding,
or (2) before driving in the sheet pile, while still on land, welding a cover plate of steel appropriate for welding
to the portion where the anode will be attached, and then welding the anode to the cover plate underwater.
– 334 –
(2) Protective Potential

① In general, the protective potential of port steel structures shall be -780 mV vs. Ag/AgCl(seaw) electrode.
② When applying a protective current through a steel structure by the cathodic protection technique, the potential
of the steel structure gradually shifts to a low level. When it reaches a certain potential, corrosion is to be
protected. This potential is known as the protective potential.
③ To measure the potential of steel structures, an electrode that indicates stable reference values even in the
different environmental conditions should be used as the reference. The electrode that provides the standard
value is known as the reference electrode. In seawater, in addition to the Ag/AgCl electrode, the saturated
mercurous chloride electrode and the saturated copper sulfate electrode are sometimes used. The value of the
protective potential differs depending on the reference electrode used for measurement, as in the following:
Seawater-silver/silver-chloride electrode; -780 mV

Saturated mercurous chloride electrode; -770 mV
Saturated copper sulfate electrode; -850 mV
④ When combining the covering/coating and cathodic protection methods, particularly with the impressed current
method, care should be taken not to let the coating film deteriorate due to excessive current. The potential in
this case should ideally be -800 to -1,100 mV vs. Ag/AgCl electrode.
(3) Protective Current Density
① Protective current density shall be set to an appropriate value because it varies greatly depending on the marine
environment.
② When applying the cathodic protection, a certain current density per unit surface area of the steel is needed in
order to polarize the potential of the steel to a more base value than the protective potential. This density is
known as the protective current density. The value of this protective current density decreases with the elapse of
time from the initial value at the start of cathodic protection, and finally reaches a constant value. The constant
value is around 40% to 50% of the initial value.
③ The protective current density varies with temperature, currents, waves, and water quality. Where there is
an inflow of river water or various discharges, or where there is a high concentration of sulfides, the required
protective current generally increases. Also, where the water current is fast, the required protective current
increases. When verifying performance, the performance of the existing facilities in the area should be referred
to for characteristic value settings.
④ The protective current density at the start of cathodic protection should be based on the standard values listed in
Table 2.3.4 for the bare steel surface in normal sea conditions.
⑤ As the duration of protection goes on, the generated current weakens. Therefore, the average generated current
density for calculating the life time of the anode is often taken as the following, depending on the duration of
protection:
When protected for 5 years; 0.55 x initial generated current density

If the protection is intended to last for more than 15 years, the value for 15 years should be applied.
⑥ If a portion covered with protective material exists within the range of application of cathodic protection, the
value of the protective current density should be set by assuming a certain rate of damage to the covering/
coating material. In seawater the following values may be set:
Paint; 20 +100 S (mA/m2)

Concrete; 10 +100 S (mA/m 2)
Organic coating; 100 S (mA/m 2)
where S is the rate of damage defined as the ratio of assumed damaged covered area to the total covered
area.
However, if the protective current density obtained from the above equation exceeds the values indicated in
⑤ values in Table 2.3.4 may be employed.
– 335 –
Table 2.3.4 Protective Current Density at Start of Cathodic Protection (mA/m2) 15)
Clean sea area Polluted sea areas

In seawater 100 130-150
In rubble mound 50 65-75
In soil (below seabed) 20 26-30
In soil (above seabed) 10 10
2.3.5 Covering/Coating Method
(1) Range of Application

① It is better to apply the covering/coating method to the sections in port steel structures, where the duration of
seawater immersion is short because the cathodic protection cannot be applied to them.
As described in 2.3.4 Cathodic Protection Method, the range of application of the cathodic protection
method is designated as below M.L.W.L. However, concentrated corrosion is liable to occur in the vicinity
of M.L.W.L., while the duration of immersion in seawater is shortened by the effects of waves and seasonal
fluctuations in tide levels. Therefore, the covering/coating method should be applied in combination with the
cathodic protection to the sections above the depth of 1 m below L.W.L.
② In steel sheet pile revetments in shallow sea areas, the covering/coating method is sometimes applied to the
whole length of the structure depthwise. By combining the cathodic protection and covering/coating methods
in sea water sections, the life of the galvanic anode may be extended.15)
(2) Applicable Methods
① The covering/coating method applied to port steel structures shall be one of the following four methods:
(a) Painting
(b) Organic covering/coating
(c) Petrolatum covering/coating
(d) Inorganic covering/coating
② The covering/coating protection method basically controls corrosion by blocking the covered/coated material
from corrosive environmental factors. The applicable range for the covering/coating protection method depends
on the type, so that there are some methods that apply mainly to the intertidal zone, the splash zone, and the
atmospheric zone, and there are other methods that apply in the seawater. In the seawater, the covering/coating
method may be used together with the cathodic corrosion protection, or coating corrosion protection may be
used alone. Moreover, some methods are only applicable to new facilities and other methods are applicable to
not only new facilities but also existing facilities.
(3) Selection of Methods
When selecting the covering/coating protection method and determining the specification it is necessary to
investigate each of the following items:
(a) Environmental conditions
(b) Range of corrosion protection
(c) Design working life
(d) Maintenance plan
(e) Construction conditions
(f) Construction duration
(g) Corrosion state and degradation of existing covering/coating material
(h) Initial design conditions
(i) Others
The above g) and h) are only applicable to existing structures.
– 336 –
References
1) Japan Standard Association: JIS Handbook, Iron and Steel I, II, Japan Industrial Standards, 2002
2) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. II, Steel Bridge, p. 111, 2004
4) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. I, General, p.p. 59, pp. 82, 2004
5) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures, Structural performance verification, pp.38-44, 2002
7) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. II, Steel Bridge, p.136-141, 2004
8) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. I, General, p.p. 71, 2004
9) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. II, Steel Bridge, p. 151-180, 2004
10) Japan Standard Association : JIS Handbook, Iron and Steel Part I and II, Japan Standard, 2002
11) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. I, General, p. 73, 2007
12) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. II, Steel Bridge, p.136-141, 2004
13) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. I, General, 2004
14) Japan Standard Association : JIS Handbook, Screw Part I, Japan Standard, 2002
15) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Manual for corrosion protection and maintenance work for port steel facilities,
iron slug hydration hardener (revised Edition), 200,
16) H.A. Humble: The cathodic protection of steel piling in seawater, Corrosion, Vol.5 No.9, p.292, 1949
17) Abe, M., T. Fukute, K. Shimizu and I. Yamamoto: Effect of cathodic corrosion protection against sand erosion in wavy sea
area., Proceeding of 42nd open forum on corrosion and corrosion protection, C-203,pp.371-374,1995
18) C. W. Ross: Deterioration of steel sheet pile groins at Palm Beach, Florida, Corrosion, Vol.5 No.10, pp.339-342,1949
– 337 –
3 Concrete
3.1 Materials of Concrete
The constituent materials of concrete and their special care taken for port facilities are as follows;
(1) Cement
(2) Water
(3) Additive agent
(4) Admixture
(5) Aggregate
(6) Initial Chloride Ion Content
To reduce the risk of corrosion of steel inside the concrete, the amount of chloride ion contained in fresh concrete
should be no more than 0.30 kg/m3.
(7) Alkali Aggregate Reaction Prevention Measures
To prevent alkali aggregate reactions it is necessary to make appropriate choices among the following three
preventative measures:
① Controlling the total amount of alkali within the concrete
Use a material such as Portland cement for which the total amount of alkali is known and verify that the total
amount of alkali within the concrete is no more than 3.0 kg/m3.
② Using materials such as blended cement
Use a cement that controls alkali aggregate reactions, such as type B or type C blast furnace slag cement or type
B or type C fly ash cement.
③ Methods that use aggregates known to be safe against alkali aggregate reaction
(8) Of the various types of cement, those having good seawater resistance characteristics are said to be the moderate
heat portland cement, blast-furnace slag cement, and fly ash cement. The advantages of these types of cement are
that they have excellent performance in durability against seawater, greatly promote long-term strength, and have
low hydration heat. However, they also have the disadvantage as relatively low initial strength. Therefore, when
using these types of cement, all due care needs to be given to initial curing.
The anti-corrosion properties of steel reinforcement in concrete produced with type B blast furnace slag
cement is better than concrete made with ordinary Portland cement 1).
In this case, it is important to perform a sufficient initial care of concrete.
(9) Seawater must not be used as mixing water for reinforced concrete. It may be used for non-reinforced concrete
only when it is difficult to obtain clean freshwater.
One must note that, when seawater is used, the setting time of the cement becomes short, so the concrete tends
to lose its consistency at an early stage. In such cases a retarder may be used as necessary.
3.2 Concrete Quality and Performance Characteristics
(1) Concrete should be of uniform quality with good workability and have the properties for meeting the strength
requirements, durability, impermeability, crack resistance and protection of steel reinforcement.
(2) Concrete should be resistant against deterioration caused by environmental actions, waves and mechanical actions
such as impact and friction caused by drifting solids.
(3) Characteristic Values for Concrete Strength
① For the characteristic values of concrete strength of an ordinary concrete to be used in the performance
verification of the main structural members of port facilities, it is usually possible to use the values given in
Table 3.2.1 as standard values.
Table 3.2.1 Standard Characteristic Values of Concrete Strength of Ordinary Concrete
Concrete type Characteristic value of concrete strength

Non-reinforced concrete Compressive 18 (N/mm 2)
Reinforced concrete Compressive 24 (N/mm2)
Concrete for apron pavement Bending 4.5 (N/mm 2)
– 338 –
For reinforced concrete, in cases when the maximum water-to-cement ratio is specified as 50% or lower in
consideration of durability, 30 N/mm 2 may be used as the characteristic value for the compression strength.
For concrete lids of non-reinforced concrete, in cases where there is a risk of wave impact or submerging in the
early stage after concrete placement, or when construction is done in a cold climate, a characteristic value of 24
N/mm2 may be used for the compression strength. For large, deformed blocks of non-reinforced concrete it is
possible to specify the characteristic value based on the conditions, such as using 21 N/mm 2 as the characteristic
value for compression strength for types from 35t to 50t of their nominal weights.
② Characteristic values for the bond strength of ordinary concrete in the performance verification can be
calculated from equation (3.2.1).2)
(3.2.1)
where
f bo = characteristic value of the bond strength of ordinary concrete (N/mm 2)
k
fc = characteristic value of the compressive strength of ordinary concrete (N/mm 2)
k
Equation (3.2.1) applies to the use of deformed reinforcing bar conformed to JIS G 3112, Steel Bar for
Reinforced Concrete. When ordinary round steel bars are used, values that are 40% of the values calculated
from equation (3.2.1) may be used under the condition of providing semicircular hooks on the edges of the
reinforcement.
(4) Mixture conditions for concrete must be specified appropriately in consideration of durability. Table 3.2.2, which
provides standard mixture conditions for each type of structural member, is based upon verification results of
the existing concrete structures in ports and upon research results and technical knowledge on the durability of
concrete that is affected by seawater, and may be used as a reference. For the structural members for which there
have been loss in performance by chloride attack, such as the superstructures of piers, it is necessary to examine
durability, changes in performance over time, and appropriately specify the mixture conditions in order to achieve
the desired performance for the facility. Such examinations may refer to Part III, Chapter 2, 1.1.5, Examination
on Change in Performance Over Time, and Part III, Chapter 5, 5.2, Open-type Wharf on Vertical Piles.
Table 3.2.2 Reference for Concrete Mixture Conditions based on the Type of Structural Member
Mixture conditions
Maximum water-to-cement ratio (%)
Type Examples of types of structural members Regions where the Maximum
Regions where size of coarse
temperature rarely
freezing and thawing aggregate
goes below the
repeatedly occurs
freezing point of water
Superstructure of breakwater, concrete lid, main
Non- block, deformed block (for wave dissipation or 65
reinforced shielding), foot protection block, packed concrete 65 40
concrete Superstructure of quaywall, parapet, mooring
60
vertical foundation (gravity type)
Mooring post foundations (pile-type), chest walls,
60 65 20, 25, 40
superstructure of quaywalls*1)
Superstructure of open-type wharf – – –
Reinforced
Caisson, well, cellular block, L-shaped block 50 50 20, 25, 40
concrete
Wave-dissipating block 55 55 20, 25 40
Anchor wall,
60 60 20, 25, 40
superstructure of anchor piles
Concrete for apron pavement – – 25 (20)*2), 40
*1) Excludes superstructure of piers.
*2) Use 25 mm for gravel and 20 mm for crushed stone.
(5) Concrete must have the best consistency sufficient for its working conditions. As a rule, AE concrete shall be used
when there are no special requirements, usually with an air content of 4.5%. In cold areas where there is a risk of
frost damage the air content must be appropriately specified.
(6) Recently, a high performance concrete with self-compacting characteristics has been developed.3), 4) Its
characteristics have been materialized through its high fluidity and outstanding resistance to material segregation
by the combined use of appropriate admixtures. The use of this high-performance concrete makes it possible to
place concrete into sections such as in congested reinforced sections or in spaces enclosed by steel shells in which
– 339 –
concrete placing have been difficult by using ordinary concrete .
(7) Construction Joints
In case of port facilities, damage often arises from joints in the concrete.5) Therefore, construction joints should
be avoided as much as possible. When joints are inevitable in view of shrinkage of the concrete or the conditions
of construction, necessary measures should be taken on the joints. 6)
(8) Surface Protection
For facilities that experience harsh conditions such as abrasion or impact, such as from flowing water that contains
sand particles or from waves that contain pebbles, it is necessary to protect the surfaces with appropriate materials,
or to increase the material’s cross-section or the concrete cover to reinforcement. Surface protection materials
include surface coatings that use timber, high quality stone, steel materials, or polymer materials, and also include
polymer-impregnated concrete.
(9) Structural Types
It is known that there is a close connection between the structural type of a facility and the occurrence of chloride-
induced deterioration. As far as the type of member is concerned, beams and slabs are more sensitive to chloride-
induced deterioration than are columns and walls. Chloride ions, oxygen, and water cause deterioration when they
penetrate through the concrete surface, so it is preferable to make the area of the concrete surface of a member
as small as possible. For example, it is easier to decrease the concrete surface area by using box-shaped beams
and slabs than by using T-shaped beams and I-shaped beams, and this is desired from the viewpoint of durability.
Assuming that there will be degradation, an additional consideration is to select structural types that permit easy
repair, strengthening, or replacement.
3.3 Underwater Concrete
(1) Performance verification of underwater concrete shall be verified its performance and be executed according
to Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures 7) or Port and Harbor Construction Work Common
Specifications. 8)
(2) In addition to the underwater concrete that has generally been used in the past, today it is also possible to use anti-
segregation underwater concrete, which uses anti-segregation underwater admixtures whose main components
are cellulose or acrylic water-soluble polymers.
(3) It is preferable to avoid concrete construction joints, and when they are not avoidable appropriate processing must
be performed.
(4) The concrete cover used in underwater construction should be 10 cm or more. This value is determined by referring
to sources such as standards for underwater concrete used for cast-in-place pile and continuous underground
walls.
3.4 Concrete Pile Materials
(1) The physical values of concrete pile materials used in port facilities shall be appropriately specified based on their
characteristics.
(2) Precast Concrete Pile Molded by Centrifugal Force
Precast concrete pile molded by centrifugal force includes RC pile, which is a reinforced concrete pile that is made
in the factory, PC pile, to which a tensile force is applied to reinforcement or PC tendon, thereby increasing its
tensile strength and bending strength (and this is divided into three types, A, B, and C, based on the amount of
effective pre-stress), and PHC pile, which uses high-strength concrete with a standard design strength of 80 N/
mm 2 or more. Recently, the main trend has been to use PHC pile. Beside these, there are PRC piles, which is a
pile that adds reinforcement to PHC pile in order to increase its toughness, and SC pile, which has high-strength
concrete inside of a steel pipe to provide large bending strength and shear strength. For these types of precast
concrete pile the Japanese Industrial Standard has JIS A 5372, Prestressed Reinforced Concrete Products, for
RC pile and SC pile, and JIS A 5373, Precast Prestressed Concrete Products, for PHC pile and PRC pile.
In the performance verification, when specifying characteristic values for the concrete strength and yield
strength of steel of precast concrete pile it is possible to refer to JIS A 5372 and JIS A 5373, while for PC steel
bars one can refer to JIS G 3137, Small Diameter Deformed PC Steel Bars, for the reinforcement of PRC pile
one can reference JIS G 3112, Steel Bars for Reinforced Concrete, and for the steel pipes of SC pile one can
reference JIS A 5525, Steel Pipe Pile.
(3) Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile
Cast-in-place concrete pile is divided into types with and without an outer shell. The special feature of cast-in-
place concrete pile is that the pile is constructed while it is situated in the ground. Therefore, the cast-in-place
– 340 –
concrete pile is different from the precast concrete pile in that it is not necessary to be concerned with influences
such as impact when it is placed into the ground, but rather, different from the case when it is fabricated on land,
there is the problem that during its construction it is influenced by pile constructed in the surrounding ground.
For this reason, the cast-in-place concrete pile has some insecure characteristics during construction, and those
without an outer shell have greater insecurity, so care must be taken. A reference for cast-in-place pile is the
Specification for Highway Bridges, Part 4, Substructures.13)
References
1) Fukute, T., K. Yamamoto and H. Hamada: A study of the durability of offshore concrete mixed with sea water, Report of
PHRI, Vol.29, No. 3, 1990
2) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures, Structural performance verification, 2002
3) Fukute T., H. Hamada, K. Miura, K. Sano, A. Moriwake and K. Hamazaki: Applicability of super-workable concrete using
viscous agent to densely reinforced concrete members, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 33 No. 2, pp. 231-257, 1994
4) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): High-fluidity Concrete Manual for Port Facilities, 1997
5) Seki, H., Y. Onodera and H. Maruyama: Deterioration of Plain Concrete for Coastal Structures Under Maritime Environments,
Technical Note of PHRI, No. 142, 1972
6) Otsuki, N., M. Harashige and H. Hamada: Test on the Effects of Joints on the Durability of Concrete in Marine Environment
(after 10 years’ exposure), Technical Note of PHRI, No.606,1988
7) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures, Construction, 2002
8) Japan Port Association: Standard Specifications for Port Construction Work, Japan Port Association, 2005
9) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT)and Japanese Institute of Technology on Fishing Ports, Grounds and
Communities: Manual for non-disjunction underwater concrete, (Design and construction), 1989
10) JSCE: Guideline for design and construction of unti-segregation concrete in underwater (Draft), JSCE Concrete Library,
No.67, 1991
11) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Manual for sealing concrete construction with vibrator (for immersed
tunnel element of steel and concrete sandwich structure), 2004
12) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Technical Manual for PC sheet pile for port construction work, 2000.
13) Japan Road Association: Specifications and commentary for Highway Bridges Vol. IV, Substructures, pp.418-424,2002
– 341 –
4 Bituminous Materials
4.1 General
(1) Bituminous materials used in port facilities shall satisfy the required quality and performance required to achieve
the performance requirement of facilities. These shall include elasticity, cohesion, impermeability, waterproofness,
durability, and weatherproofness.
(2) Bituminous materials are rarely used alone. Asphalt, for example, is usually mixed with aggregate and used as
an asphalt mixture in asphalt concrete for pavement, asphalt mats, sand mastic asphalt, and asphalt stabilization.
The type and mix proportion of asphalt depend on its use. Therefore, it is important to select a material that will
meet the required objective.
4.2 Asphalt Mats

4.2.1 General
(1) Asphalt mats shall have an appropriate structure in consideration of the required strength, durability, and workability
based on the purpose of their use, the location of their use, and the environmental conditions of the site.
(2) Asphalt mats are made by embedding reinforcement material and wire rope for suspension into a compound
material mixed from asphalt, limestone filler, sand and crushed stone. They are then formed into a mat-shape (see
Fig. 4.2.1).
Annealed
steel wire
Steel
bands Reinforcement
core material
Anti-slip bracket
Steel reinforcement
Asphalt compound material Wire rope
Fig. 4.2.1 Example of Structure of Friction Enhancement Asphalt Mat
(3) Types of asphalt mats include friction enhancement mats that increase the sliding resistance of gravity type
structure walls, scouring prevention mats that prevent the scouring of structural foundations, and sand
washing out prevention mats that prevent the washing out of foundation sand mound and backfilling sand from
revetments. When asphalt mats are used sufficient care should be given to their quality, long-term durability, and
constructability, based on the purpose of their use, the location of their use, and the environmental conditions of
the site. In particular, when there are special environmental conditions such as cold regions, subtropical regions,
or tidal zones, one must consider the harsh environmental conditions with regard to long-term durability, 1), 2) and
careful studies should be made, including the determination of appropriateness.
4.2.2 Materials
(1) Asphalt mat materials shall be selected as appropriate to yield the required strength and durability.
(2) The following materials can be used in asphalt mats:
① Asphalt
② Sand
③ Filler
④ Crushed Stone
– 342 –
4.2.3 Mix Proportion
(1) The mix proportion used for asphalt mixture is determined by mix proportion test to get the desired strength
and flexibility. Friction enhancement mats and scouring prevention mats have a relatively long history and a
considerably long record of use. They have caused no particular problem to date.3) Therefore, the values given in
Table 4.2.1 may be used, except for special use conditions.
Table 4.2.1 Standard Proportion for Asphalt Mixture
Ratio by mass(%)
Material
Friction enhancement mat Scouring prevention mat
Asphalt 10–14 10–14
Dust 14–25 14–25
Fine aggregate 20–50 30–50
Coarse aggregate 30–50 25–40
Notes: Dust is sand or filler with a grain size of 0.074 mm or less.
Fine aggregate is crushed stone, sand, or filler with a grain size from 0.074 to 2.5 mm.
Coarse aggregate is crushed stone with a grain size of 2.5 mm or larger.
4.3 Paving Materials
(1) Paving materials shall in principle comply with Asphalt Paving Guidelines, 5) except in the areas subject to
special load conditions.
(2) Aprons are an example of the “areas subject to special load conditions”. Traffic on pavements particularly apron
paving in port areas, unlike that on roads in city areas, almost invariably involves heavy vehicles. This includes
heavy machinery with large contact pressure. This type of load rarely travels at high speed and is almost always
stationary or moving at low speeds. Parts of these paved areas are also used for cargo stacking. Thus, when
considering the paving materials to be applied to such areas, care should be taken to the fact that bituminous
materials are susceptible to static loading. Part III, Chapter 5, 9.14. Aprons can be used as a reference.
(3) Guss asphalt paving has the properties of being non-permeable and of following deflection well, so it is often used
for steel floor slab paving and bridge surface paving.
4.4 Sand Mastic

4.4.1 General
(1) Sand mastic asphalt is made of asphalt heat-mixed with an ore-based filler or additive and sand. The sand mastic
asphalt is an asphalt mixture virtually free of voids and does not require rolling compaction after grouting.
(2) Sand mastic asphalt at a certain high temperature is grouted into gaps between rubbles without segregation in
water by pouring it onto the rubble mound. The grouted sand mastic asphalt wraps itself around the rubble to form
a single unit, thus preventing the stone from breaking off or being washed away. It is sometimes used when it is
not possible or uneconomical to obtain rubbles of the size required.
(3) When conducting the performance verification of sand mastic asphalt, due attention should be paid to the plastic
flow due to the material properties of asphalt so that stability problem will not arise.
4.4.2 Materials
(1) Materials for sand mastic asphalt shall be selected as appropriate to meet the required strength and durability.
(2) For example, the following can be used as sand mastic materials:
① Asphalt
② Sand
③ Filler
(3) Asphalt that is used as sand mastic in underwater construction 6), 7) should have sufficient fluidity so that, if it is
flowed down, the rubble is completely filled in with no pores.
– 343 –
(4) With regard to the effect of sand on mixtures, the larger the sand grains the greater is the fluidity of the mixture,
and although a certain amount of fluidity can be obtained with a small amount of asphalt the mixture readily
segregates. The smaller the grain size the less fluidity there is, creating a dense sand mastic. Therefore, it is
preferable that the sand grain sizes be continuous, where the grain-size curve changes smoothly, so that the
mixture does not segregate.
(5) When filler is mixed into asphalt mixtures, it mixes with the asphalt to fill in the spaces among the aggregate while
simultaneously working as a binding agent to decrease the fluidity of the mixture, thus increasing the viscosity
and stability. Asphalt usually adheres well to filler that is slightly alkali, so it is possible to use filler made from
slightly alkali lime powder.
4.4.3 Mix Proportion
(1) The mix proportion shall be determined through mixing tests to obtain the required fluidity and strength in view
of the work and natural conditions.
(2) General
The values listed in Table 4.4.1 are commonly used as the mix proportion for sand mastic asphalt applied
underwater.
Table 4.4.1 Standard Proportion for Sand Mastic Asphalt Mix
Material Proportion by mass(%)

Asphalt 16–20
Dust 18–25
Fine aggregate 55–66
Note: Dust refers to sand or filler passed through a 0.074 mm sieve.
Fine aggregate is crushed stone, sand, or filler remaining on a 0.074 mm sieve.
(3) Notes on the Performance Verification

Notes on the design of sand mastic asphalt is as follows:
① It should not be used in locations directly affected by powerful impulsive wave pressure or drifting objects.
② It should not be used in locations where rapid sedimentation is anticipated.
③ The gradient of the rubble surface where sand mastic is executed is preferably gentle than 1:1.3.
④ Suitable reinforcement should be used on the slope shoulder, slope toe, and the edges of the execution area.
⑤ The relationship between the design working life of port facilities and the durability of the sand mastic asphalt
should be fully taken into account.
References
1) Imoto, T., Y. Mizuno and K. Yano: Research on durability of asphalt mats employed in the gravity type port facilities,
Proceedings of Offshore Development, JSCE, to utilized to Survey Vo1.5,pp.119-124,1989
2) Mizuno Y., M. Tokunaga, Y. Sugimoto, K. Murase and O. Yasuda: Development and study of asphalt mats for friction
increase of gravity type of offshore structures in cold sea area, Proceedings of Offs shore Development Vol. 8, pp. 171-176,
1992
3) Kataoka, S., K. Nishi, M. Yazima and O. Miura: Durability of asphalt mats placed under Caisson for friction increase,
Proceedings of 30th Conference on Coastal Eng, pp,643-647,1983
4) Itakura, T. and T. Sugahara : Recent Development of Asphalt utilization, Journal of Japanese Petroleum Institute Vol. 7, No.
8, p.9, 1964
5) Japan Road Association: Essential points of asphalt pavement, 1998
6) Study group for asphalt mixture for hydraulic structures: Asphalt mixture for hydraulic structures- materials, design and
construction for field engineers-, Kajima Publishing, 1976
7) Kagawa, M. and T. Kubo : Experimental study on stability of rubles poured sand mastic, Proceedings of 12th Conference on
Coastal Eng,. JSCE, 1965
– 344 –
5 Stone
5.1 General
(1) Stone shall be selected in view of the required quality and performance to suit its purpose and its cost.
(2) Generally, stone is used in large quantities for port facilities such as breakwaters and quaywalls. Selection of
stone materials has a major impact on the stability of the structure as well as the period and cost of construction.
(3) The types of stone mainly used in port construction and their physical properties are given in Table 5.1.1. It
should be borne in mind that the physical properties of stone of the same classification may differ depending on
the region and site of quarries.
Table 5.1.1 Physical Properties of Stones
Apparent density Water absorption ratio Compressive strength

Rock classification Subclassification
(t/m3) (%) (N/mm2)
Granite 2.60 – 2.78 0.07 – 0.64 85 – 190
Andesite 2.57 – 2.76 0.27 – 1.12 78 – 269
Basalt 2.68 (absolute) 1.85 85
Igneous rock
Gabbro 2.91 (absolute) 0.21 177
Peridotite 3.18 0.16 187
Diabase 2.78 – 2.85 0.008 – 0.03 123 – 182
Tuff 2.64 0.16 377
Slate 2.65 – 2.74 0.08 – 1.37 59 – 185
Sedimentary rock Sandstone 2.29 – 2.72 0.04 – 3.65 48 – 196
Limestone 2.36 – 2.71 0.18 – 2.59 17 – 76
Chert 2.64 0.14 119
Metamorphic rock Hornfels 2.68 0.22 191
5.2 Rubble for Foundation Mound
(1) Rubble for foundation mounds shall be hard, dense and durable, and free from the possibility of breaking due to
weathering and freezing. The shape of rubbles shall not be flat or oblong.
(2) When determining which type of stone to use, tests should first be conducted and the material properties be fully
ascertained. The ease of procurement, transportability, and price should also be taken into account.
(3) The shear properties of rubble stones have been studied by Shoji 1) using various large-scale triaxial compression
tests. This study is based on the state of rubble actually used in port and harbor construction works.
(4) As a guideline proposed by Mizukami and Kobayashi 2) for determining the strength constant without conducting
large-scale triaxial compression tests, a shear strength of 0.02 N/mm2 and a shearing resistance angle of 35º can
be expected if the unconfined compressive strength is 30 N/mm 2 or more.
5.3 Backfilling Materials
(1) Backfilling materials shall be selected in view of their properties such as angle of shear resistance and specific
weight.
(2) Rubble, unscreened gravel, cobblestone, and steel slag are generally used as backfilling materials. The material
properties of mudstone, sandstone, and steel slag vary greatly, and therefore these should be examined carefully
before use.
(3) The values listed in Table 5.3.1 are often used as characteristic values for backfilling materials.
(4) “Rubble” used in ports and harbors has the equivalent performance to “riprap” prescribed by JIS A 5006.
(5) “Unscreened gravel” consists approximately half and half of sand and gravel.
(6) The slope gradient is the standard value of the natural gradient of backfilling materials executed in the sea.
Generally, a larger value is adopted when the effect of waves are small at the time of backfilling execution, and a
smaller value when the effect of waves are large.
(7) For steel slag, see 7.2 Slag.
– 345 –
Table 5.3.1 Characteristic Values for Backfilling Materials
Unit weight
Angle of shear Above residual water Below residual water
Slope gradient
resistance(°) level level
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
Ordinary type 40 18 10 1:1.2
Rubble
Brittle type 35 16 9 1:1.2
Unscreened gravel 30 18 10 1:2−1:3
Cobblestone 35 18 10 1:2−1:3
5.4 Base Course Materials of Pavement
(1) Base course materials of pavement shall be selected so as to have the required bearing capacity and high durability
and to allow easy compaction.
(2) Normally, granular material, cement stabilized soil, or bituminous stabilized soil is used as a base course material.
Granular materials include crushed stone, steel slag, unscreened gravel, pit gravel, unscreened crushed stone,
crushed stone dust, and sand. These may be used on their own or mixed with other granular materials.
(3) The base course serves to disperse the surcharge transmitted from above and to transfer it to the course bed.
Normally, it is divided into a lower base course and an upper base course. Materials used for the lower base course
are cheaper and have relatively small bearing capacity. The upper base course requires materials of good quality
with large bearing capacity.
References
1) Shoji, Y:. Study on shearing Properties of Rubbles with Large Scale Triaxial Compression Test, Rept. of PHRI Vol.22
No.4,1983
2) Mizukami, J. and M. Kobayashi Soil Strength Characteristics of Rubble by Large Scale Triaxial Compression Test, Technical
Note of PHRI No.699,p.20, 1991
3) Japan Road Association: Cement concrete pavement, Maruzen Publishing, 1997
4) Japan Road Association: Essential points of asphalt pavement, 1998
– 346 –
6 Timber
6.1 General
Timber has the following characteristics in contrast to other construction materials. It is necessary to consider these
characteristics when using timber in port facilities.
(1) Strength Performance
Timber’s strength per unit mass is high. Strength along fiber direction is greater than that perpendicular to
the fiber. Strength in tension is greater than in compression, and bending failure begins by buckling on the
compressed side. The shear strength is small. The changes in strength, dimensions, and specific gravity due to
water content cannot be ignored. There is large creep deformation under a continuous load.
(2) Durability
Degradation, such as discoloration, surface contamination, morphology change, and reduction in strength may
occur due to organisms such as fungi, insects, and marine borers and meteorological factors such as ultraviolet
light, rain, and temperature. The main degradation factors vary greatly depending on the usage environment and
the water content.
(3) Environmental Character
Wood grows by using solar energy to fix carbon dioxide from the air, so it is a material that results in little carbon
dioxide release as a result of its growth. The use of wood from routine thinning contributes to the conservation of
artificial forests. One should be cautious about using timber from natural forests for reasons such as that it leads
to the destruction of forests.
(4) Other
Timber is combustible. It is attractive if there is the proper amount of irregular grain patterns and color variation.
The smell is pleasing to mind and body. It has moderate softness to prevent injuries when one falls to it. It is warm
to the touch because it has low heat conductance. Its frictional coefficients are large, with almost no difference
between the static friction coefficient and dynamic friction coefficient, so it is easy to walk on.
6.2 Strength Performance

The specification of characteristic values for timber strength and the verification of its strength as a material can be
based on the Recommendation for Limit State Design of Timber Structures (Draft) 1) of the Architectural Institute
of Japan (hereafter, the Recommendation (Draft)). The following items are of particular concern when timber is used
in port facilities.
(1) Water Content
The water content of wood is expressed as (weight of water) / (oven dry weight of the wood) x 100 (%). Water
within wood is either bound water or free water. Bound water is bound to cellulose within the cell walls of the
wood. Free water exists in cell cavities. If the water content is no more than about 28% then there is no free water.
Bound water affects timber strength, but free water doesn’t. As shown in the conceptual drawing of Fig.
6.2.1, the strength goes down as the bound water content increases from the oven dry condition to a water content
of 28%, the fiber saturation point, and the strength stays roughly the same when the water content increases
beyond the fiber saturation point and the free water increases. Under the meteorological conditions of Japan
the water content reaches equilibrium around 15%. Therefore, the standard strength characteristic values in
the Recommendation (Draft) are specified based on tests with a water content of 15%. The Recommendation
(Draft) defines constantly wet conditions to be usage environment I, intermittently wet conditions to be usage
environment II, and other environments to be usage environment III, and in usage environment I the standard
strength characteristic values are reduced by multiplication by a coefficient of 0.7, while for usage environment II
they are reduced by a factor of 0.8. For port facilities all materials can be assumed to be in a wet condition, so it
is necessary to reduce the standard strength characteristic values by the coefficient for usage environment I or II.
– 347 –
Coefficient applied to the strength

1
0 15 28 Water content (%)
Fig. 6.2.1 Effect of Water Content on Wood Strength (Conceptual Drawing)
With regard to dimensional changes of wood, expansion, or shirinkage, it is true again that bound water has
an effect but free water doesn’t. The dimensions grow as the water content increases from the oven dry condition
to a water content of 28%, fiber saturation point, and the dimensions stay roughly the same as the water content
increases beyond the fiber saturation point and the free water increases. The dimensional change ratio varies
with the direction, where “direction tangential to the rings” > “direction radial with respect to the rings” » “fiber
direction”, with a ratio of about 1 : 0.5 : 0.1. The total expansion ratio from the completely dry condition to the
fiber saturation point can reach about 6% for the direction tangential to the rings in Japanese cedar. In applications
where the water content below the fiber saturation point is expected to change it is necessary for the design to
consider dimensional changes from the beginning.
The specific gravity of wood varies greatly with the species and water content. In the air-dried condition,
water content 15%, the specific gravity is about 0.38 for Japanese cedar and about 0.53 for larch. For undried logs
immediately after felling and timber that is used underwater the water content may range from 80% to 150%, so
the apparent specific gravity including the water would be as much as twice that in air dry. In the design of port
facilities it is customary to assume that the specific gravity of timber is 0.8, using a density of 7.8 kN/m3, but it is
necessary to remember that the apparent specific gravity can vary greatly with species and water content, and not
to assume a specific gravity on the dangerous side.
(2) Continuous Loading Time
In the Recommendation (Draft), the relationship between continuous loading time and its effect on the influence
coefficients is given as in Fig. 6.2.2. When a load continues longer than 10 minutes, which is the standard loading
test time for wood, the standard strength characteristic value is to be multiplied by an influence coefficient for
the effect of the continuous loading time. Thus, for port facilities, it is necessary to specify continuous loading
times for such factors as the temporary loading time during construction and the long-term continuous loading
time after completion, and reduce the strength characteristic values by the influence coefficients for those effects.
1.1
10 min : 1.00
1
Influence coefficient
0.9 1 day : 0.83
0.8 3 days : 0.80

3 months : 0.71
0.7
0.6
50 yrs : 0.55 250 yrs : 0.50
0.5
0.00001 0.001 0.1 10 1000
Continuous loading time (Years)
Fig. 6.2.2 Continuous Loading Time and Influence Coefficients 1)
– 348 –
(3) Standard Strength Characteristic Values for Logs
In logs, the fibers are not cut, so logs are mechanically better than manufactured wood, and they are suitable
for port facilities both in terms of economics and environmental impact. The Recommendation (Draft) says that
the standard strength characteristic values of logs may be taken from the standard strength characteristic values
given for mechanical grade classifications of manufactured wood.
6.3 Durability
Examples of degradation phenomena that occur when timber is used include discoloration, surface contamination,
morphology change, and reduction in strength. Whether these are considered as problems depends on the timber
application. Discoloration, surface contamination, and morphology change are problems in applications where
appearance is important, such as boardwalks and decks. While for construction materials that are out of sight, such as
pile, reduction in strength would be a problem.
(1) Causes of Degradation 2)
Examples of factors that cause degradation phenomena include organisms such as fungi, insects, and marine
borers 3), 4), 5), and meteorological factors such as ultraviolet light, rain, and temperature. The main degradation
factors depend on the environment in which the timber is used and its water content, as shown in Table 6.3.1.
The water content conditions in the table are: “dry”, meaning the condition where the water content is below the
fiber saturation point, about 28% so that there is no free water, “wet”, meaning that the water content is at the fiber
saturation point or higher but the cell cavities are not saturated with water, and “saturated”, meaning the condition
where the cell cavities are saturated with water.
Table 6.3.1 Usage Environments and Degradation Factors
Examples of Water content

Usage environment Main degradation factors
application condition
Dry Boring beetles
Indoor Residence
Wet Fungi, termites
Outdoor Dry Meteorological factors, boring beetles

In the air
construction
Wet Fungi, termites, meteorological factors
Wet Fungi, termites
In the ground Pile
Outdoor Saturated None
River Wet Fungi
In fresh water
facilities Saturated None
In the Wet Fungi, marine borer
Port facilities
seawater Saturated Marine borer
(2) Preventative Measures for Degradation

Examples of preventative measures for degradation include the use of natural materials with high durability,
protective processing, and maintenance. 6)
References
1) Architectural Institute of Japan: Recommendation for Limit State Design of Timber Structures (Draft), 2003
2) Japan Wood Preserving Association: Introduction for the preservation of wood ‘Revised Edition'), 2001
3) Okada, K. Edition: Shipworm damage of wooden vessel and its countermeasures, Japan Society for the Promotion of science,
1958
4) Tsunoda, K. and Nishimoto, K.: Shipworm attack in the sea water log storage area and its prevention (3), Settlement season
of shipworm, Wood Industry Vol. 35, pp. 166-168, 1980
5) Yamada, M.: Durability Test of Untreated Wood and Wood-powder/plastic Composite in Marine Environment, Technical
Note of PARI No.1045, 2003
6) Japan Wood Preservation Association: Maintenance Manual of wooden exterior structural materials, 2004
– 349 –
7 Recyclable Materials
7.1 General
(1) Recyclable materials shall be used as appropriate in accordance with the characteristics of the materials and the
facilities.
(2) Recyclable materials in port construction include slag, coal ash, crushed concrete, dredged soil, and asphalt
concrete mass. Most of these can be used in landfill materials, sub-base course materials, soil improvement
materials, and concrete aggregate.
(3) Effective use of recyclable materials is extremely important. Port and harbor construction works use large
quantities of materials and it is, therefore, very important that they contribute to environmental conservation and
sustainable development by recycling and using fewer natural materials. We also need to undertake exhaustive
studies before using recycled materials to ensure that no environmental issues arise.
(4) The properties of recyclable materials are quite variable. Therefore, their physical and dynamic properties and the
volume to be supplied should be fully examined in advance to ensure the purpose of use.
7.2 Slag
(1) Slag includes ferro-slag, water granulated copper-slag, and ferronickel granulated slag
(2) Ferro-slag 2) is industrial waste generated in large quantities by the steel industry. It is broadly divided into blast
furnace slag and steel- making slag.
(3) Air-cooled blast furnace slag is a granular material mainly used as road construction material and has been
effectively utilized. Water granulated blast furnace slag is a lightweight sand-like material. As well as being used
as a raw material for blast furnace cement, it is also increasingly used as a backfilling material for ports facilities
and sand compaction material, in view of its lightness.3), 4), 5)
(4) Because steel- slag causes expansion and disintegration when free lime reacts with water, in order to avoid adverse
effect, it is steam autoclaved and used as road and soil improvement materials.
Table 7.2.1 2) lists a comparison of chemical compositions of ferro-slag and ordinary earth materials. Table
7.2.2 lists the physical and dynamic properties of steel- slag and air-cooled blast-furnace slag.
Water granulated copper-slag is a sandy material obtained through high-speed cooling with water in the
copper refining process similar to the water granulated blast furnace slag. It has a higher particle density than
sand. Although it is susceptible to particle crushing, its angle of shear resistance and hydraulic conductivity are
about the same as those of beach sand. As well as being used for fine aggregate of concrete, sand mat and as a
filling material, it has been experimentally used in the sand compaction pile method.6), 7)
Ferronickel granulated blast furnace slag is obtained during the manufacturing of ferronickel that is a raw
material for stainless steel. Its specific weigh is larger than that of sand, and has been used as a caisson filling
material.
Table 7.2.1 Chemical Compositions of Slag and Other Materials 2)

(Units：%)
Item Electric furnace slag Ordinary
Blast furnace Converter Mountain
Oxidizing Andesite Portland
slag slag Reducing slag soil
Component slag cement
SiO2 33.8 13.8 17.7 27.0 59.6 59.6 22.0
CaO 42.0 44.3 26.2 51.0 0.4 5.8 64.2
Al2O3 14.4 1.5 12.2 9.0 22.0 17.3 5.5
T-Fe 0.3* 17.5 21.2 1.5 – 3.1* 3.0**
MgO 6.7 6.4 5.3 7.0 0.8 2.8 1.5
S 0.84 0.07 0.09 0.50 0.01 – 2.0***
MnO 0.3 5.3 7.9 1.0 0.1 0.2 –
TiO2 1.0 1.5 0.7 0.7 – 0.8 –
Note) *：FeO,、**：Fe2O2, ***：SO3
– 350 –
Table 7.2.2 Physical and Dynamic Properties of Steel-Slag and Air-Cooled Blast Furnace Slag
Air-cooled blast furnace slag

Steel- slag
MS–25 CS–40
Bone dryness density (BD) (g/cm3) 3.19–3.40 – –
Water absorption rate (%) 1.77–3.02 – –
Unit weight (kN/m3) 19.7–22.9 17.2–17.8 16.7–17.2
Optimum moisture content (%) 5.69–8.24 8.8–9.4 8.4–9.0
Maximum dry density (g/cm3) 2.34–2.71 2.18–2.21 2.13–2.17
Modified CBR (%) 78–135 170–204 152–186
Coefficient of permeability (cm/s) 10 -2–10 -3 10 -2–10 -3 –
Angle of shear resistance (°) 40–50 – –
(5) Recently, hydration-hardened steel- slag is used as a civil engineering material for port facilities, such as for
deformed blocks, foot protection blocks, and dumping blocks. For details, one can refer to the Hydration-
Hardened Steel-Slag Technical Manual (Supplementary Edition).9)
7.3 Crushed Concrete
(1) Crushed concrete has mainly been used as a base course material for pavement so far, 15) but recently it has
become difficult to obtain good quality aggregate so there are attempts to also use concrete as an aggregate.
(2) When using crushed concrete as a material for aggregate, the properties such as the angle of shear resistance vary
depending on mother concrete. Thus, under present circumstances it is difficult to give the standard values of
their properties. If the properties of the concrete before crushing are similar to those presented in reference 18),
the properties of crushed concrete can be determined by referring to it.
7.4 Dredged Soil
(1) Dredged soil has been used as a landfill material, and when no landfill area is under construction at the time
of dredging it has been used to fill in land at waste disposal sites in port areas. In projects at ports and coastal
airports, large amounts of soils are always used for purposes such as backfilling of quaywalls and seawalls,
construction of reclamation land, and improvement of soft subsoil, so if dredged soil could be used for a larger
percentage of such materials then that would be extremely effective in prolonging the life of waste disposal areas
and reducing construction costs.
(2) When sandy dredged soil is used as reclamation or backfill it may be statically stable but a ground forms that
liquefies extremely easily during ground motions, so some preventative measures are required against liquefaction.
Also, cohesive dredged soil becomes a very soft ground with a high water content, so soil improvement is required
after reclamation. In the past, one soil improvement method that has often been used is the installation of vertical
drains to promote consolidation after the surface layer hardens. In recent years methods of soil improvement have
been developed where dredged cohesive soil is first hardened and then used for reclamation or backfill. These
include the method that use special hardening treatment ship to mix the soil hardening agents and then use it as
reclamation, the method that mix the soil with hardening agents while it is being transported by barges and then
use it as reclamation, and the method that mix it with hardening agents on-site.
(3) Pneumatic flow mixing methods are hardening methods that have been newly developed in order to use dredged soil
more economically as a reclamation material. Such method add hardening agents while soil is being transported
by air pressure within a tube, and use unique mixing equipment to enhance the kneading effect of the dredged
soil’s plug current generated under the pressurized flow, so as to simultaneously transport and harden the dredged
soil. Proposed methods of mixing with hardening agents include the method that pass the soil through line mixers,
the method that add and mix in powdered hardening agents, the method that first add in hardening agents and then
pass the soil through multiple curved tubes to enhance the kneading effect, and the method that provide pipes
at multiple places within the tubes to spray a hardening slurry so as to directly add the hardening agent into the
cohesive soil as it passes through the tube.
(4) Lightweight treated soil methods make dredged soil into a slurry with a water content at the liquid limit or higher,
then add in a cement hardener and a lightweight material such as foam or expanded beads. These methods have
the following characteristics:
① The dredged soil is used effectively, even underwater, to create a stable ground.
– 351 –
② The density is from 10 to 12 kN/m3, so this is effective in reducing the consolidation sedimentation of the
foundation ground and in reducing the earth pressure.
③ The unconfined compressive strength is from 200 to 600 kN/m 2, with the same kind of mechanical characteristics
as hard clay.
The cost of lightweight treated soil methods varies greatly depending on the scope of the project.
Besides these methods, there are also methods that perform dehydration at dredged soil dehydration plants to
prepare reclamation material.
References
1) Takahashi, K.: Utilization of Fly Ash and Steel Slug, Technical Note of PHRI, Technical Note of PHRI
2) Nippon Slag Association: Characteristics and versatility of slag, 1996
3) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT) and Nippon Slag Association: Guideline for the utilization of granulated
blast furnace slag for port construction, 1989
4) Port and Airport Recycling Promotion Forum: Technical guideline for recycling technology in development of port and
airports, (http//:www.mlit.go.jp/kowan/recycle/),2004
5) Muraoka, T.: Report of test construction of Cellular type sea wall utilizing steel manufacture slag, Civil Engineering data,
Vol. 51, No. 7, 1996
6) Kitazume, M S. Miyajima and Y. Nishida: Loading test of back fill of SCP improved soil by copper granulated slag, Proceeding
the 50th Conference of JSCE, 1995
7) Kitazume, M. : Effect of SCP improvement of soil by copper granulated slag on sheet pile sea wall, Proceeding of 31st
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1996
8) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Handbook of utilization of Eco-Slug for port construction work, CDIT, 2006
9) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Technical Manual for iron slug hydration hardener (enlarged Edition), 200,
10) Takahashi, K.: Geotechnical examination on improvement and replacement of port facilities, Soil and Foundation 43-2 (445),
Society of Soil Mechanics and Engineering Science,1995
11) Ban, K., J. Asano and K. Takahashi: Mix proportion of coal ash in deep mixing method and engineering characteristics of
improved soil, Proceeding of 50th Conference of JSCE, 1995
12) A. Watanabe, K. Takahashi and K. Azuma: Engineering Characteristics of Improved Soil by Deep Mixing Method Using
Coal Ash, 12th International Symposium, American Coal AshAssosiation, 1997
13) Miura, M., K. Okuda, H. Kondo, K. Kawasaki and K. Suami: Field experiments of sand compaction utilizing hardened coal
ash, Proceeding of 50th Conference of JSCE, 1995
14) K. Okuda, H, Kondo and M. Miura: Utilization of Solidified Coal Ash as a Substitute for Sand and Stone,121h International
Symposium, American Coal Ash Assosiation,1997
15) Yokota, H. and S. Nakajima: Applicability of Recyclable Materials to Port and Harbour Construction, Technical Note of
PHRI No.824,1996
16) Tanaka, j., T. Fukude., H. Hamada and A. Dozono: A Study on the Properties of Concrete mixed with Crushed Concrete as
Aggregate, Rept. of PHRI Vol.36, No3,pp.37-60,1997
17) Itou, M., T. Fukude, T. Yamaji and J. Tanaka: A Study on Applicability of Recycled Concrete to Marine Structures Vol. 37,
No. 4, 1998
18) Mizukami, J., Y. Kikuchi and H. Yoshino: Characteristics of concrete debris as rubble in marine construction, Technical
Note of PHRI No.906, 1998
– 352 –
8 Other Materials
8.1 Plastic and Rubber
(1) When using plastics and rubbers, material shall be selected appropriately in view of the location and purpose of
use, environmental conditions, durability, and cost.
(2) The following are examples of applications of plastic and rubber in port construction.1), 2)
① Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics is a general term that includes the geotextiles, namely polymer material products in the form of
permeable sheets, as well as geomembranes, which are nonpermeable films.
(a) Permeable materials
Permeable materials may be woven or non-woven. Woven types, geowovens, are woven into a matrix with
perpendicularly crossing warps and woofs. Non-woven types, non-woven geotextiles, are textiles created by
adhesion of fibers, interlocking adhesion, or both.
(b) Water sealing materials
The following are examples of applications of geosynthetics in port construction.
(c) Embankment reinforcing
When laying good-quality soils over a land reclaimed with dredged clay, a sheet or net of geosynthetics is
spreaded directly over the surface. Its purpose is to ensure the passage of heavy machinery, while preventing
subsidence of good-quality soils.4) The net method has often been used in recent reclamation works with soft
ground.5)
(d) Preventing washing out and scouring
When used as a filter material with the aim of preventing sand washing out, a sand invasion prevention cloth
is often laid out on the surface of backfill stone or on the back of rubble mound of the quaywall, and under the
entire bottom of the rubble mound, or under the part of the sea side of the mound. It is also used as a measure
to scouring prevention.
② Joint sealing materials
These include seal plates, joint boards, and grouting materials used in/on the joint sections of concrete structures.
③ Expanded polystyrene
This is used for buoys, pontoon floats, and other civil engineering structures, on account of its lightness.
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) blocks and EPS beads are used as civil engineering materials. Generally, EPS
blocks are used to reduce earth pressure, to counter settlement in embankments on soft ground, and to form
the foundations of temporary roads. EPS beads are mixed with cement or another cementing material together
with soils and used as a lightweight material in backfilling, in order to reduce settlement and earth pressure.8)
(3) The standards for sand invasion prevention cloth and plate, and rubber mats normally used to prevent scouring,
piping or infiltation in port and harbor facilities are as follows:
① Sand invasion prevention cloth
Sand invasion prevention cloth used to prevent invasion of soil into the backfill will normally be determined in
consideration of the constructions conditions such as the placing method of backfilling, the residual water level,
and the leveling precision of backfilling.
The cloth that is laid under the bottom of rubble mounds to prevent washing out of the subsoil will normally
be determined in consideration of the natural and construction conditions such as the wave height, tidal current,
and rubble size.
Tables 8.1.1 (a) and (b) list the minimum standards for woven and nonwoven materials under favorable
execution conditions.
Table 8.1.1 (a) Minimum Standards for Sand Invasion Prevention Sheets (Nonwoven)
Type Thickness Tensile strength Elongation Mass Remarks

880 N/5cm or 500 g/m 2 or
Nonwoven cloth 4.2 mm or greater 60% or greater JIS L 1908
greater greater
Note: The thickness of 4.2 mm or greater is applied for the cloth under loading of 2 kN/m 2 according to JIS L 1908. With no loading, the
thickness should be 5 mm or greater.
– 353 –
Table 8.1.1 (b) Minimum Standards for Sand Invasion Prevention Sheets (Woven)
Type Thickness Tensile strength Elongation Remarks

Woven cloth 0.47 mm or greater 4,080 N/5cm or greater 15% or greater JIS L 1908
② Sand invasion prevention plates

The standard thickness of the plates used to prevent scouring and that used for the vertical joints of caisson 5
mm. The plates should meet the standards listed in Table 8.1.2. In cold regions, rubber plates are sometimes
used. In this case, the values listed in Table 8.1.3 be satisfied.
Table 8.1.2 Standards for Sand Invasion Prevention Plates (Soft Vinyl Chloride)
Particulars
Test item Standard values
Method Tensile direction
JIS K 6723
Tensile strength Lateral 740N/cm or greater
Test sample No. 1 type dumbbell
JIS 6252
Tear strength Longitudinal 250 N or greater
Test sample uncut angle shape
JIS K 6723
Elongation Lateral 180% or greater
Test sample No. 1 type dumbbell
Seawater resistance Tensile JIS K 6773 Lateral 90% or greater
strength residual ratio
Seawater resistance
Elongation residual ratio JIS K 6773 Lateral 90% or greater
Specific gravity JIS K 7112 − 1.2−1.5
JIS K 6256
Stripping strength Width 25×250mm Longitudinal 30 N/cm or greater
Strip-shaped sample
Table 8.1.3 Standards for Sand Invasion Prevention Plates (Rubber)
Particulars
Test item Standard value
Method Tensile direction
Tensile strength JIS K 6328 − 4,400 N/3cm or greater
③ Rubber mats
Rubber mats used for enhancing friction may be made of brand-new or recycled rubber. The quality is commonly
as listed in Tables 8.1.4 and 8.1.5.
Table 8.1.4 Quality of Recycled Rubber
Test item Performance Test conditions/method

Tensile strength 4.9 MPa or greater JIS K 6251
Before aging Tear strength 18 N/mm or greater JIS K 6252
Hardness 55−70 graduations JIS K 6253
Elongation 160% or greater JIS K 6251
Physical tests Tensile strength 3.9 MPa or greater JIS K 6251 Aging tests are according
Tear strength to JIS K 6257
After aging Hardness Within ± 8 of pre-aging value JIS K 6253 Aging temperature 70°± 1°
Elongation 140% or greater
JIS K 6251 Aging time 96- 20 hours
– 354 –
Table 8.1.5 Quality of Brand-New Rubber
Test item Performance Test conditions/method

Tensile strength 9.8 MPa or greater JIS K 6251
Before aging Tear strength 25 N/mm or greater JIS K 6252
Hardness 70 ± 5 graduations JIS K 6253
Elongation 250% or greater JIS K 6251
Tensile strength 9.3 MPa and above JIS K 6251 Aging tests are according to
Physical tests Tear strength JIS K 6257
After aging Hardness Within ± 8 of pre-aging value JIS K 6253 Aging temperature 70°± 1°
Elongation 200% or greater
JIS K 6251 Aging time 96- 20 hours
JIS K 6262 Aging temperature 70°± 1°
Compressive permanent strain 45% or less Aging time 24-20 hours
8.2 Painting Materials
(1) The following items should be considered when selecting painting materials:
① The purpose of the painting
② The properties and characteristics of the painted surface
③ The performance and composition of the painting material
④ Cost
⑤ Maintenance
8.3 Grouting Materials

8.3.1 General
(1) The grouting methods shall be selected by examining the site conditions and performed in consideration of the
influence on the surrounding environment.
(2) The grouting methods are employed to strengthen the ground or to cut off the ground water flow by filling crevices
in rocks or subsoils, vacant spaces in or around structures, or voids of coarse aggregate with grouting materials.
Various grouting materials are used according to the characteristics of the object to be grouted.
8.3.2 Properties of Grouting Materials
(1) Grouting materials shall be selected in view of the required performance for the subsoils to be grouted.
(2) The basic properties required of grouting materials are the efficiency of seepage, filling and coagulation, the
strength and impermeability of the stabilized body. Suitability with the grouting object is particularly affected by
the seepage efficiency of the material.
Fig. 8.3.1 shows the seepage limits of various grouting materials for subsoils in view of grain-size distribution.
– 355 –
% Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Coarse Large Medium Fine Ultra-
100 fine
90
80
Limits according
70 to Karon
60
50
Special silicate gel

Silicate gel
Clay,cement
40
Resin
Clay
30
20
10
0
20mm 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 5μ 2μ
Fig. 8.3.1 Seepage Limits of Grouting Materials for Subsoils in View of Grain-size Distribution 15)
8.4 Asphalt Concrete Mass
(1) Asphalt concrete mass is often collected from many different places, so it has various properties.19) The quality of
recycled asphalt mixtures shows more variation than that of brand-new mixtures. Therefore, to have the desired
needle penetration, one typically adds brand- new asphalt or additives when recycling.
(2) Recycled asphalt mixtures that are used for the foundation layer or surface layer can be handled the same way as
asphalt mixtures that are purely brand-new material.
8.5 Oyster Shell
Crushed oyster shell with a size of at most 30 mm when mixed with sand in a ratio of 2 to 1 in volume can be
used to improve ground materials. The strength of soil improvement pile with mixed-in oyster shell is evaluated
as about the same as that of improvement pile composed of sand. However, characteristics such as water content
ratio and compression index vary based on the particle sizes when the oyster shell is crushed and on the mixing
ratio with sand, so the use of oyster shell requires sufficient investigation, such as by soil test.
References
1) JSCE, Civil Engineering Handbook (Forth Edition), ,pp.143-146,pp.150-151、1989
2) Okada, K., S. Akashi and Materials for Civil Engineering (Revised Edition)People’s Science, Kokumin-Kagaku Publishing,
1995l
3) Industrial Technology Service Center: Compendium of reinforcing methods for slope and embankment, ,p174,1995
4) Industrial Technology Service Center: Compendium of practical measures for soft ground, pp.619-631,1993
5) Society of Soil Mechanics and Engineering Science, Handbook of Soil Mechanics, pp.1041-1043,1982
6) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport Edition: Guideline for Port surveys (Revised Edition), Japan Port Association,
pp.3-187-3-205,1987
7) Kamon, M.: Plastic Board Drain Method, Foundation, Vol. 19, No,6, pp. 19-24, 1991
8) Kuraku, M: Characteristics of light weight embankment method and its applications, Foundation, Vol. 18 No.12,pp.2-9,1990
9) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Manual of corrosion protection and repair for port and harbour
facilities (Revised Edition), 1997
10) Japan Road Association: Handbook of Painting and corrosion protection of steel bridge, 2006
11) Japan Road Association: Guideline and commentary of countermeasures against to salt damages for highway bridges (Draft),
1984
12) Terauchi, K.: Study on Deterioration and painting Specification of Bridges located in Port Area, Technical Note of PHRI
No.651,1989
13) Dodo, I Edition: Know-how of construction:. Kindai Tosho Publishing, p.32,1997
14) ‘ Tentative guidelines on constructions utilizing Chemical grouting method (Government Order),July 15, 1974 Safety Control
Bureau, Ministry of Public Works, No.146, 1974
– 356 –
15) Shimada, S.: The most advanced technology of chemical grouting method, Riko Tosho Publishing, ,p.161,1995
16) Japan Road Association: Guideline for plant recycling of Pavement, 1992
17) Japan Road Association: Guideline for surface recycling method (Draft), 1988
18) Japan Road Association: Guideline for surface recycling method (Draft), 1987
19) Yokota, H. and S. Nakajima : Applicability of Recyclable Materials to Port and Harbour Construction, Technical Note of
PHRI No.824,1996
20) Hashidate, Y., S. Fukuda, T. Okumura and M. Kobayashi: Engineering characteristics of sand containing oyster shells,
Proceedings of the 28th Conference of Soil Mechanics, pp.869-872,1992
21) Hashidate, Y., S. Fukuda, T. Okumura and M. Kobayashi: Engineering characteristics of sand containing oyster shells and
utilization for sand compaction piles, Proceedings of the 29th Conference of Soil Mechanics, pp.869-872,1994
22) Nishizuka, N.: Utilization of oyster shells for SCP method, Proceedings of 11th Conference of Port and Harbour technology,
,pp.149-164, 1994
– 357 –
9 Friction Coefficient
(1) For the friction coefficient of a material when the frictional resistance force against the sliding of a facility is
calculated, the static friction coefficient can be used. In this case the friction coefficient of the material should be
appropriately specified by considering factors such as the characteristics of the facility and the characteristics of
the material.
(2) For the characteristic values of the static friction coefficient for the performance verification of port facilities it is
generally possible to use the values given in Table 9.1. Consideration is needed as there usually is a large variation
when the friction coefficient is repeatedly measured under the same conditions. The values shown in Table 9.1
are kind of values used from the past experience, and if a value is not shown here then it is preferable to perform
experiments to determine it.
(3) The values shown in Table 9.1 are values used to verify the stability of facilities against sliding, and cannot
be used for purposes such as for determining the friction coefficient between the surface of a pile and the soil
when calculating the bearing capacity of a pile, or the friction coefficient for verifying the stability of a sloping
breakwater, or the friction coefficient used to calculate the launching of a caisson on slope, or the friction angle of
a wall to calculate earth pressure. The values shown in Table 9.1 are the static friction coefficients when a static
actions occur, but there are no appropriate references for when dynamic motions occur, such as through seismic
forces, so in fact these values are also used in such cases.
Table 9.1 Characteristic Values for the Static Friction Coefficient
Concrete and concrete 0.5

Concrete and base rock 0.5
Underwater concrete and base rock 0.7 to 0.8
Concrete and rubble 0.6
Rubble and rubble 0.8
Timber and timber 0.2 (wet) to 0.5 (dry)
Friction enhancement mat and rubble 0.75
Note 1: Under standard conditions the value 0.8 may be used for the case of underwater concrete and base rock. However, in situations such
as if the bedrock is brittle or has many cracks, or if there are places where the movement of the sand that covers the bedrock is
significant, the coefficient can be lowered under such conditions to about 0.7.
Note 2: Part III, Chapter 5, 2.2, Gravity-Type Quaywalls can be referred to for the friction coefficient in the performance
verification of cellular blocks.
(4) Friction Coefficient for Friction Enhancement Mats

In the performance verification of port facilities, if a material such as a bituminous material or rubber is used as a
friction enhancement mat then the friction coefficient may be taken as 0.75, as shown in Table 9.1. In cold areas
a separate investigation is recommended.
(5) Friction Coefficient for In-Situ Concrete
The friction coefficient for in-situ concrete must be appropriately specified by taking into account factors such as
the characteristics of the material and the natural conditions.
(6) Sliding Resistance between Base Rock and Prepacked Concrete
As for friction coefficient between base rock and prepacked concrete, the values of Table 9.1 can be used. It is also
possible to similarly treat other types of underwater concrete other than prepacked concrete.
References
1) Morihira, M., T. Kihara and H. Horikawa: Friction coefficient of rubble mound of composite breakwater, Proceedings of 25th
Conference on Coastal Eng., JSCE, pp,337-341,1978
2) Morihira, M. and K. Adachi: Friction coefficient of rubble mound of composite breakwater (Second report), Proceedings of
26th Conference on Coastal Eng., JSCE, pp.446-450,1979
3) Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers Edition: Handbook of mechanical Engineering
4) Ishii, Y. and T. Ishiguro : Steel pile method. Giho-do Publishing, 1959
5) Yokoyama, Y.: Design and construction of steel piles, Sankai-do Publishing, 1963
6) Japan Road Association: Earth work for roads- guideline for construction of retaining wall, ,pp.20-21,1999
– 358 –
7) Kagawa, M. : Increase of friction coefficient of gravity structures, Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Coastal Eng. JSCE,
pp.217-221, 1964
8) Shinkai, E., O. Kiyomiya and Y. Kakizaki: friction coefficient of rubber mats for enlargement of friction, Proceedings of
52nd Conference of JSCE, pp.354-355,1997
9) Onodera, Y. and Y. Aoki: A Study on the Coefficient of Friction between Prepacked Concrete and Bedrock, Technical Note
of PHRI No.135, p. 8, 1972
– 359 –
– 360 –
Part III FACILITIES
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 1 GENERAL
Chapter 1 General
This Part describes items common to waterways and basins, protective facilities for harbors, mooring facilities, port
transportation facilities, cargo handling facilities, storage facilities, ship service facilities, and other port and harbor
facilities, and facilities which are subject to technical standards.
– 363 –
Chapter 2 Items Common to Facilities Subject to Technical Standards
1 Structural Members
Performance Requirements for Structural Members Comprising the Facilities Subject to the Technical
Standards
Article 7
1 The performance requirements for structural members comprising the facilities subject to the Technical
Standards shall be such that the functions of the facilities concerned are not impaired and the continuous
use of them is not affected by damage due to the actions of self weight, earth pressure, water pressure,
variable waves, water currents, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, collision with floating objects, and/or
other actions in light of the conditions of the facilities concerned during construction and in service.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for the structural
members comprising the facilities of which there is a risk that damage may seriously affect human lives,
property, and/or socioeconomic activity following a disaster shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) In the event that the functions of the facilities concerned are impaired by damage due to tsunamis,
accidental waves, Level 2 earthquake ground motions, and other actions, the structural stability of
the facilities concerned shall not be affected significantly. Provided, however, that in the performance
requirements for the structural members comprising the facilities in which further improvement of
performance is necessary due to environmental conditions, social circumstances and other reasons
to which the facilities concerned are subjected, the damage due to said actions shall not affect the
restoration through minor repair works of the functions of the facilities.
(2) In the performance requirements for structural members comprising facilities which are required to
protect the landward side of the facilities concerned from tsunamis, the damage due to tsunamis, Level
2 earthquake ground motions, and/or other actions shall not affect restoration through minor repair
works of the functions of the facilities concerned.
3 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph 1, the performance requirements for the structural
members comprising high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that the damage due to Level 2
earthquake ground motions or other actions do not affect restoration through minor repair works of the
functions required of the facilities concerned in the aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2 earthquake
ground motions. Provided, however, that the structural members comprising the facilities in which higher
earthquake-resistant performance is required due to environmental conditions and social circumstances
surrounding the facilities concerned shall maintain the functions required of the facilities concerned in the
aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2 earthquake ground motions for the continuous use of the facilities
without impairing their functions.
4 In addition to the provisions of the preceding three paragraphs, necessary matters concerning the
performance requirements for the structural members comprising facilities subject to the Technical
Standards shall be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Structural Members Comprising the Facilities Subject to the Technical Standards
Article 21
The items to be specified by the Public Notice under paragraph 4 of Article 7 of the Ministerial Ordinance
concerning the performance requirements of structural members comprising the facilities subject to the
Technical Standards shall be as provided in the subsequent article through Article 28.
Performance Criteria Common to Structural Members

Article 22
1 The performance criteria common to structural members comprising the facilities subject to the Technical
Standards shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The structural members comprising the facilities of which damage may induce serious impact on
– 364 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 2 ITEMS COMMON TO FACILITIES SUBJECT TO TECHNICAL STANDARDS
human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity shall contain the degree of the damage owing to
the accidental actions in the accidental action situation, of which the dominant actions are tsunamis,
accidental waves, or Level 2 earthquake ground motions, at the level equal to or less than the threshold
level corresponding to the performance requirements.
(2) The structural members comprising the facilities which are required to protect the landward side from
tsunamis shall contain the degree of the damage owing to the accidental actions in the accidental action
situation, of which the dominant actions are tsunamis or Level 2 earthquake ground motions, at the
level equal to or less than the threshold level.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for the structural
members comprising the high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that the degree of the damage
owing to the accidental actions in the accidental action situation, of which the dominant action is Level 2
earthquake ground motions, is contained at the level equal to or less than the threshold level corresponding
to the performance requirements.
3 In cases where the effects of scouring of the seabed and sand outflow on the integrity of structural members
may impair the stability of the facilities, appropriate countermeasures shall be taken.
[Technical Note]
1.1 General
1.1.1 Basic Policy on Performance Verification
(1) This section describes verification of the structural performance of reinforced concrete members, prestressed
concrete members, and steel-concrete composite members. These provisions may also be applied to non-reinforced
concrete members and other similar members, considering their characteristics.
(2) Performance verification of structural members can be performed by substituting the limit state of the structural
members based on the performance criteria specified from the performance requirements in the facilities. In this
case, it may be generally performed by substituting either the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state,
or the fatigue limit state. These respective limit states are defined as follows.
① Limit state for cross-sectional failure due to maximum load (ultimate limit state).
② Limit state for functional nonconformance due to actions that frequently occurs during the design working life
(serviceability limit state).
③ Limit state for failure due to repeated action acting during the design working life similar to the ultimate limit
state (fatigue limit state).
(3) W hen examining the safety of members by the limit state design method, it is necessary to set appropriate values
for the following five partial factors; namely, a material factor, a load factor, a structural analysis factor, a member
factor, and a structure factor, considering the characteristics of the facilities, the characteristics of the materials
and actions, etc. corresponding to the limit state.
1.1.2 Examination of Ultimate Limit State
(1) Examination of the ultimate limit state of cross-sectional failure can be performed by confirming that the value
obtained by multiplying the ratio of the design force resultant Sd to the design cross-sectional capacity Rd by the
structure factor γi is 1.0 or less, as below
(1.1.1)
The design force resultant Sd can be obtained by calculating the force resultant S (S is a function of Fd) using
the design load Fd, and multiplying by structural analysis factor γa,
(1.1.2)
The design cross-sectional resistance Rd can be obtained by calculating the resistance R (R is a function of fd)
of the member cross section using the design strength fd, and dividing by the member factor γb as follows:
(1.1.3)
– 365 –
1.1.3 Examination of Serviceability Limit State
(1) Verification of the compressive stress of concrete in the permanent situation can be performed using Equation
(1.1.4).
(1.1.4)
where
σ’c : compressive stress generated in concrete by permanent action (N/mm 2)
f’ck : characteristic value of compressive strength of concrete (N/mm 2)
(2) Examination for Crack caused by Bending

① Verification of cracks caused by bending can be performed using equation (1.1.5).
(1.1.5)
where
w : crack width (mm)
wa : limit value of crack width (mm)
② The width w of a crack caused by bending can be calculated using equation (1.1.6).
(1.1.6)
where
k1 : coefficient expressing the influence of surface profile of reinforcing bars on crack width (in case
of deformed bars = 1.0)
k 2 : coefficient expressing the influence of quality of concrete on crack width

f’c : compressive strength of concrete (N/mm 2)
k 3 : coefficient expressing the influence of number of layers of tensile bars on crack width

n : number of layers of tensile bars
c : concrete cover (mm)
c s : distance between centers of reinforcing bars
φ : diameter of tensile reinforcing bar; nominal diameter of the smallest reinforcing bar (mm)
E s : Young’s modulus of reinforcing bar (N/mm 2)
ε’csd : compressive strain for considering increase in crack width due to concrete shrinkage, creep,
etc. In general cases, on the order of 150x10 -6; in case of high strength concrete, a value around
100x10 -6 may be used.
σse : stress increment of reinforcing bar near the surface of member (N/mm 2)
③ The increment of reinforcing bar stress σse can be obtained using equation (1.1.7), assuming the cross section is
in the elastic range.
(1.1.7)
where
Md : design value of flexural moment in examination of serviceability limit state (N/mm)
j=1-k/3
k : neutral axis ratio ( )
n : Young’s modulus ratio ( = Es/Ec)
pw : ratio of reinforcement to concrete sections ( = As/bwd)
d : effective height (mm)
bw : width of member (mm)
A s : cross-sectional area of reinforcing bars (mm 2)

– 366 –
④ In general, the limit values of the crack width are listed in Table 1.1.1 based on Standard Specifications for
Concrete Structures [Structural Performance Verification]. Provided, however, that the applicability of this
table shall be limited to concrete cover of 100mm or less.
Table 1.1.1 Limit Values of Crack Width Caused by Bending wa
Environmental condition Deformed bar/plain bar Prestressing steel

Particularly severe corrosion 0.0035c –
environment
Corrosion environment 0.004c –
Ordinary environment 0.005c 0.004c
(c denotes for cover depth.)

Here, “particularly severe corrosion environment” is applied in the case of exposure to severe marine
environments, for example, in the case of outside reinforcing bars of caissons and reinforcing bars on the
downside of pier superstructures. “Corrosion environment” can be applied to other cases than these, but
“ordinary environment” may also be applied in cases where pavement is laid, as in pier floor slabs, and a sealed
space, as in caisson compartments and the like.
⑤ Cracks in structural members due to causes other than the load acting on the structure, for example, cracks
originating in initial period defects, which do not close when the load is removed are excluded from application
of this method. Separate examination is necessary.
(3) Verification of Water-tightness
When water-tightness is required, verification can be performed using the crack width as an index. In this case, it
is necessary to specify the limit value of the crack width appropriately, considering the service conditions of the
facilities, the characteristics of loads acting on the facilities, etc.
In general, the limit values presented in Table 1.1.2 can be used, based on the Standard Specifications for
Concrete Structures [Structural Performance Verification].
Table 1.1.2 Limit Value of Crack Width wa for Water-tightness
Level of water-tightness requirement High Normal
Predominant Axial tension –*1) 0.1mm

member force Flexural bending*2) 0.1mm 0.2mm
*1) Concrete stresses due to stress resultant should be in compression at whole area. Minimum compressive stress should be greater than
0.5N/mm 2. In case that detailed analysis is carried out the value may be determined differently.
*2) Under the action of reversed cyclic loadings, the limit crack width should be determined in a manner similar to that under axial tension.
(4) In cases where the action of cargo handling equipment is comparatively large and deflection to an extent that will
hinder cargo handling can be expected, as in the superstructures of piers, a verification of serviceability shall be
made, using deflection as the index as necessary. The limit value of deflection in this case can be determined
referring to the performance of the crane and Specifications for Highway Bridges and Commentaries (Japan
Road Association).
1.1.4 Examination of Fatigue Limit State
(1) When variable actions account for a high percentage of all actions and the magnitude of variable actions is large,
examination for fatigue is necessary.
(2) In examination of the fatigue limit state, safety with respect to fatigue failure is judged by appropriately classifying
cyclic actions by rank, calculating the influence of each ranked action on fatigue failure, and totaling the influences
of all ranked actions. Safety with respect to fatigue failure is not only influenced by the magnitude of the action,
but is also greatly influenced by the number of repetitions of the action; therefore, the number of repetition must
be set appropriately. The influence of actions of a rank that does not cause fatigue failure when the number of
repetition exceeds 2x106 may be disregarded.
– 367 –
1.1.5 Examination of Change in Performance Over Time
(1) The performance possessed by structural members shall not fall below the required performance due to
deterioration of the materials or similar factors occurring during the design working life. Therefore, it is generally
necessary to verify the following items with regard to concrete and reinforcing bars. In existing facilities with
a design working life of about 50 years, examination of changes in performance over time can be omitted for
facilities which show no remarkable reduction of performance due to deterioration caused by chloride attack
during the design working life, provided the facilities satisfy the following conditions.
① As the concrete cover for the outer side reinforcing bars (side in contact with sea water), a value equal to or
greater than the standard value for particularly severe corrosion environments specified in Table 1.1.4 shall be
set, and similarly, for the inner side reinforcing bars (side in contact with the filling), a value equal to or greater
than that for ordinary environments shall be set.
② Concrete with the water-to-cement ratio specified in Table 3.2.2 of Part II, Chapter 11, 3.2 Concrete Quality
and Performance Characteristics shall be used as the maximum value.
③ Construction work shall be performed with care.
(2) Corrosion of Reinforcing Bars due to Carbonation.
① Verification of corrosion of reinforcing bar due to carbonation may be performed using equation (1.1.8).
γi yd / ylim ≤ 1.0 (1.1.8)
where
γi : structure factor
yd : design value of carbonation depth (mm)
ylim : limit carbonation depth (mm)
② The design value of carbonation depth yd can be calculated using equation (1.1.9).
(1.1.9)
where
γcb : partial factor considering deviation in the design carbonation yd. In general, 1.15 may be used.
αd : design value of carbonation rate coefficient (mm·y-1/2)
α d = α k βe γ c
t : design working life (y)
αk : characteristic value of carbonation rate coefficient (mm·y-1/2)
βe : coefficient considering environmental action.
In cases where port and harbor facilities are not exposed to remarkable drying conditions, 1.0
may be generally used; in case where facilities are exposed to easy-to-dry environment as
facing to the south, 1.6 may be used.
γc : material factor of concrete; in general, 1.0 may be used.
③ The characteristic value of the carbonation rate coefficient αd can be determined using Equation (1.1.10). The
predicted value of the carbonation rate of concrete shown here was obtained by regression equation 1) for
ordinary Portland cement or moderate heat Portland cement.
(1.1.10)
where
γp : safety factor consider the accuracy of αp. In general, 1.1 may be used.
αp : predicted value of carbonation rate coefficient of concrete (mm·y-1/2)
W/B : water-to-binder ratio of concrete
④ The limit carbonation depth for reinforcing bar corrosion ylim can be obtained using Equation (1.1.11).
(1.1.11)
where
c : design cover (mm)
– 368 –
ck : remaining depth carbonation (mm). In general, 25mm should be used in marine environments.
(3) Corrosion of Reinforcing Bars due to Penetration of Chloride Ions
① The verification of reinforcing bar corrosion due to penetration of chloride ions can generally be performed
using Equation (1.1.12).
(1.1.12)
where
γi : structure factor
Cd : design value of chloride ion concentration at the position of reinforcing bar (kg/m3)
Clim : limit value of chloride ion concentration for initiation of corrosion (kg/m3)
In verification of reinforcing bar corrosion by chloride ions, setting of various limit states is conceivable;
here, however, the limit state is defined as the situation when corrosion of the reinforcing bars occurs,
considering a safety side assessment and the fact that a comparative assessment is possible at the current
technical level.
② The design value of the chloride ion concentration at the position of the reinforcing bars Cd can be obtained
using Equation (1.2.13).
(1.1.13)
where
C0 : chloride ion concentration at the surface of concrete (kg/m3)
c : design concrete cover (mm)
Dd : design diffusion coefficient of concrete for chloride ions (cm 2/y)
t : design working life (y)
erf : error function ( )
③ It is preferable to set the chloride ion concentration at the surface of the concrete C0 based on actual data
measured under the environmental conditions similar to those at the location where the structural member is
to be installed. In cases where the distance between the water level (H.W.L.) and the bottom surface of the
members of the concrete superstructure of an open-type wharf is on the order of 0-2.0m, C0 can be set using
equation (1.1.14), based on the measured data in Reference 2).
(1.1.14)
where
C0 : chloride ion concentration at the surface of concrete (kg/m3); it shall not be less than 6.0kg/m3.
x : distance between H.W.L. and the bottom surface of the member (m)
④ The design diffusion coefficient for chloride ions Dd can be obtained using equation (1.1.15).
(1.1.15)
where
γc : material factor of concrete. In general, it may be 1.0.
Dk : characteristic value of diffusion coefficient for chloride ions in concrete (cm 2/y)
D0 : constant expressing the effect of cracking on migration of chloride ions in concrete. In general,
it may be 200cm 2/y.
wa : limit value of crack width (mm)
w/ : ratio of crack width to crack interval
w/ = 3(σse Es + ε’csd )
σse : increment of reinforcement stress (N/mm 2)
Es : Young’s modulus of reinforcing bars (N/mm 2)
ε’csd : compressive strain for considering an increase in crack width due to concrete shrinkage and
creep, etc. It may be set in accordance with equation (1.1.6).
– 369 –
⑤ When the concrete which will actually be used is known in advance, the characteristic value of the diffusion
coefficient for chloride ions Dk in concrete shall be set by the experiments 3) using specimens prepared from the
concrete. In other cases, Dk may be set using equation (1.1.16).
(1.1.16)
When using ordinary Portland cement 1)
(1.1.17)
When using blast furnace cement or silica fume 1)
(1.1.18)
where
α : adjusting factor; when using ordinary Portland cement, 0.65 may generally be used; 2) when
using blast furnace cement or silica fume, 1.0 may generally be used.
γp : partial factor considering the accuracy of Dp. In general, 1.0 may be used.
Dp : predicted value of diffusion coefficient of concrete (cm 2/y)
⑥ The limit concentration of chloride ion to initiate corrosion of reinforcing bar Clim shall be set appropriately
considering the condition of similar structures, etc. In the cases where port and harbor facilities are constructed
in ordinary marine environments, and the concrete cover specified in 1.1.7 Details of Structures is satisfied,
Clim can generally be set at 2.0kg/m3. This is the lower limit of the chloride ion concentration for corrosion
initiation of reinforcing bars based on the results of experiments at the Port and Airport Research Institute
(PARI).4)
1.1.6 Partial Factors

The partial factors listed in Table 1.1.3 can be used in verification of structural concrete. This table presents
standard values for partial factors; if partial factors can be determined appropriately by other methods, those values
may be used.
– 370 –
Table 1.1.3 Partial Factors 5), 6), 7)
Type of limit state

Partial factor Serviceability
Ultimate limit Fatigue limit
limit
Concrete 1.3 1.0 1.3
Material factor γm Reinforcing bars and prestressing steel 1.0 1.0 1.05
Steel materials other than above 1.05 1.0 1.05
1.0-1.1
Permanent action 1.0 1.0
(0.9-1.0)
Variable action
Wave force 1.2 1.0 1.0
Load factor γf
1.0-1.2
Actions other than wave force 1.0 1.0
(0.8-1.0)
Accidental actions 1.0 – –
Actions during construction 1.0 – –
Structural analysis factor γa 1.0 1.0 1.0
Member factor γb 1.1-1.3 1.0 1.0
Structure factor γi 1.0-1.2 1.0
Note 1) T he figures in parentheses in the table shall be applied to cases where the small action results in the large risk.
Note 2) The values below may be used for the member factor when examining the ultimate limit state.
• When calculating flexual and axial capacity : 1.1
• When calculating upper limit of axial compressive capacity : 1.3
• When calculating shear capacity borne by concrete : 1.3
• When calculating shear capacity borne by shear reinforcing bars : 1.1
Note 3) T he values below may be used for the structure factor relating to the ultimate limit state.
Permanent Accidental
Variable situation
situation situation
Superstructure of Slab 1.2 1.2 1.0
open-type wharf Beam 1.1 1.1 1.0
Breakwater 1.0 1.1 1.0
1.1
Quaywall (caisson, etc.) 1.0 (only during 1.0
earthquake: 1.0)
Others (sheet pile superstructure, etc.) 1.0 1.1 1.0
1.1.7 Structural Details
(1) Concrete Cover

① The concrete cover secures the bond strength between reinforcing bars and concrete, which is a precondition
for verification of concrete structural members, and also has a large influence on durability. Accordingly, it
is necessary to set the concrete cover appropriately, considering the required durability, the functions of the
facilities, errors during construction work, etc.
② The concrete cover should generally have values equal to or greater than those in Table 1.1.4. Provided, however,
that adequate consideration must be given to control of crack width when a concrete cover exceeds 100mm. In
performance verification, errors during construction work for the cover may not be considered subject to the
precondition on proper management and inspection during construction work.
Table 1.1.4 Standard Values of Concrete Cover
Environmental condition Cover (mm) Remarks

Parts in direct contact with sea water, and
Severe corrosion environment 70 parts washed with sea water,
parts exposed to severe sea breeze
Normal environment 50 Parts other than the above
– 371 –
③ The concrete cover specified in Table 1.1.4 may be reduced provided adequate examination is performed, for
factory-manufactured concrete products.
(2) Other structural details may conform to the Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures [Structural
Performance Verification].
– 372 –
1.2 Caissons
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Caisson
Article 23
The performance criteria of a reinforced concrete caisson (hereinafter referred to as “caisson” in this article)
shall be as specified in the subsequent items in consideration of the type of the facilities:
(1) For the bottom slab and footing of a caisson, the risk of impairing the integrity of the bottom slab and
footing of the caisson shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent action
situation in which the dominant action is self weight and under the variable action situation in which the
dominant actions are variable waves, water pressure during floating, and Level 1 earthquake ground
motions.
(2) For the outer walls of a caisson, the risk of impairing the integrity of the outer walls of the caisson
shall be equal to or less than the threshold level for a permanent action situation in which the dominant
action is the internal earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which the dominant
actions are variable waves, water pressure during floating, and Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(3) For partition walls of a caisson, the risk of impairing the integrity of the partition walls of the caisson
shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation in which the dominant
action is water pressure during installation.
(4) In the case of a caisson which requires flotation, the risk of overturning of the floating body during
flotation shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation in which
the dominant action is water pressure.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Caissons

As the performance criteria of caissons and indexes corresponding to design situations, items which
require performance verification shall be set appropriately depending on the type of facilities.
① Bottom slab and footing (serviceability)
The performance criteria and indexes corresponding to design situations excluding accidental situations
for caissons are shown in accordance with design situations.
(a) Permanent situation in which dominating action is self weight
Among the performance criteria and indexes corresponding to design situations (excluding
accidental situations) for the bottom slab and footing of caisson, those for the permanent situation in
which the dominating action is self weight are as shown in the Attached Table 4.
Attached Table 4 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situation (permanent situation in which dominating action
is self weight) for Bottom Slab and Footing of Caisson
Ministerial Public Notice Design situation

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item Index of standard limit value

Article
Article
requirements
Situation Dominating Non-dominating
Item
Item
action action
7 1 – 23 1 1 Serviceability Permanent Self weight Water pressure, Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional
sub-grade of bottom slab and resistance (ultimate limit
reaction, footing state)
surcharge, earth
pressure Serviceability of cross Limit value of bending
section of bottom slab compressive stress
and footing (serviceability limit state)
Extrusion of bottom Design yield stress

slab and footing from
partition wall (yield of
reinforcing bars)
(b) Variable situation in which dominating action is variable wave

Among the performance criteria and indexes corresponding to design situations excluding
– 373 –
accidental situations for the bottom slab and footing of caisson, those for the variable situation in
which the dominating action is variable waves are as shown in the Attached Table 5.
Attached Table 5 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situation (variable situation in which dominating action is
variable waves) for Bottom Slab and Footing of Caisson

Ordinance
Performance Index of standard limit
Paragraph
Paragraph
Non- Verification item

Article
Article
requirements Dominating value

Item
Item
Situation dominating
action action
7 1 – 23 1 1 Serviceability Variable Variable waves*1) Self weight, Cross-sectional Design cross-sectional

water pressure, failure of bottom slab resistance (ultimate limit
sub-grade and footing state)
reaction,
surcharge, earth
pressure Extrusion of bottom Design yield stress
slab from partition
wall (yield of
reinforcing bars)
Variable Serviceability of Limit value of crack

waves*2) bottom slab and width due to bending
footing (serviceability limit state)
Cyclic action of Fatigue failure of Design fatigue strength

waves*3) bottom slab and (fatigue limit state)
footing
*1): Here, among waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.1 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be waves which are used in performance
verification of the structural stability of the objective facilities.
*2): Here, among the waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the wave having a height greater than the specified waves
which attack with a frequency on the order of 104 times during the design working life shall be used as a standard.
*3): Here, among the waves specified , Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be set appropriately depending on the
frequency of appearance in regard to wave height and wave period occurring during the design working life.
(c) Variable situations in which dominating action is water pressure during flotation and Level 1
Among the performance criteria and indexes corresponding to design situations excluding
accidental situations for the bottom slab and footing of caisson, those for variable situations in which
the dominating actions are water pressure during flotation and Level 1 earthquake ground motion
are as shown in the Attached Table 6.
Attached Table 6 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situation (variable situations in which dominating actions
are water pressure during flotation and Level 1 earthquake ground motion) for Bottom Slab and Footing of Caisson

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Situation Dominating
action action
7 1 – 23 1 1 Serviceability Variable Water pressure Self weight Cross-sectional failure of Design cross-sectional
during Caisson bottom slab and footing resistance (ultimate
limit state)
Serviceability of cross Limit value of crack
section of bottom slab and width due to bending
footing (serviceability limit state)
Level 1 Self weight, Cross-sectional failure of Design cross-sectional
earthquake water pressure, bottom slab and footing resistance (ultimate
ground motion sub-grade limit state)
reaction
Extrusion of bottom slab Design yield stress
from partition wall (yield
of reinforcing bars)
*1) Here, among waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.1 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be waves which are used in performance
*2) Here, among the waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the wave having a height greater than the specified waves
– 374 –
*3) Here, among the waves specified , Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be set appropriately depending on the
② Outer walls (serviceability)

(a) The performance criteria and setting of design situations excluding accidental situations for the outer
walls of caissons are as shown in the Attached Table 7.
Attached Table–7 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Outer Walls
of Caissons

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Non- Verification item Index of standard limit value

Article
Article
requirements Dominating Dominating

Item
Item
Situation action action
7 1 – 23 1 2 Serviceability Permanent Internal Internal water Serviceability of cross Limit value of bending
earth pressure section of outer wall compressive stress
pressure (serviceability limit state)
Extrusion of outer wall Design yield stress
from partition wall
(yielding of reinforcing
bars)
Variable Variable Internal water Cross-sectional failure of Design cross-sectional
waves*1) pressure, outer wall*2) resistance (ultimate limit state)
Variable internal earth Serviceability of cross Limit value of crack width
waves*3) pressure section of outer wall due to bending (serviceability
limit state)
Cyclic action Fatigue failure of outer Design fatigue strength
of waves*4) wall*2) (fatigue limit state)
Level 1 Internal water Cross-sectional failure of Design cross-sectional
earthquake pressure, outer wall resistance (ultimate limit
ground internal earth state)
motion pressure
Water Cross-sectional failure of Design cross-sectional
pressure outer wall resistance (ultimate limit
during state)
flotation Serviceability of cross Limit value of crack width
section of outer wall due to bending (serviceability
limit state)
*1): Here, among waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.1 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be waves which are used in performance
*2) Limited to outer walls affected by waves.
*3) Here, among the waves specified , Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the wave having a height greater than the specified waves
*4) Here, among the waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, waves shall be set appropriately depending on the
frequency of appearance in regard to the wave height and wave period occurring during the design working life.
③ Partition wall (serviceability)

(a) The performance criteria and the setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations) for the
partition walls of caissons are as shown in the Attached Table 8.
Attached Table 8 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Partition
Walls of Caissons

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements Dominating
Item
Item
action action
7 1 – 23 1 3 Serviceability Variable Water pressure – Cross-sectional Design cross-sectional

during failure of partition resistance (ultimate limit
installation wall state)
Serviceability of cross Limit value of crack
section of partition width due to bending
wall (serviceability limit state)
– 375 –
④ Caissons requiring flotation (serviceability)

(a) The performance criteria and setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations) for
caissons requiring flotation are as shown in the Attached Table 9.
Attached Table 9 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Caissons
Requiring Flotation

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
7 1 – 23 1 4 Serviceability Variable Water Self weight Overturning of Limit value for overturning
pressure floating body
[Technical Note]
1.2.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification
(1) The description presented here may be applied to the performance verification of structural members in ordinary
reinforced concrete caissons.
(2) For the concept for verification of structural members, 1.1 General may be used as reference.
(3) An example of the performance verification procedure for caissons is shown in Fig. 1.2.1.
Setting of design conditions
Assumption of dimensions of caisson members
Evaluation of actions
Permanent situation and variable situation relevant
torelated to waves, and Level 1 seismic motion
Verification of ultimate limit state, serviceability limit state, and fatigue limit state of outer walls *1
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of partition walls
Verification of ultimate limit state, serviceability limit state, and fatigue limit state of bottom slab
Verification of ultimate limit state, serviceability limit state, and fatigue limit state of footing
Verification of ancillaries
Determination of dimensions
*1 For outer walls which are not affected by waves, only verification of the serviceability limit state may be required.
*2 For the high earthquake-resistance facilities or facilities of which damage to the facilities is expected to have a serious impact on human
life, property, and social activity, it is preferable to perform, verification of accidental situations as necessary. Verification of the accidental
situation for waves is performed where hazardous cargo handling facilities are located immediately behind the objective facilities and
damage of the facilities is expected to have a serious impact.
Fig. 1.2.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Caissons
– 376 –
1.2.2 Determination of Basic Cross Section and Characteristic Values
(1) The dimensions of caisson members shall be determined in view of the following factors :
① Capacity of caisson fabrication facilities
② Draft of a caisson and the water depth at the place of installation (depth above the crown of foundation mound)
③ Floating stability
④ Working conditions during towing and installation : tidal currents, waves, wind, etc.
⑤ Working conditions after installation of caisson : filling, placing upper concrete, tidal currents, waves, wind, etc.
⑥ Differential settlement of mound
⑦ Bending and torsion acting on caisson.
(2) In many cases, dimensions of 0.3-0.6m for the thickness of caisson outer walls, 0.4-0.8m for the thickness of
the bottom slab, and 0.2-0.3m for the thickness of the partition walls are used.
(3) As the keel clearance depth during installation, it is common to set the difference between the draft of ordinary
caissons and the mound crown as 0.5m or more.
(4) For caissons which float unassisted, a cross section capable of securing stability during flotation is set.
① Verification of the stability of the caisson while floating may be performed using equation (1.2.1) (see Fig.
1.2.2). This equation can be applied in cases where the caisson cross section is bilaterally symmetrical, and it
is considered that only comparatively slight inclination will occur in the caisson which afloat.
(1.2.1)
where
V : displacement volume (m3)
I : secondary moment of cross section around long axis at water level (m4)
C : center of buoyancy
G : center of gravity
M : metacenter
Fig. 1.2.2 Stability of Caisson
② For verification of stability in case of towing using a counterballast, equation (1.2.2) or (1.2.3) may be used.
(a) When using water as the counterballast:
(1.2.2)
(b) When using sand or stone or concrete as the counterballast:
– 377 –
(1.2.3)
where
i : moment of inertia of water surface in partition chambers about centerline parallel to axis of
rotation of caisson (m4)
', I', C', G' : respective values of positions when counterballast is used
V
1.2.3 Actions
(1) It is preferable that the combination of actions and load factors considered in performance verification be set
appropriately for each facility.
(2) The combination of actions and load factors may be set as follows.
①　The combinations of actions considered and the standard values of the load factors to be used for multiplying
the characteristic value in performance verification are shown in Table 1.2.1. Here, the footing may be treated
in the same manner as the bottom slab. The values in the upper rows of the respective boxes in the table are load
factors to be used when examining the ultimate limit state; the numerical values shown in square brackets are
load factors to be used when a small action induces a large impact. Most of these values were set considering the
relationship with external stability etc. by reliability analysis.5), 7) The figures in parentheses ( ) in the lower rows
of the respective boxes are load factors for examination of the serviceability limit state. For accidental situations,
a load factor of 1.0 may be used.
In recent years, reduction of the construction cost of breakwaters and other facilities by alleviating the
leveling accuracy of the rubble mound has been studied. However, if the leveling accuracy of the rubble mound is
alleviated, a reaction greater than that in case of the normal leveling accuracy ±5cm will act on the caisson bottom
slab, and in this case, the values shown in Table 1.2.1 cannot be used. In the case where the leveling accuracy of
the rubble mound is alleviated in the range of ±30cm, the factors can be set referring to the References 8) and 9).
Table 1.2.1 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors
(a) Breakwaters
Bottom slab reaction
Hydrostatic pressure
Variable component
Variable component
difference between
Hydrostatic head
of internal water
Dynamic water
Uplift pressure
of bottom slab
Internal water
Internal earth
Self weight
Wave force
chambers
Situation
Remarks
pressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
reaction
Design situation
Permanent 0.9 1.1 1.1

situation for self Bottom slab
1.0 (1.0) (1.0)
weight
Permanent
situation for 1.1 1.1 Outer wall
internal earth (1.0) (1.0)
pressure
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2
[0.9] [0.9] [0.9] [0.8] [0.8] Bottom slab
In service
(1.0) (1.0) (1.0) (1.0) (1.0)

Variable 0.9 1.2
situation for Outer wall
(1.0) (1.0)
waves
1.1 1.1 1.2

(1.0) (1.0) (1.0)
Variable
situation 1.0 1.0 1.0
for Level 1 Outer wall
(–) (–) (–)
earthquake
ground motion
0.9 1.1
Variable Bottom slab
(0.5) (0.5)
During construction
situation for
water pressure
while afloat 1.1 Outer wall
(0.5)
Variable
situation 1.1
for water Partition wall
pressure during (0.5)
construction
– 378 –
(b) Quaywalls
during an earthquake

Loads during
Dynamic water
Internal water
Internal earth
construction
Self weight
Surcharge
Situation
pressure
pressure
pressure
Design situation Remarks
Installation
Still
water
Bottom slab
(surcharge
Permanent 0.9 1.1 1.1 0.8 is equivalent
situation for self (1.0) (1.0) (1.0) (0.5) to bottom
weight slab reaction
component)
Permanent
situation for 1.1 1.1
In service
Outer wall
internal earth (1.0) (1.0)
pressure
Bottom slab
(surcharge is
Variable 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 equivalent to
situation (–) (–) (–) (–) that during an
for Level 1 earthquake)
earthquake
ground motion 1.0 1.0 1.0 Outer wall
(–) (–) (–)
0.9 1.1 Bottom slab while

Variable (0.5) (0.5) afloat
During construction
situation for
water pressure
while afloat 1.1 Outer wall while
(0.5) afloat
Variable
situation 1.1 Partition wall
for water (0.5) during installation
pressure during
construction
② The actions used in performance verification of outer walls of breakwater caissons are shown in Figs. 1.2.3 to
1.2.5. The standard values of the load factors are shown in Tables 1.2.2 to 1.2.4.
(a) Front wall (parallel to faceline: seaside)
During wave action (wave trough) During action of seismic motion

During wave action (wave crest)
During construction
while afloat Internal water Variable component Dynamic Internal Internal
Wave Internal Internal earth pressure of internal water pressure earth pressure water pressure
pressure earth pressure Hydrostatic pressure pressure in permanent situation water pressure in permanent situation
L.W.L.
Hd
-
3
H D Sf D S S P D S
*In this figure, Hd stands for design wave height. In verification of the ultimate limit state, Hd =Hmax may be assumed.
Fig. 1.2.3 Actions on Front Wall (Breakwater)
– 379 –
Table 1.2.2 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors for Front Wall (Breakwater)
Design situation Direction of action Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state
Variable situation relevant to waves
1.2H–0.9D 1.0H−1.0D
during action of wave crest
From outside
Variable situation relevant to
water pressure while afloat during 1.1Sf 0.5Sr
construction
Variable situation relevant to wave
during action of wave trough 1.1D+1.1S+1.2 S 1.0D+1.0S+1.0 S
From inside
Variable situation relevant to Level 1
1.0D+1.0S+1.0P Not examined
* For the symbols in the table, see Fig. 1.2.3.
(b) Rear wall (parallel to face line : land side)
During wave action During action of seismic motion
During construction
while afloat Internal Internal water pressure Dynamic Internal Internal water pressure
Hydrostatic pressure earth pressure in permanent state water pressure earth pressure in permanent state
L.W.L.
Sf D S P D S
Fig. 1.2.4 Actions on Rear Wall (Breakwater)
Table 1.2.3 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors on Rear Wall (Breakwater)
water pressure while afloat during From outside 1.1Sf 0.5Sf
construction
Permanent situation relevant to
Not examined 1.0D+1.0S
internal earth pressure
From inside
– 380 –
(c) Outer wall (direction perpendicular to face line)
During wave action (wave trough)
During construction Internal Internal water Variable component

while afloat earth pressure pressure i of internal
Hydrostatic pressure permanent situation water pressure
L.W.L.
Hd *In this figure, Hd stands for design wave height.
3
Sf D S S
Fig. 1.2.5 Actions on Outer Wall (Breakwater)
Table 1.2.4 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors on Outer Wall (Breakwater)
water pressure while afloat during From outside 1.1Sf 0.5Sf
construction
From inside 1.1D+1.1S+1.2 S 1.0D+1.0S+1.0 S
during action of wave trough
③ The actions used in performance verification of the outer walls of quaywall caissons are shown in Fig. 1.2.6.
The standard values of the load factors are shown in Table 1.2.5.
(a) Under calm conditions (actions from inside)
Internal earth pressure Internal water pressure
L.W.L
D S
(b) While afloat (actions from outside)

Draft +1.0m
Sf
Fig. 1.2.6 (a) (b) Actions on Outer Wall (Quaywall)
– 381 –
(c) During action of ground motion (action to sea side)
Internal Internal Dynamic

earth water water
pressure pressure pressure
L.W.L
D S P
Fig. 1.2.6(c) Actions on Outer Wall (Quaywall)
Table 1.2.5 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors on Outer Wall (Quaywall)
water pressure while afloat during Action from outside 1.1Sf 0.5Sf
construction
Permanent situation relevant to
Not examined 1.0D+1.0S
internal earth pressure
Action from inside
④ The actions used in performance verification of the stability of the bottom slab of breakwater caissons during
construction can be obtained by multiplying the characteristic values of the actions by the load factors shown in
Table 1.2.1. In verification of stability in service, values may be obtained using the equations shown in Table
1.2.7, considering the combination of actions shown in Fig. 1.2.7. The classification of actions is as shown in
Table 1.2.6.
Permanent state Durig wave action
Deadweight of Deadweight of
filling and D filling and D
concrete lid concrete lid
Hydrostatic Hydrostatic
pressure F pressure F
R'
Reaction of
bottom slab
Reaction of
bottom slab R
Variable bottom
R = R' - R
Composite D0 slab reaction
load
Uplift pressure
D0 = D + F + R U
Fig. 1.2.7 Actions on Bottom Slab (Breakwater)
– 382 –
Table 1.2.6 Classification of Actions under Wave Action (Breakwater)
Class of action Action
Permanent action Composite load under calm conditions D0
Variable action Variable of bottom slab reaction ΔR, uplift pressure U
Table 1.2.7 Combination of Actions and Load Factors (Breakwater)
(a) Ultimate limit state
Design situation Direction of ∆R and W Combination of actions
Permanent situation – 0.9D0 +1.1F+1.1R

Variable situation relevant to water pressure while
afloat during construction
– 0.9D0 +1.1F
R ↑ W ↑ 1.1D0 +1.2 R+1.2U

W ↑ 1.1D0 +0.8 R+1.2U
during action of wave crest
R ↓
W ↓ 0.9D0 +1.2 R+0.8U
W ↑ 1.1D0 +1.2 R+0.8U

R ↑
W ↓ 0.9D0 +0.8 R+1.2U
during action of wave trough
W ↑ 1.1D0 +0.8 R+0.8U
R ↓
W ↓ 0.9D0 +1.2 R+1.2U
(b) Serviceability limit state
Design situation Combination of actions
Permanent situation 1.1D0 +1.1F+1.0R
Variable situation relevant to waves 1.0D0 +1.0 R+1.0U
Provided, however, that assuming W=D0 +ΔR+U, and each action is represented as the signed value (positive or negative). In the case of an action
in the same direction as W, the value is positive, and in the case of an action in a direction opposite to W, the value is negative. The symbols in
the table accord with those in Fig. 1.2.7.
Note) When variable of bottom slab reaction (ΔR) acts downwards, an upper limit is applied to the value of 1.2 |ΔR|, which cannot exceed 1.1 |R|.
Accordingly, if 1.2|ΔR|>1.1|R|, the combination of actions shall be as follows :
0.9D 0+1.1|R|+0.8U , or 0.9D 0+1.1|R|+0..8U+1.2U
⑤ Actions used in performance verification of the stability of the bottom slab of quaywall caissons during
construction can be obtained by multiplying the characteristic values of the actions by the load factors shown
in Table 1.2.1. In verification of stability in service, values obtained using the equations shown in Table 1.2.8
can be used, considering the combinations of actions shown in Fig. 1.2.8.
– 383 –
Permanent (During action of

(Permanent situation) actions due to seismic motion) (While afloat)
D concrete lid, Df Deadweight of slab

D
filling etc.
S f Hydrostatic water pressure
F Hydrostatic F
water pressure
W Surcharge in W' Surcharge during

permanent situation action of seismic motion
R Bottom reaction R' Bottom reaction during
in permanent situation action of seismic motion
Permanent state: Situatiom in which surcharge is imposed.
Fig. 1.2.8 Actions on Bottom Slab (Quaywall)
Table 1.2.8 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors (Quaywall)
Design situation Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state
Permanent situation 1.1Sf 0.5Sf

Variable situations relevant to Level 1 earthquake ground
1.0D+1.0F+1.0R+1.0W Not examined
motion
Variable situations relevant to water pressure while afloat
0.9D+1.1Sf 0.5Dr +0.5Sf
during construction
* The symbols in the table accord with those in Fig. 1.2.8.
⑥ As the action used in performance verification of the stability of partition walls during construction works, the
hydrostatic head difference between chambers during construction works (during installation) shall be generally
used.
⑦ As the action used in performance verification of the stability of partition walls in service, the action in the state
where extrusion force becomes the largest in the actions related to the bottom slab and actions related to the
outer walls is generally used.
(3) The actions used in performance verification during fabrication of caissons may be set as follows.
① When a caisson is fabricated on a dry dock, floating dock etc., particular study of the actions during fabrication
is not necessary. Provided, however, that when the caisson is raised with jacks to move on a slipway or caisson
platform, or loaded on a launch truck, the self weight acts as a concentrated load.
② When examination is necessary during fabrication, examination may be performed considering the whole
caisson to a simple beam.
(4) The actions used in performance verification while the caisson launches and is afloat may be set as follows.
① In cases where a dry dock or floating dock, or ordinary slipway (slipway and truck) is used, the hydrostatic
pressure with an allowance added to the draft calculated as the action during launching and floating may be
used. In cases where there is a danger that greater hydrostatic pressure may act on the caisson temporarily
during launching, separate examination is necessary.
② The water pressure acting on outer walls may be considered as a load with a triangular distribution in which the
base is the distance to the crown and height is the intensity of the hydrostatic water pressure (Pt) at the centerline
of the bottom slab (see Fig. 1.2.9).
– 384 –
Allowance:1.0m (approx.)
ρ0g : unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
H : depth used in calculation of hydrostatic water pressure (m)
H0 : water depth with an allowance of approximately 1.0m H=H0–t/2 　
added to design draft (m)
Design draft
H0 H t : thickness of bottom slab (m)
t
t
- pt= ρ0gH
2
Fig. 1.2.9 Water Pressure Acting on Outer Wall
③ As the action on the bottom slab, the value obtained by subtracting the self weight of the bottom slab from the
intensity of the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom edge of the bottom slab (ρw) shall be used. (see Fig. 1.2.10).
p′= pw– w = ρ0 gH0 – w

p' : action on bottom slab (kN/m2)
pw : hydrostatic pressure acting on bottom slab considering an allowance of
approximately 1.0m in design draft (kN/m2)
w : selfweight of bottom slab (kN/m2)
ρ0g : unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
H0 : length with allowance of approximately 1.0m added to design draft (m)
p' p
w
w
pw= ρ0gH0
Fig. 1.2.10 Actions on Bottom Slab
(5) Actions used in performance verification of caissons during installation may be set as follows.
① In the case of the outer walls and bottom slab, performance verification of the outer walls and bottom slab during
installation may be omitted, because it is clear that the actions while afloat and in service are larger than those
during installation.
② Water pressure caused by the hydrostatic head difference between chambers shall be applied to the partition
walls, considering construction conditions.
(6) Actions used in performance verification of caissons in service may be set as follows.
① As actions on the outer walls, internal earth pressure and internal water pressure shall be considered. In the
outer walls of breakwater caissons, the influence of the action of waves shall also be considered. In addition
to the actions of waves, breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks are also affected by the impact of
the wave-dissipating blocks against the front wall, and depending on the region, by the impact force of drift
ice, driftwood, etc., freezing, and other factors. Therefore, when these influences are remarkable, they must be
considered as actions.
② Internal earth pressure
(a) In many cases, the distribution of internal earth pressure takes an irregular shape. For design purpose,
however, this distribution can be converted to an appropriate equivalent uniform distribution load or triangular
distribution load.
(b) In the case where sand is used as the filling, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest K can be set at 0.6.
Provided, however, that the earth pressure may be disregarded when the filling consists of blocks or concrete.
– 385 –
(c) It can be assumed that earth pressure increases to the depth equal to the width b of the wall, but does not
increase beyond that. (see Fig. 1.2.11).
In cases where strong cast-in-place concrete is located on top of caissons and it can be regarded that the
effect of the surcharge does not reach the interior of the caisson, the surcharge may be disregarded. Provided,
however, that the self weight of the cast-in-place concrete shall be taken into account.
b qK
45°
p=KH γ '
Fig. 1.2.11 Earth Pressure of Filling
③ Internal Water Pressure

The internal water pressure shall be the head difference between the water level in the caisson and the lowest
water level (L.W.L.). However, when verifying the front wall of a breakwater or outer wall perpendicular to
the face line, as shown in Fig. 1.2.12(a), in case of wave troughs acting on the walls L.W.L. – (Hmax)/3 can be
used as the external water level. In the case where the wave crests act on the surface of the front wall, internal
water pressure may be disregarded. For the rear wall, L.W.L. can be used as the external water level, as shown
in Fig. 1.2.12(b).
④ For the front walls of the breakwater caissons, wave force shall be taken into account when wave crests act on
the walls.11), 12).
⑤ Determination of the internal earth pressure and internal water pressure by structural member is as shown in
Fig. 1.2.12.
(a) Breakwaters (front wall and outer walls perpendicular to face line)
L.W.L. a
45°
Hd/3
b
Internal Internal Composite

earth pressure water pressure load
*In this figure, Hd stands for design wave height.
In verification of the ultimate design situation, it can be assumed the Hd =Hmax
.
(b) Breakwaters (rear wall)

a
L.W.L.
45゜

– 386 –
(c) Quaywalls (front wall, rear wall, and outer walls perpendicular to face line)
a
L.W.L.
45゜

Fig. 1.2.12(a)-(c) Determination of Internal Earth Pressure and Internal Water Pressure
(d) Actions of waves
W.L.
45゜
Wave Internal Composite

pressure earth pressure load
Fig. 1.2.12(d) Determination of Internal Earth Pressure and Internal Water Pressure
(7) Actions used in performance verification of the bottom slab may be set as follows.
① In fixed parts surrounded by outer walls and partition walls, the bottom reaction, hydrostatic pressure, uplift
pressure, weight of the filling, weight of the concrete lid, weight of the bottom slab, and surcharge shall be taken
into account.
② The distribution of the composite action often takes an irregular shape. For design purpose however, this
distribution can be modified as an appropriate uniform distribution action or triangular distribution action.
③ The bottom reaction acting on the body or wall can be calculated according to equations (1.2.6) and (1.2.7) (see
Fig. 1.2.13).
(a) In the case of
(1.2.6)
(b) In the case of
(1.2.7)
– 387 –
The value of e can be calculated using equation (1.2.8).
(1.2.8)
where
p1 : characteristic value of reaction at front toe (kN/m 2)
p2 : characteristic value of reaction at rear toe (kN/m2)
V : characteristic value of vertical resultant force per unit length in direction of caisson face line
(kN/m)
H : characteristic value of horizontal resultant force per unit length in direction of caisson face line
(kN/m)
e : eccentricity of total resultant force (m)
b : width of bottom (m)
b’ : action width of bottom reaction in the case of (m)
Mw : characteristic value of moment revolving point A by vertical resultant force (kN•m/m)

Mh : characteristic value of moment revolving point A by horizontal resultant force (kN•m/m)
H
R V
A
x e
b/2 b/2
b
p2
p1
1
In the case of e<-
6
b
b'
p1 1
In the case of e>-b
6
Fig. 1.2.13 Bottom Reaction
④ Hydrostatic pressure shall be the water pressure acting on the bottom slab at the design tide level.
⑤ Uplift pressure shall be taken into account in cases where waves act on the body or wall. For calculating uplift
pressure, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7 Wave Pressure and Wave Force may be used as a reference.
⑥ The specific weight of the filling material is normally determined by testing the material to be used.
⑦ The weight of the concrete lid and bottom slab shall be the weight in air without influence of buoyancy.
⑧ The weight of soil on top of the caisson and superimposed load etc. are taken into account for the surcharge
acting on the bottom slab. Provided, however, that the surcharge may be disregarded in case where cast-in-place
concrete is placed on top of the caisson and in can be regarded that the influence of the surcharge does not reach
the interior of the caisson.
– 388 –
(8) Actions used in performance verification of footings can be set as follows.
① The bottom reaction, weight of the footing (accounting buoyancy), and surcharge on the footing shall be taken
into account.
② Actions may be set considering the distributions shown in Fig. 1.2.14.
p : bottom reaction (kN/m2)
pw : weight of footing (accounting buoyancy) (kN/m2)
w1 : surcharge on footing (kN/m2)
pt : composite load (kN/m2)
Fig. 1.2.14 Actions on Footings
③ For the bottom reaction acting on the footing, the values calculated using equations (1.2.6) or (1.2.7) can be
used.
④ The weight of the footing shall be the submerged weight accounting buoyancy.
⑤ The surcharge acting on the footing shall consider the weight of the wave-dissipating blocks of breakwaters etc.,
accounting buoyancy below the design water level, and the weight of overburden soil, the superimposed loads
etc., on the land side of quaywalls.
(9) The actions used in performance verification of partition walls can be set as follows.
① In performance verification of extrusion of outer walls from partition walls, the internal earth pressure and
internal water pressure acting on the outer wall shall be considered. It may be assumed that these actions act on
the joint between the partition wall and the outer wall (see Fig. 1.2.15).
CL CL
P
Design load
a
Composite load
P=P1a
a
-
45゜ 45゜ 45゜ 45゜ 2
P1
Internal earth pressure + Internal earth pressure +
internal water pressure internal water pressure
per 1m of width per am
Fig. 1.2.15 Actions Used in Examination of Extrusion of Outer Wall from Partition Wall
– 389 –
② In verification of extrusion of the bottom slab from the partition wall, the weight of the filling material acting on
the bottom slab, the surcharge, the weight of the bottom slab, the weight of the concrete lid, the bottom reaction,
the uplift pressure, and the hydrostatic pressure shall be taken into account. It may be assumed that these
actions act on the joint between the partition wall and the bottom slab (see Fig. 1.2.16).
y
y
45゜
x 45゜ 45゜
45゜
w : design load acting

on bottom slab (kN/m2 ) w
P : load acting on joint
w x between partition wall
and bottom slab (kN/m2 ) y x
2
- Pd : converted design load
w x used in examination of
w x P
3
dislodging
Pd
w x (1- x2 )
3 y2
Fig. 1.2.16 Actions used in Examination of Extrusion of Bottom Slab from Partition Wall
③ In cases where there is a possibility of actions due to non-uniform ground bearing capacity or similar factors,
this shall be examined. In this case, verification of the individual members of the caisson shall be performed
assuming a cantilever beam with a span equivalent to 1/3 of the length or width of the caisson (see Fig. 1.2.17).
Verification may also be performed using a structural analysis model in which only the parts of the ground
which can be expected to provide bearing support are converted to springs.
Fig. 1.2.17 Examination of Action due to Non-uniformity of Ground Bearing Capacity
④ The standard load factors of actions considered in verification of partition walls are shown in Table 1.2.9.
– 390 –
Table 1.2.9 Combinations of Actions and Load Factors
Variable situation relevant to water Direction of action due to
pressure during installation during hydrostatic head between 1.1Sf 0.5Sf
construction compartments
Direction of extrusion of
Permanent situation relevant to Maximum outward design
outer wall from partition Not examined
internal earth pressure load by acting on outer wall
wall
Permanent situation relevant to self
weight Direction of extrusion of Maximum downward design
Variable situation relevant to waves bottom slab from partition load by acting on bottom Not examined
Variable situation relevant to Level 1 wall slab
1.2.4 Performance Verification
(1) Performance verification of structural members can be performed using the method presented in 1.1 General.
① Performance verification of structural members shall be performed by correlating the performance criteria with
the ultimate state for the respective members. Specifically, examination is performed by setting the verification
indexes for the corresponding ultimate states for the actions on the members calculated using the procedure
presented in 1.2.3 Actions. The settings of the verification indexes are based on 1 Structural Members. The
partial factors used in this case may generally be set based on Table 1.1.3 in 1.1.6 Partial Factors.
(2) Performance verification of partition walls can be performed as follows.
① During installation, the partition wall can be regarded as comprising a slab with 3 fixed sides and 1 free side.
② The span used in calculations shall be the interval between the centers of walls.
(3) Performance verification of the bottom slab and footing can be performed as follows.
① The part of the bottom slab surrounded by the outer walls and partition walls can be regarded as a 4 sided fixed
slab.
② The span used in calculation of the part having 4 fixed sides shall be the central interval between the center of
the walls.
③ The cross section used in calculations in connection with bending and shearing of the footing shall be the front
surface of the wall. Provided, however, that the cross section used in examination of diagonal tensile type shear
failure may be assumed to be the cross section at the front face of the wall. In this case, in calculations of the
height of members at the front face of the wall, the part of the haunch with a gradient shallower than 1 :
3 shall be considered effective.
④ In the case of reinforced concrete footings of normal dimensions, the caisson body is assumed to be rigid;
therefore, it may be considered that the moment occurring in the footing does not reach the main body of
caisson.
(4) Other Structural Members
In performance verification of structural members which are not described in this section, such as the slit members
of slit caissons, the methods of verification for structural members shall be applied correspondingly, considering
the dimensions of the structural member and the characteristics of the actions etc.
(5) Others
① In the case of quaywall caissons, in principle, verification of the fatigue limit state may be omitted.
② In cases where a caisson is lifted with jacks for transportation or uneven settlement occurs after installation,
verification may be performed considering the entire caisson as a beam. In this case verification for punching
shear failure of the bottom slab is necessary.
– 391 –
1.3 L-shaped Blocks

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of L-shape blocks
Article 24
The performance criteria of a reinforced concrete L-shaped block (hereinafter called “L-shaped block” in
this article) shall be set such that the risk of impairing the integrity of the front wall, bottom slab, buttress
wall, and footing of the L-shaped block is equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent
action situation in which the dominant actions are self weight and earth pressure and under the variable
action situations in which the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions and variable waves
in consideration of the type of facilities.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of L-shaped Blocks

① The performance criteria of L-shaped blocks, shall follow the provision shown in 1.2 Caissons
regarding the performance criteria and the setting of design situation (excluding accidental situations)
of caissons. Provided, however, that “outer wall,” “partition wall,” and “internal earth pressure” shall
be replaced with “front wall,” “buttress wall,” and “earth pressure,” respectively, and the provisions
in connection with flotation and installation shall be excluded. In addition to these provisions, the
performance criteria and the settings of design situations (excluding accidental situations) of L-shaped
blocks shall be as shown in Attached Table 10.
Attached Table 10 Performance Criteria and Settings of Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of L-shaped
Block

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
7 1 – 24 1 – Serviceability Permanent Earth Water pressure, Extrusion of bottom Design yield stress
pressure reaction of slab from buttress wall
bearing part (yielding of reinforcing
of front wall, bars)
reaction of
bearing part of
bottom slab
Variable Level 1 Self weight, Extrusion of front wall Design yield stress
earthquake earth pressure, from buttress wall
ground water pressure, (yielding of reinforcing
motion reaction of bars)
bearing part
of front wall,
reaction of
bearing part of
bottom slab
② Extrusion of bottom slab or front wall from buttress wall (yielding of reinforcing bars)
Verification of extrusion of the bottom slab or front wall from the buttress wall (yielding of
reinforcing bars) means to verify that the risk that the tensile stress of the reinforcing bars due to
extrusion of the bottom slab or front wall from the buttress wall will exceed the design yield stress is
less than the limit value.
[Technical Note]
(1) The description in this section can be applied to the performance verification of ordinary L-shaped blocks.
(2) An example of the performance verification procedure for L-shaped blocks is shown in Fig. 1.3.1.
(3) In performance verification of L-shaped blocks, 1.2 Caissons and Technical Manual for L-shape Block
Quaywalls 17) may be used as a reference.
– 392 –
Assumption of dimensions of L-shaped block members
Permanent situation, variable situations
relevant to waves and level 1 seismic motion
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of front wall
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of buttress wall
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of bottom slab
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of footing
*1: For the high earthquake-proof facilities and the facilities of which damage is expected to have a serious impact on human life, property,
and social activity, it is preferable to perform verification for accidental situations, as necessary.
Fig. 1.3.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for L-shaped Blocks
1.3.2 Determination of Basic Cross Section and Characteristic Values
(1) It is desirable that the dimensions of the members of L-shaped blocks be determined considering the following
items :
① Capacity of facilities for fabricating L-shaped blocks
② Hoisting capacity of crane
③ Water depth in which L-shaped blocks are to be installed (mound water depth)
④ Tidal range
⑤ Working conditions after installation of L-shaped blocks (backfilling and superstructure construction)
(2) The wall height of L-shaped blocks should be determined so that the superstructure may be easily constructed,
considering the water depth at the front face and the tidal range when the L-shaped blocks form the quaywall main
body.
1.3.3 Actions
(1) In evaluation of actions, 1.2.3 Actions can be used as a reference.

(2) Actions on the members of L-shaped blocks can be considered as shown in Fig. 1.3.2.
– 393 –
h1,w1, K1 q
q h1,w1
K1q
Surcharge + weight of
K1,w1, h1 overburden soil
h3 ρ w・g, h3 and sand + deadweight of
bottom slab h2,w2
Dynamic Earth Residual
water h2,w2, K2 pressure water
pressure q+(w1h1+w2h2)+wh4
pressure
Dead- h4,w
weight
Bottom reaction Bottom reaction
K2(q+w1h1+w2h2)
(a) Actions on front wall and buttress wall (b) Actions on footing (c) Actions on bottom slab
where
q : load (kN/m 2)
γ1 : unit weight of soil above residual water level (kN/m3)
γ2 : unit weight of soil below residual water level (kN/m3)
ρwg : unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
pdw : dynamic water pressure during action of ground motion (kN/m 2)
h1 : thickness of soil layer of soil above residual water level (m)
h2 : thickness of soil layer of soil below residual water level (m)
h3 : tidal range (m)
h4 : thickness of bottom slab (m)
K1 : coefficient of earth pressure of soil above residual water level
K2 : coefficient of earth pressure of soil below residual water level
w1 : weight of soil above residual water level (kN/m 2)
w2 : weight of soil below residual water level (kN/m 2)
w4 : self weight of bottom slab (kN/m 2)
Fig. 1.3.2 Actions for L-shaped Blocks
(3) In calculating earth pressure, Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure can be used as a reference. For the friction
angle on the wall at the virtual back face, the angle of shear resistance of the backfill material at the virtual back
face can be used.17)
(4) In calculating bottom resistance, 1.2.3 Actions (6) can be used as a reference.
(5) In the concrete placing method of L-shaped block fabrication, there are cases in which the wall is constructed in
the vertical direction and cases in which the wall is constructed by laying in the horizontal direction. In cases
where the wall is constructed by laying in horizontally, construction is accompanied by work in which the blocks
are raised before installation; therefore, in performance verifications, it is necessary to study the actions at the
block raising stage.
(6) In general, the actions on L-shaped blocks are not distributed uniformly. However, the non-conformity distributed
actions may be considered to be a combination of appropriately divided loads of uniform distribution. Provided,
however, that it should be avoided that the combination of divided loads causes weak points in the member
strength. Examples of the division of loads are shown in Fig. 1.3.3.
– 394 –
p1
ha Design load distribution of member

Design load
distribution Footing Bottom slab
of member
H H
Load Load
hb
distribution distribution
p2
(i) (ii)
(a) Earth pressure (b) External forces acting on footing and bottom slab
Fig. 1.3.3 Example of Method of Load Distribution
(1) Front Wall

① Performance verification of the front wall can generally be performed assuming that a slab is supported by
buttress walls.
② In the case of one buttress wall, performance verification can be performed assuming that a cantilever slab is
supported by the buttress. In case of two or more buttresses, it is assumed that the front wall is a continuous
slab supported by the buttresses.
③ The span of the front wall may be measured from the center of the buttress .
④ Actions from rear of the front wall can be regarded as acting on the entire length of the member.
⑤ The width of the front wall and the actions on the wall can be considered as shown in Fig. 1.3.4.
⑥ Structurally, the front wall is supported by the bottom slab as well as by the buttresses. Therefore, the front wall
may be regarded as a slab which is supported on 2 or 3 sides. However, in general, the front walls of L-shaped
blocks with large heights, are lightly affected by the part supported by the bottom slab, and the arrangement
of reinforcing bars at the bottom slab attachment becomes complex. Considering these facts, performance
verification can generally be performed assuming that the front wall is a cantilever slab or a continuous slab.
p: earth pressure,
residual water pressure
: length of
member
p: earth pressure,
Buttress wall
Fulcrum
Front wall
: length of
member
Buttress wall
Buttress wall
Fulcrum
Front wall
(a) When supported by one buttress wall (b) When supported by two buttress walls
Fig. 1.3.4 Length of Front Wall Members and Actions on Front Wall
– 395 –
(2) Footing
① Performance verification of the footing can be performed assuming that a footing is regarded as a cantilever slab
supported by the position of the front wall.
② The length of the footing may be regarded as the distance between the front edge of the footing and the front
face of the front wall.
③ The length of the footing and the actions on the footing can be considered as shown in Fig. 1.3.5.
Front wall
a
Footing
a : length of member
a
p
a
p = (bottom reaction) – (deadweight of footing)
Fig. 1.3.5 Length of Footing and Actions on Footing
(3) Bottom Slab

① Performance verification of the bottom slab can generally be performed assuming that the bottom slab is
supported by the buttresses. In the case of one buttress, the bottom slab can be treated as a cantilever slab
supported by the buttress, and in case of two or more buttresses, as a continuous slab.
② The length of the bottom slab may be regarded as the distance between the centers of the buttresses.
③ Actions from the top side of the bottom slab can generally be regarded as acting on the entire length of the
member.
④ The bottom slab may be regarded as a structure supported by the front wall as well as by the buttresses. Therefore,
performance verification of the bottom slab may be performed assuming that the bottom slab is supported on 2
or 3 sides. However, for the same reason as stated in (1), verification may generally be performed assuming that
the bottom slab is a cantilever slab or a continuous slab. Accordingly, in the cases where it is advantageous in
performance verification to consider the bottom slab as a slab supported on 2 or 3 sides, ① does not necessarily
apply.
⑤ Of the actions on the bottom slab, the bottom reaction acts on the entire length of the member. The action from
the top of the bottom slab which is transmitted by backfilling can be considered as acting on the clear span of
the bottom slab. However, because this type of calculation is troublesome and this does not have a large effect
on performance verification, the action on the bottom slab may generally be applied on the entire length of the
member.
⑥ In performance verification of the bottom slab, it is necessary to set the load factor considering the load under
which members are at the greatest risk. For load factors used in performance verification, Technical Manual
for L-shaped Block Quaywalls 17) may be used as a reference.
(4) Buttress wall
① Performance verification for buttress walls can be performed assuming that the buttress wall is a T-beam
integrated with the front wall.
② Buttress walls may be examined by consideration as a cantilever beam supported at the bottom slab against the
reaction from the front wall.
③ Performance verification of buttress walls shall be performed for the cross sections parallel to the bottom slab.
– 396 –
④ The buttress wall, front wall, and bottom slab shall be tightly connected. The amount of reinforcing bars for this
purpose shall be calculated independently from that of stirrups against shear stresses.
⑤ When performance verification of the front wall and bottom slab follows the description given here, actions
from behind the buttress walls may be disregarded.
⑥ The length of members of buttress walls can be considered to be the total height including the bottom slab, as
shown in Fig. 1.3.6. Provided, however, that it is necessary to consider that actions work on the superstructure
as well as the buttress.
⑦ When the cross section is calculated assuming that the buttress wall is a T-beam, attention shall be paid to the
position of the neutral axis which is located either in the front wall or in the buttress wall.
Crown
Superstructure
p
H ℓh
where
p : sum of earth pressure and residual water pressure (kN/m 2)
ℓh : length of buttress members (m)
b : width of block (m)
H : height of block (m)
Fig. 1.3.6 Length of Buttress Members and Actions on Buttress Wall
– 397 –
1.4 Cellular Blocks

Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Cellular Blocks
Article 25
The provisions of Article 23 shall apply correspondingly to the performance criteria of cellular blocks of
reinforced concrete construction.
[Technical Note]
(1) The description in this section can be applied to the performance verification of ordinary cellular blocks.
(2) An example of the performance verification procedure for cellular blocks is shown in Fig. 1.4.1.
Assumption of dimensions of cellular block members
Permanent situation, variable situation associated
with waves and Level 1 seismic motion
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of front wall
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of rear wall
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of outer walls
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of partition walls
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of bottom slab
Verification of ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state of footing
*1: In outer walls which are not affected by waves, verification may be limited to the serviceability limit state.
*2: In the high earthquake-resistance facilities and facilities in which serious impact on human life, property, and social activity due to
damage of the objective facilities can be expected, it is preferable to perform verification for the accidental situations, as necessary.
Verification of accidental situations associated with waves shall be performed in cases where facilities which handle hazardous materials
are located immediately behind the structure, and damage to the facilities can be expected to have a serious impact.
Fig. 1.4.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Cellular Blocks
(3) In performance verification of cellular blocks, the performance verification in 1 Structural Members may be
used as a reference.
(4) Because cellular blocks have various types, in individual performance verification, 1.2 Caissons and 1.3 L-shaped
Blocks may be used as a reference, corresponding to the structural type.
When cellular blocks are to be used as members of breakwaters or breakwater revetments or other structures
subject to the action of wave force, the fatigue limit state should be studied separately.
– 398 –
(5) “Cellular blocks” generally refer to blocks consisting of outer walls without a bottom slab. Cellular blocks function
as a wall body either in single units or multiple piled-up blocks. As a special type, cellular blocks with a bottom
slab are also used. In actual performance verification, it is necessary to adopt an appropriate method based on an
adequate understanding of the characteristics of the block shape.
(6) The cross-sectional shapes of cellular blocks have various types. The cross-sectional shapes of blocks which are
commonly used in relating large numbers are shown in Fig. 1.4.2.
Outer wall
Outer wall
Outer wall (front wall)
Outer wall (rear wall)

Outer wall
front wall
rear wall
front wall
rear wall
Partition wall Outer wall
Outer wall
Outer wall Outer wall
Rectangular section Rectangular with Rectangular with I-shaped section

partition wall flanged section
Fig. 1.4.2 Examples of Cross-sectional Shapes of Cellular Blocks (schematic diagrams)
1.4.2 Setting of Basic Cross Section and Characteristic Values
(1) The dimensions of the members of cellular blocks shall be set considering the following items :
① Capability of the facilities for fabricating cellular blocks
② Hoisting capacity of crane
③ Water depth at the location where cellular blocks are to be installed
④ Tidal range
⑤ Work conditions after installation of cellular blocks (backfilling, superstructure construction)
⑥ Formation of a mutually integrated block structure when piled-up in stages
1.4.3 Actions
(1) The rear wall is subject to backfill earth pressure, residual water pressure etc., from outside. However, because
these are mutually cancelled out by internal earth pressure, in general cases, examination of this type of action
can be omitted.
(2) The internal earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on cellular blocks can be considered as shown in
Fig. 1.4.3. In the cases where backfilled is considered a part of the wall, the stress on the outer walls and the rear
walls due to the filling are reduced by the active earth pressure, residual water pressure etc., after backfilling is
completed. However, because in many cases filling is executed before backfilling in the construction process,
performance verification of members should be performed for this condition.
– 399 –
Filling pressure +
Outer wall
Outer wall
Fig. 1.4.3 Actions on Cellular Blocks
(3) Actions on front wall, rear wall, and outer walls

① As actions on the front wall, rear wall, and outer walls, internal earth pressure and residual water pressure shall
be taken into account. Provided, however, that in the cases where cast-in-place concrete is placed on top of the
cellular block to a degree such that the surcharge may not affect the interior of the cellular block, it is generally
not necessary to consider the surcharge imposed on the cast-in-place concrete.
② Internal earth pressure
(a) The coefficient of earth pressure for internal earth pressure may be set as 0.6. Provided, however, that it is not
necessary to consider the internal earth pressure when the filling consists of blocks or concrete.
(b) It may be considered that the earth pressure increases from the crown of block to a height equal to the inner
width b1 of the cellular block, but does not increase at points lower than this.
(c) The earth pressure acting on cellular blocks piled in multiple stages may be calculated as shown in Fig. 1.4.4.
Provided, however, that when the inner width of the lower cellular blocks is less than that of the upper blocks
(in the case of cellular block partitioned by partition walls), the earth pressure obtained for the upper block
may be extended to the lower block without increasing its value.
b3 p1=K γ1H2
b2 p2=Kγ 2(H1-H2)
b1 qK
Residual
H2 45° γ 1 water level
H1
γ2
45° 45°
H1
p3=Kγ 2(H3 -H1)
H3 γ2
45°
45°
γ2
Fig. 1.4.4 Method of Calculating Internal Earth Pressure
The symbols in Fig. 1.4.4 are as follows :

q : characteristic value of surcharge (kN/m 2)
γ1 : specific weight of filling material above residual water level (kN/m3)
γ2 : specific weight of filling material below residual water level (kN/m3)
K : coefficient of internal earth pressure K = 0.6
b1 : inner width of block chamber (m) ; b1 = H1
– 400 –
(d) The internal earth pressure in cellular blocks is constrained by a frame and is considered to be the act similar
to the filling of a caisson. Therefore, 1.2 Caissons may be used as a reference.
③ Residual water pressure
(a) For quaywalls
Residual water pressure is calculated from the head difference between the residual water level and L.W.L.
(b) For breakwaters
Residual water pressure (internal water pressure in cellular blocks) is generally calculated from the hydraulic
head difference between the water level inside the block and L.W.L. Provided, however, that when the wave
trough acts on the front of a block, the increase of the internal water pressure shall be considered, depending
on the circumstances.
When used as breakwaters or revetments and the wave trough acts on the front of the block, the increase
of the residual water level difference should be examined. Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2 Wave Force on Upright
Walls can be referred to for a calculation of water pressure in this case.
(4) Actions on partition walls
The partition wall shall be designed against extrusion failure of the outer walls from the partition wall due to the
earth pressure of filling and residual water pressure. The characteristic values of loads against extrusion failure
of partition walls and outer walls should be those of the earth pressure acting on the shaded parts in Fig. 1.4.5.
Outer wall Outer wall

Partition
(front wall) (rear wall)
Load bearing area
- Earth pressure of filling Earth pressure of filling

2 + residual water pressure + residual water pressure
per 1m of width per (m)
Fig. 1.4.5 Load for Examination of Extrusion Failure of Outer Walls from Partition Wall
(5) Wave force is generally not considered. However, in the cases where particularly strong impact wave force acts
on the wall, it is necessary to consider this action.
(6) Actions during construction have many common points with those of L-shaped blocks. Therefore, 1.3 L-shaped
Blocks can be used as a reference.
(7) As the ordinary combinations of actions considered in the performance verifications and the load factors to be
multiplied by the characteristic values of the respective actions, the combinations of actions and the load factors
shown in 1.3.3 Actions can be used.
(8) In the cases where the actions on members of cellular blocks are divided for convenience of calculation, 1.3.3
Actions can be used as a reference.
– 401 –
(1) Rectangular Cellular Blocks

① Outer walls
(a) The section force generated in a rectangular cellular block is solved by assuming the block as a rigid box
frame for each unit height against the equivalent uniform load converted from the actual load distribution.
(b) The span used for calculations is measured between the centers of the connected walls.
② Partition wall
(a) The section forces acting on partition walls are calculated in the same way as that of outer walls.
(b) W hen any difference of filling height between neighboring chambers may occur during execution, the
partition wall should be designed against the earth pressure caused by the difference.
(c) The span used for calculations is measured between the centers of the connected walls.
③ Footings
(a) Footings may be designed as cantilever slabs supported by the outer walls.
(b) The span of footing is the distance from the front of the outer wall to the tip of the footing.
– 402 –
1.5 Upright Wave-absorbing Caissons

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Upright Wave-absorbing Caisson
Article 26
The provisions of Article 23 shall be applied to an upright wave-absorbing caisson of reinforced concrete
construction (hereinafter referred to as “upright wave-absorbing caisson” in this article) with modifications
as necessary.
2. In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of an upright wave-
absorbing caisson shall be as specified in the subsequent items in consideration of the type of facilities.
(1) The risk of impairing the integrity of the wave-absorbing part of an upright wave-absorbing caisson
shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation in which the dominant
action is variable waves.
(2) The degree of damage in the accidental action situations in which the dominant action is the impact by
drifting objects shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Upright Wave-absorbing Caissons

In addition, the performance criteria and the setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations)
of caissons in 1.2 Caissons. The performance criteria and the provision in regard to design situations
(excluding accidental situations) of upright wave-absorbing caissons shall be as specified in ①.
① Wave-absorbing part
(a) Variable actions in which the dominating action is variable waves (serviceability)
1) Front wall slit
The performance criteria and the setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations) of
front wall slits of upright wave-absorbing caissons shall be as shown in the Attached Table 11.
Attached Table 11 Performance Criteria and Settings for Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Front
Wall Slits of Upright Wave-absorbing Caissons

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
7 1 – 26 2 1 Serviceability Variable Variable Water pressure, Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional

waves*1) axial force of front wall slit strength (ultimate limit state)
Variable transmitted from Serviceability of cross Limit value of crack caused
waves*2) top of front wall section of front wall slit by bending (serviceability
limit state)
Repeated Fatigue failure of front Design fatigue strength
action of wall slit (fatigue limit state)
waves*3)
*1) Here, among waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.1 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be waves which are used in performance
*2) Here, among the waves specified, Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the wave having a height greater than the specified waves
*3) Here, among the waves specified , Article 8, Paragraph 1.2 of the Public Notice, the waves shall be set appropriately depending on the
2) Partition wall slits and outer wall slits

The performance criteria and the settings of design situations (excluding accidental situations) of partition
wall slits and outer wall slits shall follow the performance criteria and the setting of design situations
(excluding accidental situations) of front wall slits shown in a), providing that the non-dominating action
is water pressure and replacing “front wall slits” with “partition wall slits and side wall slits”.
3) Upper beam
The performance criteria and the setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations) of upper
– 403 –
beams shall follow the performance criteria and the settings of design situations (excluding accidental
situations) of front wall slit shown in a), providing that the non-dominating actions are water pressure, the
support reaction transmitted by the slit part, the wave force acting on the ceiling slab, the self weight of
the ceiling slab, and the self weight of the upper beam and replacing “front wall slits” with “upper beam”.
4) Lower beam
The performance criteria and the setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations) of lower
wall slits shall follow the performance criteria and the setting of design situations (excluding accidental
situations) of front wall slits shown in a), providing that the non-dominating actions are water pressure
and the support reactions transmitted by the slit part and lower slab And replacing the “front wall slits”
with “lower beam”.
(b) Accidental situation in which dominating action is impact by drifting objects (serviceability)
The performance criteria and the setting of design situations (limited to accidental situations) for
accidental situations of in which drifting objects collided with upright wave-absorbing caissons shall
be as shown in the Attached Table 12.
Attached Table 12 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations (limited to accidental situations) of Wave-
absorbing Part of Upright Wave-absorbing Caissons

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
7 2 2 26 2 2 Serviceability Accidental Impact by Self weight, Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional

drifting water pressure of members of wave- strength (ultimate limit state)
objects dissipating part
such as
driftwood,
etc. carried
by water
[Technical Note]
(1) Upright wave-absorbing caissons are caissons with a slit-shaped wall at the front face, and have an internal
wave chamber which gives the caisson a wave-absorbing function; this type of structure is used in quaywalls,
breakwaters, and similar facilities. At present, various structures have been developed as shapes for upright wave-
absorbing caissons. However, these can be broadly classified into the permeable and impermeable types. As to
the slit shape, the vertical slit type is the most widely used. As other types, the horizontal slit and perforated wall
types have been used in actual facilities. In performance verification of the members, it is preferable to make an
adequate study of the characteristics of the respective structures, and to carry out hydraulic model experiments
suited to the conditions.
(2) As the procedure for performance verification of upright wave-absorbing caissons, 1.2 Caissons can be used as a
reference.
(3) The names of members of the relatively common vertical slit caisson are shown in Fig. 1.5.1.
– 404 –
C
Ceiling slab
Upper beam Upper beam
Outer wall slit column
Front wall
A A
Conventional caisson part

Slit column Slit column
Column type slit wall partition
Rear wall
Lower beam Lower beam
Lower slab Lower slab Outer wall
Lower slab
Partition wall
Bottom Bottom
Bottom slab slab slab
C
Section (B–B) Front view (C–C)
Outer wall slit column Outer wall
Wave
Conventional caisson part
Slit column
chamber
Slit column
Partition wall
Column type slit wall partition
B B
Plan view (A–A)
Fig. 1.5.1 Names of Vertical Slit Caisson Members
1.5.2 Actions
(1) For actions which should be considered in performance verification of upright wave-absorbing caissons, 1.2
Caissons can be used as a reference.
(2) Wave forces acting on the members of slit caissons vary significantly, depending on the structure of the water
chamber and whether or not it has a ceiling slab. Therefore, as well as referring to past cases of implementation,
appropriate hydraulic model experiments are recommended in accordance with the individual conditions prior to
design.
(3) For the wave forces acting on members, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2(7) Wave Forces Acting on Upright Wave-
absorbing Caisson 18) can be used as a reference.
(4) If the top of the water chamber is completely sealed by the ceiling slab, an impulsive pressure may be generated
by the compression of the air trapped beneath the top at the instant when the front of incoming wave shuts off
the slits or perforations. Provision of ventilation holes with a suitable opening ratio in the ceiling slab can reduce
impulsive pressure due to air compression. The opening ratio of these holes should be carefully designed. If too
great, the wave surface collides directly with the ceiling slab, and this could produce a greater impulsive uplift
pressure than that of no ventilation 2), 3). For details, reference 19) and 20) may be used.
(5) The actions which should be considered in performance verifications of the members of the wave chambers in
upright wave-absorbing caissons are shown in Table 1.5.1.
– 405 –
Table 1.5.1 External Forces for Design of Members of Water Chamber of Wave-dissipating Caisson
Member
Member Actions
number
• Water pressure while afloat
• Wave pressure (parallel/perpendicular to face line)
Slit column ①
• Impact force from driftwood and other drifting objects
• Axial force transmitted from upper beam
Column type slit wall ② • Wave pressure including wave force transmitted from partition wall
partition
• Water pressure while afloat including wave force transmitted from sidewalls
Outer wall slit column
Front wall
③
• Wave pressure (ditto )
• Vertical loads from above and below

Upper beam ④ • Water pressure while afloat (reaction transmitted from slit column)
• Wave pressure (wave force acting on the beam itself and slit column reaction)
• Water pressure while afloat (reaction from slit column and lower wall, load
Lower beam ⑤ acting on the beam itself)
• Wave pressure (ditto)

Lower slab ⑥
• Wave pressure
Outer wall ⑦
• Wave pressure
• Wave pressure acts on both sides separately in the direction parallel to face
Partition ⑧ line
• Fender reaction
Rear wall ⑨
• Wave pressure
• Earth pressure, residual water pressure
• Bottom reaction and bottom slab weight in each design situation, water head
Bottom slab ⑩
difference, and water pressure while float
• Wave pressure (upwards, downwards)

Ceiling slab ⑪ • Surcharge
• Self weight
Note : Member numbers are those shown in Fig. 1.5.1
– 406 –
1.6 Hybrid Caissons

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Hybrid Caissons
Article 27
The provisions of Article 23 shall be applied to the performance criteria of a hybrid caisson (a caisson having
a composite structure of steel plates and concrete) with modification as necessary.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Hybrid Caissons

The provisions in connection with the performance criteria and design situations (excluding accidental
situations) of hybrid caissons shall be as shown in the Attached Table 13, in addition to the performance
criteria and setting of design situations (excluding accidental situations) of caissons in 1.2 Caissons.
Attached Table 13 Performance Criteria and Setting of Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Hybrid
Caissons

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
7 1 – 27 1 – Serviceability Permanent Water – Cross-sectional failure • Design cross-sectional

(Variable) pressure of partition wall (axial strength (ultimate limit state)
during force, bending, shear) • Design cross-sectional
installation strength considering local
buckling (ultimate limit
state)
Extrusion of members Design strength for
extrusion of members
Variable Self weight, Cross-sectional failure • Design cross-sectional
wave surcharge, of partition wall (axial strength (ultimate limit state)
(Level 1 bottom reaction, force, bending, shear) • Design cross-sectional
earthquake internal earth strength considering local
ground pressure, buckling (ultimate limit
motion) internal water state)
pressure, earth Extrusion of members Design strength for
pressure, force extrusion of members
transmitted from
footing
Internal Internal water Cross-sectional Design horizontal shear
earth pressure, force failure of outer wall of transfer resistance
pressure transmitted from composite structure*1
(Variable footing (Horizontal slip shear
wave) (Internal earth force)
(Level 1 pressure, Cross-sectional • Design cross-sectional
earthquake internal water failure of outer wall of strength (ultimate limit state)
ground pressure, force composite structure*1 • Design cross-sectional
motion) transmitted from (Bending, shear) strength considering local
footing) buckling (ultimate limit
state)
*1): Slab member (composite slab) comprising steel plate and concrete unified by shear connectors.
[Technical Note]
1.6.1 General
(1) In this chapter, caissons with a composite structural type of steel plates and concrete are defined as hybrid
caissons. By combining several different materials, composite structures achieve superior structural strength
properties that are not possible using a single material alone. In “composite structures”, the member sections
consist of a combination of different materials to achieve the functions of the structure. Hybrid caissons, like
conventional steel reinforced concrete caissons, are used in breakwaters, quays, and coastal revetments. Fig. 1.6.1
shows two types of structural members of hybrid caissons commonly used in the port and harbor structures. One
is a composite member structure with steel plates arranged on one side only. The other is an SRC structure with
H-shaped steel embedded inside it. In this chapter the term “hybrid caisson” is used as general term for caissons
using these two structural types.
– 407 –
Concrete
Concrete
Shear connectors Steel reinforcement Steel reinforcement

(example of headed studs) Steel plate Steel frame
(1) Composite structure (2) SRC structure
Fig. 1.6.1 Hybrid Structural Members
(1) Fig. 1.6.2 shows an example of a hybrid caisson structure.
Partition wall
(steel stiffened plate)
Steel plate Steel
reinforcement
Studs Outer wall

(composite slab)
Footing
(SRC slab)
Concrete
Base steel frame

Base plate (SRC slab) (fabricated H frame)
Fig. 1.6.2 Example of a Hybrid Caisson Structure
(2) In performance verification of hybrid caissons, the Hybrid Caisson Deign Manual 21) and References 22) and 23)
can be used as reference.
(3) For the procedure for performance verification of hybrid caissons, 1.2 Caissons can generally be used as a
reference. For composite slabs, Fig. 1.6.3 can be used as a reference.
– 408 –
Assumption of specifications of composite slab
Calculation of design sectional force
• Bending moment
• Shear force
Verification for bending Verification of shear

• Ultimate limit state Verification for shear transfer resistance
• Serviceability limit state • Ultimate limit state • Ultimate limit state
(• Fatigue limit state)
Determination of steel plate

thickness and arrangement Determination of shear Determination of
of reinforcing bars reinforcing bars stiffner number of studs
Consideration of buckling
in the case of compression
on steel plate side
Determination of specifications of composite slab
Fig. 1.6.3 Example of Performance Verification for Composite Slab of Hybrid Caisson
1.6.3 Actions
The actions which should be considered in performance verification of hybrid caissons conform to those for caissons;
therefore, 1.2.3 Actions can be used as a reference. Provided, however, that in the cases where steel partition walls
are used as the partition walls in a hybrid caisson, it is preferable to consider the actions due to the difference in water
pressure from inside and outside of the caisson while afloat and during installation, the actions of earth pressure and
waves etc. and the bottom reaction of the bottom slabs and footings as actions acting on the partition wall.
(1) Calculation of Sectional Force

For calculations of sectional force, 1.2.4 Performance Verification can be used as a reference, corresponding to
the caissons.
(2) Performance Verification of Composite Slab
In performance verification of composite slabs, the following items shall generally be considered.
① Flexural moment
For the flexural moment, the section stress of composite slabs can be calculated as a double reinforced concrete
member by converting the steel plates to equivalent reinforcements.
② Shearing Force
The shearing force of composite slabs can be analyzed in the same manner as that of reinforced concrete slabs.
③ Integration of Steel and Concrete
Shear connectors are particularly important structural elements for the integration of materials in a hybrid
structure. In composite slabs, headed studs and shape steel are most commonly used as the shear connectors.
The required quantity and arrangement of shear connectors should be designed in consideration of preventing
the steel plate separating from the concrete (especially when compressive stress is active) and securing the
transmission of horizontal shear force occurring on the interface between steel plate and concrete.
– 409 –
(3) Performance verification of SRC Members
① The steel and reinforced concrete (SRC) members shall be designed against the flexural moment and shearing
force, by taking full account of the structural characteristics due to differences in the structural type of the steel
frame.
② SRC members can normally be classified as follows, depending on the structural type of steel frames :
(a) Full-web type
(b) Truss web type
③ For the flexural moment, the section stress can be calculated as a reinforced concrete member by converting
steel frames to equivalent reinforcements. When the fixing of steel frame ends with concrete is insufficient in
full-web type, it should be calculated as a composite of the independent steel frame member and the reinforced
concrete member.
④ For shearing force, if the web is of truss type, the shear stress can be calculated as a reinforced concrete by
converting steel frames to equivalent reinforcements. If it is of full-web type, steel frames themselves can resist
against the shearing force, and they can be duly considered in design.
(4) Performance Verification of Partition Walls
Because partition walls function as a bearing side of the outer walls and bottom slab, in performance verification,
stability of the cross section of the partition wall should be secured against the sectional forces calculated based
on the actions on these bearing sides.
(5) Performance Verification of Corners and Joints
① Corners and joints shall be designed to smoothly and firmly transmit section forces, and to be easily fabricated
and executed.
② To secure sufficient strength at corners and joints, it is desirable to firmly connect the steel materials on the
tensile side to those of the compressive side. It is also desirable to provide shear reinforced steel materials
(haunches) against concrete tensile stress of the inside of joints.
(6) Performance Verification for Fatigue Failure
① Hybrid caissons use a large number of welded joints for connecting steel plates, and attaching shear connectors
and shear resistance steel. Therefore, where the members are frequently subject to repeated load, the fatigue
strength in welded parts should be examined.
② In coastal revetments and quaywalls, the influence of repeated actions is small. However, in performance
verifications of breakwaters, when the stress on members due to waves as a repeated action changes significantly,
examination for fatigue failure of the caisson is needed.
1.6.5 Corrosion Control
(1) Corrosion control of hybrid caissons shall be set appropriately considering the performance requirements, level of
maintenance control, construction conditions, and other relevant factors.
(2) The main cause of deterioration of hybrid members is corrosion of the steel materials. Because there are cases
in which corrosion of the steel materials may result in developing cracks of the concrete, appropriate corrosion
prevention measures should be taken for steel plates in order to improve the durability of the hybrid members.
The deterioration characteristics of the concrete itself should be considered to be the same as that of conventional
reinforced concrete.
(3) Steel materials used on the outside of hybrid caissons are generally covered with concrete or asphalt mats. The
inside of a caisson is isolated from the external atmosphere by means of concrete lids. It is also in contact with
filling sand in a static state and with residual seawater. Thus, when designing hybrid caissons, direct contact
between the steel plates of members and the marine environment is generally avoided. For corrosion control, it is
usual to set steel plate on the inside and concrete on the outside so as to avoid direct contact of steel plate with fresh
seawater. If steel plates are in direct contact with seawater, corrosion control should be applied such as coating
methods to splash zone or tidal zone and cathodic protection methods in seawater.
– 410 –
1.7 Armor Stones and Blocks

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Armor Stones and Blocks
Article 28
The performance criteria of rubble stones and concrete blocks armoring a structure exposed to the actions
of waves and water currents as well as armor stones and armor blocks of the foundation mound shall be such
that the risk of exceeding the allowable degree of damage under the variable action situation, in which the
dominant actions are variable waves and water currents, is equal to or less than the threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Armor Stones and Blocks

The settings of the performance criteria and design situations, excluding accidental situations, for armor
stones and blocks shall be as shown in the Attached Table 14.
Attached Table 14 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) for Armor
Stones and Blocks

Ordinance
Performance Index of standard
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements limit value

Item
Item
Situation Dominating action dominating

action
7 1 – 28 1 – Serviceability Variable Variable waves Self weight, Extent of damage Limit value of
water pressure damage rate, degree
of damage, or
deformation level
① Extent of damage
The indexes which express the extent of damage of armor stones and blocks for the variable situations
in which the dominating actions are variable waves and water currents are the damage rate, the degree
of damage, and the deformation level.
In the performance verification of armor stones and blocks, the indexes including the degree of
damage and the limit value thereof shall be set appropriately considering the design working life of the
objective facilities, the construction work conditions, the time and cost necessary for restoration, and
the conditions of waves and water currents, etc.
[Technical Note]
1.7.1 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks on Slope 24), 25)
(1) General
The armor units for the slopes and a sloping breakwaters are placed to protect the rubble stones inside; it is
necessary to ensure that an armor unit has a mass sufficient to be stable so that it does not scatter itself. This
stable mass, required mass, can generally be obtained by hydraulic model tests or calculations using appropriate
equations.
(2) Basic Equation for Calculation of Required Mass
When calculating the required mass of rubble stones and concrete blocks covering the slope of a sloping structure
which is affected by wave forces, Hudson’s formula with the stability number NS, which is shown in the following
equation, may be used.26) In this equation, the symbol γ is a partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k
and d show the characteristic value and design value, respectively. For the partial safety factors γNS and γH in the
equation, 1.0 may be used.
(1.7.1)
where
M : required mass of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t)
ρ r : density of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t/m3)
H : wave height used in stability calculation (m)
NS : stability number determined primarily by the shape, slope, damage rate of the armor, etc.
S r : specific gravity of rubble stones or concrete blocks relative to water
– 411 –

The design values in the equation may be calculated using the following equations.
(3) Design Wave Height H Used in the Performance Verification

Hudson’s formula was proposed based on the results of experiments that used regular waves. When applying
it to the action of actual waves which are random, there is thus a problem of which definition of wave heights
shall be used. However, with structures that are made of rubble stones or concrete blocks, there is a tendency for
damage to occur not when one single wave having the maximum height H among a random wave train attacks the
armor units, but rather for damage to progress gradually under the continuous action of waves of various heights.
Considering this fact and past experiences, it has been decided to make it standard to use the significant wave
height of incident waves at the place where the slope is located as the wave height H in equation (1.7.1), because
the significant wave height is representative of the overall scale of a random wave train. Consequently, it is also
standard to use the significant wave height when using the generalized Hudson’s formula. Note however that for
places where the water depth is less than one half of the equivalent deepwater wave height, the significant wave
height at the water depth equal to one half of the equivalent deepwater wave height should be used.
(4) Parameters Affecting the Stability Number NS
As shown in equation (1.7.1), the required mass of armor stones or concrete blocks varies with the wave height
and the density of the armor units, and also the stability number NS. The NS value is a coefficient that represents
the effects of the characteristics of structure, those of armor units, wave characteristics and other factors on the
stability. The main factors that influence the NS value are as follows.
① Characteristics of the structure
(a) Type of structure; sloping breakwater, breakwater covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, and
composite breakwater, etc.
(b) Gradient of the armored slope
(c) Position of armor units; breakwater head, breakwater trunk, position relative to still water level, front face and
top of slope, back face, and berm, etc.
(d) Crown height and width, and shape of superstructure
(e) Inner layer; coefficient of permeability, thickness, and degree of surface roughness
② Characteristics of the armor units
(a) Shape of armor units (shape of armor stones or concrete blocks; for armor stones, their diameter distribution)
(b) Placement of armor units; number of layers, and regular laying or random placement, etc.
(c) Strength of armor material
③ Wave characteristics
(a) Number of waves acting on armor layers
(b) Wave steepness
(c) Form of seabed (seabed slope, where about of reef, etc.)
(d) Ratio of wave height to water depth as indices of non-breaking or breaking wave condition, breaker type, etc.
(e) Wave direction, wave spectrum, and wave group characteristics
④ Extent of damage (damage ratio, deformation level, relative damage level)
Consequently, the NS value used in the performance verification must be determined appropriately based on
hydraulic model experiments in line with the respective design conditions. By comparing the results of regular
waves experiments with those of random wave experiments, 27) it was found that the ratio of the height of regular
waves to the significant height of random waves that gave the same damage ratio, within the error of 10%, varied
in the range of 1.0 to 2.0, depending on the conditions. In other words, there was a tendency for the random
wave action to be more destructive than the action of regular waves. It is thus better to employ random waves
in experiments.
– 412 –
(5) Stability Number NS and K DValue
In 1959, Hudson published the so-called Hudson’s formula, 26) replacing the previous Iribarren-Hudson’s formula.
Hudson developed equation (1.7.1) by himself using K D cot α instead of NS.
(1.7.3)
where
α : angle of the slope from the horizontal line(°)
K D : constant determined primarily by the shape of the armor units and the damage ratio
The Hudson’s formula was based on the results of a wide range of model experiments and has proved itself
well in usage in-site. This formula using the K D value has thus been used in the calculation of the required mass
of armor units on a slope.
However, the Hudson’s formula that uses the stability number in equation (1.7.1) has been used for quite a
while for calculating the required mass of armor units on the foundation mound of a composite breakwater as
discussed in 1.7.2 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks in Composite Breakwater Foundation Mound
against Waves, and is also used for the armor units of other structures such as submerged breakwaters. It is thus
now more commonly used than the old formula with the K D value.
The stability number NS can be derived from the K D value and the angle α of the slope from the horizontal line
by using equation (1.7.3) There is no problem with this process if the K D value is an established one and the slope
angle is within a range of normal design. However, most of the K D values obtained up to the present time have not
sufficiently incorporated various factors like the characteristics of the structure and the waves. Thus, this method
of determining the stability number NS from the K D value cannot be guaranteed to obtain economical design
always. In order to calculate more reasonable values for the required mass, it is thus preferable to use the results
of experiments matched to the conditions in question, or else to use calculation formulas, calculation diagrams,
that include the various relevant factors as described below.
(6) Van der Meer’s Formula for Armor Stones
In 1987, van der Meer carried out systematic experiments concerning the armor stones on the slope of a sloping
breakwater with a high crown. He proposed the following calculation formula for the stability number, which
can consider not only the slope gradient, but also the wave steepness, the number of waves, and the damage
level.28) Note however that the following equations have been slightly altered in comparison with van der Meer’s
original one in order to make calculations easier. For example, the wave height H2% for which the probability of
exceedance is 2% has been replaced by H1/20.
(1.7.4)
(1.7.5)
(1.7.6)
where
Nsp : stability number for plunging breakers
Nssr : stability number for surging breaker
Ir : iribarren number (tanα/Som0.5)), also called the surf similarity parameter
Som : wave steepness(H1/3/L0)
L0 : deepwater wavelength (L0 =gT1/32/2π,g=9.81m/s2)
T1/3 : significant wave period
C H : breaking effect coefficient {=1.4/(H1/20/H1/3)}, (=1.0 in non-breaking zone)
H1/3 : significant wave height
H1/20 : highest one-twentieth wave height, see Fig. 1.7.1
α : angle of slope from the horizontal surface (°)
Dn50 : nominal diameter of armor stone (=(M50/ρr)1/3)
M50 : 50% value of the mass distribution curve of an armor stone namely required mass of an armor
stone
P : permeability index of the inner layer, see Fig. 1.7.2
S : deformation level (S=A/Dn502), see Table 1.7.1
A : erosion area of cross section, see Fig. 1.7.3
N : number of acting waves
– 413 –
The wave height H1/20 in Fig. 1.7.1 is for a point at a distance 5H1/3 from the breakwater, and H0’ is the
equivalent deepwater wave height. The deformation level S is an index that represents the amount of deformation
of the armor stones, and it is a kind of damage ratio. It is defined as the result of the area A eroded by waves, see
Fig. 1.7.3, being divided by the square of the nominal diameter Dn50 of the armor stones. As shown in Table 1.7.1,
three stages are defined with regard to the deformation level of the armor stones : initial damage,
intermediate damage, and failure. With the standard design, it is common to use the deformation level for initial
damage for N = 1000 waves. However, in case where a certain amount of deformation is permitted, usage of the
value for intermediate damage may also be envisaged.
Sea Bottom slope 1/100

1.4
1.3
1.2

1.4
H1/20/H1/3
1.3
1.2

1.4
1.3 H0'/L0
H0′: Equivalent deepwater 0.08
wave height 0.04
1.2 0.02
0.01
0.005
0.002
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
h/H0'
Fig. 1.7.1 Ratio of H1/20 to H1/3 (H1/20 Values are at a Distance 5H1/3 from the Breakwater)
(a) (b)
P=0.1 5 0A P=0.4 50A
2D n 2D n 0A
D n5
1.5
r le 0.5Dn50A aye
r
aye eab
or l per
m
m or l
Arm Im yer
la
r
A aye
l
r
ter Dn50A/Dn50F =2
Dn50A/Dn50F =4.5 Fil
Filter layer Dn50F/Dn50C =4
(c) (d)
P=0.5 50 P=0.6
2D n
r
aye aye
r
m or l or l
Ar Core Arm
No filter,
Dn50A/Dn50C =3.2 no core
Dn50A = Nominal diameter of armor stones

Dn50F = Nominal diameter of filter material
Dn50C = Nominal diameter of core material
Fig. 1.7.2 Permeability Index P
– 414 –
S.W.L
A (Area of eroded part)
Fig. 1.7.3 Erosion Area A
Table 1.7.1 Deformation Level S for Each Failure Stage for a Two-layered Armor
Slope Initial damage Intermediate damage Failure

1:1.5 2 3–5 8
1:2 2 4–6 8
1:3 2 6–9 12
1:4 3 8–12 17
1:6 3 8–12 17
(7) Formulation for Calculating Stability Number for Armor Blocks including Wave Characteristics
Van der Meer has carried out model experiments on several kinds of precast concrete blocks, and proposed the
formulas for calculating the stability number NS.29) In addition, other people have also conducted research into
establishing calculation formulas for precast concrete blocks. For example, Burcharth and Liu 30) have proposed
a calculation formula. However, it should be noted that these are based on the results of experiments for a sloping
breakwater with a high crown.
Takahashi et al.31) showed a performance verification method of the stability against wave action for armor stones
of a sloping breakwater using Van der Meer’s formula as the verification formula, and proposed the performance
matrix used for performance verification.
(8) Formulas for Calculating Stability Number for Concrete Blocks of Breakwater Covered with Wave-dissipating
Blocks
The wave-dissipating concrete block parts of a breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks may have various
cross-sections. In particular, when all the front face of an upright wall is covered by wave-dissipating concrete
blocks, the stability is higher than that of armor concrete blocks of an ordinary sloping breakwater because the
permeability is high. In Japan, much research has been carried out on the stability of breakwaters covered with
wave-dissipating concrete blocks. For example, Tanimoto et al.32), Kajima et al.33), and Hanzawa et al.34) have
carried out systematic research on the stability of wave-dissipating concrete blocks. In addition, Takahashi et
al.35) have proposed the following equation for wave-dissipating concrete blocks that are randomly placed in all
the front face of an upright wall.
(1.7.7)
where
N0 : degree of damage, a kind of damage rate that represents the extent of damage: it is defined as the
number of concrete blocks that have moved within a width Dn in the direction of the breakwater
alignment, where Dn is the nominal diameter of the concrete blocks: Dn =(M/ρr)1/3, where M is
the mass of a concrete block
CH : breaking effect coefficient; CH =1.4/(H1/20/H1/3), in non-breaking zone CH = 1.
a, b : coefficients that depend on the shape of the concrete blocks and the slope angle. With deformed
shape blocks having a K D value of 8.3, it may be assumed that a = 2.32 and b = 1.33, if cotα=4/3,
and a = 2.32 and b = 1.42, if cotα=1.5.
Takahashi et al.35) have further presented a method for calculating the cumulative degree of damage, the
expected degree of damage, over the service lifetime. In the future, reliability design methods that consider the
expected degree of damage is important as the more advanced design method. In the region where wave breaking
does not occur, if the number of waves is 1000 and the degree of damage N0 is 0.3, the design mass as calculated
using the method of Takahashi et al. is more-or-less the same as that calculated using the existing K D value. The
value of N0 = 0.3 corresponds to the conventionally used damage rate of 1%.
(9) Increase of Mass in Breakwater Head
Waves attack the head of a breakwater from various directions, and there is a greater risk of the armor units on the
– 415 –
top of the slope falling to the rear rather than the front. Therefore, rubble stones or concrete blocks which are to
be used at the head of a breakwater should have a mass greater than the value given by equation (1.7.1).
Hudson proposed increasing mass by about 10% in the case of rubble stones and about 30% in the case
of concrete blocks. However, because this is thought to be insufficient, it is preferable to use rubble stones or
concrete blocks with a mass at least 1.5 times the value given by equation (1.7.1). Kimura et al.36) have shown
that, in a case where perpendicular incident waves act on the breakwater head, the stable mass can be obtained
by increasing the required mass of the breakwater trunk by 1.5 times. In case of oblique incidence at 45º, in the
breakwater head on the upper side relative to the direction of incidence of the waves, the necessary minimum mass
is the same as for 0º incidence, whereas, on the lower side of the breakwater head, stability is secured with the
same mass as the in the breakwater trunk.
(10) Submerged Armor Units
Since the action of waves on a sloping breakwater below water surface is weaker than above the water surface, the
mass of stones or concrete blocks may be reduced at depths greater than 1.5H1/3 below the still water level.
(11) Correction for Wave Direction
In cases where waves act obliquely to the breakwater alignment, the extent to which the incident wave angle
affects the stability of the armor stones has not been investigated sufficiently. However, according to the results
of experiments carried out by Van de Kreeke, 37) in which the wave angles of 0º, i.e., direction of incidence is
perpendicular to the breakwater alignment, 30º, 45º, 60º and 90º, i.e., direction of incidence is parallel to the
normal line were adopted, the damage rate for a wave direction of 45º or smaller is more-or-less the same as that
for a wave direction of 0º, and when the wave direction exceeds 60º, the damage rate decreases. Considering these
results, when the incident wave angle is 45º or less, the required mass should not be corrected for wave direction.
Moreover, Christensen et al.38) have shown that stability increases when the directional spreading of waves is
large.
(12) Strength of Concrete Blocks
In case of deformed shape concrete block, it is necessary not only to ensure that the block has a mass sufficient
to be stable for the variable situation in respect of waves, but also to confirm that the block itself has sufficient
structural strength.
(13) Stability of Armor Blocks in Reef Area
In general, a reef rises up at a steep slope from the relatively deep sea, and forms a relatively flat and shallow sea
bottom. Consequently, when a large wave enters at such a reef, it breaks around the slope, and then the regenerated
waves afterward propagate over the reef in the form of surge. The characteristics of waves over a reef are strongly
dependent on not only the incident wave conditions but also the water depth over the reef and the distance from
the shoulder of the reef. The stability of wave-dissipating concrete blocks situated on a reef also varies greatly
due to the same reasons. Therefore the characteristics over a reef are more complicated than that in general cases.
The stability of wave-dissipating concrete blocks situated on a reef must thus be examined based either on model
experiments matching the conditions in question or on field experiences for sites having similar conditions.
(14) Stability of Wave-dissipating Blocks on Low Crest Sloping Breakwater
For a low crown sloping breakwater with wave-dissipating blocks and without supporting wall, it is necessary to
note that the wave-dissipating blocks around its crown are easily damaged by waves.39) For example, for detached
breakwater composed of wave-dissipating blocks, unlike a caisson breakwater covered with wave-dissipating
blocks, there is no supporting wall at the back and the crown is not high. This means that the concrete blocks near
the crown in particular at the rear are easily damaged, and indeed such cases of block damage have been reported.
In the case of a detached breakwater, it is pointed out that some kind of concrete blocks at the rear of the crown
should have a larger size compared to the one at the front of the crown.
(15) Stability of Blocks on Steep Slope Seabed
In cases where the bottom slope is steep and waves break in a plunging wave form, a large wave force may act
on the blocks, depending on their shapes. Therefore, appropriate examination should be carried out, considering
this fact.40)
(16) High-density Blocks
The required mass of blocks that are made of high-density aggregate may also be determined using the Hudson’s
formula with the stability number shown in equation (1.7.1). As shown in the equation, high-density blocks have
a high stability, so a stable armor layer can be made using relatively small blocks.41)
(17) Effect of Structural Conditions
The stability of wave-dissipating blocks varies depending on structural conditions and on the method of placement,
such as regular or random placement etc. According to the results of experiments under conditions of random
placement over the entire cross section and regular two-layer placement on a stone core, the regular placement
with good interlocking had remarkably higher stability in almost all cases.32) Provided, however, that if the layer
– 416 –
thickness of the blocks is minimal and the permeability of the core material is low, conversely, the stability of the
blocks decreases in some cases.42)
The stability of wave-dissipating blocks is also affected by the crown width and crown height of the blocks.
For example, according to the results of a number of experiments, there is a tendency of having greater stability
when the crown width and the crown height are greater.
(18) Standard Method of Hydraulic Model Tests
The stability of concrete blocks is influenced by a very large number of factors, and so it has still not been
sufficiently elucidated. This means that when actually verifying the performance, it is necessary to carry out
studies using model experiments, and it is needed to progressively accumulate the results of such tests. The
following points should be noted when carrying out model experiments.
① It is standard to carry out experiments using random waves.
② For each particular set of conditions, the experiment should be repeated at least three times i.e., with three
different wave trains. However, when tests are carried out by systematically varying the mass and other factors
and a large amount of data can be acquired, one run for each test condition will be sufficient.
③ It is standard to study the action of 1000 waves in total of three runs for each wave height level. Even for the
systematic experiments, it is desirable to apply more than 500 waves or so.
④ For the description of the extent of damage, in addition to the damage ratio which has been commonly used in
the past, the deformation level or the relative damage level may also be used. The deformation level is suitable
when it is difficult to count the number of armor stones or concrete blocks that have moved, while the degree
of damage is suitable when one wishes to represent the damage to wave-dissipating blocks. The damage rate is
the ratio of the number of damaged armor units in an inspection area to the total number of armor units in the
same inspection area. The inspection area is taken from the elevation of wave runup to whichever is shallower,
the depth of 1.5H below the still water level or to the bottom elevation of the armor layer, where the wave height
H is inversely calculated from the Hudson’s formula by inputting the mass of armor units. However, for the
deformation level and the degree of damage, there is no need to define the inspection area. For evaluating the
damage rate, an armor block is judged to be damaged if it has moved over a distance of more than about 1/2 to
1.0 times its height.
(19) K D Value Proposed by C.E.R.C.
Table 1.7.2 shows the K D value of armor stones proposed by the Coastal Engineering Research Center, C.E.R.C.,
of the United States Army Corp of Engineers. This value is proposed for the breakwater trunk, parts other than
the breakwater head, in the 1984 Edition of the C.E.R.C.’s Shore Protection Manual.43) In the table, the values
not in parenthesis are based on experiment results by regular waves, and it is considered that those corresponds
to 5% or less of the damage rate due to action of random waves. The values in parentheses are estimated values.
For example, the value (1.2) for rounded rubble stones which are randomly placed in two-layer under the breaking
wave conditions is given as the value which is half of 2.4, because the K D value of two-layer angular rubble stones
under the breaking waves condition is 1/2 that under the non-breaking wave conditions.
However, in cases where the wave height of regular waves corresponds to the significant wave height, the
wave which is close to the maximum wave height of random waves acts continuously under the breaking wave
condition in the regular wave experiments. Therefore, the regular wave experiment under the breaking wave
condition falls into an extremely severe state in comparison with that under the non-breaking wave conditions. In
random waves experiments, as described previously, it is considered that so long as the significant wave height is
a standard, as the breaking wave conditions gets severe, conversely, K D has a tendency to increase. Thus, at least
it is not necessary to reduce the value of K D under the breaking wave conditions.
Table 1.7.2 K D Value of Rubble Stones Proposed by C.E.R.C. (Breakwater Trunk)
KD
Placement
Type of armor Number of layers Non-breaking cotα
method Breaking waves
waves
2 Random (1.2) 2.4 1.5–5.0
Rubble stones (rounded)
3 or more ″ (1.6) (3.2) ″
2 ″ 2.0 4.0 ″
Rubble stones (angular)
3 or more ″ (2.2) (4.5) ″
( ) shows estimated values.
– 417 –
1.7.2 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks in Composite Breakwater Foundation Mound against
Waves
(1) General
The required mass of armor stones and blocks covering the foundation mound of a composite breakwater varies
depending on the wave characteristics, the water depth where the facility is placed, the shape of the foundation
mound such as thickness, front berm width and slope angle etc., and the type of armor unit, the placement method,
and the position, breakwater head or breakwater trunk etc. In particular, the effects of the wave characteristics
and the foundation mound shape are more pronounced than that on the armor stones and blocks on a sloping
breakwater. Adequate consideration should also be given to the effects of wave irregularity. Accordingly, the
required mass of armor stones and blocks on the foundation mound of composite breakwater shall be determined
by performing hydraulic model experiments or proper calculations using an appropriate equation in reference with
the results of past research and actual experiences in the field. Provided, however, that the stability of the armor
units covering the foundation mound of a composite breakwater is not necessarily determined purely by their
mass. Depending on the structure and the arrangement of the armor units it may be possible to achieve stability
even when the armor units are relatively small.
(2) Basic Equation for Calculation of Required Mass
As the equation for calculation of the required mass of armor stones and blocks in the foundation mound of a
composite breakwater, Hudson’s formula with the stability number NS, as shown in the following equation, can be
used in the same manner as with armor stones and blocks on sloping breakwater. In this equation, the symbol γ is
a partial safety factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d show the characteristic value and design value,
respectively. For the partial safety factors γNS and γH in the equation, 1.0 may be used. This partial safety factor is
the value in cases where the limit value of the damage rate is 1% or the limit value of the degree of damage is 0.3.
(1.7.1)
This equation was widely used as the basic equation for calculating the required mass of the foundation
mounds of upright walls by Brebner and Donnelly.44) In Japan, it is also called Brebner-Donnelly’s formula.
Because it has a certain degree of validity, even from a theoretical standpoint, it can also be used as the basic
equation for calculating the required mass of armor unit on the foundation mound of a composite breakwater.45)
Provided, however, that the stability number NS varies not only with the water depth, the wave characteristics, the
shape of the foundation mound, and the characteristics of the armor units, but also with the position of placement,
breakwater trunk, breakwater head etc. Therefore, it is necessary to assign the stability number NS appropriately
based on model experiments corresponding to the conditions. Moreover, the wave height used in the performance
verification is normally the significant wave height, and the waves used in the model experiments should be
random waves.
(3) Stability Number for Armor Stones
The stability number NS may be obtained using the method proposed by Inagaki and Katayama,46) which is based
on the work of Brebner and Donnelly and past damage case of armor stones. However, the following formulas
proposed by Tanimoto et al.45) are based on the current velocity in the vicinity of the foundation mound and allow
the incorporation of a variety of conditions. These formulas have been extended by Takahashi et al.47) so as to
include the effects of wave direction, and thus have high applicability.
(a) Extended Tanimoto’s formulas
(1.7.8)
(1.7.9)
(1.7.10)
(1.7.11)
where
h' : water depth at the crown of rubble mound foundation excluding the armor layer (m) (see Fig.
1.7.4)
 : in the case of normal wave incidence, the berm width of foundation mound BM (m)
– 418 –
in the case of oblique wave incidence, either BM or B'M , whichever gives the larger value of (κ 2)
B (see Fig. 1.7.4)
L' : wavelength corresponding to the design significant wave period at the water depth h' (m)
αs : correction factor for when the armor layer is horizontal (=0.45)
β : incident wave angle, angle between the line perpendicular to the breakwater face line and the
wave direction, no angle correction of 15º is applied (see Fig. 1.7.5)
H1/3 : design significant wave height (m)
The validity of the above formulas have been verified for the breakwater trunk for oblique wave incidence
with an angle of incidence of up to 60º.
Seaward hC Shoreward
Upright section
BM
d BM'
h' Foot protection blocks Foot protection blocks
h
Armor units Armor units
Rubble mound
Fig. 1.7.4 Standard Cross Section of a Composite Breakwater and Notations
β
Breakwater head
nk
ru
e rt
at
w
eak
Br
Fig. 1.7.5 Effects of Shape of Breakwater Alignment and Effects of Wave Direction
(b) Stability Number When a Certain Amount of Damage is Permitted

Sudo et al. have carried out stability experiments for the special case such that the mound is low and no wave
breaking occurs. They investigated the relationship between the number of waves N and the damage rate, and
proposed the following equation that gives the stability number NS * for any given number of waves N and any
given damage rate DN (%).
(1.7.12)
where
NS is the stability number given by the Tanimoto’s formula when N = 500 and the damage rate is 1%.
In the performance verification, it is necessary to take N = 1000 considering the progress of damage,
while the damage rate 3% to 5% can be allowed for a 2-layer armoring. If N = 1000 and DN = 5%, then
NS * = 1.44NS. This means that the required mass decreases to about 1/3 of that required for N = 500
and DN = 1%.
(4) Stability Number for Concrete Units
The stability number NS for concrete blocks varies according to the shape of the block and the method of placement.
It is thus desirable to evaluate the stability number by means of hydraulic model experiments.49), 50) When carrying
out such experiments, it is best to employ random waves.
– 419 –
Based on the calculation method proposed by Tanimoto et al.,45) Fujiike et al.51) newly introduced reference
stability number, which is a specific value for blocks, and separating the terms which is determined by the
structural conditions of the composite breakwater etc., and then, presented the following equation regarding the
stability number for armor blocks in cases where wave incidence is perpendicular.
(1.7.13)
refer (1.7.9)
refer (1.7.10)
(1.7.14)
where
NS0 : reference stability number
A : constant determined based on wave force experiments ( = 0.525)
(5) Conditions for Application of Stability Number to Foundation Mound Armor Units
In cases where the water depth above the armor units on the mound is shallow, wave breaking often causes the
armor units to become unstable. Therefore, the stability number for foundation mound armor units shall be
applied only when h’/H1/3>1, and it is appropriate to use the stability number for armor units on a slope of a slope
structure when h’/H1/3 ≤1. The stability number for armor stones in the Tanimoto’s formulas have not been verified
experimentally in cases where h’/H1/3 is small. Accordingly, when h’/H1/3 is approximately 1, it is preferable to
confirm the stability number by hydraulic model experiments.
On the other hand, Matsuda et al.52) carried out model experiments in connection with armor blocks, including
the case in which h’/H1/3 is small and impulsive waves act on the blocks, and proposed a method that provides a
lower limit of the value of κ corresponding to the value of αI in the case where the impulsive breaking wave force
coefficient αI is large.
(6) Armor Units Thickness
Two-layers are generally used for armor stones. It may be acceptable to use only one layer provided that
consideration is given to examples of armor units construction and experiences of damaged armor units. It also
may be possible to use one layer by setting the severe damage rate of 1% for N=1000 acting waves in equation
(1.7.12). One layer is generally used for armor blocks. However, two layers may also be used in cases where the
shape of the blocks is favorable for two-layer placement or sea conditions are severe.
(7) Armor Units for Breakwater Head
At the head of a breakwater, strong currents occur locally near the corners at the edge of the upright section,
meaning that the armor units become liable to move. It is thus necessary to verify the extent to which the mass of
armor units should be increased at the breakwater head by carrying out hydraulic model experiments. If hydraulic
model experiments are not carried out, it should increase the mass to at least 1.5 times that at the breakwater trunk.
As the extent of the breakwater head in the case of caisson type breakwater, the length of one caisson may be
usually adopted. The mass of the armor stones at the breakwater head may also be calculated using the extended
Tanimoto’s formula. Specifically, for the breakwater head, the velocity parameter κ in equation (1.7.9) should be
rewritten as follows:
(1.7.15)
(1.7.16)
Note however that if the calculated mass turns out to be less than 1.5 times that for the breakwater trunk, it is
preferable to set it to 1.5 times that for the breakwater trunk.
– 420 –
(8) A rmor Units at Habor Side
It is preferable to decide the necessity and required mass of armor units at the harbor side, not only referring to past
examples, but also performing hydraulic model experiments if necessary and considering the waves at the harbor
side, the wave conditions during construction work and wave overtopping etc.
(9) Reduction of Mass of Armor
The equations for calculation of the required mass of armor units are normally applicable to the horizontal parts
and the top of slope. In cases where the mound thickness is minimal, armor units of the entire slope have the same
mass in many cases. However, in cases where the mound is thick, the mass of armor units places on the slope in
deep water may be reduced.
(10) Foundation Mound Armor Units in Breakwaters Covered with Wave-dissipating Blocks
In the case of breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks, the uplift pressure acting on the armor and the
current velocities in the vicinity of the mound are smaller than those of conventional composite breakwaters.
Fujiike et al.51) carried out model experiments in connection with the stabilities of both the armor units of the
conventional composite breakwaters and the breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks, and proposed a
method of multiplicating equation (1.7.9) by the compensation rate. Namely,
(1.7.17)
where
CR : breakwater shape influence factor, it may be used 1.0 for conventional composite breakwaters
approximately 0.4 for breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks.
(11) Flexible Armor Units
Use of bag-type foot protection units which consist of synthetic fiber net filled with stones as the armor units on
the foundation mound has various advantages: large stones are not required, and mound leveling is not virtually
needed because they have high flexibility and can adhere to the irregular sea bed. Shimosako et al.53) proposed a
method of calculating the required mass of armor units on the foundation mound using bag-type foot protection
units, and also examined their durability.
1.7.3 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks against Currents
(1) General
The required mass of rubble stones and other armor materials for foundation mounds to be stable against water
currents may be generally be determined by appropriate hydraulic model experiments or calculated using the
following equation. In this equation, the symbol γ is a partial safety factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k
and d show the characteristic value and the design value, respectively.
(1.7.18)
where
M : stable mass of rubble stones or other armor material (t)
ρr : density of rubble stones or other armor material (t/m3)
U : current velocity of water above rubble stones or other armor material (m/s)
y : Isbash’s constant, for embedded stones, 1.20; for exposed stones, 0.86
Sr : specific gravity of rubble stones or other armor material relative to water
θ : slope angle in axial direction of water channel bed (º)
The design values in the equation may be calculated by using the following equations. For the partial safety
factors γU and γy , 1.0 may be used.
Ud = γU Uk , yd = γy yk
This equation was proposed by the C.E.R.C. for calculation of the mass of rubble stones required to prevent
scouring by tidal currents and is called Isbash’s formula.43) As also shown in the equation, attention should be
given to the fact that the required mass of armor units against currents increases rapidly as the current velocity
increases. The required mass also varies depending on the shape and density of the armor units etc.
– 421 –
(2) Isbash’s Constant
Equation (1.7.18) was derived considering the balance of the drag force of the flow acting on a spherical object
on a slope and the friction resistance force. The constant y is Isbash’s constant. The values of 1.20 and 0.86 for
embedded stones and exposed stones, respectively, are given by Isbash, and are also cited in Reference 54). It
should be noted that, because equation (1.7.18) was obtained considering the balance of forces in a steady flow, it
is necessary to use rubble stones with a larger mass in the place where strong vortices will be generated.
(3) Armor Units on Foundation Mound at Openings of Tsunami Protection Breakwaters
Iwasaki et al.55) conducted experiments on 2-dimensional steady flows for the case in which deformed concrete
blocks are used as the armor units on a foundation mound in the opening of the submerged breakwaters of tsunami
protection breakwater, and obtained a value of 1.08 for Isbash’s constant in equation (1.7.18). Tanimoto et al.56)
carried out a 3-dimensional plane experiment for the opening of breakwaters, clarifying the 3-dimensional flow
structure near the opening, and also revealed the relationship between Isbash’s constant and the damage rate for
the cases where stone materials and deformed concrete blocks are used as the armor units.
– 422 –
1.8 Scouring and Washing-out

Public Notice
Performance Criteria Common to Structural Members
Article 22
3 In cases where the effects of scouring of the seabed and sand outflow on the integrity of structural members
may impair the stability of the facilities, appropriate countermeasures shall be taken.
[Commentary]
(1) Scouring and Washout (serviceability)

In cases where scouring of the foundation of facilities concerned and ground and outflow of sand from
the ground behind structures might impair the stability of the facilities, appropriate countermeasures
against scouring and countermeasures against washout must be taken, considering the structural type
of the objective facilities.
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Structures, Technical Note of PHRI No.750, 1993
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28) J.W. Van der Meer: Rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack, Doctoral thesis, Delft Univ. of Tech., p.152, 1988 or
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29) J.W. Van der Meer: Stability of cubes, Tetrapods and Accropode, Proc. Of Breakwater ‘88, Eastbourne, UK., pp.71-80, 1988
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42) Kubota, S., S. Kobayashi, A. Matumoto, M. Hanzawa and M. Matuoka: On the effect of the layer thickness and filling
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2002
43) Coastal Engineering Research Center: Shore Protection Manual, Vol.II, Department of Army Corps of Engineering, 1977
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New Mexico City, pp.408-429, 1962
45) Tanimoto, K., T. Yanagisawa, T. Muranaga, K. Shibata and Y. Goda: Stability of Armor Units for Foundation Mounds of
Composite Breakwaters Determined by Irregular Wave Tests, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 3-42, 1982
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PHRI No.127, pp.1-22, 1971
47) Takahashi S., K. Kimura and K. Tanimoto: Stability of Armour Units of Composite Breakwater Mound against Oblique
Waves, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 29 No. 2, pp.3-36, 1990
48) Sudo, K., K. Kimura, T. Sasajima, Y. Mizuno and H. Takeda: Estimation equation of requited weight of armour units of
rubble-mound of composite breakwaters considering the allowable deformation, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 42,
pp.896-900, 1995
49) Kougami, Y. and T. Narita: On the stability of armour layer, made with wave-absorbing blocks, of rubble foundation of
composite breakwaters, Journal of Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Hokkaido Regional Development Bureau
(HRDB)No. 232, pp.1-13, 1972
50) Kashima, R., S. Saitou and H. Hasegawa: Required weight of armour concrete cube for rubble mound foundation of composite
breakwaters, Report of the Second Technical Research Institute of the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry
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51) Fujiike, T., K. Kimura, T. Hayashi and y. Doi: Stability against waves of armor units placed at front face of rubble-mound of
wave-absorbing-block-armored breakwaters, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 46, pp.881-885, 1999
52) Matuda, S., W. Nishikiori, A. Matumoto and M. Saitou: Estimation method of stable weight of armour blocks of rubble-
mound of composite breakwaters considering impact wave force actions, Proceedings of Coastal Eng. JSCE Vol. 47, pp.896-
900, 2000
53) Shimosako, K., S. Kubota, A. Matumoto, M. Hanzawa, Y. Shinomura, N. Oike, T. Iketani and S. Akiyama
54) Kudou, T.: Temporary river closing dikes and its overflow, Journal of JSCE, Vol. 58 No. 11, pp.63-69, 1973
– 424 –
55) Iwasaki, T., A. Mano, T. Nakamura and N. Horikoshi : Experimental study on fluid dynamic force in steady flow acting on
mound materials of submerged breakwaters and prepacked breakwaters, Proceedings of the 31st Conference on Coastal Eng.
JSCE, pp527-531, 1984
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Protection Breakwaters, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 27 No. 4, pp. 93-121, 1988
– 425 –
2 Foundations
2.1 General Comments
(1) The foundation structures of the port facilities shall be selected appropriately, giving due consideration to the
importance of the facilities and soil conditions of the foundation ground.
(2) W hen the stability of the foundation structures seems to be an obstacle, countermeasures such as pile foundation
or soil improvement, etc. shall be applied as necessary.
(3) W hen the foundation ground is soft, excessive settlement or deformation may arise owing to the lack of the
bearing capacity. When the foundation ground consists of loose sandy soil, liquefaction due to action of ground
motion causes the structure failure or significantly damage its functions. In such cases, the stress in subsoil by the
weight of structures needs to be reduced or the foundation ground should be improved.
(4) For the stability of foundations, 2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations, and 2.3 Deep Foundations, or 3 Stability of
Slopes can be used as reference. For settlement of foundations, 2.5 Settlement of Foundations, and for liquefaction
due to action of ground motion, Part II, Chapter 6 Ground Liquefaction can be used as reference. For the
performance verification of pile foundations, 2.4 Pile Foundations can be used as reference. In cases where
it is necessary to conduct the performance verification for ground motion, the verification shall be performed
corresponding to the characteristics of the respective foundations.
(5) Methods of Reducing Ground Stress
The following are methods of reducing ground stress due to the weight of structures.
① Reduction of the weight of the structure itself
② Expansion of the area of the bottom of the structure
③ Use of a pile foundation
Shear stress due to the facilities may be reduced by the counterweight method.
(6) Method of Soil Improvement
For method of soil improvement, 4 Soil Improvement Methods can be used as reference.
2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations

2.2.1 General
(1) When the embedment depth of the foundation is less than the minimum width of the foundation, the foundation
may generally be examined as a shallow spread foundation.
(2) In general, the bearing capacity of a foundation is the sum of the bottom bearing capacity and the side resistance
of the foundation. Bottom bearing capacity is determined by the value of the pressure applied to the foundation
bottom considered necessary to cause plastic flow in the ground. The side resistance of a foundation is the
frictional resistance or the cohesion resistance acting between the sides of the foundation and the surrounding
soil. Although considerable research has been done on the bottom bearing capacity of foundations, relatively little
research has been done on side resistance. If the embedment depth of the foundation is less than the minimum
width of the foundation, in the case of so-called shallow spread foundations, the magnitude of the side resistance
will be small in comparison with that of the bottom bearing capacity. Therefore, it is not necessary to consider the
side resistance in such cases.
(3) W hen an eccentric and inclined action acts on the foundation, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined
Actions can be used as reference.
2.2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Sandy Ground
(1) The following equation can be used to calculate the design value of the bearing capacity of the foundations on
sandy ground. In this case, appropriate values corresponding to the characteristics of the facilities can be adopted
as the partial factors. In general, 0.4 or less can be considered an appropriate partial factor γR.
(2.2.1)
where
qd : design value of foundation bearing capacity considering buoyancy of submerged part (kN/m 2)
γR : partial factor for bearing capacity of sandy ground
– 426 –
β : shape factor of foundation, see Table 2.2.1
ρ1dg : design value of unit weight of soil of ground below foundation bottom or unit weight in water,
if submerged (kN/m3)
B : minimum width of foundation (m)
Nrd, Nqd : design values obtained by multiplying partial factors γNq and γNγ by the characteristic values of
the bearing capacity factor Nqk and Nγk (see Fig. 2.2.1), 1) respectively. The characteristic values
of the bearing capacity factor are expressed by the following equations.
(Prandtl’s solution)
(Meyerhof’s solution)
ρ2dg : design value of unit weight of soil of ground above foundation bottom, or unit weight in water,
D : embedment depth of foundation in ground (m)
(2) When the actions on the foundation increase, first, settlement of the foundation occurs in proportion to the actions.
However, when the actions reach a certain value, settlement increases suddenly and shear failure of the ground
occurs. The intensity of the load required to cause this shear failure which is obtained by dividing the load by
the contact area is called the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation. The bearing capacity of the foundation
can be calculated by multiplying the ultimate bearing capacity obtained from the bearing capacity formula by the
partial factor γR.
Table 2.2.1 Shape Factors
Shape of foundation Continuous Square Round Rectangular

β 1 0.8 0.6 1–0.2(B/L)
B: length of short side of rectangle, L: length of long side of rectangle
100
Characteristic values of bearing capacity factort Nqk and Nγk
10
Nqk Nγ k
1
0 10 20 30 40 50
Characteristic value of angle of shear resistance φ k (º)
Fig. 2.2.1 Relationship between Bearing Capacity Factors Nrk and Nqk and Angle of Shear Resistance φk
– 427 –
2.2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Cohesive Soil Ground
(1) In calculations of the design values for foundations of cohesive soil ground in cases where the undrained shear
strength increases linearly with depth, the following equation can be used. In this case, an appropriate value
corresponding to the characteristics of the facilities shall be selected for the partial factor γR.
(2.2.2)
where
qd : design value of foundation bearing capacity considering buoyancy of submerged part (kN/m 2)
γR : partial factor for bearing capacity of cohesive soil ground
Nc0d
: design value of bearing capacity factor for continuous foundation
n : shape factor of foundation, see Fig. 2.2.2
B : minimum width of foundation (m)
L : length of foundation
c0d : design value of undrained shear strength of cohesive soil at bottom of foundation (kN/m 2)
ρ2dg : design value of unit weight of soil of ground above foundation bottom, or unit weight in water,
D : embedment depth of foundation in ground (m)
(2) As the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil ground in port areas usually increases linearly with depth, the
bearing capacity of foundation should be calculated by the equation that takes account of the effect of shear
strength increase.
(3) Equation for Calculating Design Value of Bearing Capacity of Cohesive Soil Ground Considering Strength
Increase in Depth Direction
The design value Nc0d of the bearing capacity factor in equation (2.2.2) can be calculated using Fig. 2.2.2.
Here, k is the strength increase rate in the depth direction. If the surface strength is assumed to be c0, the strength
at depth z is expressed by c0 + kz. As the partial factor for the bearing capacity γR, an appropriate value of 0.66
or less can be used generally, but in cases where there is a possibility that slight settlement or deformation of the
ground may remarkably impair the functions of superstructure, as in the case of crane foundations, a value of no
more than 0.4 shall be used.
12 0.30
c0
Load intensity
10 0.25
z B
kz
8 0.20
Nc0k
Nc0k 6 0.15 n
n
4 0.10
2 0.05
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
kkB/c0k
Fig. 2.2.2 Relationship of Bearing Capacity factor Ncok of Cohesive Soil Ground in which Strength Increases in Depth
Direction and Shape Factor n
– 428 –
(4) Practical Equation for Calculating Design Value of Bearing Capacity
Based on the bearing capacity factors shown in Fig. 2.2.2, the design value of the bearing capacity of foundations
in case of continuous foundations can be calculated using the practical equation shown in equation (2.2.3) in the
range where kkB/c0k≤4. The symbols used are the same as in equation (2.2.2).
(provided, however, that kkB/c0k≤4) (2.2.3)
2.2.4 Bearing Capacity of Multi-layered Ground
(1) Examination of stability for the bearing capacity when the foundation ground has a multi-layered structure can be
performed by circular slip failure analysis. Assuming the overburden pressure above the level of the foundation
bottom as the surcharge, circular slip failure analysis is performed by the modified Fellenius method for an arc
passing through the edge of the foundation, as shown in Fig. 2.2.3. As the partial factor γR for the analysis method,
0.66 or less can be used generally, but in cases where settlement will have a large effect on the functions of the
facilities like crane, it is preferable to use a value of no more than 0.4.
Soil layer 1
Soil layer 2
Soil layer 3
Soil layer 4
Fig. 2.2.3 Calculation of Bearing Capacity of Multi-layered Ground by Circular Slip Failure Analysis
(2) If the cohesive soil layer thickness H is significantly less than the smallest width of the foundation B (i.e., H <
0.5B), a punching shear failure, in which the cohesive soil layer is squeezed out between the surcharge plane and
the bottom of cohesive soil layer, is liable to occur. The bearing capacity against this kind of squeezed-out failure
can be calculated by the following equation 4)
(2.2.4)

where
qd : design value of bearing capacity of foundation considering the buoyancy of the submerged
part（kN/m 2）
B : smallest width of foundation（m）
H : thickness of cohesive soil layer（m）
cud : design value of mean undrained shear strength in layer of thickness H（kN/m2）
ρ2dg : design value of unit weight of soil above the level of foundation bottom or unit weight in water,
if submerged（kN/m3）
γR : partial factor for bearing capacity
D : embedded depth of foundation（m）
2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions
(1) Examination of the bearing capacity for eccentric and inclined actions acting on the foundation ground of gravity-
type structures can be performed by circular slip failure analysis with the simplified Bishop method using the
following equation. In this equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k
and d indicate the characteristic value and design value, respectively. In this case, the partial factor shall be an
appropriate value corresponding to the characteristics of the facilities. It is necessary to set the strength constant
of the ground, the forms of the actions, and other factors appropriately considering the structural characteristics
of the facilities.
– 429 –
(2.2.5)
where
R : radius of in circular slip failure (m)
cd : in case of cohesive soil ground, design value of undrained shear strength, and in case of sandy
ground, design value of apparent cohesion in drained condition (kN/m 2)
W’d : design value of effective weight to discrete segment per unit of length, submerges unit weight if
submerged (kN/m)
qd : design value of vertical action from top of discrete segment (kN/m)
θ : angle of bottom of discrete segment to horizontal (º)
φd : in case of cohesive soil ground, the value shall be 0, and in case of sandy ground, design value
of angle of shear resistance in drained condition (º)
Wd : design value of total weight of discrete segment per unit of length, namely total weight of soil
and water (kN/m)
PHd : design value of horizontal action on lumps of earth in circular slip failure (kN/m)
a : arm length from the center of circular slip failure at position of action of an external action H
S : width of discrete segment (m)
γFf : partial factor for analysis method
Based on equation (2.2.5), γFf is calculated, and stability is verified by the verification parameter Ff ≥1. The
design values in the equation can be calculated by the following equations. Provided, however, that in cases where
partial factors are given by structural type, the partial factor for the part concerned shall be used. In other cases
where partial factors are not particularly designated, the value of the partial factor γ can be set at 1.00.
cd =γc ck, W'd =γW' W'k,qd =γq qk, φd =tan–1(γtanφ tanφk), PHd =γPH PHk (2.2.6)
(2) In gravity-type quaywalls and gravity-type breakwaters, actions due to self weight, earth pressure, wave force,
and ground motion shall be considered. However, the resultant of these actions is normally both eccentric and
inclined. Therefore, examination for eccentric and inclined actions is necessary in examination of the bearing
capacity of foundations. Here, eccentric and inclined action means an action with an inclination ratio equal to or
greater than 0.1.
(3) Because normal gravity-type structures are two-layered structures with a rubble mound layer on foundation
ground, an examination method which adequately reflects this feature is necessary. The fact that circular slip
failure calculations by the Bishop method, simplified Bishop method, accurately express stability for bearing
capacity has been confirmed in a series of research results, including laboratory model experiments, in-situ
loading experiments, and analysis of the existing breakwaters and quaywalls, and this method is therefore used as
a general method.5)
(4) Analysis of Bearing Capacity by Circular Slip Failure Analysis based on the Bishop Method
Analysis through circular slip failure analysis based on the Bishop method is more precise than the analysis based
on the modified Fellenius method, except when a vertical action exerts on horizontally layered sandy ground.
Therefore, the circular slip failure analysis by the Bishop method is applied under the condition that eccentric and
inclined actions exert act. As shown in Fig. 2.2.4 (a), the start point of the slip surface is set symmetrical about
the acting point of resultant load to one of the foundation edges that is closer to the load acting point. In this case,
the vertical action exerting on the rubble mound is converted into uniformly distributed load acting on the width
between fore toe of the bottom and the start point of the slip surface as indicated in Fig. 2.2.4 (b) and (c). The
horizontal force is assumed to act at the bottom of structure. When calculating the bearing capacity during an
earthquake, seismic force is assumed not to act on the rubble mound and the ground.
– 430 –
(p1+p2)
When subgrade reaction has a trapezoidal distribution; q=-B
4 b'
p1b
When subgrade reaction has a triangular distribution; q= -
4 b'
b' b'
B B
b' e b
Combined force of load b' e
R
R
p1 p2 p1
Rubble b' b' b' b'
mound
q q
Subsoil
2b' 2b'
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.2.4 Analysis of Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions
(5) Verification Parameter and Partial Factors

① The verification parameter is expressed by the ratio of the sliding moment due to actions and the weight of
earth and the resistant moment due to shear resistance (see 3.2.1 Stability Analysis by Circular Slip Failure
Surface). As general values of the partial factors for the analysis method, the values shown in Table 2.2.2 can
be used. Provided, however, that in cases where partial factors are indicated by structural type, the partial factor
for the part concerned shall be used.
② Regarding actions on breakwaters due to ground motion, few examples of damage are available, and the degree
of damage is also small. As the reasons for this, in many cases actions due to ground motion are basically
equal in the harbor direction and the outer sea direction, and large displacement does not occur due to the short
duration of the action. Accordingly, examination of the bearing capacity due to actions of ground motion may be
omitted in the case of ordinary breakwaters. Provided, however, that detailed examination by dynamic analysis
is desirable for breakwaters where stability due to actions of ground motion may be a serious problem.
Table 2.2.2 Standard Values of Partial Factor γFf in Analysis Method for Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined
Actions (Bishop Method)
Quaywalls Breakwaters
Permanent situation ≤0.83 –
Variable situation for Level 1 earthquake ground motion ≤1.00 –
Variable situation for waves – ≤1.00
Note) In case partial factors are indicated by structural type, the partial factor for the part concerned shall be used.
(6) Strength Parameters for Mound Materials and Foundation Ground

① Mound materials
Model and field experiments on bearing capacity subject to eccentric and inclined actions have verified that
high precision results can be obtained by conducting circular slip failure analyses based on the simplified
Bishop method, applying the strength parameters obtained by triaxial compression tests 5). Large-scale triaxial
compression test results of crushed stone have confirmed that the strength parameters of large diameter particles
are approximately equal to those obtained from similar grained materials with the same uniformity coefficient
6). Therefore, triaxial compression tests using samples with similar grained materials are preferably conducted
in order to estimate the strength parameters of rubbles accurately. If the strength tests are not conducted, the
values of cohesion cD = 20 kN/m2 and shearing resistance angle φD = 35º are applied as the standard strength
parameters for rubbles generally used in port construction works.
The above standard values have been determined as safe side values based on the results of large-scale
triaxial compression tests of crushed stones. The values have been proven appropriate from the analysis results
of the bearing capacity of the existing breakwaters and quaywalls. It should be noted that cohesion cD = 20 kN/
m 2 as a strength parameter is the apparent cohesion, taking account of variations of the shear resistance angle
– 431 –
φD of crushed stones under variable confining pressures. Fig. 2.2.5 shows the results of triaxial compression
tests on various types of crushed stones and rubbles 5). It shows that as the confining pressure increases, φD
decreases due to particle crushing. The solid line in the figure represents the value under the assumption that the
apparent cohesion is cD = 20 kN/m2 and the shear friction angle is φD = 35º. Here, the dependency of φD on the
confining pressure is well described by taking the apparent cohesion into account. These standard values can be
applied only to the stone material with an unconfined compressive strength in the mother rock of 30 MN/m2 or
more. If weak stones with the compressive strength of the mother rock of less than 30 MN/m 2 are used as a part
of the mound, the strength parameters will be around cD = 20 kN/m 2 and φD = 30º 7).
50
Test values
cD=20kN/m2, φ D =35゜
45
40
φ D (°)
35
30
25
50 100 200 400 800 1400
Lateral pressureσ3 (kN/m2)
Fig. 2.2.5 Relationship between φD and Lateral Confining Pressure σ3 and Apparent Cohesion
② Foundation ground
Foundations subject to eccentric and inclined actions often cause shallow surface slip failure. In these cases, it
is important to evaluate the strength near the surface of foundation ground. If the foundation ground is sandy,
the strength coefficient φD is usually estimated from N-value. The estimation formulas employed up to now
have tended to underestimate φD in case of shallow sandy grounds. This is because no correction has been made
regarding the effective surcharge pressure in-situ.
Fig. 2.2.6 collates the results of triaxial compression tests on undisturbed sand in Japan and presents a
comparative study of the formulas proposed in the past. Even when the N-values are less than 10, shearing
resistance angles of around 40º have been obtained. In many cases, the bearing capacity for eccentric and
inclined actions is important on the performance verification which is not under the permanent situation but
under dynamic external forces such as wave and seismic forces. In addition to the above and based on the results
of bearing capacity analysis of the structures damaged in the past, the values given below are applied as the
standard values of φD in foundation ground.
Sandy ground with N-value of less than 10 : φD = 40º

Sandy ground with N-value of 10 or more : φD = 45º
If the ground consists of cohesive soil, the strength may be determined by the method indicated in Part II,
Chapter 3, 2.3.3 Shear Characteristics.
– 432 –
50
Range according to Meyerhof
Triaxial test
results
φ D (°) 40
φ D = 20N + 15 according to Osaki

30
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
N-value
Fig. 2.2.6 Relationship Between N-value and φD Obtained by Triaxial Tests of Undisturbed Sand Samples
– 433 –
2.3 Deep Foundations

2.3.1 General
(1) When the penetration depth of a foundation is greater than the minimum width of the foundation, it shall be
examined as a deep foundation. Means of distinguishing the deep foundations described here from pile foundations
include the method of judging whether βL (L: embedment length of pile) ≦1 or not, based on calculations by the
method proposed by Y. L. Chan, see 2.4.5 Static Maximum Lateral Resistance of Piles.
(2) Foundations of the type described in (1) generally include the well, pneumatic caisson and continuous underground
wall. For pile foundations, see 2.4 Pile Foundations.
(3) Deep foundations support the superstructure stably by transmitting the action due to the heavy superstructure
through the weak upper strata to the strong lower strata. Accordingly, it can normally be considered that vertical
force is supported by the frictional resistance at the side surfaces of the foundation and the vertical bearing
capacity at the bottom, and the horizontal force is supported by the passive resistance of the ground.
2.3.2 Characteristic Value of Vertical Bearing Capacity
(1) The characteristic value of the vertical bearing capacity of a deep foundation shall be set taking into account the
soil conditions, the structural type, and the method of construction.
(2) Generally, the vertical bearing capacity of a deep foundation can be determined from the bearing capacity of the
foundation bottom and the resistance of the foundation sides, as shown in equation (2.3.1). However, in cases
where the amount of displacement and/or deformation of the facilities may be a problem, the deformation of deep
foundations should be estimated by assuming the ground behaves as a spring.
(2.3.1)
where
quk : characteristic value of vertical bearing capacity of deep foundation (kN/m 2)
qu1k : characteristic value of bearing capacity of foundation bottom (kN/m 2)
see 2.2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Sandy Ground, 2.2.3 Bearing Capacity of
Foundations on Cohesive Soil Ground
qu2k : characteristic value of bearing capacity due to resistance of foundation sides (kN/m 2)
(3) The design value of the vertical bearing capacity of deep foundations shall consider a safety margin in the
characteristic value of the vertical bearing capacity, as in equation (2.3.2). The characteristic value of the
foundation bottom bearing capacity determined as described in 2.2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on
Sandy Ground and 2.2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Cohesive Soil Ground, and the partial factor γa,
which is used in cases where the characteristic value of the vertical bearing capacity is determined using equation
(2.3.3) and equation (2.3.5), as shown in the following, can generally be set at 0.4 or less for important facilities
and 0.66 or less for other facilities.
(2.3.2)
where
qud : design value of vertical bearing capacity of deep foundation (kN/m 2)
quk : characteristic value of vertical bearing capacity of deep foundation (kN/m 2)
(4) Caution is required concerning the resistance of the sides of deep foundations, as there are cases in which the
surrounding ground may be disturbed by construction and, as a result, adequate bearing capacity by side resistance
cannot be expected, depending on the structural type and method of construction.
① The characteristic value of the bearing capacity due to the frictional resistance of the foundation sides in sandy
ground can be calculated by equation (2.3.3).
(2.3.3)
where
Kak : characteristic value of coefficient of active earth pressure (δ = 0º), see Part II, Chapter 5, 1
Earth Pressure
γ2k : characteristic value of unit weight of soil above level of foundation bottom, or submerged unit
weight if submerged (kN/m3)
– 434 –
D : penetration depth of foundation (m)
μk : characteristic value of coefficient of friction between foundation sides and sandy soil,
øk : characteristic value of shear resistance angle (º)

B : width of foundation (m)
L : length of foundation (m)
qu2k in equation (2.3.3), is obtained by dividing the total friction resistance by the bottom area of foundation.
The total friction resistance is calculated as the product of the mean side friction strength f multiplying with
the penetration depth D and the total contact surface area between the sandy soil and foundation sides. Equation
(2.3.4) is generally used to calculate the mean side friction strength f corresponding to the penetration depth D.
(2.3.4)
The friction angle between the foundation sides and sandy soil should not be greater than the shear resistance
angle of soil φ, and it may be taken as (2/3) φ for the case between concrete and sandy soil.
② The characteristic value of bearing capacity due to the cohesive resistance of the foundation sides in cohesive
soil ground can be calculated by equation (2.3.5).
(2.3.5)
where
cak : characteristic value of mean adhesion (mean value in embedded part) (kN/m 2)
Dc : penetration depth of foundation below groundwater level (m)
B : width of foundation (m)
L : length of foundation (m)
In case of deep foundations in cohesive soil ground, there is generally a possibility of drying shrinkage
during summer in the soil above the groundwater level; therefore, this soil is not considered to be an effective
contact surface. Accordingly, the mean adhesion ca in equation (2.3.5) should be the mean adhesion in the
effective contact part.
As practical values of mean adhesion in cohesive soil, the values in Table 2.3.1 can be used as reference.
Table 2.3.1 Relationship between Unconfined Compression Strength and Mean Adhesion of Cohesive Soil
(kN/m2)
Class of ground at foundation side qu ca
Soft cohesive soil 20–50 –*)
Medium cohesive soil 50–100 6–12
Hard cohesive soil 100–200 12–25
Extremely hard cohesive soil 200–400 25–30
Consolidated cohesive soil >400 >30
*Note) with soft cohesive soil, side resistance should not be considered.
(5) Consideration of Negative Skin Friction

In cases where the deep foundation penetrates through the consolidable ground and reaches the bearing layer, it is
necessary to examine negative skin friction acting on the body. As the method of examination in this case, 2.4.3
[9] Examination of Negative Skin Friction can be used as reference.
2.3.3 Horizontal Resistance Force of Deep Foundations
(1) The characteristic value of the lateral bearing capacity of a deep foundation shall be determined as appropriate
taking into account soil conditions, structural characteristics, and the method of construction.
(2) The lateral bearing capacity of a deep foundation is governed by the horizontal subgrade reaction of the foundation
sides and the vertical subgrade reaction at the bottom of foundation.
(3) The characteristic value of the horizontal resistance force of deep foundations can be determined from the passive
earth pressure and ultimate bearing capacity.
– 435 –
(4) The design value of the horizontal resistance force of deep foundations should include a safety margin in the
characteristic value, as in the following equation. When the characteristic value of the horizontal resistance force
of a deep foundation is obtained by the method presented below, the partial factors shown in Table 2.3.2 can
generally be used.
(2.3.6)
where
Fud : design value of horizontal resistance force of deep foundation (kN/m 2)
Fuk : characteristic value of horizontal resistance force of deep foundation (kN/m 2)
γa : partial factor
Table 2.3.2 Partial Factor γa
Resistance force by passive earth pressure Resistance force by vertical bearing capacity
Important facilities 0.66 0.40
Other facilities 0.90 0.66
(5) Calculation Method for Performance Verification

① When a resultant force at a bottom of foundation acts inside the core, namely the eccentricity of total resultant
force acting at the bottom of foundation is within one-sixth of the foundation width from the central axis of
the foundation, the maximum horizontal subgrade reaction p1 and maximum vertical subgrade reaction q1 can
be estimated by assuming the distributions of horizontal and vertical subgrade reaction are assumed as in Fig.
2.3.1.
Fig. 2.3.1 When Resultant Force is inside the Core
② Assumption on the Distribution of Subgrade Reaction

The distribution of horizontal subgrade reaction shown in Fig. 2.3.1 may be assumed as being a quadratic
parabola with the subgrade reaction of 0 at the ground surface. This assumption is equivalent to the relationship
between the displacement y and the subgrade reaction p of equation (2.3.7) when the foundation rotates as a
rigid body.
(2.3.7)
where
p : subgrade reaction（kN/m2）
k : rate of increase in coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction with depth（kN/m4）
x : depth（m）
y : horizontal displacement at depth x（m）
– 436 –
When a linear distribution is assumed for vertical subgrade reaction and a resultant force acting at the bottom
of foundation is inside the core, the distribution of the vertical subgrade reaction becomes trapezoidal as shown
in Fig. 2.3.1.
③ Conditions when vertical resultant is in the core and characteristic value for horizontal resistance force in such
cases
The conditions for the case in which the vertical resultant at the bottom is in the core are expressed as in
equation (2.3.8).
(2.3.8)
The maximum horizontal subgrade reaction p1 (kN/m 2) and the maximum vertical subgrade reaction q1 (kN/
m2) in this case are obtained by equations (2.3.9) and (2.3.10), respectively.
(2.3.9)
(2.3.10)
When determining the horizontal resistance force of deep foundations, the values of p1 and q1 obtained by
equations (2.3.9) and (2.3.10) must satisfy equations (2.3.11) and (2.3.12), respectively.
(2.3.11)
(2.3.12)
where
l : penetration depth (m)
2b : maximum width perpendicular to horizontal force (m)
2a : maximum length (m)
A : bottom area (m2)
P0 : horizontal force acting on structure above ground surface (kN)
M0 : moment due to P0 at ground surface (kN・m)
N0 : vertical force acting at ground level (kN)
k : horizontal seismic coefficient
K' : K'=K2/K1
K1 : rate of increase in coefficient of vertical subgrade reaction (kN/m4)
K2 : rate of increase in coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction (kN/m4), see equation (2.3.7)
w1 : self weight of deep foundation per unit of depth (kN/m)
α : constant determined by bottom shape (α= 1.0 for rectangular shape and α= 0.588 for round
shape)
ppk : characteristic value of passive earth pressure at depth h (m) (kN/m 2), see Part II, Chapter 5,
1 Earth Pressure.
Provided, however that h is given by equation (2.3.19).
(2.3.13)
qud : design value of vertical bearing capacity at bottom level (kN/m 2), see equation (2.3.2)
γa : partial factor for horizontal resistance force
④ When Vertical Resultant Force at the Bottom is outside the Core 12)
When the vertical resultant force acting at the base of foundation is not inside the core, a triangular distribution
of vertical subgrade reaction is assumed as shown in Fig. 2.3.2 12). When the vertical subgrade reaction is
expressed as qd (kN/m 2), the maximum subgrade reaction p1(kN/m 2) in the front ground is obtained from
equation (2.3.14).
– 437 –
(2.3.14)
The value of p1 calculated by equation (2.3.14) should satisfy equation (2.3.11). In this case, h is obtained by
equation (2.3.12).
(2.3.15)
where
h : depth at which horizontal subgrade reaction becomes maximum (m), see Fig. 2.3.2
W : self weight of foundation（kN）
e : eccentric distance（m）
The distance e is defined as shown in Fig. 2.3.2. When the foundation bottom is rectangular with the length
of 2a (m) and the width of 2b (m), the value of e is calculated by equation (2.3.16).
(2.3.16)
In the case of a round foundation bottom, the calculation may be made by replacing it with a rectangular
foundation bottom having length 2a and width 2b defined by equation (2.3.17).
(2.3.17)

where
D : diameter of circle (m)
In this way, the horizontal bearing capacity can be estimated at a safer side by approximately 10%. However,
this substitution should be applied on the basis of the appropriate judgement, by referring to reference 12).
N0
M0
P0
p1
kW
l
W
2a
qud
qd
Fig. 2.3.2 When Resultant Force is Not Inside the Core
– 438 –
2.4 Pile Foundations

2.4.1 General
(1) Definition of Pile Foundation

Pile foundation means a foundation which supports superstructures by means of a single pile or multiple piles, or
a foundation which transfers actions on the facilities or the foundation to the ground by means of single piles or
multiple piles, even when no facilities exist above the piles.
(2) Definition of Pile
Pile means a columnar structural element which is provided underground in order to transfer actions on the
facilities or the foundation to the ground.
2.4.2 Fundamentals of Performance Verification of Piles
(1) The loads received by piles as a result of actions are complex. However, in general, the components of the loads
acting on a pile consist of the axial load component and the lateral load component, and verification can be
performed based on the pile resistance performance with respect to the loads in these respective directions.
(2) Depending on the types of superstructures supported by the pile foundation and the types of loads acting on the
piles, there are cases in which is necessary to perform analysis by the component coupling method, treating the
superstructure and pile foundation as components.
2.4.3 Static Maximum Axial Pushing Resistance of Pile Foundations

[1] General
(1) The design value of the axial bearing resistance of pile foundations comprising vertical piles is generally
determined based on the maximum axial bearing resistance due to the resistance of the ground to vertical single
piles as a standard value in taking consideration of the following items.
① Safety margin for displacement in the axial direction based on ground failure and deformation of the ground
② Compressive stress of pile material
③ Joints
④ Slenderness ratio of piles
⑤ Action as pile group
⑥ Negative skin friction
⑦ Settlement of pile head
(2) The above (1) describes the general principle for determining the axial bearing resistance of pile foundations
comprising vertical piles. In order to determine the axial bearing resistance of a pile foundation, first, the static
maximum axial bearing resistance due to the resistance of the ground is determined, and a safety margin is
considered on this. Then, the above items (a) to (g) are examined, and the maximum axial bearing resistance is
reduced as necessary. The result obtained in this manner is the design value of the axial bearing resistance of the
piles which should be used in performance verification of the pile foundation.
(3) When considering the axial bearing resistance characteristics of a single pile based on the resistance of the ground,
the axial compressive load P0 acting on the pile head of the single pile is supported by the end resistance Rp and
the shaft resistance Rf of the pile, and can be expressed as in equation (2.4.1).
(2.4.1)
where
Rt : axial bearing resistance of single pile
(4) Characteristic Value of Axial Bearing Resistance of Single Pile Due to Resistance of Ground
① Typical characteristic values for the axial bearing resistance of single piles include the following.
(a) Second limit resistance: Resistance equivalent to the load at the maximum bearing resistance in a static
loading test. Provided, however, that the displacement of the end of the pile shall be within a range of no more
than 10% of the end diameter. The static maximum axial bearing resistance given by appropriate calculations
shall be equivalent to this.
(b) First limit resistance: Resistance equivalent to the load at a clear break point appearing in the logP–logS curve
in the static compressive loading test. P represents load at the head and S means settlement value at the head
of a pile.
– 439 –
(c) Vertical spring constant of pile head: Slope of the secant of the pile head load displacement curve in the static
compressive loading test.
(5) Setting of Design Value of Axial Bearing Resistance of a Single Pile Based on Resistance of Ground
① A safety margin shall be provided in the second limit resistance. The following equations are used in this safety
margin. Provided, however, that γ in the equation is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and
d indicate the characteristic value and the design value, respectively.
(2.4.2)
(2.4.3)
where
Rp : bearing resistance of the end of pile
Rf : shaft resistance of pile during compressive loading
In cases where only the bearing resistance of the pile head can be obtained in the loading test, and a safety
margin can be determined from the bearing resistance of the pile head, the following equation can be used.
(2.4.4)
where
Rt : axial bearing resistance of single pile
The standard values of the partial factors γRi for the pile end resistance, the shaft resistance, and the axial
bearing resistance of piles shall be as shown in Table 2.4.1–Table 2.4.3. Provided, that in cases where partial
factors are determined separately by code calibrations, etc., in the design system. The subscript i represents
p, f, or t.
Table 2.4.1 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Shaft Resistance
Design situation γRi: Partial factor

Variable situation for load acting due to ship berthing 0.40
Variable situation for load acting due to ship traction 0.40
Variable situation for Level 1 earthquake ground motion 0.66
Variable situation for load during crane operation 0.40
Variable situation for load acting due to waves 0.66
Table 2.4.2 Standard Values of Partial factors for Pile End Resistance

Variable situation for Level 1 earthquake ground motion 0.66 (0.50)
Variable situation for load acting due to waves 0.66 (0.50)
In case the end of the pile remains in an incomplete bearing stratum which appears to be unsafe, the figures in parentheses shall be used.
Table 2.4.3 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Total Resistance

End Bearing pile* Friction pile*
Variable situation for load acting due to ship berthing 0.40 0.40
Variable situation for load acting due to ship traction 0.40 0.40
Variable situation for Level 1 earthquake ground motion 0.66 0.50
Variable situation for load during crane operation 0.40 0.40
Variable situation for load acting due to waves 0.66 0.50
* ) End bearing piles and friction piles shall be as classification provided in (10).
– 440 –
(6) Based on information for the performance verifications of normal port facilities , the use of the partial factors
listed above may give conservative results.
(7) Because the axial bearing resistance of piles is strongly affected by the construction method, it is necessary to
carry out construction in advance with test piles and collect information for the verification by various types of
examination. Depending on the results obtained with the test piles, it may be necessary to change the dimensions
of the piles or the construction method.
(8) Among the axial resistance factors of a certain pile, when the end resistance of the pile Rp is governing, the pile is
called the end bearing pile, and when the shaft resistance Rf is governing, it is called the friction pile. According to
this definition, a pile becomes a bearing pile or a friction pile depending on load conditions such as the magnitude
of the load, loading velocity, loading duration, etc. Therefore, the distinction between end bearing piles and
friction piles cannot be considered absolute. Although the following definitions lack strictness, here, a pile which
passes through soft ground and whose end reaches bedrock or some other bearing stratum is called the end
bearing pile, and a pile whose end stops in a comparatively soft layer, and not a hard layer that could particularly
be considered a bearing stratum, is called the friction pile.
(9) In general, when a pile penetrates to a so-called bearing stratum such as bedrock, or dense sandy ground, axial
resistance is larger and settlement is smaller than when a pile only penetrates to an intermediate layer. When a
pile penetrates to a so-called bearing stratum, the pile itself rarely settles, even when the soft layers surrounding
the pile undergo consolidation settlement. Therefore, negative skin friction acts on the pile, applying a downward
load, and the amount of settlement differs in the head of the pile and the surrounding ground. As these phenomena
cause a variety of problems, caution should be necessary. Although these defects are slight in piles which only
penetrate to intermediate layers, settlement due to consolidation of the ground under the pile continues, and as a
result, there is a danger of uneven settlement.
(10) The partial factor for the serviceability limit is applied to ultimate failure phenomena of the ground. When the
designer desires to avoid yielding of the ground, the use of the first limit resistance is conceivable. The Partial
factor in this case can be set at a value on the order of 0.5.
(11) In case permanent deformation of the ground is expected to remain after an earthquake, separate examination is
necessary. Furthermore, because there are cases in which the shear strength of the soil is remarkably reduced by
the action of ground motion, caution is necessary. For example, when sensitive cohesive soil is affected by violent
motion, loss of strength is conceivable, and from past examples of earthquake damage, it has been pointed out that
liquefaction may occur in loose sandy layers as a result of the action of ground motion, causing a large decrease in
the resistance of piles. Accordingly, with friction piles, which are easily affected by phenomena of this type, due
caution is necessary in setting the partial factors.
(12) Pile group means a group of piles in which the piles are mutually affected by pile axial resistance and
displacement.
[2] Static Maximum Axial Resistance of Single Piles due to Resistance of Ground
(1) The static maximum axial resistance of single piles can be obtained by vertical loading tests or calculation by
static bearing capacity formulas after an appropriate soil investigation.
(2) As methods of estimating the static maximum axial resistance of single piles from the resistance of the ground,
the following are conceivable:
① Estimation by loading tests
② Estimation by static bearing capacity formulas
③ Estimation from the existing data
(3) It is preferable to estimate the static maximum axial resistance of single piles from the resistance of the ground
by conducting axial loading tests. Determining the characteristic value of the static maximum axial resistance by
this method and then conducting the performance verification is the most rational method. In this case, the soil
conditions may differ at the location where the loading test is conducted and at the site where the actual piles are
to be driven. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the results of loading tests with caution with regard to their
relationship to soil conditions, based on a sound understanding of the soil conditions at the location where the
loading test is conducted.
(4) It may be difficult to conduct loading tests prior to the performance verification due to circumstances related to
the construction period or cost. In such cases, estimation of the static maximum axial resistance depending on
the failure of the ground by static bearing capacity formulas taking account of the results of soil investigation
is permissible. Even when estimating the static maximum axial resistance by methods other than the above-
mentioned (2)(a), and conducting the performance verification by setting the axial resistance of piles based
– 441 –
thereon, the appropriateness of the pile axial resistance used in the performance verification should be confirmed
by conducting loading tests at the initial stage of construction.
[3] Estimation of Static Maximum Axial Resistance from Loading Tests
(1) When the second limit resistance can be confirmed from the load-settlement curve, the characteristic value for
static maximum axial resistance can be set based on that value. When it is not possible to confirm the second
limit resistance from the load-settlement curve, it is permissible to confirm the first limit resistance and use that
value as the characteristic value, or to estimate the second limit resistance from the first limit resistance. It is also
permissible to obtain the vertical spring coefficient of the pile head based on the load-settlement curve at the pile
head.
(2) Effect of Negative Skin Friction
When a pile passes through soft ground, there is a danger that the direction of skin friction may be reversed due
to consolidation of the soft ground, this phenomenon is called negative skin friction. In such cases, it is necessary
to conduct tests to appropriately evaluate the pile end resistance.
(3) Load-total Settlement Curve Obtained by Static Loading Test
A load-total settlement curve obtained by a static loading test is shown schematically in Fig. 2.4.1. The curve,
which is initially gentle, shows pronounced break points, and the settlement of the pile head becomes remarkable,
even though there is no increase in the load.
Load
P1 P3 P2
B
Total settlement
Fig. 2.4.1 Yield Load and Ultimate Load
(4) Case in which the Second Limit Resistance is not Obtained Directly by Loading Test
Although there is no problem if the second limit resistance can be obtained by a loading test, in many cases, it is
not possible to apply a sufficiently large load to confirm the second limit resistance due to constraints related to the
test equipment. In such cases, the second limit resistance can be assumed by multiplying the first limit resistance
obtained by a loading test by 1.2. This judgment is based on the results of research by Yamakata and Nagai 14) on
steel pipe piles and statistical studies by Kitajima et al.15) When the first limit resistance also cannot be obtained
in loading tests, the second limit resistance should be assumed to be 1.2 times the maximum load in the test, or a
method of setting the design value of the pile axial resistance which does not depend on the second limit resistance
should be examined. In either case, a condition which assumes that the pile axial resistance estimated in this way
will be larger than the pile axial resistance that can actually be expected is required.
(5) Alternative Loading Test Methods for Static Loading Test
① The rapid load test 17) is a loading test which shall be performed in less than 1 second. Test equipment capable
of applying a large instantaneous load is necessary; however, because various innovations have eliminated the
need for reaction piles, the test can be performed more easily than the static loading test.
② The end loading test is a method in which a jack is installed near the bottom end of the pile, and the pile body is
pushed up while pushing the bottom end of the pile. This method enables separate measurement of the pile end
resistance and pile shaft resistance.
– 442 –
③ The dynamic loading test 18) is a type of loading test which employs an ordinary pile driver. As a feature of this
test method, changes over time in the elastic strain and displacement of the pile head are measured. In this test,
there are limits to the resistance which can be obtained, depending on the magnitude of the pile-driving energy.
Therefore, when the axial resistance which is to be estimated is large, as in long or large-diameter piles, in many
cases it is not applied as a method for direct estimation of the second limit resistance. It can be used to estimate
the relationship between static resistance and driving stop control during construction.
[4] Estimation of Static Maximum Axial Resistance by Static Resistance Formulas
(1) When estimating static maximum axial resistance using static resistance formulas, attention must be paid to the
soil conditions, pile conditions, construction methods, and limits of applicability of the static resistance formulas.
(2) The static maximum axial resistance obtained by static resistance formulas may be considered to be equivalent to
the second limit resistance.
(3) When using static resistance formulas, it is necessary to consider differences in construction methods.
① Piles driven by hammer driving method a)
(a) When employing static resistance formulas using the results of standard penetration test results and undrained
shear strength of ground
i) End resistance of a pile
a) Equation (2.4.5) can be used in estimating end resistance of a pile when the bearing stratum is sandy
ground.
(2.4.5)
where
R Pk : characteristic value of end resistance of a pile by static resistance formula (kN)
Ap : effective area of end of pile (m2). In determining the effective area of an open-ended pile, it is
necessary to consider the degree of closure of the end of the pile.
N : N value of ground around pile end
Provided, however, N is calculated by equation (2.4.6).
(2.4.6)
where
N1 : N-value at end of pile (N1 ≤ 50)
N
N2 : mean N-value in range above the end of pile to distance of 4B ( 2 ≤ 50)
B : diameter or width of pile (m)
In equation (2.4.5), the coefficient of the equation proposed by Meyerhof based on the correlation between
the static penetration test and the standard penetration test in sandy ground was modified to conform to real
conditions.
In estimating the ultimate pile end resistance of piles supported by ground with an N-value of 50 or more,
caution is necessary, as N-values itself is not reliable when it is measured larger than 50, and furthermore,
the applicability of equation (2.4.5) in its current form to hard ground of this kind has not been adequately
confirmed.
b) In estimation of the point resistance of piles when the point of the pile penetrates clayey ground, equation
(2.4.7) can be used.
(2.4.7)
where
cp : undrained shear strength at position of the end of a pile (kN/m 2)
The bearing capacity coefficient of the end resistance of a pile in cohesive soil ground shown in equation
(2.4.7) was obtained by the same method as the bearing capacity of foundations on cohesive soil ground in 2.2
Shallow Spread Foundations. Because the cross-sectional shape of ordinary piles has point symmetry, B/L =
1.0, and Bk/cp < 0.1. Based on these facts, the bearing capacity coefficient Nc of foundations is obtained from
Fig. 2.2.2, see 2.2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Cohesive Soil Ground. Therefore, the bearing
capacity coefficient of the end of the pile is 6. Accordingly, the end resistance Rp of the pile can be shown as
6cpAp.
– 443 –
As the undrained shear strength used here, the undrained shear strength cu obtained in the unconfined
compression test was commonly used up to the present.
ii) Pile shaft resistance
Pile shaft resistance may be obtained as the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the average strength
of skin friction per unit of area in each layer with which the pile is in contact. Namely, equation (2.4.8) can
be used.
(2.4.8)
where
Rfk : characteristic value of pile shaft resistance (kN)
rf : average strength of skin friction per unit of area in i-th layer (kN/m 2)
Aki : circumferential area of pile in contact with ground in i-th layer (= length of outer circumference
si
Us x thickness of layer l) (m 2)
For sandy ground, equation (2.4.9) can be used.
(2.4.9)
where
N : mean N-value of i-th layer
For cohesive soil ground, equation (2.4.10) can be used.
(2.4.10)
where
: mean adhesion of pile in i-th layer (kN/m 2)
Here, the value of the adhesion of the pile may be obtained as follows.
in case c ≤ 100kN/m2; ca = c
in case c > 100kN/m 2; ca = 100kN/m 2 (2.4.11)
However, because theoretical problems 24) arise in obtaining the adhesion of piles from the undrained shear
strength c of the ground, the value of adhesion should be examined, paying due attention to the characteristics
of the ground and conditions of the piles.
(b) Method of estimating the end resistance of piles which remain in sandy ground from bearing capacity theory
i) Expansion of bearing capacity theory of shallow spread foundations
If the shear resistance angle of the bearing stratum is known, the end resistance of the pile can be estimated
as an expansion of the bearing capacity theory for shallow spread foundations. Here, the following method is
introduced as an example. The end resistance of the pile is obtained using equation (2.4.12).
(2.4.12)
where
Nq : bearing capacity coefficient proposed by Berezantzev, see Fig. 2.4.2
σ’v0 : effective overburden pressure at the end of pile (kN/m 2)
When Nq is to be obtained from Fig. 2.4.2, it is necessary to obtain the shear resistance angle. When
obtaining the shear resistance angle, equation (2.3.21) in Part II, Chapter 3, 2.3.4 Interpretation Methods
for N Values can be used. When the shear resistance angle is to be obtained by a triaxial compression test, it
is necessary to consider the fact that the shear resistance angle is reduced as a result of confining pressure.
– 444 –
150
Bearing capacity coefficient Nq

100
50
0
20 25 30 35 40 45
Shear resistance angle (º)
Fig. 2.4.2 Bearing Capacity Coefficient proposed by Berezantzev
ii) Void expantion theory

The failure mode when the area around the end of the pile fails due to compressive force is considered to be
one in which a plastic region forms at the outside of a spherical rigid region around the end of the pile and is
in balance with an elastic region at its outer side.25) This theory is called the void expantion theory.
End resistance of a pile according to the void expantion theory can be shown by the following
equations.26), 27)
(2.4.13)

where
qp : end resistance of a pile per unit area (kN/m 2)
Irr : corrected rigidity index
Ir : rigidity index
φcv’ : shear resistance angle in limit condition; assumes φcv′ = 30+Δφ1+Δφ2. the values of Δφ1 and Δφ2
shall be as shown in Table 2.4.4.
Δav : coefficient defining compressibility of ground. Δav = 50 (Ir)−1.8
G : shear rigidity. May be obtained as G = 7000N0.72 (kN/m 2). N is the N-value around the end of
the pile.
Table 2.4.4 ∆φ1; ∆φ2 of Sand and Gravel
(Depends on particle shape) ∆φ1(°) (Uniformity coefficient) ∆φ2(°)

Round 0 Uniform (Uc<2) 0
Somewhat angular 2 Moderate particle size distribution (2<Uc<6) 2
Angular 4 Good particle size distribution (6<Uc) 4
– 445 –
Pile diameter ≤1000mm Measured

300N
Void Expantion theory
20
Depth at the end of pile, GL (m)

40
60
80
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
End bearing capacity of pile per unit area (MN/m2)
Fig. 2.4.3 Comparison of Measured End Bearing Capacity of Pile and Results of Calculation by Void Expantion Theory
Fig. 2.4.3 shows the results of a comparison of the measured end bearing capacity of pile and the results of
an estimation of end bearing capacity by the expanded void theory assuming φcv′ = 34.
② The vibratory pile driving method, vibro-hammer method, is increasingly being used for driving piles because
of the capacity increase of pile-driving machinery in recent years. As the principles of this method differ from
those of pile driving by hammer, the bearing capacity should be carefully estimated. When using this method,
the ground should be compacted by the method of hammer pile driving instead of vibratory pile driving in the
course of final driving, or vertical loading tests should be conducted to confirm the characteristics of bearing
capacity of the ground in question.
③ In recent years, the use of pile installation method by inner excavation instead of pile driving by hammer has
been increasing in port and harbor construction works. In such cases, the characteristics of the bearing capacity
of piles in question should be confirmed by vertical loading tests.
(4) Effective Areas of Pile End
① Even if there is no shoe on the pile end, the end bearing area of steel piles can be considered closed, as shown
by the shaded areas in Fig. 2.4.4. In this case, the outer edge of the closed area is taken as the perimeter. This
is based on the following principle. Soil enters the interior of steel pipes or the space between the flanges of
H-shaped steel during the pile driving until the internal friction between the soil and the surface of steel pile
becomes equal to the end resistance of pile. This balance prevents soil from entering to the piles and has the
same effect as the case when the open end section is closed. But complete closure cannot be expected in the case
of large-diameter piles. In such cases the plugging ratio should be examined.
Fig. 2.4.4 End Bearing Area of Steel Piles
② Plugging ratio
The mechanism of the end resistance of open ended piles is composed of the sum of the end resistance of the
substantial part of the end of the pile and the skin friction of the inner surface of the pile as shown in Fig. 2.4.5.
– 446 –
The resistance from the inner surface of the pile is considered to be determined from the direct stress action on
the circumference and the inner circular area of the pile. Because the pile cross-sectional area is proportional to
the square of its diameter and its circumference is proportional to its diameter, as the diameter of a pile becomes
larger, the concept that the total cross-sectional area of the pile is effective for resistance loses validity. In piles
of this type, among the resistances which are conceivable due to closure of the pile end, only some fraction
can be expected to function as the end resistance. That fraction is called the plugging effect ratio. The size of
the plugging effect ratio is affected by the diameter or width of the pile, the penetration depth of the pile, the
properties of the ground, the construction method, and cannot be determined simply by the diameter or width
of the pile alone.
Pu
Pu : actions
Rf : outer skin friction of pile
Rp : resistance attributable to wall thickness of pile end in open-ended pile
Rf : resistance due to plugged soil
Rf Rf d : ile diameter
Rf
t
d
Rp Rp
Fig. 2.4.5 Schematic Diagram of Plugging Effect Ratio
③ Different from plugging effect ratio, the plugging ratio refers to the ratio of the end resistance that can actually
be expected to the end resistance obtained by static resistance formulas. From past data, the plugging ratio can
be considered to be 100% when the diameter of steel pipe piles is less than 60 cm or H-shaped steel piles which
short side width is less than 40 cm. Numerous theoretical calculation methods 30), 31), 32), 33), 34), 35) and results
of laboratory experiments 36), 37) have been presented as methods of estimating the plugging effect ratio which
consider the various factors mentioned above for piles with larger diameters or widths. There are also examples
of study by actually conducting pile loading tests. However, in addition to the fact that the plugging effect ratio
varies greatly depending on the properties of the ground, the construction method, and other factors, the state of
plugging of actual piles differs depending on the penetration depth, including the stress in the ground, making
it difficult to obtain the ratio by theoretical calculation.
④ The Japan Association of Steel Pipe Piles collected examples of measurements of the plugging ratio.38) Fig.
2.4.6 shows data based thereon together with additional new data. The new data added here are for piles with
diameters of 1100mm to 2000mm. According to these data, the plugging ratio for the case where equation
(2.4.5) is considered to express the end resistance for complete plugging is in the range of 30-140%. In any case,
it appears that there is virtually no correlation between the embedded length ratio in the bearing stratum and
the plugging ratio. Provided, however, that there is clearly a difference in the plugging ratio in steel pipe piles
with diameters of less than 1000mm and those with diameters greater than 1000mm. Caution is particularly
necessary when using large diameter steel pipe piles with diameters larger than 1000mm. Fig. 2.4.7 shows the
results when the x-axis indicates the pile diameter. In spite of some dispersion in the data, the pile diameter has
a large effect on the plugging ratio, as can be understood by comparison with Fig. 2.4.6.
The plugging ratio is affected by construction methods and soil condition, therefore it is necessary to grasp
the plugging ratio in actual construction works and by carrying out the loading tests.
– 447 –
End resistance of pile based on loading test / (300NAp)

1.5
OD ≤ 650mm
OD 700~900mm
OD ≥ 1000mm
0.5
*
* ) Thin stratum bearing pile

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
penetration length ratio in bearing stratum L/D
Fig. 2.4.6 Plugging Effect of Open Ended Piles (effect of embedded length ratio in bearing stratum)
1.5
Measured value / (300NAp)
0.5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2
Pile diameter (m)
Fig. 2.4.7 Plugging Effect of Open Ended Piles (effect of pile diameter)
(5) Bearing Capacity of Soft Rock

When piles are supported on soft rock or hard clay, the bearing capacity may be calculated by equation (2.4.5).
If unconfined compressive strength qu (kN/m 2) has been measured by undisturbed soil samples, equation (2.4.14)
may alternatively be used.
(2.4.14)
Further, the value of qu should be reduced to 1/2 or 1/3 of the measurement values depending on the conditions
of cracking in the ground. In any event, however, the value of qu should not exceed 2×104kN/m 2.
– 448 –
DN
DN
N=2 N=4 N=9
N ; Division Number
[5] Examination of Compressive Stress of Pile Material

When determining the axial resistance of piles, it is necessary to consider safety with respect to failure of the pile
material.
[6] Decrease of Bearing Capacity due to Joints
(1) If it is necessary to splice piles, the splicing work shall be executed under appropriate supervision and reliability
of joints of spliced pile shall be confirmed by appropriate inspection.
(2) If joints are sufficiently reliable, it may not be necessary to decrease the axial bearing capacity due to joints.
(3) When spliced piles are used, the joints sometimes become the weak points in the pile. Therefore, it is necessary to
adequately examine the structural reliability of the joints. If the structural reliability of the joints is inadequate, it
is necessary to reduce the axial resistance, in consideration of the effect of the joint on the bearing capacity of the
pile foundation as a whole.
(4) In-site circular welding by semi-automatic methods is generally employed for the splicing of steel pipe piles used
in the field of port and harbor construction works. When such highly reliable jointing methods are applied under
appropriate supervision and the reliability of the joints has been confirmed by inspection, it is not necessary to
decrease the axial bearing capacity.
(5) For other matters related to the structures of joints, 2.4.6[4] Joints of piles of piles can be used as reference.
[7] Decrease of Bearing Capacity due to Slenderness Ratio
(1) For piles with a very large ratio of length to diameter, the axial bearing capacity of piles needs to be decreased in
consideration of the accuracy of installation, unless the safety of bearing capacity is confirmed by loading tests.
(2) This provision takes account of the fact that the inclination of piles during installation reduces their bearing
capacity. If loading tests are conducted on foundation piles, the ultimate bearing capacity can be determined,
accounting for the decrease of bearing capacity due to installation accuracy. Therefore, in this case the decrease
due to the slenderness ratio may not necessarily be taken into account.
(3) When decreasing the bearing capacity due to the slenderness of piles, the following values may be used as
references:
① Except for steel pipe piles
(2.4.15)
② For steel piles
(2.4.16)
– 449 –
where
α : rate of reduction (%)
 : pile length (m)
d : pile diameter (m)
[8] Bearing Capacity of Pile Groups
(1) When a group of piles are examined as a pile group, the bearing capacity of pile group may be studied as a single
and deep foundation formed with the envelope surface surrounding the outermost piles in the group of piles.
(2) Terzaghi and Peck state that a failure of a pile group foundation does not mean the failure of the individual piles
but failure as a single block, 45), 46) based on the principle that the soil and piles inside the hatched area in Fig. 2.4.8
work as a single unit when the intervals between the piles are small. The axial resistance of a pile group when
considered in this manner is expressed by equation (2.4.17).
(2.4.17)
where
Rgud : design value of axial resistance of pile group as single block (kN)
qdk : static maximum axial resistance (characteristic value) when bottom of block is assumed to be
foundation load plane according to Terzghi’s equation (kN/m 2)
γq : partial factor for bottom bearing capacity (bearing capacity of foundation on sandy ground and
bearing capacity of foundation on cohesive soil ground in 2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations)
Ag : bottom area of pile group (m 2)
U : perimeter length of pile group (m)
L : penetration length of piles (m)
s
k : mean shear strength of soil in contact with piles (characteristic value) (kN/m )
2
γs : partial factor for skin friction (see 2.4.3[1] General)
The axial resistance per pile is shown by equation (2.4.18).
(2.4.18)
where
Rad : design value of axial resistance per pile against failure as a block (kN)
γ’2 : mean unit weight of whole block including piles and soil (kN/m3); below groundwater level, the
mean unit weight is calculated considering buoyancy, and above ground water level, using the
wet unit weight.
n : number of piles in pile group
In the case of cohesive soil, equation (2.4.18) is replaced by equation (2.4.19), where c is undrained shear
strength and γ’2 ≒ γ2 (γ2: mean unit weight of soil above the end of the pile).
(2.4.19)
where
B : short side width of pile group (block) (m)
B1 : long side width of pile group (block) (m)
γa : partial factor (see 2.2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Cohesive Soil Ground)

As the axial resistance of each pile when used as a pile group, it is necessary to use the smaller of the
axial resistance of the single piles or the resistance against block failure given by equation (2.4.18) or (2.4.19),
respectively.
– 450 –
Perimeter length U
L s
Fig. 2.4.8 Pile Group Foundation
[9] Examination of Negative Skin Friction
(1) If bearing piles penetrate through a soil layer that is susceptible to consolidation, it is necessary to consider
negative skin friction when calculating the allowable axial bearing capacity of piles.
(2) When a pile penetrates through a cohesive soft layer to reach a bearing stratum, the friction force from the soft
layer acts upwards and bears a part of the load acting on the pile head. When the cohesive soft layer is consolidated,
the pile itself is supported by the bearing stratum and hardly settles, the direction of the friction force is reversed,
as shown in Fig. 2.4.9. The friction force on the pile circumference now ceases to resist the load acting on the pile
head, but instead turns into a load downwards and places a large burden on the end of the pile. This friction force
acting downwards on the pile circumference is called the negative skin friction or negative friction.
Consolidation
settlement
Negative skin friction
Positive skin friction
Weak layer
Bearing stratum
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4.9 Negative Skin Friction
(3) Although the actual value of negative skin friction is not well known yet, the maximum value may be obtained
from equation (2.4.20).
(2.4.20)
where
Rnf,maxk : characteristic value of negative skin friction for single pile (maximum value) (kN)
– 451 –
φ : circumference of piles (perimeter of closed area in the case of H-shaped steel piles) (m)
L2 : length of piles in the consolidating layer (m)
s : mean skin friction intensity in the consolidating layer (kN/m )
f 2
(4) In the above, fs in cohesive soil ground is sometimes taken at qu/2. If a sand layer is located between consolidating
layers, or if a sand layer lies on top of consolidating layer, the thickness of the sand layer should be included in L2.
The skin friction in the sand layer is sometimes taken into account for f s . The characteristic value of negative
skin friction in such cases is shown by equation (2.4.21).
(2.4.21)
where
Ls2 : thickness of sand layer included in L2 (m)
Lc : thickness of cohesive soil layer included in L2 (m)
Ls2+Lc =L2
N
s2 : mean SPT-N-value of the sand layer of thickness Ls2
qu : mean unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil layer of thickness Lc (kN/m 2)
(5) In pile groups, the characteristic value of negative skin friction may be calculated by obtaining the negative skin
friction assuming all of the piles form a single and deep foundation, and dividing the result by the number of piles
to obtain the negative skin friction per pile. (see Fig. 2.4.10).
(2.4.22)
where
Rnf, maxk : characteristic value of negative skin friction for pile group (kN)
U : perimeter length of group of piles acting as pile group (m)
H : depth from ground level to bottom of consolidation layer (m)
s : mean shear strength of soil in range of H in Fig. 2.4.10 (kN/m 2)
Ag : bottom area of group of piles acting as pile group (m 2)
γ : mean unit weight of soil in range of L2 in Fig. 2.4.10 (kN/m3)
n : number of piles in group of piles acting as pile group
Equations (2.4.20) to (2.4.22) give the conceivable maximum value for negative skin friction. The actual
value of negative skin friction is considered to be governed by the amount of consolidation settlement and the
speed of consolidation, the creep characteristics of the soft layers and the deformation characteristics of the
bearing stratum.
Consolidation layer
H
L2
Fig. 2.4.10 Skin Friction of Pile Group
(6) The design value of negative skin friction can be calculated by the following equation, using the characteristic
value of negative skin friction.
(2.4.23)
where
γnf : partial factor for negative skin friction (normally, 1.0 can be used)
– 452 –
(7) Verification
When calculating the axial bearing capacity of piles, many uncertainties exist as to how the influence of negative
skin friction should be considered. However, at the present stage, when negative skin friction is adequately
considered, one method assumes safety when it is confirmed that the force transmitted to the end of the pile
possesses adequate safety against failure of the ground at the pile end and compressive failure of the pile material
cross section. That is, when the design value of the axial bearing capacity in the serviceability limit state is Rad,
in addition to securing the required safety against ordinary loads, Rad satisfies equations (2.4.24) and (2.4.25).
(2.4.24)
(2.4.25)
where
Rad : design value of axial bearing capacity (serviceability limit state) (kN)
Rpk : characteristic value of end resistance of pile (second limit resistance) (kN)
Rnf,maxd : design value of maximum negative skin friction (kN)
(smaller of values for single pile or pile group)
σfk : characteristic value of compressive yield stress of pile (kN/m 2)
Ae : effective cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
γRp : partial factor for end resistance of pile (generally, 0.8 can be used)
γσf : partial factor for compressive yield stress of pile (generally, 1.0 can be used)
The characteristic value for end resistance of pile Rpk can be calculated using equation (2.4.5). When the
pile penetrates into the bearing stratum, the circumference resistance of that section shall be included in the pile
end bearing capacity. In this case, the characteristic value of end resistance can be calculated using the following
equation (see Fig. 2.4.11).
(2.4.26)
where
Rpk : characteristic value of end bearing capacity of pile (ultimate value) (kN)
N : N-value of ground at the end of pile
Ap : area of the end of pile (m 2)
Ls1 = L1 : length of pile penetrates into bearing stratum (sandy ground) (m)
Ns1 : mean N-value for zone Ls1
φ : circumference of pile (m)
L2
L1=Ls1 Bearing ground
Fig. 2.4.11 End Bearing Capacity
– 453 –
[10] Examination of Pile Settlement

The axial bearing capacity of pile shall be determined in such a way that an estimated settlement of pile head does
not exceed the allowable settlement determined for superstructures.
2.4.4 Static Maximum Pulling Resistance of Pile Foundations

[1] General
(1) The design value of the pulling resistance of foundation piles must be determined considering the following items,
using the static maximum pulling resistance of a single pile due to failure of the ground as a standard.
① Tensile stress of pile material
② Effect of pile joints
③ Load on pile group due to actions
④ Upward displacement of piles by pulling
(2) The design value of the pulling resistance of piles can be obtained as follows. First, the characteristic value of the
static maximum pulling resistance of a single pile is obtained based on failure of the ground and adding safety
margin. The design value of the pulling resistance of the pile is then determined considering the stress of the pile
material, actions of joints, the pile group and displacement. .
(3) The characteristic values of the pulling resistance of piles are as follows;
① The first limit resistance
The first limit resistance is the load when the shearing stress generated in the pile circumference or the soil
surrounding the pile by pulling of the pile affects substantially the entire length of the pile and yielding begins.
When a loading test is performed and the logP–logS curve is drawn, the clear break point which appears on the
curve shall be considered as the first limit resistance.
② The second limit resistance
The second limit resistance is the resistance when the pulling resistance of the pile circumference shows its
maximum value. If the maximum resistance is unclear, the second limit resistance shall be the load when the
displacement of the end of the pile reaches 10% of the diameter or width of the pile end. The resistance obtained
using static bearing capacity formulas may be considered equivalent to this resistance.
Deadweight
Displacement
Maximum pulling force
Pulling force
Fig. 2.4.12 Pulling Resistance of Piles
(4) Setting of Design Value of Pulling Resistance of Single Pile

(a) A safety margin shall be taken in the second limit resistance. As the method, the following equation can be used.
(2.4.27)
where
γR : partial factor
The standard value of partial factors can be as shown in Table 2.4.5.

Table 2.4.5 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Total Resistance
– 454 –
Design situation γR: Partial factor

Variable situation for Level 1 earthquake ground motion 0.40
Variable situation for load acting due to waves 0.40
(5) In cases where there appears to be a possibility of liquefaction of sandy layers during an earthquake, it is necessary
to determine pulling resistance giving due consideration to this fact.
(6) Because the self weight of the pile can be expected to act reliably as pulling resistance together with the weight of
the soil in the pile, a partial factor of 1.0 may be used for this. Accordingly, it is rational to calculate the design
value of the pulling resistance due to failure of the ground from the characteristic value of pulling resistance due
to failure of the ground as follows. Provided, however, that when the self weight of the pile is comparatively small,
this process is normally omitted. When the diameter of the pile is excessively large, it is considered that the soil
filled in the pile is not necessarily lifted with the pile, but separates and falls down.
① when maximum pulling resistance is obtained by pulling test
(2.4.28)
② when maximum pulling resistance is obtained by static bearing capacity formula
(2.4.29)
where
Rad : design value of allowable pulling resistance of pile (kN)
Wpk : characteristic value of self weight of pile with buoyancy subtracted (kN)
Rut1k : characteristic value of maximum pulling resistance of pile by pulling test (kN)
Rut2k : characteristic value of maximum pulling resistance of pile by static bearing capacity formula
(kN)
γ : Partial factor corresponding to subscript
[2] Static Maximum Pulling Resistance of Single Pile
(1) It is preferable to obtain the maximum pulling resistance of a single pile on the basis of the results of pulling tests.
(2) Unlike axial bearing capacity, there are few comparative data for pulling resistance, and indirect estimations may
involve some risk. Thus conduct of pulling tests is preferable to determine the maximum pulling resistance of a
single pile. However, in the case of relatively soft cohesive soil, skin friction during driving of a pile is considered
to be virtually the same as that during pulling of piles. Therefore, the maximum pulling resistance may be
estimated from the results of loading tests (pushing direction) and static bearing capacity equations.
(3) Estimation of the maximum pulling resistance by static bearing capacity formulas may follow the explanation
given in 2.4.3[4]. Estimation of Static Maximum Axial Resistance by Static Resistance Formulas. However,
the end bearing capacity shall be ignored. Thus, for piles driven by hammer, the following equations may be used.
① Sandy ground
(2.4.30)
② Cohesive soil ground
(2.4.31)
where
Rutk : characteristic value of the maximum pulling resistance of pile (kN)
N : mean N-value for total penetration length of pile
As : total circumference area of pile (m2)
: mean adhesion for total penetration length of pile (kN/m 2)
ca
(4) In cases where the static maximum pulling resistance of a pile is to be estimated using a static bearing capacity
formula, examination is sometimes performed using Terzaghi’s equation, which is shown in equation (2.4.32).
– 455 –
In this case, an appropriate value shall be adopted, based on comparison of the values calculated using equation
(2.4.30) and equation (2.4.31) and the value calculated using Terzaghi’s equation.
(2.4.32)
(2.4.33)
where
Rutk : characteristic value of the static maximum pulling resistance of pile (kN)
Rf k : characteristic value of skin friction of pile (kN)
φ : circumference of pile (m)
L : penetration depth of pile (m)
fsk : characteristic value of average strength of skin friction (kN/m 2)
caik : characteristic value of adhesion between soil and pile in i-th layer (kN/m 2)
Ksk : characteristic value of coefficient of horizontal earth pressure acting on pile
qik : characteristic value of mean effective overburden pressure in i-th layer (kN/m2)
μk : characteristic value of coefficient of friction between pile and soil
li : thickness of i-th layer (m)
For ca and μ, see 2.4.3[4] Estimation of Static Maximum Axial Resistance by Static Resistance
Formulas.
The value of the coefficient of horizontal earth pressure Ks is considered to be smaller than in the case of
pushing. In general, a value between 0.3 and 0.7, which is close to the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, is
frequently used.
[3] Items to be Considered when Calculating Design Value of Pulling Resistance of Piles
(1) When determining the pulling resistance of piles, it is necessary to consider the following items.
① The resistance used in verification of the pulling resistance of piles should be no more than the product of the
resistance of the pile material and the effective cross-sectional area of the pile.
② In spliced piles, the pulling resistance of the pile below the joint is generally ignored. Provided, however, that
when high-quality joints can be used in steel piles, the pulling resistance of the lower pile can be considered
within the range of the tensile strength of the joint after confirming the reliability of the joint.
③ In case of a pile group, it is necessary to examine the pulling resistance as a single block surrounded with the
envelope surface of the outermost piles in the group of piles that act as a pile group.
④ When determining the pulling resistance of piles, it is necessary to consider the limit value of the upward
displacement of pile heads by pulling determined by the superstructure.
(2) Tensile Strength of Pile Materials
The design value of the pulling resistance of piles is limited to the tensile strength of the pile materials. The
method of examination can conform to 2.4.3[5] Examination of Compressive Stress of Pile Materials.
2.4.5 Static Maximum Lateral Resistance of Piles

[1] General
(1) The static maximum lateral resistance of a single pile shall be determined as appropriate on the basis of the
behavior of the pile when it is subject to lateral forces.
(2) The characteristic value of the static maximum lateral resistance of a pile must be determined so as to satisfy the
following two conditions:
① The pile material shall not fail due to stress generated in the pile body. Especially the pile material shall not fail
due to bending stress generated in the pile body.
② The displacement in lateral direction and inclination of the pile head shall not exceed the limit value of the
displacement determined by the superstructure.
(3) Penetration Length of Piles
The length of penetrated part of pile that yields effective resistance against external forces is called the effective
length. Piles are called long piles when the penetrated length is longer than their effective length. Piles are called
– 456 –
short piles when the penetrated length is shorter than their effective length.
(4) Piles Subject to Lateral Actions
The resistance which a pile performs when subjected to actions in the lateral direction (actions in the horizontal
or near-horizontal direction) is called the lateral resistance of the pile, and may be categorized in the three basic
forms shown in Fig. 2.4.13.63)
(a) The resistance of the pile is limited to the lateral direction, and resistance in the vertical direction does not
appear. This is the simplest form of lateral resistance and is frequently called the lateral resistance of a pile in
the narrow sense.
(b) Some part of the resistance of the pile is composed of axial resistance. However, because the shares of the load
borne by lateral resistance and axial resistance are determined almost entirely by the inclination angle of the
piles, resistance may be divided into lateral resistance and axial resistance and examined separately.
(c) Coupled piles are those in which two or more piles with differing axial directions are combined. The simplest
form of coupled piles is shown in Fig. 2.4.13. In coupled piles, most of the action is supported by the axial
resistance of the respective piles. Therefore, when the free length of the piles is long, the lateral resistance is
normally ignored and only the axial resistance is considered in estimating resistance. With coupled piles, it is
quite difficult to calculate the pile head displacement. So far, a number of methods have been proposed, 64), 65)
but none can yet be called adequate (see 2.4.5[6] Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles). However,
because the displacement of coupled piles is far smaller than that of single piles, displacement rarely becomes a
problem.
TA2
TL TL1 T
A
T T T
TA
T2 TL
TA1
2 1
(a) When one vertical pile is subject (b) When one batter pile is subject (c) When coupled piles are subject
to lateral force to lateral force to lateral force
Fig. 2.4.13 Piles Subject to Lateral Force
[2] Estimation of Behavior of Piles
(1) The behavior of a single pile which is subject to lateral force can be estimated by either of the following methods
or by a combination thereof.
① Methods using loading tests
② Analytical methods
[3] Estimation of Behavior of a Single Pile by Loading Tests
(1) When loading tests are planned to estimate behavior of a single pile subject to lateral force, it is necessary to
consider sufficiently the differences in the pile and load conditions between those of actual structures and loading
tests.
(2) Loading test results and characteristic value and design value of lateral resistance
When loading tests are conducted under the same conditions as those in actual facilities, the characteristic value
– 457 –
of the static maximum lateral resistance may be obtained from the loading test results by the following method.
The load-pile head displacement curve in lateral loading tests generally shows a curved form from the
beginning of the loading. Therefore, with the exception of short piles, a clear yield load or ultimate load normally
cannot be obtained. As explained previously in [1] General, this is because only gradual small-scale failure
occurs in the ground with long penetration lengths, and overall failure of the ground does not occur. Therefore,
the load-pile head displacement curve is not used to obtain the yield load or the ultimate load, but to confirm the
pile head displacement itself. In other words, the fundamental concept of the performance verification of piles
subject to lateral force is determination of the limit value of the displacement of the pile head and design so as not
to exceed that limit value.
Furthermore, the bending stress corresponding to the resistance obtained in this manner must also be
considered. Hence, it is necessary to ensure that failure associated with the bending stress of the pile material (see
Part II, Chapter 11, 2.2 Characteristic Values of Steel) does not occur when the expected load acts. To calculate
the allowable lateral bearing capacity of short piles, overturning of piles must be considered, in addition to the pile
head displacement and bending stress mentioned already. When the overturning load cannot be ascertained, the
maximum test load may be used instead of the overturning load.
[4] Estimation of Pile Behavior using Analytical Methods
(1) When estimating behavior of a single pile subject to lateral force by using analytical methods, it is preferable to
analyze the pile as a beam is placed on an elastic foundation.
(2) Methods of analytically estimating the behavior of a single pile subject to lateral force as a beam is placed on an
elastic foundation include the relatively simple Chang’s methods well as the PHRI (Port and Harbor Research
Institute, name is changed to PARI) method.68)
(3) Basic Equation for Beam on Elastic Foundation
Equation (2.4.34) is the basic equation for analytically estimating behavior of a pile as a beam placed on an elastic
foundation.
(2.4.34)
where
EI : flexural rigidity of pile (kN･m2)
x : depth from ground level (m)
y : displacement of pile at depth x (m)
P : subgrade reaction per unit length of pile at depth x (kN/m)
p : subgrade reaction per unit area of pile at depth x (kN/m 2)
B : pile width (m)
Analytical methods differ depending on how the subgrade reaction P is considered in equation (2.4.34). If the
ground is considered simply as a linear elastic body, P or p is a linear function of displacement of pile y.
(2.4.35)
or
(2.4.36)
where
Es : modulus of elasticity of ground (kN/m 2)
kCH : coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
There is much discussion concerning the characteristics of the modulus of elasticity Es, but the simplest
concept is that Es = kCHB = constant, as proposed by Chang.69)
Shinohara, Kubo, and Hayashi proposed the PHRI method as an analytical method considering the nonlinear
elastic behavior of the ground.70), 71) This method can describe the behavior of actual piles more accurately
than other methods. The PHRI method uses equation (2.4.41) to describe the relationship between the subgrade
reaction and the pile displacement.
(2.4.37)
where
k : constant of lateral resistance of ground (kN/m3.5 or kN/m 2.5)
m : index 1 or 0
– 458 –
(4) PHRI Method
① Characteristics of the PHRI method
In the PHRI method, the ground is classified into the S type and the C type. The relationship between the
subgrade reaction and the pile displacement for each ground is assumed by equation (2.4.38) and (2.4.39),
respectively.
(a) S-type ground
(2.4.38)
(b) C-type ground
(2.4.39)
where
k s : constant of lateral resistance in S-type ground (kN/m3.5)
kc : constant of lateral resistance in C-type ground (kN/m 2.5)
The identification of S-type or C-type ground and the estimation of k s and kc are based on the results of
loading tests and soil investigation.
In the PHRI method, the nonlinear relationships between p and y are introduced as given by equations (2.4.38)
and (2.4.39) to reflect the actual state of subgrade reaction. Therefore, the solutions under individual conditions
would remain unattainable without help of numerical calculation, and the principle of superposition could not be
applied. The results of many full-scale tests have confirmed that this method reflects the behavior of piles more
accurately than the conventional methods. It is commented here that for piles to behave as long piles, they must
be at least as long as 1.5 m1 ( m1: depth of the first zero point of flexural moment in the PHRI method).64)
② Constants of lateral resistance of the ground
The two ground types in the PHRI method are defined as follows;
(a) S-type ground
1) Relationship between p-y is expressed as p = ks xy0.5 refer (2.4.38)
2) N-value by the standard penetration test increases in proportion to the depth.
3) Actual examples: sandy ground with uniform density, and normally consolidated cohesive soil ground.
(b) C-type ground
1) Relationship between p-y is expressed as p = kc y0.5 refer (2.4.39)
2) N-value by the standard penetration test is constant regardless of depth.
3) Actual examples: sandy ground with compacted surface, and heavily-overconsolidated cohesive soil
ground.
A relationship shown in Fig. 2.4.14 exists between the rate of increase in the N-value per meter of
depth in S-type ground N and the lateral resistance of piles k s.72) In cases where the distribution of the
N-value in the depth direction does not become 0 at the ground surface, N can be determined from the
average inclination of the N-value plotting through the zero point at the surface. In C-type ground, a
relationship of the type shown in Fig. 2.4.15 exists between the N-value itself and kc.68), 73) Thus, a rough
estimate of k s or kc can be made from the distribution of the N-value
– 459 –
5
104 4 1. ALTON.ILLINOIS (FEAGIN)
6 1 2. WINFIELD.MONTANA (GLESER)
3. PORT HUENEME (MASON)
13 4.5. Hakkenbori No.1, No.2
ks (kN/m3.5)
8 2 6. Ibaragigawa (GOTO)
9 7. Osaka National Railways (BEPPU)
3 8.9. Tobata No.6, No.9
15
10. Tobata K-I (PHRI)
103 7
11. Tobata K-II (PHRI)
10 12. Tobata L-II (PHRI)
12 13. Kurihama model experiment
14
14. Shin-Kasai Bridge (TATEISHI)
15. Yamanoshita (IGUCHI)
11
102
1 10 100
N-value
Fig. 2.4.14 Relationship between N-value and ks
1. Tobata K-I (TTRI)

16 2. Tobata K-III (TTRI)
104 3. Tobata K-IV (TTRI)
4. Tobata L-II (TTRI)
15 5. Tobata L-IV (TTRI)
7 6. Hakkenbori No.1
6
7. Hakkenbori No.2
8. Osaka National Railways
kc (kN/m2.5)
3
12
9 9. Yahata Seitetsu No.6
2
10 11 5 10. Yahata Seitetsu No.9
3
10 17 8 14 11. Tobata preliminary test-1 (TTRI)-1
18
9 13 12. Tobata preliminary test-2 (TTRI)-2
1 13. Wagner (Callif.) No.15
4 14. Wagner (Callif.) No.25
15. Wagner-1 (Alaska)-1
16. Wagner-1 (Alaska)-2
17. Tokyo National Railways b
18. Tokyo National Railways A4
102 19. Tokyo National Railways B
1 10 100
N-value
Fig. 2.4.15 Relationship between N-value and kc
③ Estimation of lateral resistance constants by loading tests

Estimations of the lateral resistance constants by using the N-value can only provide approximate values. It is
preferable to conduct loading tests to obtain more accurate values. The constants k s and kc are determined from
the ground conditions alone, and are unaffected by other conditions unlike Es in Chang’s equation. Therefore,
if k s or kc can be obtained by a loading test, those values can be applied to other conditions as well.
④ Effective length
For a certain pile to function as a long pile, its penetration length must be greater than its effective length.
Based on the results of model tests with short piles, Shinohara and Kubo found that the lower part of a pile
is considered to be fixed completely in the ground when the penetration length exceeds 1.5 m1, and therefore
proposed using 1.5 m1 as effective length.77) Actually, if the penetration length exceeds 1.5 m1, the behavior of the
pile will not differ substantially from that of a long pile. However, as the minimum penetration length of long
– 460 –
piles, 1.5 m1 should be used, considering the effects of soil fatigue or creep.
It should also be noted that the value of m1 increases as the stiffness of the pile increases and decreases as the
lateral resistance of the ground increases. However, the value of m1 is virtually unaffected by the loading height
and pile head fixing conditions. Furthermore, m1 also has the character of increasing gradually as loading
increases.
⑤ Effect of pile width
There are two ways in considering the effect of pile width. The first is to consider that the pile width B has no
effect on the relationship between the subgrade reaction p per unit area and the displacement y. The second, as
proposed by Terzaghi, is to assume that the value of p corresponding to a given y value is inversely proportional
to B. Shinohara, Kubo 78) and Sawaguchi 79) conducted model experiments on the relationship between the k s
value in sandy ground and B. The results are shown in Fig. 2.4.16. It seems to show a combination of the two
theories mentioned above and indicates that the first theory is effective if the pile width B is sufficiently large.
On the basis of these results, it was decided not to consider the effect of pile width in the PHRI method.
×103
12
Legend
Pile head Maximum
10 p-y curve bending
displacement moment
Lateral resistance constant ks (kN/m3.5)
1st Series
8 2nd Series
3rd Series
+
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Pile width (cm)
Fig. 2.4.16 Relationship between ks and Pile Width
⑥ Effect of pile inclination

For batter piles, a relationship shown in Fig 2.4.17 exists between the inclination angle of the piles and the
ratio of the lateral resistance constant of batter piles to that of vertical piles 80) This tigure shows the in-situ
tests examples which examined driving of batter piles in horizontal ground and the laboratory tests examples
obtained by preparing the ground after driving of the batter pile and then sufficiently compacting the ground
around the pile. In the in-situ tests, when filling was performed after the batter piles were driven, results were
obtained in which the coefficient of the subgrade reaction did not increase even when the angle of inclination
of the pile is minus. In this case, however, an increase in the coefficient of the subgrade reaction due to
subsequent compaction of the surrounding ground can be expected.81), 82)
– 461 –
2.5
:Indoor tests
:In-situ tests
Value of k, when θ = 0
k0：　
2.0
x=k/k0
1.5
1.0
(in) (out) 0.5

-θ +θ
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Fig. 2.4.17 Relationship between Pile Inclination Angle and Lateral Resistance Constants
(5) Chang’s Method

① Calculation Equation
Using the elasticity modulus of the ground Es =B kCH, the elasticity equation of piles is expressed as follows;

Exposed section
(2.4.40)
Embedded section
By calculating these general solutions with B kCH as a constant and inputting the boundary conditions, the
solution for piles of semi-infinite length can be obtained (see Table 2.4.6).83)
According to Yokoyama, piles of finite length may be equivalent to the piles of infinite length if βL ≥ π .
When a pile is shorter than this, a pile must be treated as a finite length pile. Diagrams are available to simplify
this process.85)
– 462 –
Table 2.4.6 Calculations for Piles of Semi-Infinite Length if kch is Constant
Differential equations of deflection Exposed sections: [Symbols] Ht :Lateral force on pile head(kN) kCH :Coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction(kN/m3)
curve and explanation of symbols Mt :External force moment on pile h :Height of pile head above ground(m)
head(kN･m) β : (m–1)
Embedded sections: B :Pile diameter(m)
EI :Flexural rigidity(kN･m 2)
Situation of pile Protruding above ground(h≠0) Embedded underground(h=0)

Deflection curve diagram ①Basic formation ② If pile head does not rotate ③ Basic system (but Mt = 0) ④ If pile head does not rotate
Flexural moment diagram
Deflection curve y
(If Mt≠0, use equations in ① putting

h0=Mt/Ht: the same applies below)
Pile head displacement yt
Ground level displacement y0
Pile head inclination θt
Flexural moment of pile members M
– 463 –
Shear strength of pile members S
Pile head flexural moment
Maximum flexural moment of

embedded parts Ms,max
Depth at which Ms,max occurs  m
Depth of 1st steady point  0
Depth of deflection angle zero point

L
Pile head rigidity factor
K1,K2,K3,K4
② Estimation of kCH in Chang’s method

(a) Terzaghi’s proposal 86)
Terzaghi proposed the following values for the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction in cohesive or sandy
soil:
1) In case of cohesive soil
(2.4.41)
where
kCH : coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
B : pile width (m)
: value shown in Table 2.4.7
(2.4.42)
2) In case of sandy soil
(2.4.43)
where
x : depth (m)
B : pile width (m)
nh : value listed in Table 2.4.8
(2.4.44)
In sandy soil, Es is a function of depth and thus cannot be applied directly to Chang’s method. For such
cases, Chang states that Es can be taken the value at the depth of one third of y1 which is the depth of the
first zero-displacement point. However, y1 itself is a function of Es, thus repeated calculations have to be
made to obtain the value of Es. Reference 87) describes the method of calculation without the repetition
calculation.
Terzaghi assumes that the value of kCH is inversely proportional to the pile width B, as shown in
equations (2.4.43) and (2.4.44). Other opinions suggest that pile width is irrelevant to kCH (see (4) ⑤).
Table 2.4.7 Coefficient of Lateral Subgrade Reaction
Consistency of cohesive soil Hard Very hard Solid

Unconfined compressive strength qu (kN/m 2) 100–200 200–400 400 or greater
Range of k CH1 (kN/m 2) 16,000–32,000 32,000–64,000 64,000 or greater
Proposed value of k CH1 (kN/m3) 24,000 48,000 96,000
Table 2.4.8 Value of nh
Relative density of sand Loose Medium Dense

nh for dry or wet sand (kN/m3) 2,200 6,600 17,600
nh for submerged sand (kN/m3) 1,300 4,400 10,800
(b) Yokoyama’s proposal

Yokoyama collected the results of lateral loading tests on steel piles conducted in Japan and performed reverse
calculations for kCH, and obtained Fig. 2.4.18 by comparing the results and the mean N-values at depths down to
β-1 from the ground level.88) In this case, Es = kCHB is assumed to be valid for both sandy soil and cohesive soil,
and kCH itself is assumed not to be affected by B. Although the values of kCH obtained by reverse calculation
from the measured values decrease as loading increases, Fig. 2.4.18 is prepared using kCH when the ground
surface displacement is 1cm. Fig. 2.4.18 may be used when making rough estimates of the value of Es from soil
conditions alone without conducting loading tests in-situ.

– 464 –
1. Yamaborigawa
2. Tobata
105 3. Tobata K-I
1 4. Tobata L-II
5. Tobata K-II
6. Tobata K-III
7. Tobata L-IV
8 8. Tobata K-IV
10 9. Shell Ogishima
2 14 7
6 10. Ibaragigawa
kCH (kN/m3)
11. Takagawa
12. Tokyo SupplyWarehouse
12 15 13. Kasai Bridge
104
9 14. Aoyama
13 15. Den-en
11
3
103
1 10 50
N-value
Fig. 2.4.18 Values of kCH obtained by Reverse Calculation from Horizontal Loading Tests on Piles
(c) Relationship between kc, k s, and kCH 89), 90)

From Fig. 2.4.14, Fig. 2.4.15, and Fig. 2.4.18, the relationships between the SPT-N-values or N -values shown
in the respective figures and the corresponding coefficients of subgrade reaction are as shown in Table 2.4.9.
As can be understood from these results, there are largely dispersed relationships between kCH and the N-value.
These results are due to the fact that the value of kCH cannot be determined from the soil conditions alone.
Hence, the relationship between kc and kCH and that between k s and kCH can be obtained in such a way that
ground surface displacement was equal under the same loading conditions. Then, substituting the relational
equations of kc, k s, and the N-value or N -value, the following equations can be obtained.
(free pile head)
(fixed pile head)

(2.4.45)
(free pile head)
(fixed pile head)
Table 2.4.9 Relationships between SPT-N-value or N -value and Respective of Subgrade Reaction
Correlation equation Correlation coefficient Coefficient of variation

(kN/m 2.5) 0.872 0.111
(kN/m3.5) 0.966 0.077
(kN/m3) 0.917 0.754
– 465 –
[5] Consideration of Pile Group Action
(1) When piles are used as a pile group, the effect of pile group action on the behavior of individual piles is necessary
to be considered.
(2) When the center interval of driven piles exceeds the values in Table 2.4.10, the action of the pile group on lateral
resistance may be ignored.
Table 2.4.10 Center Intervals of Piles
Transverse Pile diameter x 1.5

Sandy soil
Longitudinal Pile diameter x 2.5
Transverse Pile diameter x 3.0
Cohesive soil
Longitudinal Pile diameter x 4.0
[6] Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles
(1) The lateral bearing capacity of a foundation of the structure with coupled piles is necessary to be determined as
appropriate in view of structural characteristics of the foundation.
(2) Distribution of Horizontal Force in Foundation with a Combination of Vertical and Coupled Piles
When a horizontal force acts on a foundation with a combination of vertical and coupled piles, the force borne by
vertical piles is far smaller than that borne by coupled piles under the condition of equal horizontal displacement.
It may generally be assumed that all of the horizontal force is borne by the coupled piles.
(3) Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles
There are two calculation methods for the lateral bearing capacity of coupled piles. The first method only
takes account of the resistance of the axial bearing capacity of each pile. The second method takes account
of the resistance of the axial bearing capacity of each pile as well as the lateral bearing capacity of each pile in
consideration of the bending resistance of piles.
(4) Case when Only Axial Resistance of Individual Piles is Considered as Resisting Horizontal Force
When only the axial resistance is considered as resistance, as shown in Fig. 2.4.19, the vertical and horizontal
actions acting on the head of a pair of coupled piles shall be divided into the axial force of each pile. The coupled
piles shall be designed in a way that the axial force on each pile is less than the design values of the axial resistance
or design values of the axial pulling resistance of the respective piles. The axial force can be calculated using
equation (2.4.46) or a graphic solution (see Fig. 2.4.19)
(2.4.46)
where
P1, P2 : pushing force acting on each pile or pulling force when the value is negative (kN)
θ1, θ2 : inclination angle of each pile (º)
Vi : vertical force acting on coupled piles (kN)
Hi : horizontal force acting on coupled piles (kN)
– 466 –
Vi
Hi
P1
Vi
θ1 θ2
P2
Hi
P2
P1
Fig. 2.4.19 Axial Forces of Coupled Piles
(5) Method of Calculating Horizontal Resistance of Coupled Piles Considering Lateral Resistance of individual
Piles
Various methods of calculating the horizontal resistance of coupled piles by considering the lateral resistance of
individual piles are available. For example;
① Method of solution based on a condition whereby the displacement of each pile is always the same at the
intersection of the coupled piles, on the assumption that the spring characteristics of the pile head in the axial
and lateral directions are elastic.
② Method of obtaining the ultimate resistance of the coupled piles on the assumption that the axial and lateral
resistances of the piles show elasto-plastic properties.
③ Method of calculating the load and displacement at the pile heads, or the settlement and the upward displacement
of piles by pulling in the case of (b) on the basis of empirical equations.110)
④ Method of using the results of loading tests on single piles.111)
⑤ Method of solution assuming that the yield state of each pile will occur successively and the resistance of each
member to greater forces will be constant until the resistance of the coupled piles reaches the ultimate bearing
capacity.

The following presents an outline of method ①.
The method ① above is to calculate the distribution of horizontal force to each pile on the assumption that the
axial and lateral resistances of a pile have elastic properties 112)
In the coupled piles shown in Fig.2.4.20, the settlement of each pile at the pile head is proportional to the axial
force acting on that pile and also the lateral displacement is proportional to the lateral force acting on that pile.
On this assumption, the axial and lateral forces acting on each pile of the coupled piles can be calculated using
equation (2.4.47), derived from the conditions of force equilibrium and compatibility of displacements.
– 467 –
(2.4.47)
Vertical and horizontal displacements of the pile head can be calculated by equation (2.4.48)
(2.4.48)

where
N1, N2 : axial force acting on each pile, compressive force is indicated by positive value (kN)
H1, H2 : lateral force acting on each pile (kN)
V : vertical load per pair of coupled piles (kN)
H : horizontal load per a pair of coupled piles (kN)
θ1, θ2 : inclination angle to vertical line of each pile (°)
ω1, ω2 : axial spring constant of each pile head (kN/m)
µ1, µ 2 : lateral spring constant of each pile head (kN/m)
δ'1, δ'2 : vertical displacement of each pile head (m)
η'1, η'2 : horizontal displacement of each pile head (m)
The subscript numbers attached to the symbols, as shown in Fig. 2.4.20, are “1” for the pushed pile and “2”
for the pulled pile if only a horizontal load acts.
The values listed in Table 2.4.11 may be used for the spring constants of pile head. The symbols used in
Table 2.4.11are defined below
(2.4.49)
where
 : penetration length of piles (m)
λ : exposed length of piles (m)
E : Young’s modulus of pile material (kN/m 2)
A : pile section area (m 2)
I : moment of inertia of pile (m4)
Es : elastic modulus of subsoil (kN/m 2) Es =kCH B
B : pile width (m)
κCH : coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
The coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction kCH may be calculated by multiplying the value of kCH obtained
– 468 –
in [4] Estimation of Pile Behavior using Analytical Methods, (5) ② Chang’s Method by the factor obtained
from Fig. 2.4.17, in accordance with the inclination of piles.
N1 V N2 δ2
δ1 η1 η2 H2
δ'1 H
δ'2
H1
λ1 η'1 η'2 λ2
θ 1 θ2
l1 l2
(Out-batter pile) (In-batter pile)
Fig. 2.4.20 Coupled Piles Considering Pile Bending and Soil Resistance due to Deflection
Table 2.4.11 Spring Constants of Pile Head
End Bearing piles
Axial spring constant of pile head

Cohesive soil
(ω)
Friction piles
Sandy soil
Without exposed section

(λ=0)
Pile head hinged
With exposed section
Lateral axial spring constant of pile (λ≠0)
head
(µ) Without exposed section
(λ=0)
Pile head fixed
With exposed section
(λ≠0)
2.4.6 General Considerations of Performance Verification of Pile Foundations

Performance verification of pile foundations can be conducted as follows.
[1] Load Sharing
(1) Vertical loads are considered to be supported by piles alone. In general, no bearing capacity shall be expected
for the ground in contact with the bottom of the superstructure. Even if the ground under the bottom slab of
the superstructure which is supported by the piles is in contact with the bottom of the slab when construction is
completed, voids under the slab will appear over time; therefore, from the viewpoint of safety, it is preferable to
ignore the bearing capacity of the ground under the slab.
(2) Horizontal actions are generally supported by piles alone. However, if passive earth pressure resistance at the
front of the embedded part of the superstructure can be expected, this resistance may also be included. However,
it is generally difficult to calculate the resistance due to passive earth pressure in this case. It is not necessarily
possible to determine whether the passive earth pressure of the ground reaches its ultimate value in response
– 469 –
to the pile head displacement corresponding to the static maximum lateral resistance of the piles. When the
superstructure is displaced until the passive earth pressure reaches the value obtained using Coulomb’s equation,
there is a danger of the pile undergoing bending failure. Therefore, when considering inclusion of the passive
earth pressure resistance at the front of this embedded section, it shall not be included in calculations without
adequate examination of these facts.
(3) For structural types in which settlement of facilities is controlled by employing piles as friction piles, for example,
piled-raft foundations, 122) or soft landing moundless structures with piles, there are cases in which it is reasonable
to consider the bearing capacity under the slab bottom.
In case of the performance verification of the facilities above, it is necessary to confirm sufficiently the
behavior characteristics of the facilities.
(4) Procedure of performance verification for pile foundations
It is generally preferable that performance verification of pile foundations be conducted by the procedure shown
in Fig. 2.4.21.
Assumptions : Type of piles

Shape of piles
Dimensions of piles
Arrangement of piles
Estimation of bearing capacity of piles Soil conditions

Loading tests Load conditions
Static bearing capacity formulas Allowable displacement
Axial bearing capacity

Axial pulling force
Displacement of single pile Displacement of pile group
Horizontal resistance
Negative skin friction
Ultimate bearing capacity of single pile Ultimate bearing capacity of pile group Buckling
Joint efficiency
Vibration and earthquake
Allowable bearing capacity of single pile Allowable bearing capacity of pile group
Stress generated in piles Stress generated in piles
Determination : Type of piles

Shape of piles
Dimensions of piles
(diameter, wall thickness, and length)
Arrangement of piles
Number of piles
Pile driving angle
Economy
End
Fig. 2.4.21 Example of Procedure of Performance Verification Procedure
[2] Distance between Centers of Piles

When determining the distance between the centers of piles to be driven, the workability, deformation behavior of
surrounding ground, and behavior as a pile group is necessary to be taken into account.
[3] Performance Verification of Pile Foundations during Construction
(1) Examination of Loads during Construction

① In performance verification of piles, it is preferable to examine not only the loads acting after completion of
construction but also those during transportation, positioning, and driving.
– 470 –
② Driving suspension control by pile driving formulas

Pile driving formulas, designed to calculate the static maximum bearing capacity of piles from dynamic
penetration resistance, are difficult to make good use in principle. Although estimations of the static maximum
bearing capacity using pile driving formulas have the advantage of being very simple, the problem lies in their
accuracy. In Fig. 2.4.22 by Sawaguchi, 23) the static maximum bearing capacity obtained from the pile driving
formula for steel piles is compared with the results of loading tests in a form of the ratio of the former to the
latter. The figure reveals major discrepancy and dispersion between the two. In clayey soil, soil is disturbed
during pile driving and skin friction temporarily decreases. Therefore, the static maximum bearing capacity
cannot be estimated by pile driving formulas. In sandy soil, pile driving formulas are said to be inaccurate
for estimating the bearing capacity of friction piles. The limits of applicability of pile driving formulas are
discussed in reference 24).
Nevertheless, when driving a large number of piles into almost identical ground, pile driving formulas can
be used as a reference for estimating the relative differences in bearing capacity per each driven pile. Thus, the
application of these formulas should be restricted to construction management purposes.
However, they may also be used as reference to confirm variation in the bearing capacity of each pile or to
finish the driving of each pile so that they are all governed by the same condition.
It has become possible to separate the resistance of the pile shaft and resistance at the end of the pile by
performing an dynamic pile loading test; more accurate driving suspension control can be expected than by
depending solely on pile driving formulas.
Hiley’s equation
Weisbach’s equation
Janbu’s equation
Denmark’s equation
Smith’s equation
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1,000%
Fig. 2.4.22 Distribution of Results of Pile Driving Formulas and Loading Tests
(a) Hiley’s equation

Hiley’s equation is the most common pile driving formula and is expressed by equations (2.4.50) and (2.4.51).
Energy required Loss due to elastic (2.4.50)

Impulsive Loss due to elastic Loss due to
for penetration deformation of
loss deformation of pile cushion
of pile ground
(2.4.51)
– 471 –
where
Rdu : ultimate pile-driving resistance; i.e., dynamic maximum bearing capacity (kN)
WH : weight of hammer (kN)
WP : weight of pile including pile head attachments (kN)
F : impact energy (kJ)
ef : efficiency of hammer, ranging from 0.6 to 1.0, depending on the type of hammer126)
e : rebound coefficient (e = 1 if completely elastic, and e = 0 if completely non-elastic)
S : final settlement of pile (m)
C1 : elastic deformation of pile (m)
C2 : elastic deformation of ground (m)
C3 : elastic deformation of pile head cushion (m)
Most pile driving formulas are obtained by replacing C1, C2, C3, ef, e, etc. in equation (2.4.51) with appropriate
values. Equation (2.4.52) is considered relatively well-suited to steel piles. Assuming the impact between
hammer and pile to be elastic, i.e., e = 1, the following is derived:
(2.4.52)
The term C1 + C2 + C3 in the above is the sum of elastic deformation of ground, pile, and pile head cushion.
Of these, the term C1 + C2 are equal to the rebound K measured at the pile head in pile driving tests (see
Fig. 2.4.23). With steel piles, elastic deformation C1 is dominant, while C3 is generally smaller. Thus, if C3 is
neglected, the following can be assumed:
(2.4.53)
thus,
(2.4.54)
where
Rdu : dynamic maximum bearing capacity of pile (kN)
ef : efficiency of hammer, set at 0.5 in case of equation (2.4.54)
S : settlement of pile (m)
drop hammers : mean settlement per blow for the final 5 –10 strikes (m)
other hammers : mean settlement per blow for the final 10– 20 strikes (m)
K : value of rebound (m)
F : impact energy (kN·m)
drop hammer:
F=WH H
Single action steam hammer:
double action steam hammer: F=(ap+WH ) H
diesel hammer: F=2 WH H
H : drop height of hammer (m)
WH : weight of hammer (kN)
a : cross-sectional area of cylinder (m2)
p : steam pressure or air pressure (kN/m 2)
The design value of axial resistance Rdad is obtained by multiplying Rdu by the partial factor γ. Here, a partial
factor γ of 0.33 can generally be used.
(2.4.55)
– 472 –
Pile
Elastic compression of pile and ground (K)
Metal clamp
Pencil
Pencil
Penetration of pile (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4.23 Rebound Measurement
[4] Joints of Piles
(1) Joints of piles shall be sufficiently safe against actions after completion as well as during construction.
(2) Joints shall be placed at the position where there is a sufficient margin in cross-sectional strength and relatively
free from corrosion.
(3) Depending on the position of joints, the forces acting on joints after completion of a structure are sometimes
far smaller than the strength of the piles. However, considerations should be taken to ensure the safety of joints
against the pile-driving stress during construction, load increases in future, and unexpected stresses arising within
the cross section of joints.
(4) Position of Joints
Execution of joint parts is necessarily accompanied by work at the construction site. Therefore, unlike fabrication
in a factory, supervision of construction work tends to be inadequate. Accordingly, in performance verification
of joints, care different from that for the pile proper is necessary. Even in deep sections which are not affected by
bending stress under ordinary conditions, there are examples of buckling of piles at joints and at points where the
pile wall thickness changes below a joint. Thus, adequate examination is necessary.
In determining the position of joints, it is necessary to select the joint position based on a good understanding
of the joint structure, considering all of the factors of bending, shear, compression, and tension. A position where
the flexural moment is small shall be selected if the joint structure is weak against bending, and a position where
shear is small shall be selected if the structure is weak against shear.
The durability of joints is considered to be small in comparison with the pile. For example, in steel piles,
various kinds of corrosion control treatment are considered to cause a reduction of functions due to welding at this
part. Therefore, joint positions where corrosion is slight shall be selected, and in particular, positions which are
subject to repeated wetting and drying due to changing water levels shall be avoided.
The length allotted to elements in one pile is determined by the position of joints. Limitations related to
transportation, construction equipment, and work space factors shall be considered in determining the length of
the element. It is considered advantageous to reduce the number of joints to the minimum and use long elements
as much as possible. Given the present transportation conditions, the maximum lengths that can be transported
are 13m by road and 20m by rail.
(5) Joints in Steel Piles
In steel piles, arc welded joints should generally be used, as this is the most reliable type of joint. However,
because gas-pressure welding and other new methods are being developed, when sufficient safety is confirmed by
the responsible engineer based on adequate study by testing, these other methods may also be used.
(6) Wood Pile Joints
It is not preferable to use the wooden joints when horizontal force or pulling force does not act.
(7) Reinforced Concrete Pile Joints and Prestressed Concrete Pile Joints
When reinforced concrete pile and prestressed concrete pile are used to the structure where horizontal force or
pulling force acts, joint structure which has been confirmed with high reliability shall be selected.
[5] Change of Plate Thickness or Material Type of Steel Pipe Piles
(1) When changing plate thickness or material type of steel pipe piles, all due considerations shall be given to the
workability and the distribution of section force on piles.
– 473 –
(2) The section force of steel pipe piles varies with depth, generally decreasing as the depth becomes large. Therefore,
plate thickness or material type of steel pipe piles is sometimes changed over the total length from the economical
point of view.
(3) When changing plate thickness or material type of steel pipe piles, the position of the change should be at the depth
where the section force arising in the piles does not increase. Caution is also required because such a change may
not be allowed if a large negative skin friction is active.
(4) Jointing piles with different thickness and material type should be done by shop circular welding. The shape of
the welded section should comply with JIS A 5525.
[6] Other Notes regarding Performance Verification
(1) Steel Piles

① Radial buckling of steel pipe piles
When using closed ended piles and when using open ended piles from which the soil is to be removed for filling
with concrete, if the wall thickness of the pile is extremely thin relative to the pile diameter or penetration
length is extremely large, there is a danger of buckling in the radial direction due to the earth pressure and water
pressure acting on the pile surface. Therefore, caution is necessary.
The external pressure at which buckling occurs when a steel pipe is subjected to uniform external pressure
can generally be expressed as shown in equation (2.4.56).
(2.4.56)
where
pk : external pressure causing buckling (kN/m 2)
E : modulus of elasticity of steel (kN/m 2) E = 2.1 x 108 kN/m 2
v : Poisson’s ratio of steel v = 0.3
t : wall thickness of cylinder (mm)
r : radius of cylinder (mm)
② Axial buckling of steel pipe piles
In steel pipe piles which have a thin wall thickness relative to the pile diameter, as in large diameter piles, there
is a danger of local buckling due to axial loading.
There is no danger that buckling will occur during pile driving provided the impact stress is less than the
yield stress of the steel pile.134) Kishida and Takano proposed equation (2.4.57) to express the effect of wall
thickness on yield stress.
(2.4.57)
where
σpy : yield stress of steel pile considering effect of wall thickness (kN/m 2)
σy : yield stress of steel pile against static load (kN/m 2)
– 474 –
2.5 Settlement of Foundations

2.5.1 Ground Stress
(1) It is preferable that the stress induced in a ground due to load on a foundation is estimated by assuming that the
ground is an elastic body. However, for uniformly distributed load, the stress in the ground may be estimated by
simply assuming that the stress disperses linearly with depth.
(2) When a structure built on the ground which has a sufficient margin of safety factor against shear failure, the
stress distribution in the ground can be rationally approximated by assuming the ground to be an elastic body.
The elastic solution obtained by Boussinesq is commonly used in calculation of stress distribution in a ground.
Boussinesq’s solution is based on the case that a vertical concentrated load acts on the surface of an isotropic
and homogeneous semi-infinite elastic body. By superposing this solution, it is possible to calculate the stress
distribution in the ground when a line load or spatially-distributed load acts on the ground surface. In addition
to this elastic solution, the Koegler method that assumes the stress to disperse linearly with depth can be used for
estimating the stress in the ground when a strip load or a rectangular load acts on the ground.137)
2.5.2 Immediate Settlement
(1) In estimation of immediate settlement, it is preferable to apply the theory of elasticity by appropriately setting the
modulus of elasticity of the ground.
(2) Immediate settlement, unlike consolidation settlement, which will be described in the following, is caused by
shear deformation and occurs simultaneously with loading. Because sandy ground does not undergo long-term
consolidation settlement like that in cohesive soil ground, immediate settlement in sandy ground, as described
here, can be considered to be total settlement. On the other hand, the immediate settlement of cohesive soil
ground is a phenomenon which is caused by settlement due to undrained shear deformation and plastic flow in the
lateral direction. In soft cohesive soil ground, there are cases in which immediate settlement may be ignored in
performance verification because it is smaller than the consolidation settlement described below.
In calculations of immediate settlement, the ground is usually assumed to be an elastic body, and the theory
of elasticity and the modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio v are used. As the modulus of elasticity of soil
varies greatly depending on the strain level, it is important to make calculations using a modulus of elasticity that
corresponds to the actual strain level. For example, the strain in soft ground with a small safety factor is on the
order of 0.5% to 1.5%, while that in excavation of hard ground and deformation of foundations is no more than
0.1%. The relationship between the strain level and the elastic modulus shall follow Part II, Chapter 3, 2.3.1
Elastic Constants.
2.5.3 Consolidation Settlement
(1) Settlements of foundations that are caused by consolidation of ground shall be examined in accordance with the
procedures described in Part II, Chapter 3,2.3.2 Compression and Consolidation Characteristics. Design
parameters for the ground is necessary to be determined by using an appropriate method based on the results of
consolidation tests.
(2) Calculations of settlements due to consolidation can be performed based on the results of consolidation tests on
undisturbed samples of cohesive soils. The final consolidation settlement, which is the amount of settlement
when consolidation caused by a load has finally completed, is determined by the compressibility properties of
the soil skeleton, and can be estimated directly from the results of consolidation tests. Time-dependent changes
in settlement up to the final consolidation settlement of a foundation are necessary to be calculated based on the
theory of consolidation.
(3) Calculation Methods of Final Consolidation Settlement of Foundation
Final consolidation settlement of foundation can be calculated by using the following equations described in
Part II, Chapter 3,2.3.2 Compression and Consolidation Characteristics.
① When using e-logp curve:
(2.5.1)
where
S : final consolidation settlement due to pressure increment Δp (m)
h : layer thickness (m)
Δe : change in void ratio for pressure increment Δp
– 475 –
e0 : initial void ratio
② When obtained from Cc:
Application of this method is limited mainly to the cases in which consolidation of the normal consolidation
area is considered.
(2.5.2)
where
Cc : compression index
e0 : initial void ratio
p0 : overburden pressure (kN/m 2)
Δp : pressure increment (kN/m 2)
③ when obtained from mv:
Application of this method is limited to cases in which the increment of consolidation pressure is sufficiently
small that mv can be considered constant.
(2.5.3)
where
mv : coefficient of volume compressibility when consolidation load is (m2/kN)
p0 : overburden pressure (kN/m 2)
Δp : pressure increment (kN/m 2)
(4) Calculation Method of Time-Settlement Relationship
The rate of consolidation settlement is calculated from the relationship between the average degree of consolidation
U and the time factor T that is obtained from Terzaghi’s consolidation theory, where the dissipation of excess
pore water pressure is expressed as a partial differential equation of thermal conductivity type. The amount of
settlement s(t) at a given time t can be calculated from the average degree of consolidation U(t) by the following
equation:
(2.5.4)
The finite element analysis with visco-elasto-plasticity model for cohesive soil can be utilized for accurate
analysis of the consolidation settlement that takes account of inhomogeneity on consolidation properties of the
ground, the effect of self weight of cohesive soil layer and time-related changes in consolidation load.
(5) Division of Cohesive Soil Layer subject to Consolidation
When calculating the final consolidation settlement, the cohesive soil layer is usually divided into a number
of sub-layers as shown in Fig. 2.5.1. This is because the consolidation pressure and the coefficient of volume
compressibility mv vary with depth. With the mv method, the final consolidation settlement of foundation may be
calculated using equation (2.5.5).
(2.5.5)

where
S0 : final consolidation settlement (m)
∆σz : increments of consolidation pressure at the center of a sub-layer (kN/m2)
mv : coefficient of volume compressibility for the consolidation pressure at the center of each sub-
layer equal to , (m 2/kN)
where σz0 is the effective overburden pressure at the center of a sub-layer before consolidation
∆h : thickness of a sub-layer in the consolidated layer (m)
– 476 –
ΔσZ mv
Z1
Δh1
Z Z2
ΔσZ1 mv1
Z Z
Fig. 2.5.1 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement
Since mv and ∆σz generally decrease with depth, the compression in each sub-layer becomes smaller as the
depth increases. The thickness of sub-layer Δh is usually set at 3 to 5 m. It should be noted that the consolidation
settlement of soft cohesive soil will be underestimated when Δh is taken too large, because the value of mν of the
surface layer is very large and it governs the total settlement.
The increment of consolidation pressure ∆σz is calculated at the center of each sub-layer using the vertical stress
distribution with depth, which is described in 2.5.1 Ground Stress. The term ∆σz is the increment in vertical
stress due to loading. In the natural ground, it is usually assumed that consolidation due to the existing overburden
pressure has completely finished.
Although the distribution of subgrade reaction at the bottom of foundation is not the same as that of the acting
load due to the rigidity of foundation, the rigid foundation settles unifomly and the stress distribution of subsoil at
a certain depth becomes irrelevant to the distribution of reaction immediately below the foundation bottom.
(6) Vertical Coefficient of Consolidation cv and Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation ch
When pore water of ground flows vertically during consolidation, the vertical coefficient of consolidation cv is
used. But when vertical drains are installed, drained water of ground flows mainly to the horizontal direction and
the horizontal coefficient of consolidation ch should be used. The value of ch obtained from experiments on the
clay in Japanese port areas ranges from 1.0 to 2.0 times the value of cv.140) However, in performance verification ch
≒ cv is acceptable when considering a decrease in ch due to disturbance caused by installation of vertical drains,
inhomogeneous consolidation properties in the ground, and others.
(7) Coefficient of Consolidation cv of Overconsolidated Clay 141)
The coefficient of consolidation of cohesive soil in overcosolidated state is generally larger than that in normally
consolidated state. When the cohesive soil seems to be clearly in over consolidated state, the value of cv used
for performance verification should be the one at the mean consolidation pressure between the existing effective
overburden pressure and the final pressure after consolidation. However, rather than simply calculating cv at
the mean consolidation pressure, it would be better to determine a weighted mean value of cv considering the
settlement.
(8) Rate of Consolidation Settlement in Inhomogeneous Ground
When the ground consists of alternate layers with different cv values, the rate of consolidation settlement is
analyzed using the equivalent-thickness method 142) or numerical analysis such as the finite difference method 143)
or the finite element method.144), 145), 146) The equivalent-thickness method is used as a simplified method, but
it sometimes yields significant errors. When the ground is inhomogenous to a large extent or when accurate
estimation is required, it is recommended to use the finite element method.
(9) Settlement due to Secondary Consolidation
The shape of the settlement - time curve in long-term consolidation tests on cohesive soil is consistent with
Terzaghi’s consolidation theory up to the degree of consolidation of around 80%. When the consolidation passes
this level, the settlement increases linearly with logarithm of time. This is due to the secondary consolidation
that arises with the time-dependent properties of soil skeleton under consolidation load, beside the primary
consolidation that causes the settlement accompanying dissipation of excess pore water pressure induced in the
cohesive soil due to consolidation load.
The settlement due to secondary consolidation is particularly significant in peat and other organic soils. In
ordinary alluvial clay layers, the consolidation pressure caused by loading is often several times greater than the
consolidation yield stress of the subsoil. Under such conditions, the settlement due to secondary consolidation is
smaller than that due to the primary consolidation, and is not significant in the performance verification. But when
the consolidation pressure acting on the ground due to loading does not greatly exceed consolidation yield stress,
the settlement due to secondary consolidation tends to continue over a long time, even though the settlement due
to primary consolidation may be small. In this case, the secondary consolidation settlement must be fully taken
into account in the performance verification.
– 477 –
The settlement due to secondary consolidation may be generally calculated using the following equation:
(2.5.6)
where
Ss : settlement due to secondary consolidation (m)
Cα : coefficient of secondary compression
t : time (d)
t0 : start time of secondary consolidation (d)
h : clay layer thickness (m)
The coefficient of secondary compression is obtained from conventional consolidation tests. It can also be
estimated from the relationship between and the compression index Cc that is generally expressed in the following
equation 147)
(2.5.7)

2.5.4 Lateral Displacement
(1) In quaywalls or seawalls constructed on soft cohesive ground, countermeasures are preferable when lateral
displacements due to shear deformation of the ground have an adverse effect on structures.
(2) In quaywalls or seawalls on soft ground, there are cases in which it is necessary to estimate lateral displacements
caused by shear deformation of the ground. Lateral displacements include displacement accompanying immediate
settlement occurring immediately after loading, and displacement which occurs continuously over time thereafter.
In cases where the imposed load is significantly smaller than the ultimate resistance of the ground, lateral
displacement accompanying immediate settlement can be predicted by analyzing the ground as an elastic body.
(3) A frequent problem with soft ground is lateral displacements occurring as a combination of consolidation and
creep deformation due to shear when the ratio of the resistance of the ground as a whole to the moment due to
actions is low, being on the order of 1.3. A method of predicting whether this kind of lateral displacement will
occur or not using a simple constant based on past experience has been proposed.148) When making a more
detailed analysis, computer programs which obtain changes over time in settlement and lateral displacement
by finite element analysis are widely used, applying an elasto-plastic model or an elasto-viscoplastic model to
cohesive soil ground. Because the importance of lateral displacement differs greatly depending on the functions
of the facilities, it is necessary to select an appropriate calculation method considering these functions.
2.5.5 Differential Settlements
(1) When constructing structures on a soft cohesive ground, uneven settlements of the ground shall be taken into
account and appropriate countermeasures are preferable when uneven settlements have an adverse effect on
structures.
(2) A simplified method is proposed for estimating uneven settlement in reclaimed land in port areas. This method
classifies the ground of reclaimed land into the following four types;
① Extremely inhomogeneous ground
② Inhomogeneous ground
③ Ordinary ground
④ Homogeneous ground
Fig. 2.5.2 shows the mean uneven settlement ratios for each type of ground. The uneven settlement ratio
means the ratio of the difference in the average settlement occurring between two arbitrary points to the total
settlement. For example, because the mean uneven settlement ratio for two points separated by a distance of 50m
in ground of type (b) is 0.11, when settlement of x cm occurs from a certain reference time, the average uneven
settlement occurring in the distance of 50m can be calculated as 0.11x. When applying this method to actual
problems, it is preferable to correct the values in Fig. 2.5.2 for the reference time and the depth of the ground
which is the object to settlement.150), 151)
– 478 –
0.5 Extremely inhomogeneous ground

Inhomogeneous ground
Ordinary ground
0.4
Mean uneven settlement ratio

Homogeneous ground
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 50 100
Distance between 2 points
Fig. 2.5.2 Relationship between Distance and Uneven Settlement Ratio in Reclaimed Land
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105) Kikuchi, T., T. Kamii, Y. Mori and S. Kagaya : Horizontal bearing capacity of group piles and the spacing, Proceedings of
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108) Poulos, H. G.: Behavior of laterally-loaded piles, II-pile groups, Proc., A.S.C.E., Vol.97, No. SM 5., 1971, pp.733 751
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114) Kikuchi, Y., K. Takahashi and M. Suzuki: Experimental Study on People’s Safety against Overtopping Waves on Breakwaters-
A study on Amenity-oriented Port Structures (2nd Rept.)-, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 33-60, 1992
115) Shinohara, T. and K. Kubo: Experimental study on lateral bearing capacity of piles (Part 1), Technical Research Institute of
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129) Uto, K., M. Fuyuki and M. Sakurai: Review of monitoring formulae of pile driving depth, Proceedings of 17th Conference
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130) Yokoyama, Y.: Design of steel piles and construction, Sankai-do Publishing, pp.188-196,1963
131) Kato, T.: Experiment on plastic local buckling of steel pipe piles, Proceedings of Technical Conference of Architectual
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136) Architectual Institute of Japan: Guideline for design of architectural foundation, 2001
137) Akai, K.: Bearing Capacity and settlement of soil, Sankai-do Publishing, 1964
138) Ishii, Y.: Tschbotarioff Soil Mechanics, (Vil. 1)Gihoi-do Publishing, p.212,1957
139) J. O. Osterburg: Influence values for vertical stresses in a semi-infinite mass due to an embankment loading, Proc. 4th. Int.
Conf. S.M.F.E., Vol.2, 1957
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5, pp.1-30,1964
144) Kobayashi, M.: Numerical Analysis of One-Dimensional Consolidation Problems, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 21, No.1, 1982
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147) Mesri, G.: Coefficient of secondary compression, Proc. A.S.C.E, Vol.99, SM1, pp.123-137, 1973
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Rept. of PHRI Vol. 20, No. 3, 1981
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– 483 –
3 Stability of Slopes
3.1 General
(1) Stability of slopes against slip failure caused by self weight of soil or surcharge may be analyzed as a two-
dimensional problem, assuming a circular arc slip surface or a straight sliding surface.
(2) It is necessary to perform slope stability analysis for the case in which a slope becomes least stable.
(3) In slope stability analysis, in cases where the stability of the soil mass comprising a slope is reduced by the self
weight of the soil or surcharge, as the ultimate equilibrium state, it is necessary to confirm that the design value of
shearing resistance exceeds the design value of shearing force based on actions. Calculation methods used in the
slope stability analysis can also be used to calculate the bearing capacity of foundations, in addition to the stability
of slopes, as these calculation methods are used to examine the stability of soil masses. The method described
below can be used in verification of stability against variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground
motion in addition to the Permanent situation.
(4) Shapes of Slip Surface
① Types of shapes of slip surfaces
Theoretically, shapes of slip surfaces in slope stability analysis are combinations of linear, logarithmic spiral,
and/or circular arc shapes 1). In practice, however, linear or circular arc slip surfaces are assumed. When there
is a particularly weak layer and a slip surface is expected to pass over it, that slip surface or other appropriate
slip surfaces may sometimes be assumed. An assumed slip surface in general should be the one along which
the slip of the soil mass smoothly takes place. Thus, a slip surface with sharp bends or curves that seems to be
kinematically unnatural should not be used.
② Slip failure of slope on sandy soil ground
Slip failure of slopes of dry sand or saturated sand usually takes a form in which the slope collapses, and as
a result, its inclination decreases. Therefore, it is more appropriate to consider a slope of these types as a
straight sliding surface than as a circular slip failure surface. Even when considering a circular slip failure
surface, the form is close to a straight line passing through the vicinity of the surface layer. The inclination of
a sandy slope when the slope is in a state of equilibrium is termed the angle of repose. This angle of repose is
equivalent to the angle of shear resistance, which corresponds to the void ratio of the sand comprising the slope.
In the case of unsaturated sand, the slope possesses apparent cohesion resistance caused by the suction due to
the surface tension of the water in the sand. As a result, its angle of repose is far larger than in the cases of
dry sand and saturated sand. However, saturation may increase due to infiltration of rainwater or a rise in the
groundwater level, causing a sudden decrease in apparent cohesion resistance, or angle of repose. Therefore,
adequate consideration is necessary.
③ Slope failure of cohesive soil ground
The actual slip failure surface of cohesive soil ground is close to a circular arc, and a deep slip called the base
failure often takes place, while a shallow slip appears near the surface layer in sandy slope.
Slope stability analysis is usually treated as a two-dimensional problem. Although actual slip surface in
slopes with long extention takes the form of three-dimensional curved surfaces, a two dimensional analysis
gives a solution on the safer side. When the stability is expected to decrease due to surcharge over a finite
extention, however, the resistance of both sides of a cylindrical failure surface may be taken into account.
(5) Actions in Slope Stability Analysis
Important causes of slip failures are self weight of soil, surcharge, water pressure and others. Beside them,
repeated actions such as seismic force, wave force, and others may be included. Resistance against the slip is
given by shear resistance of soil and counter weight.
Because the shear strength of soil is related with time, the stability problems on soil mass are classified into two
cases; loading on the ground in normally consolidated state, and unloading by excavation. The former is referred
to as a short-period stability problem and the latter a long-period. It is preferable to use shear strength appropriate
to each case (see Part II, Chapter 3, 2.3.3 Shear Characteristics).
(6) Stability verification in slope stability problems can be performed by confirming that the ratio of the shear
strength of soil to the shear stress in an assumed slip surface is greater than 1.0. The value of the obtained
ratio will differ depending on the assumed slip surface. However, the result with the smallest ratio of “shearing
resistance”/”shearing force” among the shearing resistance and shearing force obtained assuming several slip
surfaces based on the given conditions shall be regarded as the limit state for slip failure of the slope under study.
– 484 –
(7) Partial Factors
In examination of the stability of slopes, the partial factors for each structural type of facilities or partial factors
by type of improved soil can generally be used. In performance verification of structural types and embankments
for which no partial factors are particularly specified, the values shown in this section can be used. The parts to
be referenced on partial factors are as shown in Table 3.1.1. Because the position of the slip surface will differ
depending on how the partial factors for the soil parameter and the analysis method are determined, caution is
necessary when the range of soil improvement is to be determined based on the stability verification. For example,
if the partial factor of the soil parameter of the resistance side is set small, the range of slip failure, which is the
limit state, will be narrow. This means that the necessary range of soil improvement will be underestimated.
Table 3.1.1 Parts to be Referenced on Partial Factors for Use in Verification of Slip Failure
Applicable facilities for

Parts to be referenced Applicable facilities
partial factors
Composite breakwater Chapter 4 Protective Facilities for Harbors Upright breakwater, sloping caisson breakwater,
3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Composite upright wave-dissipating block type breakwater,
Breakwaters), Table 3.1.1 wave-dissipating caisson type breakwater
Breakwater armored with Chapter 4 Protective Facilities for Harbors Sloping top caisson breakwater armored with
wave-dissipating blocks 3.4 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Breakwaters wave-dissipating blocks
Covered with Wave-dissipating Blocks),
Table 3.4.1
Gravity-type quaywall Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities Gravity-type revetment, placement-type
2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls, Table 2.2.2 cellular-bulkhead quaywall
Sheet pile quaywall Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities Sheet pile revetment, cantilevered sheet pile
2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls, Table 2.3.3 quaywall
SCP improved soil Chapter 2, 4 Soil Improvement Methods Gravity-type quaywall or sheet pile quaywall
4.10 Sand Compaction Pile Method for applying SCP improvement
Cohesive Soil Ground, Table 4.10.2
Others In accordance with this section (3 Stability of Sloping breakwater and other similar facilities
Slopes)
– 485 –
3.2 Examination of Stability

3.2.1 Stability Analysis by Circular Slip Failure Surface
(1) Examination of the stability of slopes can be performed by circular slip failure analysis with the modified Fellenius
method, which is given by the following equation, or by an appropriate method equivalent to the bearing force
in 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions, depending on the characteristics of the ground.
In equation (3.2.1), the partial factor γa for the analysis method should be an appropriate value corresponding to
the characteristics of the ground and characteristics of the facilities. In general, γa can be set at 1.30 or higher for
permanent situations, but in cases where the reliability of the constants used in verification can be considered high
based on actual data for the same ground, and in cases where monitoring work is carried out by observing the
displacement and stress of the ground during construction, values from of larger than 1.10 and less than 1.30 can
be used.2) In cases where partial factors are given for the structural type of the facilities or by type of improved
soil, as shown in 3.1(7) Partial Factors, the partial factors given at the objective parts shall be used.
(3.2.1)

where
R : radius of circular slip failure (m)
cd : in case of cohesion soil ground, design value of undrained shear strength, and in case of sandy
l : length of bottom of slice segment (m)
W’d : design value of effective weight of slice segment per unit of length (weight of soil. When
submerged, unit weight in water) (kN/m)
qd : design value of vertical action from top of slice segment (kN/m)
θ : angle of bottom of slice segment to horizontal (º)
φd : in case of cohesion soil ground, 0, and in case of sandy ground, design value of angle of shear
resistance in drained condition (º)
Wd : design value of total weight of slice segment per unit of length, total weight of soil and water
(kN/m)
x : horizontal distance between center of gravity of slice segment and center of circular slip failure
(m)
PHd : design value of horizontal action on soil mass of slice segment in circular slip (kN/m)
a : length of arm from center of circular slip failure at position of action of PHd (m)
S : width of slice segment (m)
γa : partial factor for analysis method
The design values in equation (3.2.1) can be calculated using the following equation by multiplying the
characteristic value by the partial factor. If partial factors are not particularly designated, 1.00 can be used for all
partial factors in equation (3.2.2).
cd = γc ck ,W'd = γW' W'k ,qd = γq qk ,φd = tan–1(γtanφ tanφk),PHd = γPH PHk (3.2.2)
(2) In slope stability analysis, the causes of slip failure include the self weight of the soil, surcharge, water pressure,
wave pressure, and action due to ground motion. Elements which resist slip failure include the shearing resistance
of the soil and counterweight. Verification of safety against slip failure of slopes is performed assuming that the
shearing resistance of the soil exceeds the shearing force in the assumed slip surface. When assuming a circular
slip failure surface, this is equivalent to verifying that the moments which work to resist slip exceed the moments
which cause slip for the center of the circle.
(3) In the slice method used in circular slip failure surfaces, the soil mass inside the slip circle is divided into a number
of slices by vertical planes, the shearing force at the bottom surface of each slice and the resistant stress of the
soil are calculated considering the balance of forces in each slice. The fact that the design value of the shearing
resistance obtained by adding the stresses for all of the slices exceeds the design value of the shearing force along
the slip line is then verified. In order to solve the inter-slice balance of forces in the slice method, it is necessary
to assume statically the determinate conditions. Various methods have been proposed, which vary depending on
the assumptions used. In general, the modified Fellenius method and the simplified Bishop method are used.
– 486 –
(4) Stability Analysis Method using Modified Fellenius Method 1), 3), 4)
Various calculation methods have been proposed for the slice method, depending on how the forces acting on the
vertical planes between the slices are assumed. The modified Fellenius method assumes that the direction of the
resultant force acting on vertical planes between slices is parallel to the base of the slices. This method is also
referred to as the simplified method or Tschbotarioff method. When a circular arc and a slice are as shown in Fig.
3.2.1, equation (3.2.1) according to the modified Fellenius method is applicable. In performing slope stability
analysis, first, the center of the slip circle is assumed. Of the slip circles that take this point as their center, the
one with the smallest ratio expressed by “the design value of shearing resistance”/”design value of shearing force
based on loading” is obtained, and its value is used as the minimum ratio for that center point. The minimum ratio
of “design value of shearing resistance”/”design value of shearing force” for other center points is then obtained by
the same method. Verification can be performed for the limit state for slip failure of the slope using the minimum
value of the minimum ratios obtained by the contour for the minimum ratios.
Fig.3.2.1 Circular Slip Failure Analysis using Modified Fellenius Method
(5) Stability Analysis by Bishop Method 3), 5)

Bishop 5) proposes an equation which considers the vertical shearing force and horizontal force acting in the
vertical plane of a slice. In actual calculations, a calculation method which assumes that the vertical shearing
forces are in balance is often used. This method is called the simplified Bishop method. In the simplified Bishop
method, γFf Ff is calculated based on equation (3.2.3), 5) and stability can be verified by the verification parameter
Ff ≥1. In this equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d are the
characteristic value and design value, respectively.
(3.2.3)
where
Ff : verification parameter
γFf : partial factor for analysis method
cd : in case of cohesion soil ground, design value of undrained shear strength, and in case of sandy
S : width of slice segment (m)
W’d : design value of effective weight of slice segment per unit of length (weight of soil. When
submerged, unit weight in water) (kN/m)
ød : in case of cohesion soil ground, 0, and in case of sandy ground, design value of angle of shear
resistance in drained condition (º)
qd : design value of vertical action from top of slice segment (kN/m)
Wd : design value of total weight of slice segment per unit of length, total weight of soil and water
(kN/m)
PHd : design value of horizontal action on soil mass of slice segment in circular slip (kN/m)
a : length of arm from center of circular slip failure at position of action of PHd (m)
R : radius of circular slip failure (m)
– 487 –
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equation by multiplying the
characteristic value by the partial factor. Provided, however, that Wd shall be expressed by the sum of W’d and the
weight of water, because it is not necessary to multiply the weight of water by a partial factor. If partial factors are
not particularly designated, 1.00 can be used for all partial factors in equation (3.2.4).
cd = γc ck ,W'd = γW' W'k ,qd = γq qk ,φd = tan–1(γtanφ' tanφk ),PHd = γPH PHk (3.2.4)
(6) Applicability of Stability Analysis Methods 6), 7)

Solutions in stability analysis by the modified Fellenius method and the simplified Bishop method are in agreement
for cohesive soil in which φ = 0, when all partial factor are 1.00, but differ when the circular arc passes through
sandy ground. In Japan, circular slip failure analysis by the modified Fellenius method is widely used. This is
because it has been reported that the modified Fellenius method reasonably explains the actual behaviors of slope
failure based on the results of analysis of case histories of slip failures in port areas in Japan, 4) and also gives a
safety side solution for sandy ground.
However, when the foundation ground consists entirely of sandy soil layers, or when a slip circle cuts through
ground consisting of an upper thick sandy layer and lower cohesive soil layer, it is known that the modified
Fellenius method underestimates stability evaluated by the ratio expressed by the design value of shearing
resistance/design value based on actions.7) From the viewpoint of the basic principles of the stability calculation
method, the simplified Bishop method is more accurate under such conditions. Therefore, the simplified Bishop
method is generally used in case of eccentric and inclined loads, which are particularly a problem when examining
the bearing capacity of mounds (see 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions). It should be
noted that the simplified Bishop method has the problem of overestimating the ratio expressed by “design value of
shearing resistance” / “design value of shearing forces based on actions” when actions on near-horizontal sandy
ground apply vertical loads. In such cases, a method of stability calculation can be used which assumes that the
ratio of the vertical to the horizontal forces between slices is 1/3.5 of the angle of slice inclination.8) In stability
verification in this case, calculations are made using the following equation. In this equation, the symbol γ is the
partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d are the characteristic value and design value, respectively.
n
(3.2.5)
Based on equation (3.2.5), γFf Ff is calculated, and stability can be verified by the verification parameter Ff ≥1.
The design values in this equation can be calculated using the following equation. Provided, however, that Wd
shall be expressed by the sum of W’d and the weight of water, because it is not necessary to multiply the weight of
water by a partial factor. If partial factors are not particularly designated, 1.00 can be used for all partial factors
in equation (3.2.6).
cd =γc ck ,W'd =γW' W'k ,qd =γq qk ,φd =tan–1(γtanφ tanφk),PHd = γPH PHk (3.2.6)

where n = 1 + tanθ tan (βθ), β is a parameter which provides the ratio of the vertical force to the horizontal
force acting on the sides of the slice, and can be assumed to be β = 1/3.5. The other symbols are the same as those
3.2.2 Stability Analysis Assuming Slip Surfaces other than Circular Slip Surface
(1) Despite the provisions stated in the previous sections, a linear or a compounded slip surface shall be assumed
in stability analysis when it is more appropriate to assume a slip surface other than a circular arc slip surfaces
according to the ground conditions.
(2) When linear slip is assumed, examination of stability against slip failure of a slope with a straight sliding surface
is calculated using the following equation.
(3.2.7)
where
cd : design value of cohesion of soil (kN/m 2)
φd : design value of angle of shearing resistance of soil (º)
l : length of base of slice (m)
W'd : design value of effective weight of slice per unit of length (kN/m)
– 488 –
Wd : design value of total weight of slice per unit of length (kN/m)
θ : inclination of base of slice, assumed to be positive in the case shown in Fig. 3.2.2 (º)
PHd : design value of horizontal action per unit of length applied to slice segment of slope, actions
include water pressure, actions due to waves and actions due to ground motion (kN/m)
γa : partial factor for analysis method
The partial factor γR for the analysis method for slip failure can be ≧1.2 in the permanent situation and ≧1.00
for variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion.
The design values in this equation can be calculated using the following equation. Provided, however, that Wd
shall be expressed by the sum of W’d and the weight of water, because it is not necessary to multiply the weight of
water by a partial factor. If partial factors are not particularly designated, 1.00 can be used for all partial factors
cd = γc ck ,W'd = γW' W'k ,φd =tan–1(γtanφ tanφk), PHd = γPH PHk (3.2.8)
Fig. 3.2.2 Examination of Slope Stability Analysis using Linear Sliding Surface
References
1) R.F, Scott: Principle of Soil mechanics, Addison Wesley, p.431, 1972
2) Tsuchida, T.and TANG Yi Xin: The Optimum Safety Factor for Stability Analyses of Harbour Structures by Use of the
Circular Arc Slip Method, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 5、No. 1、pp. 117-146, 1996
3) Yamaguchi, K.: Soil Mechanics (Fully Revised Edition)Chapter 7, Stability analysis of earth structure, Giho-do Publishing,
pp.197-223, 1969
4) Nakase, A.：The φ =0 analysis of stability and unconfined compression strength, Siol and Foundation, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp.33-50,
1967
5) A.W. Bishop: The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of slopes, Geotechnique, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.7-17. 1955
6) Nomura, K., T. Hayafuji and F. Nagatomo: Comparison between Bishop’s method and Tschebotarioff’s method in slope
stability analysis, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 7 No. 4, pp.133-175, 1968
7) Kobayashi, M.: Outstanding issues in stability analysis of ground, Proceedings of Annual Conference of PHRI 1976, pp.73-
93, 1976
8) Tsuchida, T., M. Kobayashi and T. Fukuhara: Calculation method for bearing capacity by circular slip analysis utilizing slice
method, Proceedings of 33rd Conference on Geotechnical Engineering, pp.1371-1372, 1998
– 489 –
4 Soil Improvement Methods

4.1 General
When carrying out soil improvement as a countermeasure against possible failures of soft ground, an appropriate
method shall be selected in view of the characteristics of foundation subsoil, type and scale of structure, ease and
period of construction, economic factors and influence on the environment.
4.2 Liquefaction Countermeasure Works
In carrying out liquefaction countermeasure works, it is preferable to conduct an appropriate examination of the
following items in order to maintain the functions of the facilities.
① Method of countermeasure works
② Scope of execution of countermeasure works (execution area and depth)
③ Concrete performance verification of countermeasure works
4.3 Replacement Methods
(1) In the performance verification of the replacement method, it is necessary to consider stability against circular slip
failure, settlement of subsoil, and constructability of replacement.
(2) Replacement methods can be divided into two methods including the replacement of subsoil by excavation
(foundation replacement by excavation) and the forced replacement. In the replacement of subsoil by excavation
method, soft soil is excavated and removed by a suction dredger or a grab dredger and replaced by filling with
good quality soil. This method is widely used in offshore works. On the other hand, the forced replacement
method is a method in which soft soil is forcibly pushed out by embankment load, sand compaction piles, blasting,
or other methods, and is then replaced with good quality soil.39)
(3) The following presents the performance verification method for the replacement of subsoil by excavation
(foundation replacement by excavation), which is widely used in offshore works.
① Procedure of performance verification
In the performance verification of the replacement methods, as shown in Fig. 4.3.1, it is generally preferable to
carry out the performance verification by a procedure of assumption of the verification conditions, assumption
of the verification cross section including replacement depth, replacement width, and slope of excavation,
examination of circular slip failure, examination of settlement, and selection of the replaced sand. Although not
shown in Fig. 4.3.1, it is also necessary to examine the possibility of liquefaction of the replaced sand and the
evaluation of the effect thereof.
Assumption of cross-sectional dimensions
Permanent state
Examination of circular slip failure
Examination of settlement
Selection of replaced sand
Fig. 4.3.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Replacement Method
– 490 –
② Examination of slip failure

In the examination of slip failure by circular slip failure calculations, 3 Stability of Slopes can be used as
a reference. For partial factors, related provisions in Part III of this Technical Standard can be used as a
reference, as necessary.
In calculating the earth pressure on sheet piles or anchorage works inside the replaced section, it is preferable
to conduct an examination of the composite slip in addition to the conventional earth pressure calculations. In
cases where the entire layer is to be replaced and the base rock stratum is inclined, it is preferable to conduct an
examination for a composite slip which includes slip failure on the base rock.
③ Examination of settlement
When cohesive soil remains beneath the replaced cross section, such as beneath partial replacement or the slope
of foundation excavation, consolidation settlement can be expected in the cohesive soil portion. Therefore, it is
preferable to conduct an examination of the effect of this consolidation settlement on the superstructure.
④ Selection of replaced sand
It is preferable that the replaced sand has a good grain size distribution and has a low content of silt content. In
general, the ratio of fines content is frequently specified as no more than 15%. The angle of shear resistance of
replaced sand can generally be assumed to be around 30º. However, this value is affected by the particle size,
size distribution, placement method, sequence of placement, elapsed time, surcharge, and other factors. There
is a case where the angle of shear resistance is extremely low, and therefore caution is necessary.
⑤ Examination of Liquefaction
Liquefaction is generally assessed based on the grain size distribution and the N-values of the replaced sand.
When difficult to evaluate, the liquefaction should be examined by cyclic triaxial test 41) (see Part II, Chapter
6 Ground Liquefaction). When liquefaction is one of critical factors in the determination of the replacement
section and the characteristics of the replacement sand, it should be considered at selecting the replaced material.
If in sufficient strength of the replaced sand is expected, it is preferable to compact the replaced sand after filling.
⑥ The N-values of the replaced sand are affected by its grain size and grain size distribution, placement method
and sequence of placement, elapsed time and surcharge. According to some case studies, the N-values of
the replaced sand were around 10 when sand was instantaneously placed in large volume from large-capacity
hopper barges with bottom doors, around 5 when sand was placed by grab buckets from sand carriers, and even
smaller values when sand was spread by suction dredger. Several case studies show that the N-values of the
loose replaced sand increased with the application of surcharge and the elapsed time after placing the replaced
sand or rubble stones or placing caisson.
– 491 –
4.4 Vertical Drain Method

(1) In the vertical drain method, it is necessary to secure the following performance corresponding to the purposes of
improvement.
① Assure targeted strength increase.
② Assure that residual settlement should be within the allowable value.
③ Secure the necessary stability of the facilities.
(2) An example of the performance verification procedure for the vertical drain method is shown in Fig. 4.4.1.
Bearing
capacity Assumption of target strength increase
of ground
Allowable Assumption of necessary Assumption of section

settlement consolidation load to be improved
Assumption of height, weight,

and shape of embankment
Construction Verification of stability

period against circular slip failure
Determination of embankment
height and consolidation period in
each stage of construction
Verification of stability against

circular slip failure
Determination of embankment
width and shape
in each stage of construction
Determination of type,
diameter, and spacing of drains
Comparison of economy
Fig. 4.4.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Vertical Drain Method
(1) Determination of Height and Width of Embankment

① Height and width of embankment necessary in soil improvement
(a) The height and width of the embankment when an embankment is to be used as consolidation load by the
preload method or surcharge method shall be determined considering the strength increase necessary for
stability of the embankment during and after construction, the stability and allowable settlement of the
facilities to be constructed, the effect on the surrounding area, and other relevant factors.
(b) It is preferable to set the top width of the embankment larger than the width required for soil improvement (see
Fig. 4.4.2).
– 492 –
Mean width
Fill top width h

(Fill)
H
Drain area
(Permeable layer)
Fig. 4.4.2 Width of Embankment for Vertical Drain Method
(c) In examination of the strength increase (Δc) of the original ground, equation (4.4.1) can be used.
(4.4.1)
where
Ca : target strength increase (kN/m 2)
h : height of embankment (m)
p0′ : initial pressure (vertical pressure before start of construction) (kN/m 2)
pc′ : preconsolidation pressure (kN/m 2)
U : degree of consolidation
α : coefficient of stress distribution, namely ratio of distributed stress in ground and consolidation
load (embankment load)
γ′ : effective unit weight of embankment (kN/m3)
Δc : strength increase (kN/m 2)
Δc/Δp: increase rate of strength
② Evaluation of stability of embankment

(a) It is necessary to verify the stability of embankments by circular slip failure analysis or other appropriate
methods for the height and width of the embankment determined by the above explanation of ① Height and
width of the embankment necessary in soil improvement. In cases where it is not possible to secure the
stability of the embankment itself, it is necessary to divide the final embankment into several stages and
perform verification of the stability in each of the embankment stages.
(b) Evaluation of stability of embankment against slip failure
In the examination of the stability of an embankment by circular slip failure calculations, 3 Stability of
Slopes can be used as a reference. For the partial factors to be used in the calculations, the partial safety
factors for the circular slip failure calculations in connection with respective facilities can be used. In this
case, the strength of the ground must consider the strength increase calculated by equation (4.4.1).
(c) Rough estimation of strength increase
Since surcharge is usually applied in several stages in the vertical drain method, the degree of consolidation U
to be used in equations (4.4.1) and (4.4.2) differs at each surcharge stage. However, strength increment may
often be calculated by assuming a uniform degree of consolidation of approximately 80%.
(2) Performance Verification of Drains
In the performance verification of drains, it is necessary to make calculations which consider the permeability
characteristics of the drain material, and permeability characteristics and thickness of the sand mat, in addition to
the drain interval, drain diameter, and drainage conditions at the top and bottom of the layer to be consolidated.
① Drains and sand mats
(a) Drains and sand mats shall possess the required drainage functions.
(b) Consolidation rate and drain diameter
The consolidation rate is approximately proportional to the drain diameter and inversely proportional to the
square of the drain interval. Generally, the amount of drain material can be reduced by placing small diameter
– 493 –
drains at small intervals rather than by placing large diameter drains at wide intervals. However, in the sand
drain method, use of sand piles with an excessively small diameter may result in clogging due to infiltration of
clayey particles, and there is a danger of breakage of the sand piles if the piles are unable to follow deformation
by loading or consolidation settlement during the consolidation period. Construction records of sand drain
method to date show that the most frequently used diameter is 40cm, and diameters normally range from
30-50cm. In the small diameter fabri-packed drain method,43) sand piles with a diameter of 12cm are packed
into synthetic fiber bags, and four sand piles are installed simultaneously using a lightweight pile driver. This
method is frequently used with extremely soft subsoil on land. A fabri-packed drain method with a diameter
of the order of 40cm has also been developed for improvement of extremely soft subsoil at the sea bottom.44),
45)
(c) Materials for sand piles

Sand used for sand piles should have high permeability as well as a suitable grain size to prevent clogging with
clayey particles. The grain size distributions of sand used in works are shown in Fig. 4.4.3. However, cases
in which sand with a somewhat higher fines content is used have also increased in recent years.
Silt Fine sand Coarse sand Gravel

100
2
Passing weight percentage (%)
B
80
1
7 9
60
3
4
11 1 12 Examples in Japan
40 10
A A B New York
8 5
20 6
12
0
0.1 1 10
Grain size(mm)
Fig. 4.4.3 Examples of Sand Used in Sand Piles
(d) Prefabricated drains and related materials

In the performance verification of the prefabrication drain type of strip-shaped drain, the width and thickness
of approximately 10cm and 5cm respectively, the object drain is converted to a circular drain having the same
circumferential length. In practical cases, however, the performance verification is conducted as equivalent
to a sand drain having a diameter of 5cm.42) Caution is necessary in cases where the drainage capacity of
the drain is low, as there is a time lag in consolidation at the end of the vertical drain (i.e., lower part of the
consolidation layer).
(e) Sand mats
The thickness of the sand mat layer is usually set to be approximately 1.0 m to 1.5 m for marine works and
0.5 m to 1.0 m for land works. A thick sand mat layer may cause difficulty in drain pile driving. On the other
hand, a thin sand mat layer may show reduced permeability due to infiltration of clayey particles. Where
the thickness of the sand mat layer is concerned, when the drainage capacity of the sand mat layer is low, a
delay in consolidation may occur due to head loss. In this case, it is preferable to improve permeability by
installing drainage pipes in the sand mat layer. In recent years, a method which does not require a sand mat
has been developed by connecting the excess lengths of drains in a grid-like shape to secure drainage paths
in the horizontal direction.50)
② Drain interval
(a) Interval of drain piles shall be so determined that the required degree of consolidation can be obtained in a
given construction period.
(b) General
The vertical drain method can be applied when the rate of consolidation by the preloading method, surcharge
method, vacuum consolidation method, or similar methods is slow considering the time constraints of the
construction period. Fig. 4.4.4 shows the relationship between the required consolidation time t80, drainage
– 494 –
distance H, and coefficient of consolidation cv of a clayey layer by the preloading method, surcharge method,
and vacuum consolidation method.
Note) In Fig. 4.4.4, the units used are consolidation time t80 (day), drainage distance H (m), and coefficient
of consolidation cv (cm 2/min).
10000
in 2
5000
/m
10years
1cm
0.006
0.1 8
0.03
0. 4
2
0.2
0 .4
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
cν =
5years
4years
3years
1000
2years
t 80 500
(d)
1year
U T/T80
6months 10% 0.013
20% 0.055
Permeable layer
100 30% 0.125
2H 40% 0.222
Clay
50 Permeable layer 50% 0.348
Permeable layer 60% 0.507
H 70% 0.711
Clay
80% 1.000
Impermeable layer
90% 1.497
10
1 5 10 50
H(m)
Fig. 4.4.4 Required Days for 80% Consolidation of Clay Layer
(c) Determination of drain Interval

The drain interval can be obtained from Fig. 4.4.5 and equation (4.4.3) based on the Barron theory or Bio
theory.51) It has been pointed out that consolidation may be delayed due to the effect of the smear, which means
the disturbance of cohesive soil ground by drain driving, if the drain interval is excessively small52), 53), 54), 55).
(4.4.3)
where
D : drain interval (cm)
β : factor related to arrangement of drains
with square arrangement, β= 0.886, and with a triangular arrangement, β = 0.952.
n : (n can be obtained from Fig. 4.4.5)
De : effective diameter of drain (cm)

Dw : diameter of drain (cm)
Th’ : parameter similar to time factor
cvh : coefficient of consolidation related to flow of water in horizontal direction (cm 2/min)
t : consolidation time (min)
Note) The unit used for time (t) in Fig. 4.4.5 and Fig. 4.4.6 is days.
– 495 –
Fig. 4.4.5 Calculation Chart for N-value
(d) Flow of water in vertical direction

In the vertical drain method, consolidation by flow of water in the horizontal direction is expected. However,
when the thickness of the layer to be consolidated is comparatively small in comparison with the interval
between the drains, progress of consolidation due to flow of water in the vertical direction cannot be ignored.
For the performance verification of the pile interval considering consolidation due to vertical flow of water,
Reference 49) can be used as a reference.
(e) Coefficient of consolidation in horizontal direction
No appropriate test method has been established for the coefficient of consolidation (cvh) for flow of water in
the horizontal direction of cohesive soil layers. In general, the coefficient of consolidation in the horizontal
direction is considered to be 5-10 times greater than that in the vertical direction, but some reports say that
they are equivalent. If the effects of head loss in the drains and the effect of smear are considered, it is
not necessarily advisable to use the results of consolidation tests which reproduce the flow of water in the
horizontal direction. According to examples of construction to date, there are no practical objections to
substitution of the coefficient of consolidation (cv) for flow of water in the horizontal direction of clayey soil
layers.
(f) Calculation of degree of consolidation
After determining the drain interval, the relationship between the degree of consolidation and elapsed time
can be obtained using equations (4.4.4) and (4.4.5) and Fig. 4.4.6.
(4.4.4)
(4.4.5)
where
Th : time factor of consolidation for flow of water in horizontal direction
cvh : coefficient of consolidation for flow of water in horizontal direction (cm 2/min)
t : elapsed time from start of consolidation (min)
De : effective diameter of drain area (cm)
Dw : diameter of drain (cm)
Note) In Fig. 4.4.6, the units used are coefficient of consolidation cvh (cm 2/min), effective diameter of drain
area De (cm), and elapsed time t (day).
– 496 –
Fig. 4.4.6 Calculation Chart for Degree of Consolidation
(g) Effective diameter of drain area

The effective diameter of drain area De is the diameter of an equivalent circle that has the same area as the
soil being drained by a sand pile. The relationship between De and interval of the drain pile D is as follows:
De = 1.128D for square grid pattern. (4.4.6)

De = 1.050D for equilateral triangular grid pattern. (4.4.7)
– 497 –
4.5 Deep Mixing Method

[1] Scope of Application
(1) The deep mixing method dealt with in this section is the one in which the soil in-situ is mixed mechanically with
cement.
(2) The majority of examples of application of soil improvement by the deep mixing method in ports are breakwaters,
revetments including partition dikes, and quaywalls having caissons or the like as their superstructure. The
performance verification method presented here can be applied to improved soil when a gravity-type breakwater
revetment or quaywall is to be used as the superstructure.
(3) When applying the deep mixing method to port facilities, a high rigidity subsurface structure is formed by
mutually overlapping stabilized soil having a pile shape in the ground using a mixing machine. The pattern of
this subsurface structure is determined depending on the properties of the ground and the type and scale of the
superstructure. In general, however, the block type and the wall type shown in Fig. 4.5.1 are frequently used.
Accordingly, block type improvement and wall type improvement will be discussed here which are representative
forms of improvement in the field of port engineering.
(4) The wall type improvement consists of long and short walls as shown in Fig. 4.5.1(b). The basic concept of the
design is that the long walls function to transmit the external actions to the foundation ground, while the short
walls function to increase the integrity of the improved ground.
Sea surface Sea surface

Soft subsoil
Sea surface
Soft subsoil
Seabed Sea surface
Seabed
Improved subsoil
Soft subsoil Improved subsoil
Soft subsoil
Long wall
Short wall
(a) block type improvement (b) wall type improvement
Fig. 4.5.1 Typical Improvement Patterns in the Deep Mixing Method
[2] Basic Concept
(1) Definitions of the terms are as follows;

① Stabilized soil: Improved soil produced by the deep mixing method.
② Stabilized body: A kind of structure formed underground with stabilized soil.
③ Improved ground: Portion in which the stabilized body and untreated soil is combined. In the wall type
improvement, the untreated soil between the long walls is inclusive.
④ Improved subsoil system: Portion above the bottom of the improved subsoil, between the vertical planes passing
through the front toe and heel of the improved subsoil.
⑤ External stability: Examination of stability of unified body consisting of improved subsoil and superstructure
as a rigid body in the process up to failure.
⑥ Internal stability: Examination of internal failure of the stabilized body which is stable externally.
– 498 –
⑦ Bottom seated type: Structural type in which the stabilized body is seated directly on the bearing stratum; in
this type of improvement, actions are transmitted to the bearing stratum by improvement of the soft ground
reaching as far as the bearing stratum.
⑧ Floating type: Structural type in which the stabilized body takes a form that floats in the soft ground; in this type
of improvement, the stabilized body is not seated on the bearing stratum, but soft ground is allowed to remain
underneath the stabilized body.
(2) Stabilized soil by the deep mixing method generally has extremely high strength and deformation modulus and
extremely small strain at failure in comparison with the soil of the original ground.60) Accordingly, a stabilized
body formed with stabilized soil can be regarded as a kind of structure. Therefore, examination of external
stability of the structure as a whole, examination of the resistance of the structure itself, and when particularly
necessary, examination of the settlement, horizontal displacement, and rotation of the stabilized body as a rigid
body shall be performed.
(3) In the performance verification of the deep mixing method, the Technical Manual for the Deep Mixing Method
in Marine Construction Works 61) can be used as a reference.
(4) An example of the procedure of the performance verification for the deep mixing method for gravity-type
structures is shown in Fig. 4.5.2.
Determination of design conditions
Assumption of dimensions of stabilized body
Evaluation of actions including setting of seismic coefficient for verification

Permanent state
Verification of external stability such as sliding, overturning and bearing capacity
Verification of internal stability such as toe pressure, shear stress and dislodging
Variable states in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion

Verification of external stability such as sliding, overturning and bearing capacity
Verification of internal stability such as toe pressure, shear stress and dislodging
*1
Examination of deformation by dynamic analysis
*2
Accidental states in respect of

Examination of deformation by dynamic analysis
Permanent state
Examination of circular slip failure and settlement
Determination of dimensions of stabilized body
*1: When necessary, examination of deformation by dynamic analysis can be performed for Level 1 earthquake ground motion. In cases where
the width of the improved subsoil is smaller than the width of the foundation mound, it is preferable to conduct an examination of
deformation by dynamic analysis.
*2 Depending on the performance requirements of the main body, examination for Level 2 earthquake ground motion shall be performed.
Fig. 4.5.2 Example of Procedure of Performance Verification of Deep Mixing Method
– 499 –
(5) The performance verification of variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion in the deep
mixing method can be conducted, equivalent to gravity-type quaywalls, by either the simplified method (seismic
coefficient method),or by a detailed method (nonlinear seismic response analysis considering dynamic interaction
of the ground and structures) presented in Part III, Chapter 5, 2.2.3 Performance Verification. In cases where
the width of the improved subsoil is smaller than the width of the foundation mound in the results of verification
by the simplified method, it is necessary to carry out an examination of deformation of the improved subsoil and
main body by a detailed method. Examination of accidental situations in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground
motion may also be necessary depending on the performance requirements of the facilities.
(6) In the performance verification of the deep mixing method, it is necessary to consider the following items.
① Because there is no method for the deep mixing method to determine the dimensions of the stabilized body at
once, the verification calculation is performed repeatedly until stability conditions are satisfied and the most
economical cross section is obtained.
② In improved subsoil by wall-type improvement, it is necessary to determine the dimensions of both the long
walls and the short walls. Because the long walls and short walls are constructed by mutually overlapping
pile bodies of stabilized soil, the cross-sectional shapes of the walls cannot be determined arbitrarily and it is
necessary to consider the dimensions of the mixing machine which is expected to be used.
③ In improved subsoil by wall-type improvement, untreated soil between the long walls exists in the improved
subsoil; therefore, in the examination of the internal stability, it is necessary to examine the extrusion of the
untreated soil between the long walls, in addition to the examination of the internal stress in the stabilized body.
④ The limit values of deformation in the variable situations and the accidental situations can be set corresponding
to the performance requirements of the facilities, using deformation of the main structure to be supported by the
deep mixing method as an index.
⑤ In the verification of deformation of Level 1 earthquake ground motion and Level 2 earthquake ground motion,
it is preferable to use a numerical model or results of shaking table tests which can appropriately assess the
residual deformation of the improved subsoil caused by ground motion.
4.5.2 Assumption of Dimensions of Stabilized Body

[1] Mixing Design Method for Stabilized Subsoil
It is necessary to determine the mixing design of the stabilized subsoil by performing laboratory mixing tests or in-situ
tests under the same conditions as in actual construction.
[2] Material Strength of Stabilized Body
(1) Allowable stress of the stabilized body needs to be appropriately determined for the examination of the internal
stability.
(2) Design compressive strength fc can be obtained using equation (4.5.1) based on the standard design strength
quc. In this equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the
characteristic value and design value, respectively.
(4.5.1)
where
fc : design compressive strength of stabilized body (kN/m 2)
α : factor for effective cross-sectional area
β : reliability index of overlap
quc : design standard strength (kN/m 2)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equation.
qucd = γ quc quck
For the partial factor γquc of design standard strength, the values mentioned in 4.5.4 Performance Verification,
[2] Examination of Internal Stability may be used.
(3) The design shear strength fsh and design tensile strength ft of the stabilized body can be obtained from equation
(4.5.2) and equation (4.5.3) using the design compressive strength fc.
– 500 –
(4.5.2)
(4.5.3)
where
fsh : design shear strength of stabilized body (kN/m 2)
ft : design tensile strength of stabilized body (kN/m 2)
(4) In the performance verification of the stabilized body, the stabilized body is assumed to be a material with
homogeneous strength. However, in actual construction work, because the stabilized body is formed by mutual
overlapping of piles of stabilized subsoil, there are cases in which inhomogeneous by stabilized soil remains, for
example, containing residual untreated soil or having strength differences in overlapped parts, depending on the
mixing machine used and the method of overlapping. The factors α and β shown in equation (4.5.1) are factors for
treating stabilized subsoil as material having homogeneous strength. The concepts when setting these factors are
presented in the following.
① Factor for effective cross-sectional area α
When construction is carried out using machines with multiple mixing blades, the cross section of the
stabilized body consists of multiple cylinders as shown in Fig. 4.5.4. In block-type and wall-type improvement,
the stabilized body is formed by overlapping stabilized subsoil having a pile shape as shown in Fig. 4.5.5.
Therefore, unimproved portions remain around the overlapping parts, and the area occupied by the stabilized
subsoil is smaller than in other areas. The factor for effective cross-sectional area α is a factor for correcting
this unimproved part.
The value of the factor for effective cross-sectional area will differ depending on the direction and type of the
actions such as compressive, tensile and shear which are the object of the performance verification. For example,
when considering shear force in the vertical direction of the stabilized body or stress acting perpendicular to
overlapping parts, examination on the narrowest connecting section gives safe side results. On the other hand,
when considering normal stress in the vertical plane of the stabilized body, the entire area of the stabilized body
may be considered as acting effectively. Here, the factor according to the former concept is used as the factor
for effective cross-sectional area for the effective width α1, and the factor according to the latter concept is used
as the factor for effective cross-sectional area for the effective area α2.
Dx
R
D
y
Dy d Width of
overlapping
Connecting surface
L
x
Fig. 4.5.3 Effective Width inherent in Deep Mixing Machine Fig.4.5.4 Connecting Surfaces
(a) Factor for effective cross-sectional area for effective width α1

The factor for effective cross-sectional area for effective width α1 shall generally be the smaller of the values
obtained using equation (4.5.4) and equation (4.5.5).
1) Factor for mixing machines
In Fig. 4.5.3, assuming the interval between the mixing shafts of the mixing machines is Dx and Dy and the
overlapped length of the improved piles is lx and ly, the coefficient α1 determined by the mixing machines can
be obtained using equation (4.5.4).
– 501 –
(4.5.4)
2) Factor for overlap
In Fig. 4.5.4, assuming the interval between the mixing shafts is D, the radius of the mixing blade is R, and
the overlap width is d, the factor α1 for overlap can be obtained using equation (4.5.5).
(4.5.5)
In many examples, the minimum overlap width d is assumed to be 25cm, considering execution accuracy
and capacity.
(b) Factor for effective cross-sectional area for effective area α2

The factor for the effective area α2 can be obtained using equation (4.5.6).
(4.5.6)
where
A1 : area enclosed by bold line in Fig. 4.5.4
A2 : area shown by hatched lines in Fig. 4.5.4
② Reliability index of overlap β
At overlapped parts, a new improved pile is joined to the existing improved pile of stabilized subsoil which has
already begun to harden. Therefore, there is a possibility that the strength of this part may be smaller than that
of other parts. The reliability index of overlap β is defined as the ratio of the strength of overlapped part to that
of other improved piles. Its value will differ depending on the elapsed time until the new pile is joined to the
existing pile, the mixing capacity of the machine, the stabilizer feed method. However, in general, β may be set
to approximately β = 0.8–0.9.
(5) Relationship between standard design strength and in-situ and laboratory mixing strength
The relationship between the average value quf of the unconfined compressive strength quf of in-situ stabilized
subsoil and the characteristic value quck of the standard design strength is given by equation (4.5.7).
(4.5.7)
where
K : coefficient showing normal deviation, namely multiplier for standard deviation σ. In general,
K = 1.0 can be adopted.
V : coefficient of variation of unconfined compressive strength quf of in-situ stabilized soil.
Because the value of V is greatly affected by the mixing machine and mixing technology, it is preferable that
V be set individually for each case. However, based on the past examples, V = 33 (%) can be used.
Setting of the value of the coefficient K as 1.0 when the variation of the unconfined compressive strength quf
of in-situ stabilized subsoil follows a normal distribution means that the characteristic value quck of the standard
design strength is set at a strength where the defect occurrence ratio is 15.9% (see Fig. 4.5.5).
The relationship between the average value quf of the unconfined compressive strength quf of in-situ stabilized
subsoil and the average value qul of the unconfined compressive strength qul of samples mixed in the laboratory is
given by equation (4.5.8).
(4.5.8)
The value of λ is affected by numerous factors, including the mixing machine and construction conditions, type
of soil which is the object of improvement, type of stabilizer, the curing environment, and age. As a guideline, in
offshore works, λ = 1 can be assumed when construction is performed by large- or medium-scale working crafts,
and λ= 0.5–1 can be assumed for small-scale working crafts. Provided, however, that the value of λ may also be
determined based on tests or the past records of construction.
A schematic diagram of the relationship between design standard strength quck and the average value qul of the
unconfined compressive strength of samples mixed in the laboratory and the average value quf of the unconfined
compressive strength of in-situ stabilized soil is shown in Fig. 4.5.5.
– 502 –
q uck qut = λ quck
kσ=σ
15.9%
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Fig. 4.5.5 Relationship between quck, , and quck (schematic diagram)
4.5.3 Conditions of Actions on Stabilized Body 68)
(1) Fig. 4.5.6 shows a schematic diagram of the loads acting on the stabilized body in the case of gravity-type
revetments and quaywalls.
(2) Because improved subsoil of wall-type improvement contains untreated soil in the improved subsoil, depending
on the performance verification items, it may be necessary to set the load conditions by separating the untreated
and stabilized subsoils.
(3) For the examination on the external stability of improved subsoil systems, Pa or Pp can be determined using the
active and passive earth pressures specified in Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure. When examining internal
stability, Pa may be considered as active earth pressure. However, it is preferable that Pp be set appropriately
within the range from earth pressure at rest to passive earth pressure, considering the external stability of the
improved subsoil system.
(4) In cases where a certain amount of displacement of the improved subsoil is expected, it has been confirmed
experimentally that adhesion of untreated soil acts on the vertical planes of the active and passive sides of the
stabilized body. In the case of embankment and reclamation behind the improved subsoil, downward negative
skin friction accompanied by consolidation settlement of the untreated soil acts on the vertical plane of the active
side of the stabilized body. Therefore, these types of adhesion should be considered in the examination of the
Permanent situation.69) On the other hand, in the examination of actions associated with ground motion, safety
side assumptions, for example, that the inertia force of the stabilized body and the earth pressure during ground
motion will act simultaneously, are adopted. Therefore, Cua as a downward action and Cup as an upward action
may be assumed in the examination of both external and internal stability. The value of Cua and Cup in this case
are obtained from the undrained shear strength of the untreated soil under these conditions.
(5) In the case of improved subsoil by wall-type improvement, it may be assumed that both Pa and Pp act uniformly
onthe long walls and the untreated soil between the long walls. Provided, however, that when the subgrade
reaction T at the bottom of the stabilized body is obtained, it is assumed that the loads acting on the stabilized
body, such as the weight of the main body, are concentrated on the long walls, and only the self-weight of the
untreated soil acts on the untreated soil between the long walls.
The shear resistance force R shall be the sum of the shear resistance forces acting on the stabilized body and
the bottom of the untreated soil.
(6) Deformation of the superstructure during action of ground motion tends to be reduced by soil improvement by
the deep mixing method. Therefore, when setting the seismic coefficient for the verification of the superstructure
and the improved subsoil system, it is possible to set a rational seismic coefficient for the verification based on an
appropriate evaluation of this reduction effect.
When soil improvement is performed by the deep mixing method the characteristic value kh1k of the seismic
coefficient for the verification of the superstructure and the structural elements of improved subsoil system such
as superstructure, foundation mound, backfill, reclamation and surcharge can be calculated by multiplying the
maximum value of corrected acceleration αc obtained for the untreated ground by the reduction coefficient 0.64,
as shown in equation (4.5.9) 61).
(4.5.9)
– 503 –
where
kh1k : characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification of superstructure and structural
elements of improved subsoil system such as superstructure, foundation mound, backfill,
reclamation and surcharge
Da : allowable deformation (cm)
Dr : standard deformation (=10cm)
αc : maximum value of corrected acceleration (cm/s2)
g : gravitational acceleration ( = 980 cm/s2)
This reduction coefficient was obtained based on the results of a 2-dimensional nonlinear effective stress
analysis for untreated soil and improved subsoil. For details, Reference 61) can be used as a reference. In
calculating the maximum value of corrected acceleration αc for untreated soil, Chapter 5, 2.2.2 (1) S e i s m i c
coefficient for verification used in verification of damage due to sliding and overturning of wall body and
insufficient bearing capacity of foundation ground in variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake
ground motion can be used as a reference.
The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification of improved subsoil kh2k can be calculated by
multiplying the seismic coefficient for verification kh1k obtained using equation (4.5.9) by the reduction coefficient
0.65 (kh2k = 0.65 x kh1k).
Provided, however, that in the characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification kh3k used in
calculations of the earth pressure during earthquakes for improved subsoil systems, in equation (4.5.9), the
maximum value of corrected acceleration shall not be multiplied by a reduction coefficient.
H1
H2 H4 W1 R.W.L.
L.W.L.
W2 W4
H5
H3 W5
Pdw W3
H7 <Vertical
W7 component>
H6 Pav
W6
Cua
<Vertical component>
Pw
Ppv
<Horizontal
H8 W8 Stabilized part component>
Pah
H9 W9 Untreated part
<Horizontal component> Cup * In case of wall-type improvement
Pph
Passive earth pressure Active earth Water

R* Block-type, wall-type (depend on slip pattern)
Pp pressure pressure
t2 Pa
t1 T
Subgrade reaction
Fig. 4.5.6 External Forces Acting on Stabilized Body
Pa : resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of active side (kN/m)
Pah : horizontal component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
active side (kN/m)
Pav : vertical component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
active side (kN/m)
Pp : resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of passive side (kN/m)
Pph : horizontal component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
passive side (kN/m)
Ppv : vertical component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
passive side (kN/m)
Pw : resultant residual water pressure per unit of length (kN/m)
Pdw : resultant dynamic water pressure per unit of length (kN/m)
W1-W9 : weight per unit of length of each part (kN/m)
H1-H9 : inertia force per unit of length of each part (kN/m)
– 504 –
Cua : resultant adhesion of vertical plane per unit of length acting on vertical plane of active side
(kN/m)
Cup : resultant adhesion of vertical plane per unit of length acting on vertical plane of passive side
(kN/m)
R : shear resistance per unit of length acting on bottom of improved subsoil (kN/m)
T : resultant of subgrade reaction per unit of length acting on the bottom of improved soil (kN/m)
t1, t2 : intensity of subgrade reaction at toes of stabilized body (kN/m)
In the performance verification of actions during ground motion of strata which are subject to liquefaction,
it is necessary to consider the dynamic water pressure during the action of ground motion on the improved body.
For calculation of dynamic water pressure, Part II, Chapter 5, 2 Water Pressure can be used as a reference.

[1] External Stability of Improved Subsoil
For the external stability of improved subsoil, the following items shall be examined, assuming that the stabilized
body and the superstructure behave integrally. It should be noted that the following describes the cases of gravity-type
revetments and quaywalls; however, the same description can also be applied to breakwaters by appropriately setting
actions due to waves and other relevant factors.
(1) Examination of Sliding 61)
① The improved subsoil shall secure the required stability against slip failure.
② It is necessary to conduct performance verification of improved subsoil by wall-type improvement for two cases,
namely, the slip pattern 1 case which considers the frictional resistance of the bottom of the improved subsoil
as a whole as resistance to slip failure, and the slip pattern 2 case which considers the resultant of the frictional
resistance directly under the long walls and the shearing resistance of the unimproved subsoil between the walls,
considering the improved ground to be a structure in which the stabilized subsoil long walls fully demonstrates
shear strength. In the examination of the stability against slip failure, equation (4.5.10) can be used. The symbol
γ in the equation is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and
design value, respectively.
(Slip pattern 1)
(Slip pattern 2)
(4.5.10)
Provided, however, that
where
R1 : frictional resistance of bearing ground per unit of length acting on bottom of stabilized body
(kN/m)
R2 : frictional resistance of bearing ground per unit of length acting on bottom of untreated soil
(kN/m)
– 505 –
R3 : shearing resistance per unit of length acting on bottom of untreated soil (kN/m)
Pw : resultant of residual water pressure per unit of length (kN/m)
Pdw : resultant of dynamic water pressure during earthquake per unit of length (kN/m)
Hi : inertia force per unit of length acting on respective parts (kN/m)
Wi : weight per unit of length of surcharge, superstructure, foundation mound, backfill, reclamation
on improved subsoil comprising improved subsoil system (kN/m)
Ws : weight per unit of length of stabilized body (kN/m)
W9 : weight per unit of length of untreated soil between long walls (kN/m)
B : improved width of stabilized body (m)
Rl : ratio of long wall in stabilized body
R s : ratio of short wall in stabilized body
μ : static friction coefficient
Cu : shear strength of bottom of untreated soil (kN/m 2)
Pah : horizontal component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
active side (kN/m)
Pav : vertical component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
active side (kN/m)
Pph : horizontal component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
passive side (kN/m)
Ppv : vertical component of resultant earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
passive side (kN/m)
Cua : resultant adhesion of vertical plane per unit of length acting on vertical plane of active side
(kN/m)
Cup : resultant adhesion of vertical plane per unit of length acting on vertical plane of passive side
(kN/m)
RWL : residual water level (m)
WL : water level at front side (m)
h L : water depth at bottom of stabilized body (m)
h1 : water depth at front side of structure (m)
kh1 : seismic coefficient for verification when calculating inertia force acting on surcharge,
superstructure, foundation mound, backfill and reclamation on improved subsoil comprising
improved subsoil system (kN/m)
kh2 : seismic coefficient for verification when calculating inertia force acting on improved subsoil
kh3 : seismic coefficient for verification when calculating earth pressure and dynamic water pressure
acting on improved subsoil system
Wni : weight per unit of length of surcharge, superstructure, main body, foundation mound, backfill
and reclamation on improved subsoil comprising improved subsoil system. If submerged, the
weight in air when saturated with water shall be used. (kN/m)
Wn8 : weight per unit of length of stabilized body. If submerged, the weight in air when saturated with
water shall be used. (kN/m)
Wn9 : weight per unit of length of untreated soil between long walls. If submerged, the weight in air
when saturated with water shall be used. (kN/m)
γi : structural factor, generally be assumed to be 1.0
γa : structural analysis factor, generally be assumed to be 1.0
③ The system reliability index βT is set depending on the individual facilities and improved subsoil. In cases
where soil improvement is carried out by the deep mixing method, the system reliability index βT for sliding and
overturning of the wall body, failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground of gravity-
type quaywalls, failure due to toe pressure, vertical shear failure of the long wall part, vertical shear failure of
the short wall part and failure due to extrusion of untreated subsoil between thte long walls was 2.9 (failure
probability of 2.1 x 10 –3) for the Permanent situation. This was the result of assessment, by reliability theory,
of the average safety level of gravity-type quaywalls for soil improvement by the deep mixing method in the
conventional design method. In the performance verification described here, the target reliability index of βT '
= 3.0 for each limit state is set so as to exceed the system reliability index. The partial factors determined on
this basis are as shown in Table 4.5.1 through Table 4.5.6. For partial factors for use in the examination of
slip failure of improved subsoil, the values shown in Table 4.5.1 may be used. For partial factors which are not
listed in the table, 1.00 may be used.
– 506 –
Table 4.5.1 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Use in Examination of Slip Failure
(a) Permanent situation
All facilities
Target reliability index βT 2.9
Target system failure probability PfT 2.1×10 –3
Reliability index β used in calculation of γ 3.0
γ α µ/X k V
Slip pattern 1 γW1-γW9 Weight 1.00 0.131 1.00 0.03
γPah Horizontal resultant of active earth pressure 1.15 –0.519 1.00 0.10
γPav Vertical resultant of active earth pressure 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γPph Horizontal resultant of passive earth 0.90 0.277 1.00 0.10
pressure
γPpv Vertical resultant of passive earth pressure 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γCua Adhesion of vertical plane (active side) 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γCup Adhesion of vertical plane (passive side) 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γµ Static friction coefficient 0.70 1.000 1.00 0.10
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 – – –
Slip pattern 2 γW1-γW9 Weight 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γPav Vertical resultant of active earth pressure 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γPph Horizontal resultant of passive earth 0.85 0.454 1.00 0.10
pressure
γPpv Vertical resultant of passive earth pressure 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γCua Adhesion of vertical plane (active side) 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γCup Adhesion of vertical plane (passive side) 1.00 0.000 1.00 –
γµ Static friction coefficient 0.75 0.831 1.00 0.10
γc u Shear strength of bottom of unimproved 0.80 0.202 1.00 0.33
subsoil
– 507 –
(b) Variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion
All facilities
Performance requirement Serviceability
γ α µ/X k V
Slip pattern 1 γW1-γW9 Weight 1.00 – – –
γPah Horizontal resultant of active earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γPav Vertical resultant of active earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γPph Horizontal resultant of passive earth 1.00
– – –
pressure
γPpv Vertical resultant of passive earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γCua Adhesion of vertical plane (active side) 1.00 – – –
γCup Adhesion of vertical plane (passive side) 1.00 – – –
γµ Static friction coefficient 1.00 – – –
Slip pattern 2 γW1-γW9 Weight 1.00 – – –
γPph Horizontal resultant of passive earth 1.00
– – –
pressure
γPpv Vertical resultant of passive earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γCua Adhesion of vertical plane (active side) 1.00 – – –
γCup Adhesion of vertical plane (passive side) 1.00 – – –
γµ Static friction coefficient 1.00 – – –
γc u Shear strength of bottom of unimproved 1.00
– – –
subsoil
(2) Examination of Overturning 61)

① It is necessary that improved subsoil secure the required stability against overturning. In the examination of
the stability against overturning of improved subsoil by wall-type improvement, equation (4.5.11) and equation
(4.5.12) can be used. In these equations, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k
and d denote the characteristic value and design value, respectively.
(4.5.11)
(4.5.12)
– 508 –
where
Items related to resistance
Pph : horizontal component of resultant of earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
passive side (kN/m)
Wi : weight per unit of length of surcharge, superstructure, foundation rubble, backfill and
reclamation on improved subsoil comprising improved subsoil system (kN/m)
W8 : weight per unit of length of stabilized body (kN/m)
W9 : weight per unit of length of untreated soil between long walls (kN/m)
Pav : vertical component of resultant of earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
active side (kN/m)
Cua : adhesion of vertical side per unit of length acting on vertical plane of active side (kN/m)
Items related to loads

Pw : residual water pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of active side (kN/m)
Pah : horizontal component of resultant of earth pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of
active side (kN/m)
Hi : inertia force per unit of length acting on respective parts of improved subsoil system (kN/m)
Wni : weight per unit of length of surcharge, superstructure, foundation mound, backfill and
reclamation on improved subsoil comprising improved subsoil system. If submerged, the
weight in air when saturated with water shall be used. (kN/m)
Wn8 : weight per unit of length of stabilized body. If submerged, the weight in air when saturated with
water shall be used. (kN/m)
Wn9 : weight per unit of length of untreated soil between long walls. If submerged, the weight in air
when saturated with water shall be used. (kN/m)
kh1 : seismic coefficient for verification when calculating inertia force acting on surcharge,
superstructure, foundation mound, backfill, back–plugging and surcharge on improved subsoil
comprising improved subsoil system
kh3 : seismic coefficient for verification when calculating earth pressure and active water pressure
acting on improved subsoil
Pdw : dynamic water pressure per unit of length acting on vertical plane of active side (kN/m)
xi, xav, xcua : distance from action line of vertical force acting on improved subsoil to front toe of stabilized
body (m)
γi, γp, γw, γdw : height from action line of horizontal force acting on improved subsoil to bottom of stabilized
body (m)
γa : structural analysis factor (see Table 4.5.2)
② For partial factors for use in the examination of overturning of improved subsoil, the values shown in Table
4.5.2 may be used. For partial factors not listed in the table, 1.00 may be used.
– 509 –
Table 4.5.2 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Use in Examination of Overturning
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Overturning γPph Horizontal resultant of passive earth 0.85 0.382 1.00 0.10
pressure
γW6 Weight (foundation mound) 1.00 0.030 1.00 0.03
γW7 Weight (backfill soil) 1.00 0.055 1.00 0.03
γW8 Weight (stabilized body) 1.00 0.102 1.00 0.03
γW9 Weight (untreated soil) 1.00 0.074 1.00 0.03
γCua Adhesion of vertical plane (stabilized body 1.00 0.102 1.00 0.10
part: active side)
γPav Vertical resultant of active earth pressure 1.00 0.029 1.00 0.10
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Overturning γPph Horizontal resultant of passive earth 1.00 – – –
pressure
γW6 Weight (foundation mound) 1.00 – – –
γW7 Weight (backfill soil) 1.00 – – –
γW8 Weight (stabilized body) 1.00 – – –
γW9 Weight (untreated soil) 1.00 – – –
γCua Adhesion of vertical plane (stabilized body 1.00 – – –
part: active side)
(3) Examination of Bearing Capacity 61)

① Improved subsoil shall secure the required stability against failure of bearing capacity of the original ground
under the bottom of the improved subsoil. In the examination of the bearing capacity of block-type improved
subsoil, 2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations can be used as a reference.
② For the bearing capacity of improved subsoil by wall-type improvement when the bearing ground is sandy
ground, verification can be performed using equation (4.5.13) for toe pressures t1 and t2, considering the effect
of mutual interference between the long walls. In this equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript,
and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and design value, respectively.
In the case of
(4.5.13)
in the case of
where
– 510 –
γR : partial factor for bearing capacity of sandy ground (see 2.2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations
on Sandy Ground)
Nq, Nr : bearing capacity coefficients (see 2.2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Sandy Ground)
p0 : effective overburden pressure to bearing sand layer (kN/m 2)
ρg : unit weight of bearing ground, when submerged, unit weight in water (kN/m3)
Ll : length of long wall in direction of face line (m) (see Fig. 4.5.9)
Ls : length of short wall in direction of face line (m) (see Fig. 4.5.9)
B : improvement width (m) (see Fig. 4.5.9)
[2] Examination of Internal Stability
(1) For the characteristic value of the material strength of the stabilized body, 4.5.2 Assumption of Dimensions of
Stabilized Body can be used as a reference.
(2) The stress generated in the stabilized body can be obtained by assuming that the stabilized body is an elastic body
under the conditions specified in 4.5.3 Conditions of Actions on Stabilized Body.
(3) In block-type improved subsoil and improved subsoil by wall-type improvement, internal stability can be
examined by the method presented below. Provided, however, that in cases where the shape of the stabilized body
is complex or the depth of the stabilized body is large in comparison with its width, examination by FEM analysis
is preferable.
(4) Examination of Toe Pressure 61)
① Examination of internal stability due to toe pressure at the bottom of the stabilized body can be performed
using equation (4.5.14), considering the effect of the confining pressure acting on the improved subsoil. In this
equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic
value and design value, respectively.

(4.5.14)
where
fc : design compressive strength (kN/m 2)
t1, 2 : toe pressures (kN/m 2)
K : coefficient of earth pressure
wi : unit weight of untreated soil, when submerged, unit weight in water (kN/m3)
hi : layer thickness of untreated subsoil (m)

The design values in the equation can be obtained using the following equations.

Provided, however, that it is necessary to determine the value of the confining pressure K Σ(w id hi) acting
on the bottom edge of the stabilized body from the untreated subsoil considering the improvement pattern and
external stability of the improved subsoil.
② For the partial factors for use in examination of toe pressure, the values shown in Table 4.5.3 may be used. For
partial factors not listed in the table, 1.00 may be used.
– 511 –
Table 4.5.3 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Use in Examination of Toe Pressure
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Toe pressure γquc Standard design strength 0.55 – – –
γt1,2 Toe pressure 1.05 –0.116 1.00 0.03
γ wi Unit weight of untreated soil 1.00 0.001 1.00 0.03
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Toe pressure γquc Standard design strength 0.67 – – –
γt1,2 Toe pressure 1.00 – – –
γ wi Unit weight of untreated soil 1.00 – – –
(5) Examination of Shearing Stress at Vertical Plane Under Face Line of Superstructure 61)
① Examination of internal stability against shearing stress along the vertical plane beneath the face line of the
superstructure can be performed for the long wall part and short wall part using equation (4.5.15) and equation
(4.5.16), respectively. In these equations, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k
and d denote the characteristic value and design value, respectively.
(a) Long wall
(4.5.15)
where
β : reliability index of overlap between improved piles
Tl : resultant of subgrade reaction acting from front toe of improved subsoil to position of Bl (kN)
(Tld = γTTl)
quc : standard design strength (kN/m 2) (qucd = γqucquck)
Wl : effective weight of stabilized body from front toe of improved subsoil to position of Bl (kN) (Wld
= γwWl)
A : cross-sectional area of stabilized body, in case of long wall A = DlLl + DsLs (m2) (see Fig. 7.5.7)
Dl , Ds : vertical length of long wall, namely improved depth, and vertical length of short wall (m)
Ll, Ls : lengths of long wall and short wall in direction of face line, respectively (m)
When a rubble mound exists between the stabilized body and the superstructure, examination may be
performed using an examination plane which considers load dispersion in the mound from the position of the
face line of the superstructure. (See Fig. 4.5.7; θ is the angle of load dispersion in the mound.)
– 512 –
A
Ds θ
D D W
T Ls
L
B B
Fig. 4.5.7 Schematic Diagram of Vertical Shear Stress (Long Wall)
For the partial factors for use in the examination of vertical shear failure of the long wall part, the values
shown in Table 4.5.4 can be used. For partial factors which are not listed in the table, 1.00 may be used.
Table 4.5.4 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Use in Examination of Vertical Shear Failure of Long Wall
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Vertical shear γquc Standard design strength 0.55 – – –
failure of Resultant of subgrade reaction 1.05 –0.115 1.00 0.03
γT
long wall
γW Effective weight of stabilized body 1.00 0.005 1.00 0.03
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
failure of Resultant of subgrade reaction 1.00 – – –
γT
long wall
γWℓ Effective weight of stabilized body 1.00 – – –
(b) Short wall
(4.5.16)
where
β : reliability index of overlap between improved piles
Tl ’ : toe pressure after dispersion in mound, not including self–weight of mound (kN/m2) (Tl’d = γT lT’l’k)
(see Fig. 4.5.8) (kN)
– 513 –
quc : standard design strength (kN/m 2) (qucd = γqucquck)
w m : unit weight of mound, when submerged, unit weight in water (kN/m3)
h m : thickness of mound (m)
Wl : effective weight of stabilized body, when submerged, unit weight in water (kN/m3)
D s : vertical length of short wall (m)
L s : length of short wall in direction of face line (m)
Fig. 4.5.8 Schematic Diagram of Calculation of Vertical Shear Stress (Short Wall)
For the partial factors for use in examination of vertical shear failure of the short wall, the values shown in
Table 4.5.5 can be used. For partial factors which are not listed in the table, 1.00 may be used.
Table 4.5.5 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Use in Examination of Vertical Shear Failure of Short Wall
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
failure of γT1' Toe pressure 1.05 –0.091 1.00 0.03
short wall
γ wi Unit weight of stabilized body 1.00 –0.006 1.00 0.03
γ wm Unit weight of mound 1.00 –0.006 1.00 0.03
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
failure of γT1' Toe pressure 1.00 – – –
short wall
γ wi Unit weight of stabilized body 1.00 – – –
γ wm Unit weight of mound 1.00 – – –
– 514 –
(6) Examination of Extrusion 61)
① Because improved subsoil by wall-type improvement comprises a large number of long walls and a short wall
connecting the long walls, untreated subsoil is left between the long walls. Failures in which the untreated
subsoil between the long walls is dislodged are conceivable, depending on conditions such as the spacing
between the long walls, the strength of the untreated subsoil, the thickness of the backfill layer. Therefore, it is
necessary to examine extrusion of the untreated soil between the long walls.71)
② A schematic diagram of extrusion of the untreated soil in improved subsoil by wall-type improvement is shown
in Fig. 4.5.9.
Fig. 4.5.9 Schematic Diagram of Extrusion of Untreated Subsoil
③ Examination of extrusion of untreated subsoil between long walls can be performed by repeated calculations
using equation (4.5.17), using various values of Di in the calculations.
(4.5.17)
where
Ls : length of short wall in direction of face line (m)
Di : depth from bottom edge of short wall to cross–section being examined (m)
Cu : average shear strength of untreated subsoil at intermediate depth between bottom edge of short
wall and cross section being examined (kN/m 2) (C=γcu Cuk)
B : improved width (m)
Pah’, Pph’ : horizontal components of resultant of active earth pressure and passive earth pressure acting
on untreated subsoil between long walls, respectively, down to the depth of Di from bottom of
short wall (kN) (Pph’d = γPphPph’d, Pah’d = γPahPah’k)
(kh2d= γ kh2kh2k)
hw : head between residual water level and water level at front of structure (m) (hwd = γhwhwk)
wi : unit weight in air of untreated subsoil when saturated with water (kN/m3)
γi : structural factor, generally assumed to be 1.0
γa : structural analysis factor, generally assumed to be 1.0
– 515 –
④ For the partial factors for use in the examination of the extrusion of the untreated subsoil between long walls,
the values shown in Table 4.5.6 can be used. For partial factors which are not listed in the table, 1.00 may be
used.
Table 4.5.6 Standard Values of Partial Factors for Use in Examination of Extrusion
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Extrusion γ Cu Average shear strength of untreated soil 0.75 0.955 1.00 0.10
failure γPah' Horizontal component of resultant of active 1.05 –0.190 1.00 0.10
earth pressure acting on untreated soil
between long walls
γPph' Horizontal component of resultant of passive 0.95 0.182 1.00 0.10
between long walls
γ wi Unit weight in air of untreated soil when 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.10
saturated with water
* The partial factors for use in examination of extrusion were determined by reliability analysis of the examination position (Di) at which
the reliability index β shows its minimum value.
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
Extrusion γ Cu Average shear strength of untreated soil 1.00 – – –
failure γPah' Horizontal component of resultant of active 1.00 – – –
between long walls
γPph' Horizontal component of resultant of passive 1.00 – – –
between long walls
γ wi Unit weight in air of untreated soil when 1.00 – – –
saturated with water
* The partial factors for use in examination of extrusion were determined by reliability analysis of the examination position (Di) at which
the reliability index β shows its minimum value.
(7) Examination of Circular Slip Failure

① In the examination of the circular slip failure, 3 Stability of Slopes can be used as a reference.
② Because the strength of the stabilized body is sufficiently greater than that of ordinary soil, examination of slip
circles passing through the stabilized body may be omitted.
(8) Examination of Displacement
① When the improved subsoil is of the floating type, lateral displacement due to actions in respect of reclamation
and waves and actions in respect of ground motion, and vertical displacement due to consolidation are
conceivable. Therefore, advance examination on measures capable of satisfying the performance requirements
of the facilities is necessary, based on estimations of these displacements.
② In sliding failure and circular slip failure of improved subsoil, there is a certain degree of relationship between
the ratio of the design value of resistance and design value of the effects of actions, and the amount of immediate
displacement due to lateral displacement of the stabilized body. Therefore, it is possible to judge the necessity
of examination of lateral displacement of the stabilized body depending on the safety margin in these factors.
Furthermore, when the layer thickness of the untreated subsoil underneath the stabilized body is constant, and
– 516 –
it is judged that the estimated displacement in the horizontal direction can satisfy the performance requirements
of the facilities, the examination of the consolidation settlement is only necessary.
③ Even in bottom seated-type improved subsoil, when a cohesive soil layer exists under the bearing stratum,
the examination of the amount of consolidation settlement is necessary, as there is a possibility of vertical
displacement of the stabilized body due to consolidation settlement.
④ It is preferable to determine the allowable displacement of improved subsoil appropriately, considering the
performance requirements of the facilities.
– 517 –
4.6 Lightweight Treated Soil Method
(1) Definition and Outline of Lightweight Treated Soil Method

① The provisions in this section can be applied to the performance verification of the light weight treated soil
method.
② The lightweight treated soil method is to produce artificial lightweight and stable subsoil by adding lightening
materials and hardening agents to slurry-state soil in adjusting its consisting being higher than liquid limit by
making use of dredged soil or excavated soil from construction sites, and then using the product as materials
for landfill or backfilling. When using air foam as the lightening material, it is called the foam treated soil, and
when using expanded polistyrol beads, it is called the beads treated soil. The lightweight treated soil has the
following characteristics:
(a) The weight is approximately one half of ordinary sand in the air and approximately one fifth in the seawater.
This lightness can prevent or reduce ground settlement due to landfill or backfill.
(b) Due to its light weight and high strength, the earth pressure during an earthquake is reduced. This makes it
possible to create high earthquake-resistance structures or reclaimed lands.
(c) Dredged soils, which are regularly produced and treated as waste in ports, or waste soils that are generated
by land–based construction works, are used. Thus, employment of the lightweight treated soil method can
contribute to reducing the amount of waste materials to be dealt with at waste disposal sites.
③ Refer to the “Technical Manual for the Lightweight Treated Soil Method in Ports and Airports” for further
details on the performance verification of this method.
(2) Basic Concept of Performance Verification
① The performance verification method described in 2 Foundations and 3 Stability of Slopes can be applied to
lightweight treated soil.
② Apart from mix proportion tests, the performance verification method for lightweight treated soil is basically
the same with that for other earth structure.73), 74)
③ An example of the performance verification procedure when using the lightweight treated soil method in
backfilling for revetments and quaywalls is shown in Fig. 4.6.1.
– 518 –
Determination of application of lightweight treated soil method
Assumption of strength and unit weight of lightweight treated soil
Assumption of area (or bounds, boundary) of improvement

with lightweight treated soil
Examination of ground as a whole, including lightweight

treated soil
①　Evaluation of actions
②　Examination of bearing capacity
③　Examination of circular slip failure
④　Examination of consolidation settlement
⑤　Examination of liquefaction of surrounding ground
Performance verification of superstructure
Determination of strength/unit weight and area of improvement with lightweight treated soil
Fig. 4.6.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure of Lightweight Treated Soil Method
④ In performance verification, the following actions are generally considered.

(a) Self weight of lightweight treated soil, and self weight of main body (caissons, etc.), backfilling material,
filling material, reclaimed soil and mound materials, (considering buoyancy).
(b) Earth pressure and residual water pressure
(c) Surcharges including fixed loads, variable loads and repeated loads
(d) Tractive force of ship and reaction of fenders
(e) Actions in respect of ground motion
In calculations of earth pressure and earth pressure during earthquakes, the concepts in 4.18 Active Earth
Pressure of Geotechnical Material Treated with Stabilizer can be applied.
⑤ The properties of lightweight treated soil shall be evaluated by means of laboratory tests that take account of the
environmental and construction conditions of the site. They may be evaluated as follows:
(a) Unit weight
The unit weight may be set within a range of γt = 8-13 kN/m3 by adjusting the amount of lightening material
and added water. When used in port facilities, there is a risk of flotation in case of a rise of seawater level if
the unit weight is less than that of seawater. Normally, therefore, the characteristic value of the unit weight is
frequently set to the following values:
below water level:
for use uder water: γtk = 11.5-12 kN/m3
for use in air: γtk = 10 kN/m3
The unit weight of lightweight treated soil will vary depending on the environmental conditions during
and after placement, and particularly the intensity of water pressure. Therefore, these factors should be
considered in advance in the mixture design.75), 76)
(b) Strength 77)
The static strength of lightweight treated soil is mainly attributable to the solidified strength due to the
cement-based solidifying agent. Standard design strength is evaluated by unconfined compressive strength
qu and can generally be set in the range of 100–500kN/m 2. Because air foam or expanded beads are included
in the treated soil, no increase in strength can be expected due to increased confining pressure. However, the
residual strength is approximately 70% of the peak strength. The characteristic value of compressive strength
– 519 –
shall be the standard design strength and be set to an appropriate value capable of satisfying performance
requirements such as stability of the superstructure or the ground as a whole.
As the characteristic value of shear strength, undrained shear strength cu can be used. The value of cu can
be calculated using the following equation.
(4.6.1)
(c) The consolidation yield stress Py may be calculated using the following equation:

(4.6.2)

(d) Deformation modulus E50
When tests are conducted considering fine points such as measurement of small amounts of deformation,
finishing of the ends of specimens, the test value as such is used as the deformation modulus E50. When such
tests are not possible, the modulus can be estimated from the unconfined compressive strength qu using the
following equation:
(4.6.3)
The deformation modulus shown above corresponds to a strain level of 0.3–1.0%.
(e) Poisson’s ratio
Poisson’s ratio of lightweight treated soil varies depending on the stress level and the state before or after the
attainment of peak strength. When the surcharge is less than the consolidation yield stress of treated soil, the
following mean values may be used:
air foamed treated soil: v = 0.10

expanded beads treated soil: v = 0.15
(f) Dynamic properties
The shear modulus G, damping factor h, strain dependency of G and h, and Poisson’s ratio v used in dynamic
analysis should be obtained from laboratory tests. They may be estimated from the estimation method
conducted for the ordinary soils as a simplified method in reference to the results of ultrasonic propagation
test.
(3) Examination of Area of Improvement 78)
① The area to be filled with the lightweight treated soil needs to be determined as appropriate in view of the type
of structure to be built and the conditions of actions as well as the stability of the structure and the ground as a
whole.
② The extent of filling area with lightweight treated soil is usually determined to meet the objective of lightening.
When the method is applied to control settlement or lateral displacement, it is determined from the allowable
conditions for settlement or displacement; to secure stability, it is determined from the condition of slope
stability; to reduce earth pressure, it is determined from the required conditions for earth pressure reduction.79)
(4) Concept of Mix Proportion
① Design of mix proportion shall be conducted to obtain the strength and the unit weight required in the field.
② Types of solidifying agents and lightening agents shall be determined after their efficiency has been confirmed
in tests.
③ The target strength in laboratory mix proportion tests shall be set to a value obtained by multiplying the standard
design strength by a required additional rate α, considering differences in laboratory mix proportion strength
and in-situ strength and variance. The required additional rate α is expressed by the ratio of the strength in
laboratory mix proportion tests and standard design strength. Normally, the following value can be used.
a = 2.2
– 520 –
4.7 Blast Furnace Granulated Slag Replacement Method
(1) Basic Concept of Performance Verification

① When using blast furnace granulated slag as backfill for quaywalls or revetments, landfill, surface covering for
soft subsoil and sand compaction material, the characteristics of the materials shall be considered.
② Blast furnace granulated slag is a granular material. However, it has a latent hydraulic hardening property not
found in natural sand and is a material which solidifies with lapse of time.83) When used in backfill, if its granular
state and solidified state are compared, the granular state generally gives a dangerous state in the performance
verification in many cases. Provided, however, that it is preferable to conduct an adequate examination, judging
the individual conditions, in cases where the solidified state may pose a risk to the facilities.
(2) Physical Properties
① When using granulated blast furnace slag, its physical properties are preferably to be ascertained in advance.
② Blast furnace granulated slag is in a state like coarse sand when shipped from plants. The important characteristics
of physical properties of the blast furnace granulated slags are its small unit weight latent hydraulic hardening
property.
③ Grain size distribution
The range shown in Fig. 4.7.1 is generally standard for the grain size distribution of blast furnace granulated
slag. The standard grain size of blast furnace granulated slag is 4.75 mm or less, and its fines content is
extremely small. Thus, it has a stable, comparatively uniform grain size distribution. The coarse sand region
accounts for the larger part of the grain sizes, with a uniformity coefficient of 2.5–4.2 and a coefficient of
curvature of 0.9-1.4.
10
Percentage finer by weight (%)
0 0. 1. 10. 50.
Grain size D (mm)
Fig. 4.7.1 Standard Grain Size Distribution of Blast Furnace Granulated Slag
④ Unit weight 83)

Blast furnace granulated slag is lighter in weight than natural sand because its grains contain air bubbles and
it has a large void ratio due to its angular shape and single grain size distribution. According to the results of
studies to date, the wet unit weight of granulated slag ranges from 9-14kN/m3, and its unit weight in water is
approximately 8kN/m3.
⑤ Permeability
The coefficient of permeability in the granular state differs depending on the void ratio but is roughly 1×100 -
1×10 -1cm/s. The coefficient of permeability decreases with solidification, but even in this case is approximately
1×10 -2cm/s.85) Provided, however, that when construction is conducted using methods that cause crushing of the
particles, for example, in the sand compaction pile method, the coefficient of permeability becomes extremely
small. Caution is required in such cases.
⑥ Compressibility
The time-dependent change of compressibility of blast furnace granulated slag used for backfill, landfill, or
surface covering can be ignored.
– 521 –
⑦ Angle of shear resistance and cohesion

In the granular state, cohesion can be treated as non-existent. The angle of shear resistance in this case is 35º
or greater. When solidified, shear strength is greater than in the granular state.83) In this case, the effects of
both the angle of shear resistance and cohesion on maximum shear strength can be considered. However, in
examining residual strength, only the effect of the angle of shear resistance should be considered.
⑧ Liquefaction during an earthquake
When blast furnace granulated slag is used in backfill, it solidifies in several years because of its latent hydraulic
hardening property. When solidification can be expected, liquefaction can be ignored. However, there is a risk
of liquefaction for blast furnace granulated slag that has not yet solidified. Therefore in this case, the possibility
of liquefaction should be examined, treating the blast furnace granulated slag as a granular material.
(3) Chemical Properties
① When using blast furnace granulated slag, appropriate consideration shall be given to its chemical properties.
② The pH value of the leached water from blast furnace granulated slag is smaller than the pH of the leached
water from cement and lime stabilization treatment. Furthermore, its pH is also reduced by the neutralizing and
buffering action of the seawater composition and dilution by seawater. For this reason, in ordinary cases, it is
not necessary to consider the effect of the pH on the environment.
– 522 –
4.8 Premixing Method

(1) Scope of Application

① The performance verification described in this section may be applied to the performance verification of the
subsoil treated by the premixing method aimed at earth pressure reduction and liquefaction, prevention.
② The meanings of the terms used in connection with this method are as follows:
Treated soil: Soil improved by stabilizer.
Treated subsoil: Subsoil improved by filling with treated soil.
Area of improvement: Area to be filled with treated soil.
Stabilizer content: Weight ratio of stabilizer to dry weight of parent material, expressed as a
percentage.
Reduction of earth pressure: Measures to reduce earth pressure against walls (active earth pressure).
③ In the premixing method, stabilizer and antisegregation agent are added into soil for reclamation, mixed in
advance and used as landfill materials to develop stable ground. The subsoil improvement is materialized as
cement-based stabilizers add cohesion to the soil used in landfill by means of chemical solidification action
between soil and stabilizer. This method can be applied to backfill behind quaywalls and revetments, filling of
cellular-bulkhead, replacement after sea bottom excavation and refilling.
④ Soils applicable to the treatment mentioned herein are sand and sandy soils, excluding cohesive soil. This is
because the mechanical properties of the treated cohesive soil differ considerably depending on the characteristic
of soil. It is necessary to conduct appropriate examination according to the property of soil subject to treatment.
⑤ Besides reducing earth pressure and preventing liquefaction, this method can also be used to improve the soil
strength necessary for construction of facilities on reclaimed lands. In this case, the strength of treated ground
should be evaluated appropriately.
⑥ For items in connection with the performance verification and execution when using the premixing method
which are not mentioned herein, Reference 1) can be used as a reference.
(2) Basic Concepts
① In performance verification, it is necessary to determine the required strength of the treated soil correctly, and
to determine the stabilizer content and area of improvement appropriately.
② When evaluating the earth pressure reduction effect or examining the stability of the subsoil against circular slip
failure, the treated soil should be regarded as a “c- φ material”.
③ The treated subsoil may be thought to slide as a rigid body during an earthquake because the treated subsoil
has a rigidity considerably greater than that of the surrounding untreated subsoil. Therefore, when determining
the area of improvement, the stability against sliding of the subsoil including superstructures shall also be
examined.
④ It is preferable to determine the standard design strength and area of improvement of treated subsoil by the
procedure shown in Fig. 4.8.1.
⑤ In general, when the parent soil is sandy soil, the treated soil is regarded as c-ø material. Therefore, the shear
strength of the treated soil can be calculated using equation (4.8.1).
(4.8.1)
where
τf : shear strength of treated soil (kN/m 2)
σ’ : effective confining pressure (kN/m 2)
c : cohesion (kN/m 2)
φ : angle of shear resistance (º)
c and φ correspond to the cohesion cd and angle of shear resistance ød obtained by the consolidated-drained
triaxial compression test, respectively.
– 523 –
Preliminary survey and tests of untreated and treated soil
Determination of angle of shear resistance (φ ) of treated subsoil
Assumption of cohesion (c) and area of improvement of treated subsoil
Examination of liquefaction countermeasures

and earth pressure reduction effect
Stability of facilities
Determination of standard design strength

and area of improvement of treated subsoil
Fig. 4.8.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Premixing Method
4.8.2 Preliminary Survey
(1) The characteristics of soil used in the premixing method need to be evaluated appropriately by preliminary surveys
and tests.
(2) Preliminary surveys and tests include soil tests on particle density, water content, grain size distribution, maximum
and minimum densities of soils to be used for filling, and surveys on records of soil properties and field tests of the
existing reclaimed ground nearby.
(3) Because the water content, and fines content of soils used in reclamation will affect the selection of the mixing
method when mixing the stabilizer and strength grain after mixing, caution is necessary.
(4) The density of the treated subsoil after placement should be estimated properly in advance. Because the density
of the subsoil after reclamation is basic data for determining the density for samples in laboratory mix proportion
tests and has a major effect on the test results, caution is necessary.
4.8.3 Determination of Strength of Treated Soil
(1) The strength of treated soil needs to be determined in such a way to yield the required improvement effects, by
taking account of the purpose and conditions of application of this method.
(2) For the purpose of reducing the earth pressure, the cohesion c of treated soil needs to be determined such that the
earth pressure is reduced to the required value.
(3) For the purpose of preventing liquefaction, the strength of treated soil needs to be determined such that the treated
soil will not liquefy.
(4) There is a significant relationship between the liquefaction strength and the unconfined compressive strength of
treated soils. It is reported that treated soils with the unconfined compressive strength of 100 kN/m2 or more will
not liquefy. Therefore, when aiming to prevent liquefaction, the unconfined compressive strength as an index for
strength of treated soil should be set at 100 kN/m 2. When the unconfined compressive strength of treated soil is
set at less than 100 kN/m2, it is preferable that cyclic triaxial tests should be conducted to confirm that the soil will
not liquefy.
(5) In determining the cohesion of treated soil, the internal friction angle φ of treated soil is first estimated. Then,
the cohesion is determined by reverse calculation using an earth pressure calculation formula that takes account
of cohesion and angle of shear resistance with the target reduced earth pressure and the estimated angle of shear
resistance φ .
– 524 –
(6) According to the results of consolidated-drained triaxial compression tests of treated soil with a stabilizer content
of less than 10%, the angle of shear resistance of the treated soil is equal to or slightly larger than that of the parent
soil. Accordingly, in the performance verification, to be on the safe side, the angle of shear resistance of the
treated soil can be assumed to be the same as that of the untreated soil.
(7) When obtaining the angle of shear resistance from a triaxial compression test, the angle of shear resistance is
obtained from the consolidated-drained triaxial compression test based on the estimated density and effective
overburden pressure of the subsoil after landfilling. The angle of shear resistance used in the performance
verification is generally set at a value 5-10º smaller than that obtained from tests. When a triaxial test is not
performed, ø can be obtained from the estimated N-value of the subsoil after landfilling. In that case, the N-value
of the untreated subsoil shall be used.
4.8.4 Design of Mix Proportion
(1) Mix proportion of treated soil shall be determined by conducting appropriate laboratory mixing tests. A reduction
of strength shall be taken into account because the in-situ strength may be lower than the strength obtained from
laboratory mixing tests.
(2) The purpose of laboratory mixing tests is to obtain the relationship between the strength of treated soil and the
stabilizer content, and to determine the stabilizer content so as to obtain the required strength of treated soil.
The relationship between the strength of treated soil and the stabilizer content is greatly affected by the soil type
and the density of soil. Therefore, test conditions of laboratory mixing tests is preferable to be as similar to field
conditions as possible.
(3) For the purpose of reducing earth pressure, consolidated-drained triaxial compression tests should be carried out
to obtain the relationship among the cohesion c, the angle of shear resistance φ , and the stabilizer content. For the
purpose of preventing liquefaction, unconfined compression tests should be conducted to obtain the relationship
between the unconfined compressive strength and the stabilizer content.
(4) It is important to grasp the difference between in-situ and laboratory strengths when setting the increase factor for
mix proportion design in the field. According to past experience, the laboratory strength is larger than the in-situ
strength, and the increase factor of α= 1.1 to 2.2 is used. Here, the increase factor α is defined as the ratio of the
laboratory to the field strengths in terms of unconfined compressive strength.
4.8.5 Examination of Area of Improvement
(1) The area to be improved by the premixing method needs to be determined as appropriate in view of the type of
structure to be constructed and the conditions of actions as well as the stability of subsoil and structures as a
whole.
(2) For the purpose of reducing earth pressure, the area of improvement needs to be determined in such a way that
the earth pressure of treated subsoil acting on a structure should be small enough to guarantee the stability of the
structure.
(3) For the purpose of preventing liquefaction, the area of improvement needs to be determined in such a way that
liquefaction in the adjacent untreated subsoil will not affect the stability of structure.
(4) The actions and resistances to be considered on the facilities and the treated subsoil in the case that liquefaction is
expected on the untreated subsoil behind the treated subsoil and in the case no liquefaction is expected are shown
in Fig. 4.8.2 and Fig. 4.8.3, respectively.
(5) For either reduction of earth pressure or prevention of liquefaction, it is necessary to conduct an examination of
stability against sliding during action of ground motion, including the treated subsoil and the object facilities, and
circular slip failure in the Permanent situation.
① Examination of sliding during action of ground motion
Examination of sliding during action of ground motion is performed because there is a possibility that the treated
subsoil may slide as a rigid body. As the partial factor γa which is used in this case, in general, an appropriate
value of 1.0 or higher is assumed, and as the characteristic value of the coefficient of friction of the bottom of
the treated subsoil, 0.6 can be used. Provided, however, that when the original subsoil in the calculation of the
sliding resistance of the bottom of the treated subsoil is clay, the cohesion of the original subsoil can be used.
The resultant of earth pressure in equation (4.8.2) of stability against sliding when untreated ground does not
liquefy, as presented below, shows a simple case in which the residual water level is at the ground surface. When
the residual water level exists underground and the untreated ground liquefies, it is considered that the subsoil
above the residual water level also liquefies by propagation of excess water pressure from the lower subsoil.
– 525 –
Such cases can be treated as liquefaction reaching the surface.
When the purpose is reduction of earth pressure, in general, the area of improvement takes the shape of the
treated subsoil as shown in Fig. 4.8.2, such that the active collapse plane is completely included in the stabilized
body. On the other hand, when the purpose is a countermeasure against liquefaction, if the shape of the treated
subsoil shown in Fig. 4.8.2 is adopted, liquid pressure from the liquefied subsoil will act upward on the treated
subsoil, reducing the weight of the treated subsoil. Because the shape of the treated subsoil shown in Fig. 4.8.2
is disadvantageous for sliding in comparison with the shape of the treated subsoil shown in Fig. 4.8.3, when the
purpose is use as a liquefaction countermeasure, the shape of the treated subsoil shown in Fig. 4.8.3 is generally
used.
(a) When purpose is reduction of earth pressure
If the positive direction of the respective actions and resistances is defined as shown in Fig. 4.8.2, the
verification of stability against sliding can be performed using equation (4.8.2). In the following, the symbol
γ is the partial factor of its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and design
value, respectively.
(4.8.2)
In this equation, the design values can be calculated as follows.
(when original subsoil under treated subsoil is sand)
(when original subsoil under treated subsoil is clay)

(4.8.3)
where
R1 : frictional resistance of bottom surface of structure (ab) (kN/m)
R2 : frictional resistance of bottom surface of treated subsoil (bc) (kN/m)
Pw1 : resultant of hydrostatic water pressure acting on front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Pw2 : resultant of dynamic water pressure acting on front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Pw3 : resultant of hydrostatic water pressure acting on back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
H1 : inertia force acting on structure (abef) (kN/m)
H2 : inertia force acting on treated subsoil body (bcde) (kN/m)
Ph : horizontal component of resultant of active earth pressure during earthquake from untreated
subsoil acting on back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
Pv : vertical component of resultant of active earth pressure during earthquake from untreated
w' : unit weight of untreated subsoil in water (kN/m3)
kh : seismic coefficient for verification
Ka : coefficient of active earth pressure during earthquake of untreated subsoil
h1 : water level at front of structure (m)
h2 : residual water level, for simplicity in this explanation, the residual water level in Fig. 4.8.2 is
assumed to be the ground surface.
δ : friction angle of wall between treated subsoil and untreated subsoil (cd) (º)
– 526 –
φ : angle of back of treated subsoil (cd) to vertical direction (º), counterclockwise is positive; in Fig.
4.8.2, the value of φ is negative.
f1 : coefficient of friction of bottom of structure
f2 : coefficient of friction of bottom of treated subsoil (= 0.6)
c : cohesion of original subsoil (kN/m 2)
l bc : length of bottom of treated subsoil (bc) (m)
γa : structural analysis factor
(b) When used as liquefaction countermeasure

If the positive direction of the respective actions and resistances is defined as shown in Fig. 4.8.3, verification
of stability against sliding can be performed using equation (4.8.4). In the following, the symbol γ is the partial
factor of its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and design value, respectively.
When the untreated subsoil at the back of the treated subsoil liquefy, the static pressure and dynamic pressure
from the untreated subsoil generally act on the back of the treated subsoil as shown in Fig. 4.8.3. Static pressure
can be calculated by addition hydrostatic pressure to earth pressure, assuming the coefficient of earth pressure
to be 1.0. Dynamic pressure can be calculated using equation (2.2.1) and equation (2.2.2) shown in Part II,
Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure. Provided, however, that the unit weight of water in equation (2.2.1)
and equation (2.2.2) is replaced with the unit weight of saturated soil.
(4.8.4)
In this equation, the design values can be calculated as follows.

(when original subsoil under
treated subsoil is sand)
(when original subsoil under
treated subsoil is clay)

(4.8.5)
where
R1 : frictional resistance of bottom surface of structure (ab) (kN/m)
R2 : frictional resistance of bottom surface of treated subsoil (bc) (kN/m)
Pw1 : resultant of hydrostatic water pressure acting on front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Pw2 : resultant of dynamic water pressure acting on front of structure (af) (kN/m)
H1 : inertia force acting on structure (abef) (kN/m)
H2 : inertia force acting on treated subsoil body (bcde) (kN/m)
Ph : horizontal component of resultant of active earth pressure during earthquake from untreated
w’ : unit weight of untreated subsoil in water (kN/m3)
Ka : coefficient of active earth pressure during earthquake of untreated subsoil
h1 : water level at front of structure (m)
h2 : water level used in calculating Ph due to liquefaction (This water level is assumed to be the
ground surface level.)
φ : angle of back of treated subsoil (cd) to vertical direction (º), counterclockwise is positive; in Fig.
4.8.3, the value of φ is negative.
– 527 –
f1 : coefficient of friction of bottom of structure
f2 : coefficient of friction of bottom of treated subsoil (= 0.6)
c : cohesion of original subsoil (kN/m 2)
l bc : length of bottom of treated subsoil (bc) (m)
(c) Partial factors

For all partial factors in the examination of sliding during action of ground motion, including the treated
subsoil and the object facilities, 1.00 can be used.
② Examination of stability against circular slip failure in Permanent situation
For the examination of stability against the circular slip failure in the Permanent situation, 3 Stability of Slopes
can be used as a reference.
(6) When it is not possible to secure the stability of the facilities or the ground as a whole, it is necessary to modify
the area of improvement, or to increase the standard design strength of the treated soil, etc.
Structure Treated subsoil Untreated subsoil (not liquefied)

f e d
(–) ψ (+)
H2 Ph
H1 h2
h1 Pv
Pw2 W1 W1' W2 W2 '
Pw1
Pw3
a b c
R1 R2
Fig. 4.8.2 Diagram of Actions when Purpose is Reduction of Earth Pressure
Structure Treated subsoil Untreated subsoil (not liquefied)

f e d
Dynamic pressure
(–) ψ (+) (earth + water)
Pv
H1 H2
h2
h1 Pw2 Ph
Pw1 W1 W1' W2 W2 ' Static pressure
(earth + water)
a b c
R1 R2
Fig. 4.8.3 Diagram of Actions when Used as Liquefaction Countermeasure
– 528 –
4.9 Sand Compaction Pile Method (for Sandy Soil Ground)

4.9.1 Basic Policy for Performance Verification
(1) The performance verification of the sand compaction pile method to densify sandy soils needs to be conducted
appropriately after examining the characteristics of subsoil properties and construction methods, as well as by
taking account of the past construction records and the results of test execution.
(2) Purpose of Improvement
The purpose of improving loose sandy subsoil can be classified into (a) improving liquefaction strength, (b)
reducing settlement, and (c) improving the stability of slopes or bearing capacity.
(3) Factors affecting compaction effect
In many cases, compaction to firm ground of loose sand subsoil cannot be achieved adequately by vibration or
impact from the surface. Therefore, the methods normally adopted are to construct piles of sand or gravel in the
loose sandy subsoil using hollow steel pipes or to drive special vibrating rods, so as to vibrate the surrounding
ground.
4.9.2 Verification of Sand Supply Rate
(1) In the verification of the sand supply rate, improvement ratio or replacement ratio, it is necessary to conduct an
adequate examination of the characteristics of the object ground, necessary relative density, and N-value.
(2) Setting of Target N-value
It is necessary to set the N-value of the improvement target. Furthermore, when the purpose of the sand compaction
pile method is a liquefaction countermeasure, it is necessary to set the N-value to a value at which it is judged that
liquefaction will not occur under the object ground motion. The N-value is defined as the limit N-value.
(3) Sand Supply Rate
The sand supply rate is the percentage of the sand piles after improvement in the original subsoil, as shown in
equation (4.9.1).
(4.9.1)
(4) Determination of Sand Supply Rate when Existing Data are not available 87)
The sand supply rate is determined using the relationship between the sand supply rate and the N-value after
improvement shown by the following equation. Provided, however, that the existing data used in deriving the
following equation (4.9.2) through equation (4.9.9) are sand supply rate FV = 0.07-0.20 and fines content Fc = 60%
or less. Accordingly, caution is necessary when using conditions outside of this range.
(4.9.2)
where
N1 : N-value after sand supply
CM : coefficient; here, CM = (1/0.16)2 may be used.
κ : coefficient; here κ = 5·10 –0.01Fc may be used.
c : coefficient; here may be used.
Fc : coefficient; fines content (%)

γi* : coefficient calculated using equation (4.9.3)

(4.9.3)
where
N0 : N-value of original subsoil
A : coefficient calculated using equation (4.9.4)
– 529 –
(4.9.4)
where
σ v’ : effective overburden pressure when measuring N-value (kN/m 2)
Equation (4.9.2) can be solved for the sand supply rate Fv, and the sand supply rate for obtaining the target
N-value can be obtained using the following equation.
(4.9.5)

Because equation (4.9.2) and equation (4.9.3) do not consider the effect of the increase in lateral pressure
due to sand supply or the effect of coefficient of earth pressure at rest K0, there is a tendency to underestimate
the N-value after sand supply when the sand supply rate is large. When a result is obtained in which the sand
supply rate exceeds FV = 0.2, a method 88) using the following equation, which considers the effect of K0, is
also available. Provided, however, that caution is necessary, as predictive accuracy deteriorates due to the large
variation in the relationship between the sand supply rate and the value of K0 used in the derivation process of
the following equation. Accordingly, in order to avoid dangerous results, when using the following equation,
it shall be assumed that FV = 0.2, even when the results of calculation of the sand supply rate for obtaining the
target N-value are less than FV = 0.2.
(4.9.6)
where
CM : coefficient; here, CM = (1/0.16)2 may be used.
κ : coefficient; here κ = 4・10 –0.01Fc may be used.
(4.9.7)
where
AK1 : coefficient calculated using equation (4.9.8)
(4.9.8)
Here, α is a coefficient expressing the rate of increase in K0 relative to the sand supply rate, and can be
assumed to be α = 4.
AK0 : coefficient calculated using equation (4.9.9)
(4.9.9)
συ’ : effective overburden pressure when measuring N-value (kN/m 2)
Provided, however, that when the sand supply rate for the target N-value is FV < 0.2, FV = 0.2 shall be used.
(5) Setting of Sand Supply Rate, when the Existing Data are Available
The increase in the N-value after execution of the sand compaction pile method is strongly affected by the
subsoil characteristics and the execution method. Therefore, when abundant execution data are available for
the construction site or when test execution is performed, determination based on actual records of execution is
– 530 –
preferable, the method in (4) notwithstanding. When the method in (4) is to be used, the resetting of the parameter
κ in equation (4.9.5) should be done as follows using the existing data. When using a new compacting method, it
is advisable to reset the parameter κ in equation (4.9.5) by the following method using own data.
The parameter κ of equation (4.9.5) can be given by equation (4.9.10). Therefore, if data are available for the
N-value after sand supply in the sand compaction pile method, the N-value before sand supply, the fines content,
and the sand supply rate, κ can be calculated by using equation (4.9.10).

(4.9.10)
where
(4.9.11)
CM : coefficient; here CM = (1/0.16)2 may be used.
A : coefficient; here (4.9.12)
It is permissible to determine the relational equation for κ and the fines content by obtaining κ from the
respective sand supply rates and N-values before and after improvement, and arranging the relationship between
κ and the fines content as shown in Fig. 4.9.1. Here, it is basically assumed that the relational equation between κ
and the fines content is an exponential function as shown in (4).
In parameter setting, when there is a large difference in the fines content before and after improvement, and
when the N-value before improvement is larger, the data for that point shall not be used. When the relationship
between the value of K0 and the sand supply rate is actually measured, the parameters in equation (4.9.6) and
equation (4.9.7) which consider the influence of the value of K0 can be reset. For items related to parameter setting
in this case and related matters, Reference 2) can be used as reference.
25
Exponential regression curve of plot

Approximation line at κ = 5・10-0.01Fc
20
Sand supply rate Fv = 0.7 ~ 0.20
15
κ
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fines content (%)
Fig. 4.9.1 Relationship between κ and Fines Content
– 531 –
(6) Other Methods of Setting Sand Supply Rate
The methods of setting the sand supply rate shown in the above (4) and (5) consider compaction of the original
subsoil resulting from repeated shear by sand supply under sand pile driving, and were derived by analysis of past
execution data. In addition to these methods, methods referred to as A method, B method, and C method have also
been proposed and have been used for some time.89) In the A method, the relationship between the N-value before
and after sand supply is shown in chart form, using the sand supply rate as a parameter, and thus enables simple
calculation of the sand supply rate. Provided, however, that this method has low generality in comparison with
other methods because it does not consider the effect of the overburden pressure or the effect of the fines content.
The B method uses empirical formulae for the relative density, N-value, effective overburden pressure, and grain
size, and obtains the sand supply rate for the target N-value assuming that the ground is compacted only by the
amount of the sand piles supplied. Provided, however, that this method does not consider the effect of the fines
content. The C method is proposed using a concept which is basically the same as in the B method. The major
difference with the B method is the fact that the effect of the fines content is considered. Thus, the C method has
the highest generality of these three methods. The D method is also proposed.89) The D method considers the
effect of ground rise accompanying driving of the sand piles, which is not considered in the C method.
Here, the C method is described here, as this method has the highest generality and most extensive record of
actual results among the three methods in conventional use.90)
① emax and emin are obtained from the fines content Fc.
(4.9.13)
(4.9.14)
② The relative density Dr0 and e0 are obtained from the N-value of the original subsoil N0 and the effective
surcharge pressure σ v'’.
(4.9.15)
(4.9.16)
③ The reduction rate β for the increase in the N-value due to the fines fraction is obtained.
(4.9.17)
④ A corrected N-value (N1’) is obtained from the N-value (N1) calculated assuming no fines fraction, considering
the reduction rate β.
(4.9.18)
⑤ e1 is obtained using equation (4.9.16) in the above ② by substituting N1’ for N0.
⑥ Sand supply rate Fv is obtained using equation (4.9.19) from e0, e1.
(4.9.19)
– 532 –
4.10 Sand Compaction Pile Method for Cohesive Soil Ground

4.10.1 Basic Policy of Performance Verification
[1] Scope of Application
The scope of application of the performance verification of the sand compaction pile method, SCP method, described
here shall be improvement of the lower ground of gravity-type breakwaters, revetments, quaywalls, and similar
structures.
[2] Basic Concept
(1) The SCP method for cohesive soil ground is a method in which casing pipes are driven to the required depth at a
constant interval in cohesive soil ground, and the ground is compacted and sand piles are constructed simultaneously
with the discharge of sand into the ground from inside the casing pipes. As features of the improved subsoil, the
soil is affected in a complex manner by (a) the strength of the sand piles, (b) the sand pile replacement rate, (c) the
positional relationship of the area of improvement to structures, (d) conditions related to actions such as intensity,
direction, loading path and loading speed, (e) the strength of the ground between the sand piles, (f) the confining
pressure applied to the sand piles by the ground between the piles, (g) the effects of disturbances inside and outside
the area of improvement by sand pile driving, (h) the characteristics of the ground rise at the ground surface due
to sand pile driving, and whether this rise is to be used or not.
(2) Effect of Execution
Because a large quantity of sand piles are driven into the ground in the SCP method, the ground is forcibly pressed
out in the horizontal and upward directions, which may result in disturbance of the ground and reduction of
strength in the construction area and its surroundings. This displacement of the ground, and spills of excess sand
in the casing pipes on the ground surface, may also cause a heave in the ground surface. Thus, when applying the
SCP method, it is necessary to examine the effect of this type of ground displacement on neighboring structures.
(3) Performance Verification Method
Methods of performance verification of composite ground comprising sand piles and the ground between the
piles include (a) a method in which the circular slip failure calculation method is applied with corresponding
changes using, as a base, an evaluation equation for mean shear strength modified to reflect the characteristics of
the composite ground, and (b) a method in which the composite ground is divided for convenience into a part that
behaves as sandy ground and a part that behaves as cohesive soil ground, and the actions are redistributed so that
the safety of the respective parts against circular slip failure agrees.99), 100) At present, the performance verification
by the former method is the general practice.
4.10.2 Sand Piles
(1) Materials for sand pile should have high permeability, low fines content of less than 75µ m, well-graded grain size
distribution, ease of compaction, and sufficient strength as well as ease of discharge out of casing. When the sand
piles with a low replacement area ratio are positively expected to function as drain piles to accelerate consolidation
of cohesive soil layer, the permeability of the sand pile material and prevention of clogging are important. The
permeability requirement is relatively less important in the case of improvement with a high replacement ratio,
that is close to the sand replacement. Therefore, materials for sand pile need to be selected considering the
replacement ratio and the purpose of improvement.
(2) There are no particular specifications on materials to be used for the sand piles. Any sand material that can be
supplied near the site may be used from the economical viewpoint as far as it satisfies the requirements. Fig.
4.10.1 shows several examples of sands used in the past. Recently, sand with a slightly higher fines content have
often been used.
– 533 –
0.075 0.42 2.0 5.0 20.0

Silt Fine sand Coarse sand Fine Medium Coarse gravel
gravel gravel
90
Passing weight percentage (%)
80 Case1
70
Case2
60
Case3
50
40
Case4
30
20
Case5
10
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 50.0

(0.075) (0.25) (0.42) (2.0) (9.52)
Grain size (mm)
Fig. 4.10.1 Examples of Grain Size Distribution of Sands Used for Sand Compaction Piles
4.10.3 Cohesive Soil Ground
(1) Estimation of Amount of Ground Heave

① The amount of ground heave accompanying sand pile driving is affected by a large number of factors, including
conditions related to the original subsoil, the replacement ratio, conditions related to execution. Therefore,
several estimation methods using statistical treatment of the existing measured data have been proposed.107), 108),
109) Shiomi and Kawamoto 107) proposed equation (4.10.1) , defining the ratio of the amount of ground heave to
the design supply of sand piles as the ground heave ratio μ.
(4.10.1)
where
as : replacement ratio
L : mean length of sand piles (m)
V : ground heave (m3)
Vs : design sand supply (m3)
μ : ground heave ratio
② Equation (4.10.1) was obtained by multiple regression analysis of 28 examples of execution with 6m≤L≤20m,
adding supplementary data on six sites, including two examples of sand piles with lengths of 21m and one
example of a length of 25.5m. As a result of the analysis, it was found that the contribution ratio to μ decreases
in the order of 1/L, as, qu, the lowest contribution ratio being that of qu, namely unconfined compressive strength
of original subsoil.
(2) Physical Properties and Strength Evaluation of Heaved Soil
Conventionally, there were many cases in which ground heave was removed. Recently, however, ground heave
has been effectively utilized as part of the foundation ground in an increasing number of cases. In such cases, it
is necessary to investigate the physical properties and strength of the heaved soil.
Where the physical properties of heaved soil due to driving of sand piles are concerned, an example 114) has
been reported in which the original subsoil was improved at a replacement rate of 70%, and the heaved soil portion
was improved so as to have a replacement ratio of 40% with ø1.2m diameter of sand drain piles driven in square
arrangement of 1.7m intervals with the same construction equipment without compaction. Loose sand piles with
the mean N-value of 3.6 had been formed in the heaved soil area, and the height of the heaved soil in the area of
improvement was 3-4m. Tests of this heaved soil immediately after sand pile driving revealed that the physical
– 534 –
properties such as unit weight, moisture content, and grain size composition of the heaved soil were substantially
unchanged from those of the original subsoil to a depth equivalent to the height of the heaved soil. Table 4.10.1
110) shows the results of a comparison of the unconfined compressive strength q of the heaved soil and q as the
u u0
mean value of the unconfined compressive strength before improvement of the original subsoil down to a depth
equal to the height of the heaved soil. In the table, the strength of heaved soil outside the area of improvement is
shown separately into cases within the range of 45º or 60º from the bottom end of the sand compaction piles. The
strength of the heaved soil in the improved area showed a strength decrease of approximately 50% due to driving
of the sand piles, but recovered to the original level in 1.5-3.5 months. The strength reduction of the heaved soil
outside the improved area was reportedly 30-40%, and recovery was slow, requiring 8 months after pile driving
for attain the original subsoil level.
For the final shape and physical properties of heaved soil in case of compacting in the heaved soil, the report
by Fukute et al.109) provides a useful information.
Table 4.10.1 Strength Reduction and Recovery in Heaved Soil 110)
Immediately after 1.5-3.5 months after

Before construction
construction construction
In improved area 1.00 0.46 0.93
qu / qu 0 Outside improved area (45º) 1.00 0.62 0.65
Outside improved area (60º) 1.00 0.72 0.72
4.10.4 Formula for Shear Strength of Improved Subsoil
(1) Several formulae have been proposed for calculation of the shear strength of improved subsoil which is composite
ground comprising sand piles and soft cohesive soil.99) However, equation (4.10.2) is the most commonly used,
irrespective of the replacement ratio (see Fig. 4.10.2). When as ≥ 0.7, there are many cases in which the first term
in equation (4.10.2) is ignored, and the whole area of improvement is evaluated as uniform sandy soil with ø = 30º,
disregarding equation (4.10.2).
Slip line
Sand
pile
Cohesive
soil
Fig. 4.10.2 Shear Strength of Composite Ground
(4.10.2)
where
as : replacement ratio of sand pile = (area of one sand pile)/(effective cross-sectional area governed
by sand pile)
c0 : undrained shear strength of original subsoil, when z = 0 (kN/m 2)
c0 + kz : undrained shear strength of original subsoil (kN/m 2)
k : increase ratio in strength of original subsoil in depth direction (kN/m3)
n : stress sharing ratio ( n = Δσ s Δσ c )
U : average degree of consolidation
– 535 –
z : vertical coordinate (m)
τ : average shear strength demonstrated at position of slip failure surface (kN/m 2)
μs : stress concentration coefficient on sand pile (μs = Δσs Δσz = n/{1+ (n −1) as})
μc : stress reduction coefficient of clay part ( μc = Δσc/ Δσz = 1/{1+ (n −1) as})
w s : unit weight of sand pile, when submerged, unit weight in water (kN/m3)
φ s : angle of shear resistance of sand pile (º)
θ : angle of slip failure surface to horizontal (º)
Δσz : mean increment of vertical stress acting at position of object slip failure surface (kN/m2)
Δσs : increment of vertical stress acting at sand pile at position of object slip failure surface (kN/m 2)
Δσc : increment of vertical stress acting at cohesive soil between sand piles at position of object slip
failure surface (kN/m 2)
Δc / Δp : strength increase ratio of original subsoil
(2) Constants used in Performance Verification

In the past examples of performance verification, the constants used in equation (4.10.2) varied over a wide range.
The values of the constants used in the performance verification should be set considering the strength of the
original subsoil, the applicable margin of safety, the method of performance verification to be used (see 4.10.6
Performance Verification), and the speed of construction. The standard values of the stress sharing ratio and the
angle of shear resistance obtained from past examples using equation (4.10.2) are as follows:
as ≤ 0.4 n = 3 φ = 30º
0.4 ≤ as ≤ 0.7 n = 2 φs = 30º-35º
as ≥ 0.7 n=1 φs = 35º
In recent years, the number of examples in which slag and similar materials were used as materials for sand
piles has increased. Slag include materials which can be expected to have comparatively high angles of shear
resistance. When such materials are to be used, performance verification may be performed using an angle of
shear resistance close to the measured value, provided adequate caution is used in setting the stress sharing ratio.
(3) Classification of Shear Strength Formulae of Composite Ground
In the past examples of performance verification, in addition to equation (4.10.2), the following three equations are
used.115) Equation (4.10.4) and equation (4.10.5) are those proposed as equations for shear strength of composite
ground with high replacement ratios. According to the existing survey results,99) with low replacement ratios
of as ≤ 0.4, almost all examples of performance verification used equation (4.10.2), and very few examples used
equation (4.10.3). Similarly, when 0.4 ≤ a s ≤ 0.6, the majority of examples used equation (4.10.2), and examples
using equation (4.10.4) accounted for only about 1/5 of the total. When 0.6 < as, equation (4.10.4) and equation
(4.10.5) were frequently used.
(4.10.3)
(4.10.4)
(4.10.5)
Here, the definitions of symbols in the above equations which are different from those in equation (4.10.2) are
as follows.
wm : mean unit weight (wm = wsas + wc (1− as )
wc : unit weight of cohesive soil, when submerged, unit weight in water (kN/m3)
φm : mean angle of shear resistance when improved subsoil with height replacement ratio is assumed
to be uniform subsoil
φm = tan–1 (μsas tanφs)
4.10.5 Actions
(1) The displacement of the main body during earthquake with subsoil improved by the sand compaction pile
method tends to be reduced. When setting the seismic coefficient for verification of the main body in case
of soil improvement by the sand compaction pile method, it is possible to set a rational seismic coefficient by
appropriately evaluating this reduction effect. For the basic flow and items requiring caution when calculating the
seismic coefficient for verification, Chapter 5, 2.2.2(1) Seismic coefficient for verification used in verification
of damage due to sliding and overturning of wall body and insufficient bearing capacity of foundation
ground in variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion can be used as a reference.
– 536 –
The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification of gravity-type quaywalls in the case of soil
improvement by the sand compaction pile method with a replacement ratio of 70% or more can be calculated using
equation (4.10.6) by multiplying the maximum value of corrected acceleration obtained for the unimproved soil by
a reduction coefficient. In calculating the maximum value of corrected acceleration for the unimproved soil, this
part, Chapter 5, 2.2.2 (1) Seismic coefficient for verification used in verification of damage due to sliding and
overturning of wall body and insufficient bearing capacity of foundation ground in variable situations in
respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion can be used as a reference. It should be noted that this reduction
coefficient was obtained based on a 2-dimensional nonlinear effective stress analysis for unimproved subsoil and
improved subsoil with a 70% replacement ratio for gravity-type quaywalls.
(4.10.6)
where
kh’ : characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification
αc : maximum value of corrected acceleration (cm/s2)
g : gravitational acceleration ( = 980cm/s2)
Da : allowable deformation (cm) ( = 10cm)
D r : standard deformation (cm) ( = 10cm)
c : reduction coefficient of seismic characteristics due to improved subsoil (c = 0.75)
(1) Examination of Circular Slip Failure

① The modified Fellenius method is frequently used in circular slip failure calculations in performance verification
of improved subsoil by the sand compaction pile method. In circular slip failure calculations by the modified
Fellenius method, the subsoil and superstructures are divided into several segments called slices, and the normal
stress on the slip surface is calculated ignoring the statically indeterminate forces acting between slices. That
is, only actions acting on the original subsoil included in a slice portion are assumed to contribute to the normal
stress on the slip surface of that slice. Hereinafter, this normal calculation method is called the “slice method”.
On the other hand, in actual subsoil, loads are distributed in the ground to a certain extent. In order to reflect the
effects of this stress distribution in slip failure calculations, there is a method that the vertical stress increment
Δσz at an arbitrary point on a slip surface obtained using Boussinesq’s equation applies to the modified Fellenius
method. Hereafter, this is called the “stress distribution method”.
② In the performance verification of improved subsoil by the sand compaction pile method, either the slice method
or the stress distribution method can be used. In the examination of circular slip failure, verification can be
performed using equation (4.10.7). In this equation, the subscript d denotes the design value.
(4.10.7)
where
: sum of resistant moments (kN・N)

r : radius of slip circle (m)

s : width of slice segment (m)
θ : angle of slip surface to horizontal (º)
: shear strength of subsoil (kN/m 2)
: sum of acting moments (kN・N)

Case of quaywall:
w' : weight of slice segment (kN/m)

q : surcharge on slice segment (kN/m)
qRWL : buoyancy of slice segment due to difference in water level when the residual water level, RWL,
at the back side of facilities is higher than the water level, LWL, at the front of the facilities ρwg
(RWL - LWL) (kN/m)
x : horizontal distance between center of gravity of slice segment and center of slip failure circle (m)
– 537 –
Case of breakwater:

q : spatially-distributed load of breakwater acting on slice segment when effective weight of
breakwater is divided by its width (kN/m)
In calculating the design values in the equation, Chapter 5, 2.2.3 (5) Examination of Sliding Failure of
Ground in Permanent Situation can be used as a reference for quaywalls, and Chapter 4, 3.1.4 (5) Examination
for Slip of Ground can be used for breakwaters.
The shear strength of the improved subsoil can be calculated by equations (4.10.2) to (4.10.5), depending on
the design conditions. For example, when using equation (4.10.2), the design value of the shear strength of the
improved subsoil can be calculated by the following equation. In this case, Δσz is obtained using Boussinesq’s
equation.
(4.10.8)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equations. The subscript k denotes
the characteristic value. For symbols, etc., equation (4.10.2) can be used as a reference.
③ Fig. 4.10.3 shows a schematic diagram of circular slip failure.
w
θ τ
SCP improved subsoil
Fig. 4.10.3 Schematic Diagram of Circular Slip Failure
④ For partial factors for use in the examination of circular slip failure of improved subsoil when soil improvement
is conducted by the sand compaction pile method with replacement ratios of 30% to 80%, the values shown in
Table 4.10.2 can be used as a reference 116). In this case, caution is necessary, as the partial factors for circular
slip failure shown in 3.2.1 Stability Analysis by Circular Slip Failure Surface cannot be used. In setting
the partial factors in Table 4.10.2, the case in which the slip circle surface passes through sandy subsoil deeper
than the improved subsoil is not examined. Therefore, in such cases, separate study by an appropriate method
is necessary.
– 538 –
Table 4.10.2 Standard Partial Factors
(a) Permanent situation (high earthquake-resistance facilities)
High earthquake-resistance facilities

Standard reliability index βT 3.1
γ α µ/X k V
Circular slip γc ' Cohesion Landfill soil 1.00 0.001 1.00 0.10
failure Original cohesive subsoil 0.95 0.092 1.00 0.10
γtanφ ' Tangent of shear Mound, backfilling stones,
0.95 0.218 1.00 0.10
resistance etc.
SCP tanφs'=0.70 0.80 0.861 1.00 0.05
γ wi Ground, caisson, etc. above level of sea bottom 1.00 –0.041 0.98 0.03
Mound, backfilling stones, etc. 1.05 –0.041 1.02 0.03
Sandy soil below sea bottom (SCP) 1.00 0.069 1.00 0.03
Cohesive soil below sea bottom 1.00 0.009 1.00 0.03
γq Surcharge 1.35 –0.270 1.00 0.40
γRWL Residual water level 1.00 –0.022 1.00 0.05
(b) Permanent situation (revetments and quaywalls)
Others
γ α µ/X k V
Circular slip γc ' Cohesion Landfill soil 1.00 0.001 1.00 0.10
failure Original cohesive soil 1.00 0.092 1.00 0.10
γtanφ ' Tangent of shear Mound, backfilling stones,
0.95 0.218 1.00 0.10
resistance etc.
SCP tanφs'=0.70 0.80 0.861 1.00 0.05
γ wi Ground, caisson, etc. above level of sea bottom 1.00 –0.041 0.98 0.03
Mound, backfilling stones, etc. 1.00 –0.041 1.02 0.03
Sandy soil below sea bottom (SCP) 1.00 0.069 1.00 0.03
γq Surcharge 1.30 –0.270 1.00 0.40
– 539 –
(c) Permanent situation (breakwaters)
Breakwater
γ α µ/X k V
Circular slip γc ' Cohesion Original cohesive soil 0.90 0.484 1.00 0.10
failure γtanφ ' Mound, backfilling stones,
1.00 0.060 1.00 0.10
Tangent of shear etc.
resistance SCP tanφs'=0.70 0.90 0.664 1.00 0.05
γ wi Wave-dissipating works, foot protection works, etc.
1.05 –0.140 1.02 0.03
above sea bottom
Mound 1.05 –0.140 1.02 0.03
Sandy soil below sea bottom (SCP) 1.00 –0.110 1.00 0.03
γq Distributed load (weight of caissons) 1.00 –0.140 0.98 0.02
(2) Examination of Consolidation

① Calculation of consolidation
In performance verification of settlement, equation (4.10.9) can be used.
(4.10.9)

where
Cc : compression index
h : height of embankment (m)
H : thickness of consolidation layer (m)
mv : coefficient of volume compressibility (m 2/kN)
p’ : consolidation pressure (kN/m 2)
p0’ : initial pressure (vertical pressure before construction) (kN/m 2)
pc’ : preconsolidation pressure (kN/m 2)
Sa : allowable residual settlement (m)
U : consolidation rate
e0 : initial void ratio of original subsoil
α : coefficient of stress distribution (ratio of distributed stress in subsoil and consolidation pressure
or embankment pressure)
β : settlement reduction ratio (ratio of settlement of composite ground and settlement of unimproved
subsoil)
γ’ : effective unit weight of embankment (kN/m3)
Δe : reduction of void ratio of original subsoil
Sf0 : settlement without improvement
Sf : residual settlement

② Comparison of calculated settlement and measured values
The residual settlement of improved subsoil is obtained by multiplying the predicted settlement of unimproved
subsoil by the settlement reduction ratio β as shown in equation (4.10.9). The settlement reduction ratio β is
generally expressed in a form similar to the stress reduction coefficient μc. An example of a comparison of the
calculated settlement reduction ratio and measured values is shown in Fig. 4.10.4. Here, the values of β on the
y-axis were obtained by estimating the final settlement of the improved subsoil by approximating the progress
of measured settlement over time as a hyperbola, and estimating the ratio to the calculated final settlement of
the original ground. The Figure also shows the settlement reduction ratio (β =1–as) which is used empirically
– 540 –
with high replacement ratios and settlement reduction ratios for stress sharing ratios of n = 3, 4, and 5. From this
figure, it can be understood that the reduction of settlement due to improvement is large, this effect is influenced
by the replacement ratio, and although variations in the measured values are large, the values are close to those
calculated assuming a stress sharing ratio of approximately 4.
1.0
Marine construction
Land construction
0.8
Settlement ratio β
0.6
0.4 n=3
n=4
0.2 1
β= n=5
1+(n-1)as
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Replacement area ratio as
Fig. 4.10.4 Relationship between Settlement Reduction Ratio and Replacement Rate 109)
③ Comparison between calculated and measured consolidation time

The consolidation rate of subsoil improved by the sand compaction pile method tends to be delayed compared
to that predicted by Barron’s equation. Fig. 4.10.5 based on previous construction data shows the delay in
consolidation in terms of the coefficient of consolidation as a major parameter. In the figure, Cv is the coefficient
of consolidation reverse-analyzed from actual measurements for the time-settlement relationship, and Cv0 is the
coefficient of consolidation obtained from laboratory tests. It can be seen that the time delay in consolidation
becomes greater with the increase in the replacement area ratio.
C vp : The coefficient of consolidation from actual measurements

C v0 : The coefficient of consolidation obtained from laboratory tests
1.0 Marine constructin Land constructin
0.5
C v0
vp/
C
0.2
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Replacement rate as
Fig. 4.10.5 Delay in Consolidation of Subsoil Improved by Sand Compaction Pile Method
④ Comparison of calculated and measured strength increments

The increment of strength of clay between sand piles Δc can be calculated using equation (4.10.10). On the
other hand, the results of a reverse calculation of μc from the measured values of the strength increment of clay
between sand piles are shown in Fig. 4.10.627). The y-axis in the figure expresses the ratio (μc (Δca / Δcc)) of the
measured values Δca of the strength increment in improved subsoil by the sand compaction pile method to the
– 541 –
predicted values Δcc (= ΔσzΔc /ΔpU) of the strength in unimproved subsoil. The measured values of the strength
increment vary, centering around stress sharing ratio n = 3–4.
(4.10.10)
where
μc : stress reduction coefficient of cohesive subsoil portion (μc = Δσc Δσz =1 {1+(n −1)as})
Δσz : mean value of vertical stress increment due to action at object depth (kN/m 2)
Δc /Δp : strength increase rate of original cohesive subsoil
U : mean degree of consolidation
n=1
1.0
cc : calculated increase of cohesion
=c/p s z・U
ca : increase of cohesion based on
0.8 surveys before and after construction
Offshore Land
n=2
c ( c a / c c)
0.6
Kasai-oki
n=3
μ　
0.4 n=4
n=6
0.2
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Replacement area ratio as
Fig. 4.10.6 Strength Increase of Cohesive Soil between Sand Piles in Improved Subsoil 109)
4.11 Rod Compaction Method

In the rod compaction method, it is necessary to conduct performance verification appropriately based on the actual
records of the past execution or the result of test execution adequately considering the characteristics of the object
ground and the characteristics of the execution method.

Because this improvement method is a method of compaction employing only vibration, its effect decreases
exponentially with distance. Accordingly, it is preferable to determine the arrangement and spacing of the vibratory
rods based on the relationship between the pitch of the vibratory rods obtained from the past examples or test execution
and the N-value after execution. In application to the existing sheet pile quaywalls, the spacing of the tie rods should
be considered when determining the spacing in the direction of the face line of the quaywall.
4.12 Vibro-flotation Method

In the vibro-flotation method, it is necessary to conduct performance verification appropriately based on the actual
records of the past execution or the result of test execution, adequately considering the characteristics of the object
ground and the characteristics of the execution method.

[1] Examination using Past Results of Execution
(1) When sufficiently reliable past results such as the characteristics of the object ground, pile driving density in the
vibro-flotation method, capacity of the vibro-float, and correlation with the N-values of the ground before and after
– 542 –
improvement are available, the performance verification of the improvement works can be conducted based on
this.
(2) The limits of applicability of the vibro-flotation method estimated from the examples of execution to date are
as shown in Fig. 4.12.2125). Fig. 4.12.2 is prepared based on the measured values of 11 examples of execution
using square and equilateral triangular patterns with pile spacings of 1.2-1.5m, together with other examples of
execution, and can be used as a rough estimate of the limits of applicability of this method.
Silt Fine sand Coarse sand Gravel

Percentage passing by mass (%) 100
ma tion
ial
of
u
80
trib
ter
e ss od
dis
en eth
tiv n m
up
ze
60 c
ffe tio
ake
n si
f e ata
as m
o
grai
it lo
m -f
40 Li ibro
um
ble
v
nim
fera
Mi
p re
20
N min=8-15 N min=20-15
N min=15-20
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
Grain size (mm)
Fig. 4.12.2 Relationship between Grain Size of Original Subsoil and Minimum N-value after Compaction
(Case of Sandy Soil)
4.13 Drain Method as Liquefaction Countermeasure Works

In the drain method as liquefaction countermeasure works, drains using materials with good permeability are
performed in ground where there is a possibility of liquefaction. These drains reduce the degree of liquefaction by
increasing the permeability of the ground as a whole. Drains are frequently performed in a pile shape; however,
wall shaped drains and shapes which surround the structure have also been considered. If a material with good
permeability, such as sand invasion prevention sheets, is used in backfilling of quaywalls, this can also be considered
a kind of drain. Crushed stone or gravel is frequently used as drain material. Recently, however, perforated pipes of
synthetic resin and similar products have been developed. In short, as indicated above, a variety of drain methods are
used as liquefaction countermeasure works.
4.14 Well Point Method

In some cases, the well point method is used in combination with the sand drain method or plastic board drain method
in order to increase effective weight of ground. Frequently, however, it is used for the purpose of reducing the water
level in sand or sandy silt strata, thereby helping dry work under the ground execution. (Fig. 4.14.1) 129).
Sand
Percentage passing by mass (%)
Clay Silt Gravel

Fine sand Coarse sand
100
Vacuum Gravity
drainage drainage
80 Sumping
Well method
Vacuum well method
60 method
Electro-
osmosis
40
20
0
0.001 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5
Grain size (mm)
Fig. 4.14.1 Applicability of Methods in respect of Soil Grain Size
– 543 –
4.15 Surface Soil Stabilization Method

Surface soil stabilization methods are widely used for purposes such as securing trafficability for construction
equipment in advance of actual soil improvement and increasing the bearing capacity of extremely soft subsoil, for
example, in reclaimed land which has been reclaimed using soft cohesive or extremely soft cohesive soil, and to
prevent residents from falling into the reclaimed land, prevent foul odors, prevent breeding of disease-bearing insects
in standing water, and seal harmful industrial wastes in reclaimed land near residential areas.130), 131)
4.16 Liquefaction Countermeasure Works by Chemical Grouting Methods

(1) The following describes the method of performance verification when using chemical grouting methods for the
purpose of liquefaction countermeasure works. As grouting methods for liquefaction countermeasure works,
the permeation grouting method, multiple permeation grouting method, grouting method, and others have been
developed.132), 133), 134)
(2) Regarding applicable soil quality, based on past records, it can be assumed that the fines content generally
comprises no more than 40% of the subsoil.
(3) In the examination of stability against circular slip failure safety side examination results should be adopted by
evaluating the improved subsoil as c material or c–ø material.
(4) As a guideline, the improved strength for preventing liquefaction of soil with solution-type chemicals is an
unconfined compressive strength of 80–100 kN/m2. This improved strength is equivalent to a high liquefaction
resistance on the order of R L20 = 0.4 of cyclic shearing stress ratio in the cyclic undrained triaxial test. Here,
soil improved by solution-type chemical grout, even when its unconfined compressive strength is 100kN/m 2,
is not always regarded as a material which does not liquefy due to such as its deformation characteristic under
cyclic motions. Therefore, it is necessary to specify the improved strength by calculating actions in accordance
with the performance criteria of the facilities. On the contrary, even with very low improved strength, such as
an unconfined compressive strength of the order of 16kN/m2, it has been reported that dilatancy characteristics
change from loosely filled sand to dense sand, in that fluid liquefaction like that in loose sand is not observed,
and liquefaction potential is greatly improved.
4.16.2 Setting of Improvement Ratio

In principle, the improvement ratio shall be 100%, namely the entire area subject to the improvement shall be
improved. In cases where the improvement ratio is to be reduced, a careful examination should be made, for example,
by confirming that settlement and deformation which are detrimental to facilities will not occur by conducting model
tests, etc.
4.17 Pneumatic Flow Mixing Method

(1) It is necessary to conduct performance verification of the pneumatic flow mixing method by appropriately setting
the necessary strength of the treated subsoil, area of improvement, etc. based on surveys and test results of the soil
which is to be improved, and the stabilized soil, and the conditions of application.
(2) In the pneumatic flow mixing method, stabilizer is added to the soil being improved, for example, dredged soil,
during pneumatic transportation. The object soil and stabilizer are mixed using the turbulence effect of the plug
flow generated in the transport pipe, and the mixture is then placed at the designated location. For the principle
and features of this execution method, Manual on Pneumatic Flow Mixing Technology 135), 136) can be used as
a reference.
– 544 –
4.18 Active Earth Pressure of Geotechnical Materials Treated with Stabilizer

4.18.1 General
(1) This section describes fundamentals of performance verification for calculation of active earth pressure when
using geotechnical materials solidified by stabilizers such as cement as backfill materials.
Solidifying agents considered in this section include those that harden naturally and others that are hardened
artificially by adding cement or other stabilizer. Materials developed to date are listed below. The variety of
materials tend to increase in future.
① Premixed soil (treated soil by premixing method)
② Lightweight treated soil
③ Cement-mixed soils other than the above two
④ Solidified coal ash
⑤ Self-hardening coal ash
⑥ Blast furnace granulated slag used for solidifying
4.18.2 Active Earth Pressure

[1] Outline
(1) When using solidified geotechnical materials, the material properties and the characteristics of earthquake motion
should be appropriately taken account in calculations of active earth pressure on a structure.
(2) When calculating active earth pressure during an earthquake, the seismic coefficient method may generally
be used. When detailed examination of earth pressure during an earthquake is required, however, response
analysis and others must be carried out. Methods to calculate earth pressure using the seismic coefficient method
considering material properties are described in 4.18.2 [2] Strength Constants.
(3) Generally, when solidifying agents are judged to have sufficiently large cohesion, liquefaction in the treated area
need not be considered. Although depending on actions due to ground motion, if the unconfined compressive
strength qu is greater than approximately 50–100kN/m2, excess pore water pressure in the area of improvement
during action of ground motion may be ignored.
[2] Strength Constants

The method of determining strength constants for geotechnical materials will differ depending on the material used.
It is necessary to consider cohesion and the angle of shear resistance in accordance with the properties of the respective
materials used. In general, deep mixed soil, lightweight treated soil, and soil solidified with coal ash are assumed to
be c materials. Premixed soil can be considered to be a material of both the c and ø type. Granulated slag is usually
treated as ø material, but it may also be treated as a c material in cases where its solidification property is positively
employed.
[3] Calculation of Active Earth Pressure
(1) Generally, the earth pressure may be evaluated based on the provisions in Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure.
The principle for calculation of earth pressure may be the same as the Mononobe-Okabe principle. In this method,
the earth pressure is calculated by an equilibrium of forces in accordance with Coulomb’s concept of earth pressure
by assuming that the subsoil fails while forming a wedge.
(2) Many factors remain unknown about the earth pressure during an earthquake. This is particularly significant on
the earth pressure during an earthquake in submerged subsoils. Nevertheless, the principle of earth pressure in
Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure has so far been adopted in the performance verification of many structures
with satisfactory results.
(3) Equation (4.18.1), an expansion of the earth pressure equation in Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure, can be
applied to materials having both the cohesion c and angle of shear resistance φ (see Fig. 4.18.1).
– 545 –
(4.18.1)
where
pai : active earth pressure intensity acting on wall by the i-th layer (kN/m 2)
ci : cohesion of soil in the i-th layer (kN/m 2)
φi : angle of shear resistance in the i-th layer (°)
γi : unit weight of the i-th layer (kN/m3)
hi : thickness of the i-th layer (m)
ψ : angle of wall to the vertical (°)
β : angle of ground surface to the horizontal (°)
δ : angle of wall friction (°)
ζi : angle of failure surface of the i-th layer to the horizontal (°)
ω : surcharge per unit area of ground surface (kN/m 2)
θ : resultant seismic angle (°)θ=tan–1k or θ=tan–1k'
ω
β
ξ1
P1
h1
ξ
2
P2
h2
Pi-1
Piv Pi
+8)
(ψ
δ
hi Pi
ξi Pih
Fig. 4.18.1 Earth Pressure
(4) Equation (4.18.1) is an extension of Okabe’s equation.142) This extension lacks such rigorousness that Okabe
solved the equilibrium of forces. However, when the soil is exclusively granular material with no cohesion or
exclusively cohesive material with no angle of shear resistance φ, it is consistent with the equations in Part II,
Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure.
– 546 –
(5) The earth pressure and the angle of failure surface should be calculated separately at each soil layer with different
soil properties, while the earth pressure distribution and the failure line inside each layer are treated as linear.
Actually within a soil layer, the earth pressure and the failure line sometimes become curved when calculated for
divided sublayers. This contradicts the original assumption in Okabe’s equation that is based on a linear slip on
the premise of Coulomb’s earth pressure.
(6) When using the equations above, the existence of cracks sometimes has to be considered in accordance with the
characteristics of the geotechnical materials used.
[4] Cases where Improvement Width is Limited

When the area treated with solidified geotechnical materials is limited and Mononobe-Okabe’s equation cannot be
applied simply, the earth pressure is evaluated by a suitable method that allows the influence of the treated area to be
assessed. When the treated area is limited, the earth pressure can be evaluated by the slice method143).
① With the slice method, three modes of failure are examined (see Fig. 4.18.2).
② The earth pressure distribution is calculated by assuming that the difference between the resultant earth pressures
at adjacent depths is the earth pressure intensity for the corresponding depth
Mode 1: when a uniform slip surface is formed in the whole backfill (shear resistance mode)
Mode 2: when a cracks down to the bottom of the solidified soil layer is developed (crack failure mode)
Mode 3: when a slip surface is formed along the edge line of the solidified range (friction resistance mode)
Note: Among Mode 1, the case in which the slip surface does not pass the solidified body is categorized as Mode 0.
Mode 2 Mode 3
Mode 1
Mode 0
Fig. 4.18.2 Three Failure Modes Considered in the Slice Method
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1999
– 551 –
Chapter 3 Waterways and Basins
1 General
General Provisions
Article 8
1 Waterways and basins shall be provided in appropriate locations in light of geotechnical characteristics,
meteorological characteristics, sea states and other environmental conditions, as well as ship navigation
and other usage conditions of the water area around the facilities concerned.
2 In the waterways and basins where it is necessary to maintain the calmness of the water area, measures
shall be taken to mitigate the impact of waves, water currents, winds, and/or other actions.
3 In waterways and basins in which there is risk of siltation by sediments, measures shall be taken to prevent
the occurrence thereof.
Necessary Items concerning Waterways and Basins
Article 12
The necessary matters for the enforcement of the performance requirements for waterways and basins
as specified in this chapter by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other
requirements shall be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Waterways and Basins
Article 29
The items to be specified by the Public Notices under Article 12 of the Ministerial Ordinance concerning
with the performance requirements of waterways and basins shall be as provided in the subsequent article
through Article 32.
[Technical Note]
(1) In selecting the locations for basins exclusively used by dangerous cargo ships, the following should be
considered:
(a) To minimize an encounter with general ships, especially passenger ships.
(b) To isolate them from the facilities of which surrounding environment should be protected, such as
housing areas, schools and hospitals.
(c) To be capable of encountering against accidents including hazardous goods spill.
(2) From the viewpoint of safety and efficiency in navigation and cargo handling, it is preferable to separate
the basins for passenger ships, ferries, and fishing boats and small craft basins from those for other types
of ships.
(3) In principle, it is preferable to separate timber handling facilities as a specialized terminal from other
general facilities.
– 552 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 3 WATERWAYS AND BASINS
2 Waterways
Performance Requirements for Waterways
Article 9
The performance requirements for waterways shall be such that the requirements specified by the Minister
of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied in light of geotechnical characteristics, waves,
water currents, and wind conditions along with the usage conditions of the surrounding water areas, for
securing the safe and smooth use by ships.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Waterways
Article 30
The performance criteria of waterways shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The waterways shall have an appropriate width that is equal to or greater than the length of the design
ship in waterways where there is a possibility of ships passing each other and equal to or greater than
one-half of the length of the design ship in waterways where there is no possibility of passing each
other, in light of the length and width of the design ship, the traffic volume of ships, the conditions of
geotechnical characteristics, waves, water currents, and winds, as well as the usage conditions of the
surrounding water areas. Provided, however, that where the mode of navigation is special, the width of
the waterway can be reduced to the width that shall not hinder the safe navigation of ships.
(2) The waterways shall have an appropriate depth that is greater than the draft of the design ship in
consideration of the trim and the degree of ship motions of the design ship due to waves, water currents,
winds, and others.
(3) The alignment of waterways shall be such that the safe ship navigation is not hindered, in light of
the geotechnical conditions, waves, water currents, and winds as well as the usage conditions of the
surrounding water areas.
(4) In waterways where ship navigation is remarkably congested, waterways shall be provided with the
lanes separated by the direction of movement or by the size of ships.
[Technical Note]
2.1 General
(1) Concept of Waterways

Waterways are considered to be a water area whose existence is clearly identified to navigators by buoys or other
means in order to contribute to safe and smooth ship navigation subject to entrance channels and passage channels
in shallow water area.
(2) Classification of Verification Methods
Verification methods for waterways can be classified as follows, depending on whether a design ship or navigation
environment is designated or not.
(a) Class 1: Case where the design ship and navigation environment cannot be designated.
(b) Class 2: Case where the design ship and navigation environment can be designated.
(3) In performance verification of waterways, the methods described in 2.2 Depth of Navigation Channel to 2.4
Alignment of Navigation Channel (Bends) which are proposed by Japan Institute of Navigation Standard
Committee and National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management Port and Harbour Department 1), 2)
can be used.
(4) Performance Criteria of Waterways
① Depth of navigation channels (usability)
(a) Case where the design ship and navigation environment cannot be designated
In performance verification of waterways in cases where the design ship and navigation environment cannot
be designated, the following values can be used as an appropriate depth which is greater than the maximum
draft of the design ship.
– 553 –
• In waterways in harbors, where the effects of waves such as swells are not expected, 1.10 times the
maximum draft.
• In waterways outside of harbors, where the effects of waves such as swells are expected, 1.15 times the
maximum draft.
• In waterways in the open sea, where the effects of waves such strong swells are expected, 1.20 times the
maximum draft.
(b) Case where the design ship and navigation environment can be designated
In setting the water depth of waterways in performance verification of waterways in cases where the design
ship and navigation environment can be designated, appropriate consideration shall be given to the maximum
draft of the design ship, ship squatting due to ship waves or swells, and keel clearance.
(c) Case of special methods of navigation
In setting the water depth in performance verification of waterways for entry/egress at drydocks and
waterways for use in special methods of navigation such as routes where half-loaded operation (unloading at
more than one port) is normal, notwithstanding the items mentioned in (a) and (b), the water depth shall be set
appropriately, considering the anticipated condition of use of the objective waterway.
② Width of navigation channels (usability)
(a) Case where the design ship and navigation environment cannot be designated
1) Appropriate width of waterway with possibility of ships passing each other
In performance verification of waterways where there is a possibility of ships passing each other in cases
where the design ship and navigation environment cannot be designated, the following values can be used
as appropriate widths greater than the length overall of design ship.
• When the distance of the waterway is comparatively long, 1.5 times the length overall of design ship.
• W hen design ships will frequently pass each other during navigation of the waterway, 1.5 times the
length overall of design ship.
• W hen design ships will frequently pass each other during navigation of the waterway and it is
comparatively long, 2.0 times the length overall of design ship.
2) Appropriate width of navigation channel with no possibility of ships passing each other
In performance verification of waterways where there is no possibility of ships passing each other in cases
where the design ship and navigation environment cannot be designated, the appropriate width shall be 0.5
times the length overall of design ship or greater. Provided, however, that in cases where the width of the
navigation channel is less than the length overall of design ship, adequate countermeasures to ensure safe
navigation of ships, such as provision of facilities to support ship navigation shall be examined.
(b) Case where the design ship and navigation environment can be designated
In setting the width of navigation channels in performance verification of waterways in cases where the
design ship and the navigation environment can be designated, appropriate consideration shall be given to the
basic ship maneuvering width, width necessary to cope with the effects of the side walls of the waterways,
width necessary to cope with the effects of ships passing, width necessary to cope with the effects of ships
overtaking other ships.
(c) Case of special navigation situation
Case of special navigation situation include cases where it is necessary to consider the use of tugboats or
provision of a waiting basin, cases where the extended length of the waterway is extremely short. Cases where
the extended length of the waterway is extremely short include cases where the total length of the waterway
is extremely short and cases where one part of the total length is extremely short.
③ Direction of navigation channels (usability)
(a) Whenever possible, the direction of navigation channels shall be linear. Provided, however, that in cases
where a bend must unavoidably be included in a waterway, the angle of intersection of the centerlines of the
waterway at the bend shall not exceed roughly 30º.
(b) Case where the angle intersection of the centerlines of the waterway at a bend exceeds 30º
1) Case where the design ship and the navigation environment cannot be designated
In performance verification of waterways in cases where the angle of intersection of the centerlines of the
waterway at a bend exceeds 30º and the design ship and the features of the navigation environment such as
the rudder angle cannot be designated, the corner cut at the inner side of the bend shall be set appropriately,
– 554 –
and the radius of curvature of the centerline of the waterway at the bend shall be set to roughly four times
the length between perpendiculars of the design ship or greater.
2) Case where the design ship and navigation environment such as rudder angle can be designated
In performance verification of waterways in cases where the angle of intersection of the centerlines of the
waterway at a bend exceeds 30º and the design ship and the features of the navigation environment such as
the rudder angle can be designated, the corner cut at the inner side of the bend shall be set appropriately, and
the radius of curvature of the centerline of the waterway at the bend shall be set appropriately, considering
the maneuverability index of turning, which shows the turning performance of the design ship.
(c) As the shape of widened parts of width of navigation channels at bends, curved shapes other than corner cuts
can be used, considered installation of buoys.
– 555 –
2.2 Depth of Navigation Channel

2.2.1 Bases for Verification
(1) Verification for Class 1 (Empirical approach)

When the dimension of design ship, navigational environments such as weather and sea condition and ship speed
are not specified, the depth of navigation channel can be basically determined as follows.1), 2)
Waterway in a port where waves including swell does not affect ship motion : D=1.10d
Waterway out of a port where waves including swells affect ship motion : D=1.15d (2.2.1)
Waterway in open water where waves including swells exist : D=1.20d
where
D : depth of navigation channel
d : full draft of design ship in still water
(2) Verification for Class 2 (performance-based approach 1), 2))
When the dimension of design ship, navigational environments such as weather and sea condition and ship speed
are specified, the necessary depth of navigation channel can be calculated by the following equation.
D=d+D1+ Max (D2,D3)+D4 (2.2.2)

where
D1 : squat (bow sink during underway)
D2 : bow sink due to heaving and pitching motion (in case of λ>0.45Lpp)
D3 : bilge keel sink due to heaving and rolling motion (in case of TR≒TE)
D4 : allowance of depth
λ : length of wave including swell
Lpp : length between perpendiculars of design ship
TR : natural rolling period of design ship
TE : encounter period of design ship and design wave
At the actual design stage and the actual operation, the following elements should be taken into consideration.
① Swell : Wavelength is fixed with the depth of navigation channel
② Tide : Generally, tide height is above the chart datum during navigation, this tide height is considered as
additional depth of water in actual operation.
③ Accuracy of depth of water : the err of depth of chart gives some risk for navigation, but usually the dredged
bottom is deeper than planned bottom. This additional dredging that is confirmed by sufficient sounding survey
can be considered as the additional depth of water in actual operation.
④ Others : Air pressure, bottom nature, obstruction in water, density of seawater and etc. should be taken into
consideration if necessary.
(a) Calculation of D1
D1 is calculated as follow.3)
(2.2.3)
where
d : full draft of design ship in still water
B : breadth of design ship
Cb : block coefficient of design ship
U : ship speed
g : acceleration of gravity
When Cb is unknown, following values may be referred.
– 556 –
Table 2.2.1 Block Coefficient Cb 4)
Design ship 50% value Standard deviation

Cargo vessels 0.804 0.0712
Container ships 0.668 0.0472
Tankers 0.824 0.0381
Roll on/Roll off vessels 0.667 0.0939
Pure Car Carrier ships 0.594 0.0665
LPG ships 0.737 0.0620
LNG ships 0.716 0.0399
Passenger ships 0.548 0.0452
Ferries (short-to-medium distance) 0.516 0.0295
Ferries (long distance) – –
(b) Calculation of D2
Maximum of D2 (Bow sink due to heaving and pitching motion) and maximum of D3 (Bilge keel sink due to
heaving and rolling motion) do not occur at the same time. Therefore large value of D2 or D3 shall be adopted.
D2 in case of λ>0.45Lpp can be calculated by the value of D2 /h0 taken from Fig. 2.2.1)
5 Cb=0.70 Fn=0.1
φ
Raito of having motion and wave (D2 / h0)
30°
3
(Head)φ=0° 60°
2
15 120°
0° 90°
1
(Stern)180°
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Lpp/λ
Note: This figure shows only the case of Cb =0.7and Fn =0.1, but covers the case of deep sea where ship motion is bigger than one in shallow
water. Therefore this figure can apply to all cases regardless of Cb and Fn.
Fig. 2.2.1 Ratio of having Motion and Wave Amplitude 5)
where
h0 : amplitude of wave (h0 =H/2)
H : wave height
(c) Calculation of D3
In case where TR and TE is nearly equal, D3 can be calculated by the following equation.6)
(2.2.4)
– 557 –
where
θ = µγφ
µγ = 7
φ = 360 (0.35H1/3 / λ ) sinφ
TR and TE can be calculated by the following equation.
TR = 0.8B / (GM)0.5 (2.2.5)

TE = λ/(λ / TW + Ucosφ)

(cre
st)
U
Ucos φ
φ
λ
(cre
st)
Fig. 2.2.2 Encounter Angle φ
It is appropriate that GM is nearly equal to B/25. However, GM can be calculated by the following equation
because real value of GM varies depending on ship condition.
GM=a(B/25) (2.2.6)
where
GM : distance between the center of gravity of ship and metacenter (m)
TW : wave period (s)
H1/3 : significant wave height (m)
B : breadth of design ship (m)
θ : maximum rolling angle of design ship (ﾟ)
µ : ratio of rolling induced by regular waves
γ : effective wave slope coefficient
φ : maximum wave slope angle (ﾟ)
φ : encounter angle between ship’s head and wave direction (ﾟ)
a : 0.2–0.5
(d) Calculation of D4
D4 is allowance of depth for sink of ship by large rudder angle to alter her course and can be calculated by the
following equation.
D4=0.5m d≦10m (2.2.7)

D4=0.05d d>10m
(e) Convergence of calculation for design depth of a new navigation channel
D, depth of navigation channel, is as the input data in the calculation equation of D1, squat, that is a basic
element for calculation of D . Therefore convergence of calculation is necessary until the value of D calculated
by equation (2.2.2) becomes the same value of D in the calculation for new design depth of navigation channel.
(f) Application to design change of existing waterway
In case of design change of existing waterway, existing depth of water is used as input data of D for calculation
of D1 and performance requirement for depth of navigation channel can be evaluated by the following equation.
D (Existing depth of navigation channel) ≧ D (=d+D1+Max(D2,D3)+D4) (2.2.9)
– 558 –
In case that the above equation is unsatisfied, it is necessary to change navigational environment such as
change of initial ship speed or deepening of depth of navigation channel to be acquired by convergence of
calculation.
– 559 –
2.3 Performance Verification of Width of Navigation Channel

2.3.1 Verification for Class 1 (Empirical Approach)
(1) As the necessary width for Class 1 navigation channels, the following values can generally be used.1), 2)
① In waterways where two-way navigation is not expected, an appropriate width of 0.5Loa or more can generally
be used. However, when the width is less than 1.0Loa, it is preferable to take adequate safety measures, such as
provision of facilities to support navigation.
② In waterways where two-way navigation is expected, an appropriate width of 1.0Loa or more can generally be
used. Provided, however, that;
(a) when the length of the waterway is comparatively long : W=1.5Loa
(b) when design ships frequently pass during navigation of the waterway : W=1.5Loa (2.3.1)
(c) when design ships frequently pass during navigation of the navigation
channel and the length of the waterway is comparatively long : W=2.0Loa
where
W : width of navigation channel (m)
Loa : length overall of design ship (m)
2.3.2 Verification for Class 2 (Performance-based Approach) 1), 2)

In the verification for class 2, the well-established calculations of the ship maneuvering motion 3), 4) are fully utilized,
with which versatile performance predictions can be made with sufficient accuracy. From a view point of the practical
use at the concept design phase, simple linear calculations and estimate equations are provided, which are derived
from the fully nonlinear motion equations. Furthermore, for the following typical 15 ships covering a wide range of
ship types and sizes, computations with respect to the width for the wind forces and the interaction forces are made
and summarized in the following tables. The 15 ships are selected as the ship types, principal particulars of which
are given in Table 2.3.1 together with hydrodynamic derivatives. Making use of these computations together with the
above simple linear calculations and estimate equations, the determination of width of navigation channel (estimations
of the width elements) can practically and easily be made without computers.
Table 2.3.1 Principal Particulars etc. of Type Ships
Ship Type GT/GWT Loa (m) Lpp (m) B(m) do(m) Cb(m) Y'v N'v Y'δ N'δ
1 Cargo Ship 5,000 GT 109.0 103.0 20.0 7.0 0.7402 -1.688 -0.590 -0.0723 0.0362
2 Small Cargo Ship 499 GT 63.8 60.4 11.2 4.2 0.5395 -1.653 -0.597 -0.0881 0.0441
3 Container Ship (Over Panamax) 77,900 DWT 299.9 283.8 40.0 14.0 0.6472 -1.340 -0.457 -0.0720 0.0360
4 Container (Panamax) 59,500 DWT 288.3 273.0 32.2 13.3 0.6665 -1.312 -0.449 -0.0781 0.0391
5 Very Large Bulk Carrier 172,900 DWT 289.0 279.0 45.0 17.8 0.8042 -1.612 -0.562 -0.0699 0.0350
6 Large Bulk Carrier (Panamax) 74,000 DWT 225.0 216.0 32.3 13.5 0.8383 -1.587 -0.553 -0.0696 0.0348
7 Sm all Bulk Carrier 10,000 DWT 125.0 119.2 21.5 6.9 0.8057 -1.551 -0.519 -0.0773 0.0387
8 VLCC 280,000 DWT 333.0 316.0 60.0 20.4 0.7941 -1.658 -0.564 -0.0880 0.0440
9 Small Tanker 6,000 DWT 100.6 92.0 20.0 7.0 0.7968 -1.835 -0.640 -0.0811 0.0406
10 Large Pure Car Carrier 21,500 DWT 199.9 190.0 32.2 10.1 0.6153 -1.417 -0.484 -0.0731 0.0365
11 Pure Car Carrier 18,000 DWT 190.0 180.0 32.2 8.2 0.5470 -1.287 -0.427 -0.0753 0.0376
12 LNG Ship 69,500 DWT 283.0 270.0 44.8 10.8 0.7000 -1.213 -0.382 -0.0762 0.0381
13 Refrigerated Cargo Carrier 10,000 GT 152.0 144.0 23.5 7.0 0.7526 -1.372 -0.451 -0.0705 0.0353
14 Passenger Ship (2shafts 2propellers) 28,700 GT 192.8 160.0 24.7 6.6 0.6030 -1.214 -0.387 -0.1000 0.0500
15 Ferry Boat (2shafts 1propellers) 18,000 GT 192.9 181.0 29.4 6.7 0.5547 -1.125 -0.354 -0.0875 0.0437
(1) Basic Formulae for Determination of Width of Navigation Channel

The width of navigation channel WTOTAL may generally be determined by the following basic equation.
(2.3.1)
where
WBM : width of basic maneuvering lane
WIF : additional width requisite against interaction forces
– 560 –
The width of basic maneuvering lane WBM consists of four basic elements as follows;
(2.3.2)

where
W WF : width requisite against wind forces
WCF : width requisite against current forces
W YM : width requisite against yawing motion
WDD : width requisite for drift detection.
Furthermore the additional width requisite against interaction forces consists of the following three
elements.
(2.3.3)
where
WBA : width requisite against bank effect forces
WPA : width requisite against two-ship interaction in passing
WOV : width requisite against two-ship interaction in overtaking.
Coefficients a, b and c in equations (2.3.2) and (2.3.3) are given as
a = 1 and b = c = 0 : for one-way channel

a = 2, b = 1 and c = 0 : for two-way channel
a = 4, b = 1 and c = 2 : for four-way channel
(2) Estimation of Basic Maneuvering Lane
① Width requisite against wind and current forces
In order to keep on a straight line in the waterway center under external forces, the ship should be operated by
the check helm to run in an oblique condition with some drift angle with respect to its heading as shown in Fig.
3.1, so that the forces acting on the ship, namely the hull forces, the rudder forces and the external forces, can
be balanced.
– 561 –
β1 : Drift an gle due to w in d fo rce s

β2 : Drift an gle due to cu rren t fo rce s
Drift an gle : β = β1 + β2
WWF + WCF : Drift due to w in d and cu rren t fo rces

WWF + WCF = Loa.sin β +B.cos β
Fig. 2.3.1 W WF+WCF:Width Requisite against Wind and Current Forces
The width requisite against the wind and current forces (W WM + WCF) may be calculated with the use of the
drift angle β as follows;
(2.3.4)
where, LOA and B denote the over all length of ship and the breadth of ship respectively, and the drift angle
β may be given as
(2.3.5)
where
β1 : d rift angle due to wind forces
β2 : d rift angle due to current forces.
② Drift angle due to wind forces

Table 2.3.2 gives the drift angle due to the wind forces together with its corresponding check helm for the 15
ship types selected in Table2.3.1, which are obtained by the calculation of drift angle due to wind forces for
the shallow water of H/d=1.2 (H: water depth d : ship draft). In Table 2.3.2, computations are given at each 15
degree of the relative wind direction from 0 degree (the head wind) to 180 degree (the tail wind).
– 562 –
Table 2.3.2 Drift Angle β1 and its corresponding Check Helm δ1
Relative Wind Direction (degree)

S hip Type
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
1 Cargo Ship β1 (degree) 0.000 0.003 0.007 0.011 0.014 0.017 0.017 0.015 0.011 0.007 0.003 0.001 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.017 0.049 0.102 0.169 0.233 0.276 0.284 0.257 0.204 0.138 0.068 0.001
2 Small Cargo Ship β1 (degree) 0.000 0.006 0.011 0.017 0.021 0.024 0.024 0.021 0.016 0.011 0.006 0.003 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.028 0.069 0.128 0.199 0.267 0.313 0.325 0.300 0.245 0.170 0.087 0.001
3 Container Ship β1 (degree) 0.000 0.019 0.036 0.049 0.056 0.059 0.056 0.049 0.040 0.029 0.019 0.009 0.000
(Over Panamax) δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.082 0.178 0.293 0.425 0.559 0.671 0.736 0.732 0.648 0.485 0.261 0.002
4 Container (Panamax) β1 (degree) 0.000 0.015 0.029 0.038 0.042 0.043 0.040 0.036 0.030 0.023 0.016 0.008 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.070 0.143 0.220 0.303 0.387 0.461 0.510 0.517 0.468 0.357 0.195 0.002
5 Very Large Bulk Carrier β1 (degree) 0.000 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.005 0.003 0.001 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.015 0.039 0.077 0.124 0.169 0.199 0.206 0.189 0.153 0.105 0.053 0.000
6 Large Bulk Carrier β1 (degree) 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.001 0.000
(Panamax) δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.015 0.036 0.067 0.104 0.139 0.162 0.167 0.153 0.124 0.085 0.043 0.000
7 Small Bulk Carrier β1 (degree) 0.000 0.006 0.012 0.018 0.024 0.027 0.026 0.023 0.018 0.012 0.006 0.003 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.027 0.070 0.135 0.217 0.296 0.351 0.367 0.340 0.278 0.194 0.099 0.001
8 VLCC β1 (degree) 0.000 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.011 0.013 0.013 0.011 0.008 0.005 0.002 0.001 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.008 0.027 0.059 0.102 0.143 0.170 0.174 0.157 0.123 0.082 0.040 0.000
9 Small Tanker β1 (degree) 0.000 0.003 0.007 0.011 0.014 0.017 0.017 0.015 0.011 0.007 0.003 0.001 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.015 0.044 0.095 0.160 0.223 0.264 0.272 0.245 0.193 0.129 0.064 0.001
10 Large Pure Car Carrier β1 (degree) 0.000 0.041 0.076 0.103 0.118 0.122 0.115 0.100 0.080 0.059 0.038 0.019 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.159 0.340 0.556 0.806 1.067 1.298 1.450 1.470 1.324 1.006 0.546 0.005
11 Pure Car Carrier β1 (degree) 0.000 0.051 0.097 0.132 0.152 0.158 0.149 0.130 0.104 0.076 0.048 0.024 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.161 0.353 0.593 0.877 1.176 1.440 1.609 1.626 1.458 1.104 0.598 0.006
12 LNG Ship β1 (degree) 0.000 0.033 0.063 0.087 0.103 0.109 0.105 0.091 0.072 0.052 0.032 0.015 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.092 0.211 0.374 0.573 0.780 0.952 1.049 1.040 0.914 0.680 0.364 0.003
13 Refrigerated Cargo Carrier β1 (degree) 0.000 0.008 0.015 0.023 0.028 0.032 0.031 0.028 0.022 0.015 0.008 0.004 0.000
δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.036 0.089 0.164 0.255 0.342 0.405 0.425 0.397 0.328 0.231 0.119 0.001
14 Passenger Ship β1 (degree) 0.000 0.008 0.015 0.023 0.028 0.032 0.031 0.028 0.022 0.015 0.008 0.004 0.000
(2shafts 2propellers) δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.174 0.363 0.578 0.826 1.097 1.361 1.561 1.629 1.507 1.169 0.643 0.006
15 Ferry Boat β1 (degree) 0.000 0.053 0.100 0.136 0.158 0.164 0.155 0.135 0.108 0.078 0.050 0.024 0.000
(2shafts 1propellers) δ1 (degree) 0.000 0.113 0.253 0.438 0.662 0.900 1.111 1.244 1.257 1.126 0.851 0.460 0.004
β1 : Drift Angle (degree)

δ1 : Check Helm (degree)
For the concept design use, the drift angle β1 and its corresponding check helm δ1 may practically and easily
be estimated by employing figures of the similar ship to the design ship given in Table 2.3.2. It is noted that the
figures in Table 2.3.2 are computed for the case of K=1.0, where K is defined as
(2.3.6)
where UW and U denote the relative wind speed and the ship speed respectively.
For an arbitrary value of K, the drift angle due to the wind forces β1 (K) and its corresponding check helm δ1
(K) can be obtained by the following equations.
β1 (K) = K2 × β (figure given in Table 2.3.2 for K=1.0) (2.3.7)

δ1 (K) = K2 × δ (figure given in Table 2.3.2 for K=1.0). (2.3.8)
In the above drift angle estimation, it should be confirmed that the check helm δ1 corresponding to each
drift angle β1 be less than the maximum rudder angle (35 degree for the conventional rudder), because the ship
handling can not be made in the case of the rudder angle greater than the maximum one.
In addition to the above type-ship method, when the principal dimensions of the design ship are known, more
accurate estimations of the drift angle β1 and the check helm δ1 can be made by the direct calculation as follows;
③ Drift angle and check helm
The drift angle due to the wind forces β can be obtained theoretically by solving the equilibrium equations with
respect to the drift angle and the check helm in the course keeping motion under the wind forces, which are
derived from the coupled motion equations of sway and yaw.3), 4) The solutions of the above equilibrium equations
(algebraic equations), namely the drift angle β and the check helm δ, can be given by the following equations.
– 563 –
(2.3.9)
(2.3.10)
④ Linear derivatives of hull forces and rudder forces

In equations (2.3.9) and (2.3.10), Y'v* and N'v* denote the linear static derivatives of hull lateral force and hull
yaw moment respectively, and they can be estimated by the following equations 2), 4) in which the shallow water
effects are well taken into consideration.
(2.3.11)
(2.3.12)
where
: aspect ratio of ship
L : length of ship (between perpendiculars)

B : breadth of ship
d : draft of ship
CB : block coefficient
: ratio of ship draft to water depth
H : water depth
γ (= 0.4) : flow-straightening coefficient
In equations (2.3.9) - (2.3.12), Y'δ and N'δ denote the linear derivative of rudder lateral force and rudder yaw
moment respectively, and they can be estimated by the following equations.2), 4)
(2.3.13)
(2.3.14)
where
λR : aspect ratio of rudder
AR : rudder area.
In equations (2.3.13) and (2.3.14), ε denotes the coefficient of rudder inflow speed and the followings are
practically employed in the computation.
* ε =1.1 for both ships with a single propeller and single rudder arrangement
and with a twin propeller and twin rudder arrangement.
* ε =0.7 for a ship with a twin propeller and single rudder arrangement.
In addition, aH denotes the coefficient of hydrodynamic force induced on the ship hull by the rudder deflection,
and aH can be estimated with the use of Fig. 2.3.2 given as a function of CB.5)
– 564 –
aH
△ : WITHOUT PROPELLER
1.0
● ▲ : WITH PROPELLER ( MODEL PROP. POINT)
△
△ MODEL B
MODEL A
▲
●
0.5
▲
MODEL C
● MODEL D
▲ ▲
●
△
SR108 CONTAINER
●
CB
0.
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig. 2.3.2 Hydrodynamic Coefficient aH
⑤ Wind force coefficients

In equations (2.3.9) and (2.3.10), the coefficient with respect to the wind forces μ is given in the following form.
(2.3.15)
where
ρW : density of air
ρ : density of water
As : projected lateral area above water line
UW : relative wind speed at gravity center of ship
U : ship speed.
In addition, Y'W (θW) and N'W (θW) denote the coefficients of wind lateral force and wind yaw moment
respectively as functions of θW which indicates the angle of relative wind direction at the center of gravity of
the ship. On the basis of the wind tunnel tests, Y W (θW) and NW (θW) may practically be obtained by the following
expressions with the trigonometric series.6)
(2.3.16)
(2.3.17)
In the above equations, the regression coefficients CYn and CNn are estimated by the following equations, for
which the coefficients CYn0, CYn1, CNn0, CNn1 etc. are given in Table 2.3.3
(2.3.18)
(2.3.19)
where
AF : projected front area above water line
AS : projected lateral area above water line
xs : distance between FP (fore perpendicular) and figure center of AS.
– 565 –
Table 2.3.3 Regression Coefficients of Wind Forces
Cy Const. AS /L2 xS /L L/B AS /AF Cm Const. AS /L2 xS /L L/B AS /AF

C y2 0.509 4.904 – – 0.022 Cm1 2.650 4.634 –5.876 – –
C y3 0.0208 0.230 – – – Cm2 0.105 5.306 – – 0.0704
C y4 –0.357 0.943 –0.075 0.0381 – Cm3 0.616 – –1.474 0.0161 –
⑥ Drift angle due to current forces

The drift angle due to the current forces β2 can be obtained by
(2.3.20)
where
UC : current speed perpendicular to channel center line
U : ship speed.
⑦ Width requisite against the yawing motion caused by unsteady external forces may be defined as the
maximum deviation (double amplitude) due to the yawing as shown in Fig. 2.3.3, and may be calculated
by the following equation.
(2.3.21)
where
: yawing angle.
In equation (2.3.21), Ty (the yawing period) = 12 sec and ψ0 (the yawing amplitude) = 4 degree may empirically
be employed in the computation.
0.5WYM 0.5WYM
Fig. 2.3.3 W YM:Width requisite against Yawing Motion
⑧ Width requisite for drift detection

In general, a ship sailing in the waterway more or less makes some amount of lateral deviation from its course
line even if the ship handler does believe that his ship is running on the right course line. This drift may hardly
be detected within a small amount of deviation. However the ship handler can recognize the drift when the
lateral deviation from the waterway center line becomes a considerable amount as shown in Fig. 3.4. The drift
detection should be considered with respect to both sides of the waterway center line. Estimations of the width
requisite for the drift detection are provided for the following three types of on-board navigation equipment,
which are currently available in the actual ship operation.
* Drift detection by observing light buoys with naked eyes.
* Drift detection by observing light buoys with RADAR.
* Drift detection by GPS or D-GPS.
– 566 –
Fig. 2.3.4 Width Requisite for Drift Detection
⑨ Drift Detection by observing light buoys with naked eyes

The width requisite for the drift detection in this case WDD (NEY) may be defined as the maximum deviation
that almost all ship handlers are supposed to be able to recognize by observing light buoys ahead on both sides
of the waterway with naked eyes. Referring to Fig. 2.3.5, WDD (NEY) can be calculated by
(2.3.22)
where LF denotes the distance for the drift detection between the ship and the light buoys ahead along
the waterway center line, and LF = 7 × LOA (LOA: the over all length of ship) may empirically be employed
in the computation. The maximum intersecting angle corresponding to the above maximum deviation α max
may be estimated with the use of an empirical formula developed on the basis of statistical data by full scale
experiments, and it is given by
(2.3.23)
In equation (2.3.23),7) θ denotes the intersecting angle by two lines from the ship to the two buoys ahead on
both sides of the waterway as shown in Fig. 2.3.5, and it is defined as
(2.3.24)
where
W
BUOY : clearance between two buoys.
– 567 –
Buoy Buoy
Wbuoy
α max
LF
0.5WDD(NEY) or 0.5WDD(RAD)
Fig. 2.3.5 Drift Detection by observing Light Buoys with Naked Eyes or RADAR
⑩ Drift detection by observing light buoys with RADAR

The width requisite for the drift detection in this case WDD (RAD) may be calculated by the following equation.
(2.3.25)
where γ denotes the observation error of direction by RADAR, and equation (2.3.25) is rewritten for the two
cases of γ=2ﾟ and γ=1ﾟ as follows.
(2.3.26)
(2.3.27)
⑪ Drift detection by GPS

It is assumed that the perception error of GPS information on the display by naked eyes be a half of the ship
breadth, and in addition that the error of GPS information itself be 30 meters for the usual GPS and none for the
D-GPS. Then the following equations may be given with respect to the width requisite for the drift detections
by GPS and D-GPS respectively, where the errors are considered for both sides of the waterway center line.
(2.3.28)
(2.3.29)
(3) Estimation of Additional Width for Interaction Forces

The width requisite against the interaction forces may be estimated with the use of a concept of the requisite
clearance between the ship and bank wall or between two ships, in which the ship can keep a straight course line
against the interaction forces with the rudder angle predetermined from a view point of the actual ship operation.
Making use of the calculation of check helm against interaction force, the requisite clearance may be obtained in
the following manner. Namely check helm computations are made first for some values of the clearance between
the ship and bank wall or between ships, and then the requisite clearance can be obtained by determining the
clearance corresponding to the predetermined rudder angle through interpolations.
① Width requisite against bank effect forces
The check helm against the bank effect forces δ together with the drift angle β can be given by the following
equations in the similar way to equations (2.3.9) and (2.3.10).
(2.3.30)
– 568 –
(2.3.31)
where
( η : clearance between ship longitudinal center line and bank wall).
In equations (2.3.30) and (2.3.31), Y'B (η') and N'B (η') denote the coefficients of lateral force and yaw moment
due to bank effects respectively. The coefficients of Y'B (η') and N'B (η') may practically be estimated with the use
of computed results 8) shown in Fig. 2.3.6, where CF and CM as functions of SP (=η) in the ordinate denote Y'B (η')
and N'B (η') respectively and S'T in the abscissa denotes dimensionless distance (divided by the ship length) from
the midship to the bank entrance in the longitudinal direction. It is noted that the peak values in the force and
moment variations should be employed for the estimations of Y'B (η') and N'B (η') by Fig. 2.3.6
F U
M
X
SP
ST
0.030 0.020
Repulsion Bow-out
Sp/L=1.0
0.000 Sp/L=0.5 0.010
Sp/L=0.3
Sp/L=0.2 Sp/L=0.1
CM
CF
-0.030 Sp/L=0.2
Sp/L=0.1 0.000
Sp/L=0.5 Sp/L=0.3
-0.060 Sp/L=1.0
-0.010
Attraction Bow-in
-0.090
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
S'T S'T
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.3.6 Lateral Force and Yaw moment due to Bank Effects 8)
Table 2.3.4 gives the requisite clearance with respect to the bank effect forces for the 15 ship types, which are
obtained with the predetermined rudder angle of 5 degree. In Table 2.3.4 together with Fig. 2.3.7, the requisite
clearance is denoted by the term of “bank clearance” with a symbol of W bi0. It is noted that the figures of bank
clearance are obtained for the canal section with the upright wall.
– 569 –
Table 2.3.4 Bank Clearance
Ship Type Lpp B W bio W bio/B

1 Cargo Ship 103.0 20.0 17.4 0.87
2 Small Cargo Ship 60.4 299.9 9.8 0.87
3 Container Ship (Over Panamax) 283.8 40.0 55.5 1.39
4 Container (Panamax) 273.0 32.2 55.2 1.71
5 Very Large Bulk Carrier 279.0 45.0 52.6 1.17
6 Large Bulk Carrier (Panamax) 216.0 32.3 41.9 1.30
7 Small Bulk Carrier 119.2 215.0 20.3 0.95
8 VLCC 316.0 60.0 49.7 0.83
9 Small Tanker 92.0 20.0 13.8 0.69
10 Large Pure Car Carrier 190.0 32.2 34.3 1.06
11 Pure Car Carrier 180.0 32.2 31.2 0.97
12 LNG Ship 270.0 44.8 47.7 1.07
13 Refrigerated Cargo Carrier 144.0 23.5 26.6 1.13
14 Passenger Ship (2shafts 2propellers) 160.0 24.7 25.9 1.05
15 Ferry Boat (2shafts 1propellers) 181.0 29.4 30.5 1.04
(unit:meter)
W BA0
L pp
B /2
S pb
Fig. 2.3.7 Width Requisite against Bank Effect Forces
For practical use at the concept design, the width requisite against the bank effect forces for the canal section
WBA0 may simply be estimated by employing figures of the similar ship to the design ship given in Table 2.3.4,
namely
WBA0 = W bi0 (figure given in Table 2.3.4). (2.3.32)
Taking the bank effects on both sides of the waterway into consideration, the width for the dredged waterway
shown in Fig. 2.3.8 WBA may be obtained by
WBA=(CDSL + CDSR) WBA0 (2.3.33)
In the above equation, CDSL and CDSR denote corrections of the dredged waterway configuration to the canal
section for the left and right side banks respectively, and CDS is given by the following equation.
(2.3.34)
– 570 –
where
OUT : depth of outer navigation channel

D
D : depth of inner navigation channel
Fig. 2.3.8 Width for the Dredged Navigation Channel
② Width requisite against Two-ship Interaction in Passing

The check helm against the two-ship interaction δ may be given by the following simple equation on the
assumption of zero drift angle (β=0) due to relatively short-time interaction.
(2.3.35)
where
( η: clearance between longitudinal centerlines of two-ships).
The coefficient of yaw moment due to the two-ship interaction N'SI (η') in equation (2.3.35) may practically be
estimated with the use of computed results 9), 10) shown in Fig. 2.3.9 and Fig. 2.3.10. In these figures, CMi (i=1,2)
as a function of SP12 (=η) in the ordinate denotes N'SI (η') and ST12 in the abscissa denotes the midship to midship
distance of two ships in the longitudinal direction. Fig. 2.3.9 shows N'SI (η') for the meeting condition, and Fig.
2.3.10 shows N'SI (η') for the overtaking condition. In the similar way to the bank effect forces, it is noted that
the peak value in the moment variation should be employed for the estimations of N'SI (η') by Fig. 2.3.9 and Fig.
2.3.10.
F1 CM
MEETING
Ship1 BOW-OUT 0.04
U1 SP /L=0.2 M
M1 SP /L=0.2 0.03 0.3
CM = 1
ρL2dU 2
2
0.3 0.4
0.5 H/d=1.3
SP 0.4 0.02
ST 0.5
0.01
M2 2.0
U2 0
-2.0 -1.0
Ship2
-0.01
F2
-0.02
Exp.
Cal. -0.03
BOW-IN
-0.04
Fig. 2.3.9 Yaw Moment due to Two-ship Interaction in Passing 9)
– 571 –
L2
Ship2
F2 U2
M2 SP12
ST12
F1 U1
M1
Ship1
L1
0.1 0.1
CM 1 0 CM 2 0
-0.1 -0.1
-1 0 1 -1 0 1
ST12/L1 ST12/L2
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.3.10 Yaw Moment due to Two-ship Interaction in Overtaking 10)
Table 2.3.5 shows the requisite clearance with respect to the two-ship interaction in the passing for the 15
ship types, which are obtained with the predetermined rudder angle of 15ﾟ. In Table 2.3.5 together with Fig.
3.11, the requisite clearance is denoted by the term of “passing distance” with a symbol of WC.
Table 2.3.5 Passing Distance
Ship Type Lpp B WC WC/B

1 Cargo Ship 103.0 20.0 32.6 1.63
2 Small Cargo Ship 60.4 299.9 17.6 1.57
8 VLCC 316.0 60.0 91.0 1.52
9 Small Tanker 92.0 20.0 25.2 1.26
11 Pure Car Carrier 180.0 32.2 58.4 1.81
12 LNG Ship 270.0 44.8 90.7 2.03
(unit:meter)
– 572 –
Spc
B/2 U2
Lpp
B
Wc
B/2
U1 B
Lpp
Fig. 2.3.11 Width Requisite against Two-ship Interaction in Passing
For the practical design use, the width requisite against the two-ship interaction in passing WPA may easily be
estimated with the use of figures of the similar ship to the design ship given in Table 2.3.5, namely
WPA = WC (figure given in Table 2.3.5). (2.3.36)
③ Width requisite against two-ship interaction in overtaking

In the same way as the above, Table 2.3.6 shows the requisite clearance with respect to the two-ship interaction
in the overtaking for the 15 ship types, which are obtained with the predetermined rudder angle of 15ﾟ. In Table
2.3.6 together with Fig. 2.3.12, the requisite clearance is denoted by the term of “overtaking distance” with a
symbol of Wov.
Table 2.3.6 Overtaking Distance
Ship Type Lpp B Wov Wov/B

1 Cargo Ship 103.0 20.0 55.7 2.79
2 Small Cargo Ship 60.4 299.9 30.0 2.68
8 VLCC 316.0 60.0 155.7 2.60
9 Small Tanker 92.0 20.0 44.9 2.24
11 Pure Car Carrier 180.0 32.2 98.2 3.05
12 LNG Ship 270.0 44.8 150.1 3.35
(unit:meter)
– 573 –
U2
U1
B/2
Lpp
B
Wov
Lpp
B
B/2
Spov
Fig. 2.3.12 Width Requisite against Two-ship Interaction in Overtaking
For the practical design use, the width requisite against the two-ship interaction in the overtaking WOV may
easily be estimated with the use of figures of the similar ship to the design ship given in Table 2.3.4, namely
WOV = Wov (figure given in Table 2.3.6). (2.3.37)
In addition to the above type-ship method, in the similar way to the drift angle due to the wind forces, when
the principal dimensions of the design ship are known, more accurate estimations of the width requisite against
the interaction forces may be made by the direct application of the check helm calculation.
(4) Determination of Width of Navigation Channel
The total width of navigation channel can be determined by the basic formulae described in 2.3.2 (1) Basic
Formula for Determination of width of Navigation Channel. However it is noted that WDD (NEY) in equation
(2.3.22) and WDD (RAD) in equation (2.3.25) are given as functions of WBUOY (the clearance between two buoys
ahead on both sides) which should be identical to the design target of the width of navigation channel.
For this reason, iteration computations are needed for the cases of the drift detection by observing light buoys
either with the naked eyes or with RADAR, and the iteration procedure is briefly given as follows. Assuming
some amount of WBUOY and substituting it into equation (2.3.22) or equation (2.3.25), then WDD (NEY) or WDD
(RAD) are computed, where the computed WTOTAL by equation (2.3.1) should be identical to the assumed WBUOY .
Some steps of iterations, not one-time computation but some few steps or more, may usually be needed in order to
attain a satisfactory convergence for the difference between the assumed WBUOY and the computed WTOTAL . The
convergence may be judged by
|assumed WBUOY − computed WTOTAL |  ε (2.3.38)
where ε =1.0 meter may be taken. In addition, regarding the assumption of WBUOY at the first step computation,
quick convergent iteration may be expected by employing a value of LOA for the one-way channel and 2LOA for the
two-way channel.
Regarding the drift detection by GPS or D-GPS, the total width of navigation channel can easily be determined
simply by summing up the necessary elements given in equations (2.3.1) - (2.3.3).
– 574 –
2.4 Alignment of Navigation Channel (Bends)

(1) In class 1 waterways, in cases where a bend exceeds 30º and the design ship and the features of the navigation
environment such as the rudder angle, ship speed cannot be designated, it is preferable that the centerline of the
bend in the waterway be an arc having a radius of curvature roughly 4 times the length overall of the design ship
Loa or more, and that the width of navigation channel be equal to or greater than the necessary width. When
the angle of intersection of the centerlines is 30º or greater, in two-way waterways having its width of W, it is
preferable that the corner cut be designed as shown in Fig. 2.4.1. Furthermore, depending on the design ship and
the navigation environment, the length between perpendiculars Lpp can be used instead of the length overall Loa.
30° or larger
W/ 2
W/ 2
4LOA
Fig. 2.4.1 Corner Cut at Bend Section of Width W of Navigation Channel
(2) In class 2 waterways, in cases where a bend exceeds 30° and the design ship and the features of the navigation
environment such as the rudder angle, ship speed can be designated, the radius of curvature can be calculated
based on the manoeuverability index of turning, which shows the turning performance of ships. In the bend, it
is desirable that the width be greater than that required by corner cut, etc.
It may also be noted that in cases other than corner cut, a curved shape, etc. can be used, considering the
installation of buoys, etc., based on adjustment with the parties concerned with maritime affairs. In particular,
providing a corner cut is not necessarily effective in cases where the angle of intersection between the center
lines is large; therefore, study of a curved shape is preferable.
2.4.2 Performance Verification for Class 2

The radius of curvature which is necessary in class 2 waterways can be calculated by the following method.
The curvature of bend which joins two straight line channel legs should be determined by considering both aspects
of the ship turning ability and the rudder angle to be taken, and the bend radius (= the ship turning radius) R may be
calculated by the following equation.1), 2)
(2.4.1)
where
L : length of ship (between perpendiculars) (m)
K' : non-dimensional index of turning ability
δ0 : rudder angle (rad)
Table 2.4.1 gives the non-dimensional index of the turning ability K' for 13 ship types, which are obtained by
analyzing the motion trajectories of 90 degree turning computed with the use of fully nonlinear equations of the ship
maneuvering motion.3), 4) The computations are made for the turning motion with 20 degree rudder in the shallow
water of H/d =1.2 under non-external forces.
For the concept design use, the turning ability index K' may practically and easily be estimated by employing figures
of the similar ship to the design ship given in Table 2.4.1 as follows.
K' =K' (the figure given in Table 2.4.1). (2.4.2)
– 575 –
It is noted that K' is not given for the 2 types of PCCs in Table 2.4.1, for which careful attention and consideration
should be paid from a view point of the large wind force effects.
Table 2.4.1 Non-dimensional Index of Turning Ability
Ship Type K'

1 Cargo Ship 0.58
2 Small Cargo Ship 0.47
3 Container Ship (Over Panamax) 0.42
4 Container (Panamax) 0.52
5 Very Large Bulk Carrier 0.52
6 Large Bulk Carrier (Panamax) 0.49
7 Small Bulk Carrier 0.62
8 VLCC 0.62
9 Small Tanker 0.60
10 LNG Ship 0.75
11 Refrigerated Cargo Carrier 0.63
12 Passenger Ship (2shafts 2propellers) 0.66
13 Ferry Boat (2shafts 1propellers) 0.55
References
1) Yoshimura, Y.: Mathematical model for the maneuvering ship motion in shallow water, Journal of the Kansai society of naval
architects, Japan, No.200, March 1986
2) Takahashi, H., A. Goto and M. Abe: Study on ship dimensions by statistical analysis-standard of main dimensions of design
ship (Draft), Research Report of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, No.28, March 2006
3) VLCC Study Group: 10 sections regarding VLCC, SEIZANDOSHOTEN
4) Honda, K.: Outline of ship handling (5th edition), SEIZANDOSHOTEN, 1998
5) Takagi, M.: On the ship motion in shallow water No.3, Transactions of the West-Japan Society of Naval Architects, Vol. 54,
1977
6) Ohtsu, K., Yoshimura, Y., Hirano, M., Tsugane, M and Takahashi, H.: Design Standards for Fairway in Next Generation, Asia
Navigation Conference 2006, No.26, 2006
7) The Japan Port and Harbour Association: Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan
8) Inoue, S., Hirano, M., Kijima, K. And Takashina, J.: A Practical Calculation Method of Ship Maneuvering Motion, ISP
(International Shipbuilding Progress), Vol.28, No.325, 1981
9) Principle of Naval Architecture (2nd Revision), Vol.3, SNAME, 1989
10) Kose, K., Yumuro, A. And Yoshimura, Y.: Mathematical Model of Ship Maneuvering Motion-Interactions among Hull,
Propeller and Rudder, and its Expressions, The 3rd Ship Maneuverability Symposium Text, The Society of Naval Architects
of Japan, 1981
11) Yamano, T. and Saito, Y.: An Estimation Method of Wind Force Acting on Ship’s Hull, Journal of the Kansai Society of Naval
Architects, No.228, 1997
12) Kijima, K. and Lee, M/: On the Safe Navigation Including the Interaction Forces between Ship and Ship, Transactions of the
West-Japan Society of Naval Architects, No.104, 2002
– 576 –
3 Basins
Performance Requirements for Basins
Article 10
The performance requirements for basins shall be such that the requirements specified by the Minister of
Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied in light of geotechnical characteristics, waves,
water currents, and wind conditions along with the usage conditions of the surrounding water areas, for
securing the safe and smooth use by ships.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Basins
Article 31
The performance criteria for basins shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The size of a basin shall satisfy the following standards. Provided, however, that the standards shall not
be applied to basins for design ships with the gross tonnage less than 500 tons:
(a) Basins which are provided for use in anchorage or mooring of ships excluding the basins in front
of quaywalls, mooring piles, piers, and floating piers shall have an area greater than a circle that
has a radius obtained by adding an appropriate value to the length of the design ship, in light of the
conditions of geotechnical characteristics, waves, water currents, and winds as well as the usage
condition of the surrounding water areas. Provided, however, that in cases where that the area
specified above is not required owing to the mode of anchorage or mooring, the basin size can be
reduced to the area that shall not hinder the safe anchorage or mooring of ships.
(b) Basins which are provided for use in anchorage or mooring of ships in front of quaywalls, mooring
piles, piers, and floating piers shall have an appropriate area of which the length and width are greater
than the length and width of the design ship, respectively, in light of the conditions of geotechnical
characteristics, waves, water currents, and winds, the usage condition of the surrounding water
areas, and the mode of anchorage or mooring.
(c) Basins which are provided for use in ship turning by the bow shall have an area greater than a circle
that has a radius obtained by multiplying the length of the design ship by 1.5. Provided, however, that
in cases where that the area specified above is not required owing to the method of ship turning by
the bow, the basin size can be reduced to the area that shall not hinder the safe ship turning by the
bow.
(2) The basin shall have an appropriate depth that is greater than the draft of the design ship, in light of the
degree of the motions of the design ship due to waves, water currents, winds, and others.
(3) Basins which are provided for use in anchorage or mooring of ships in front of quaywalls, mooring
piles, piers, and floating piers shall in principle secure the harbor calmness which enables the working
rate of cargo handling operation at equal to or greater than 97.5% in terms of time throughout the year.
Provided, however, that this rate shall not be applied to the basins where the mode of utilization of
mooring facilities or the water areas in front of them are regarded as special.
(4) In a basin which is provided as a harbor of refuge during stormy weather, the wave conditions during
stormy weather shall remain below the level that is admissible for refuge of the design ship.
(5) In a basin which is provided for anchorage or mooring of ships for the main purpose of timber sorting,
measures shall be taken to prevent drifting of timbers.
[Technical Note]
3.1 Performance Criteria
(1) Area of Basins (usability)

① Basins provided for use in anchorage or mooring of ships
(a) Basins other than those in front of quaywalls.
In basins which are provided for use in anchorage or mooring of ships, basins other than basins in front of
quaywalls, mooring piles, piers, and floating piers means basins which are provided for use in anchoring
– 577 –
and buoy mooring. In determining the area of the basin in performance verification of the basin concerned,
appropriate consideration shall be given to the properties of the sea-bed, the effect of wind, the water depth,
depending on the functions required in the objective facilities and the expected condition of use of the
facilities. Cases where that area is not necessary due to the method of anchorage or mooring are defined as
cases of buoy mooring. In determining the area of the basin in the performance verification of basins in this
case, appropriate consideration shall be given to the expected condition of use of the objective facilities and
the amount of horizontal movement of buoys due to the effect of differences in sea level.
(b) Basins in front of quaywalls
In determining the proper area of basins greater than the length overall of the design ship and greater than
the width of the design ship in the performance verification of basins in front of quaywalls, mooring piles,
piers, and floating piers, when determining the length of the basin, appropriate consideration shall be given
to the necessary extension in alongside mooring of the design ship in the length overall of the design ship,
and in determining the width of the basin, appropriate consideration shall be given to safety in berthing and
unberthing of the design ships.
② Basins provided for use in turning of bow
(a) Basins provided for use in turning of the bow (hereinafter called “ship turning”) means the turning basins.
In determining the scale of the basin, turning basin, in the performance verification of the basin concerned,
appropriate consideration shall be given to the method of turning of the design ship, the turning performance
of the design ship, the arrangement of the mooring facilities and waterways. Methods of turning in cases
where that area is not necessary mean turning employing a tugboat, turning using thrusters having adequate
thrust and turning using an anchor.
(b) Area which does not hinder safe turning
1) In determining the area of a basin in the performance verification of the basin, the following values can be
used as areas which do not hinder safe turning.
Turning using thrusters having adequate thrust may be equivalent to turning using a tugboat.
• W hen turning under the ship’s own power, a circle having a diameter 3 times the length overall of the
design ship
• W hen turning using a tugboat, a circle having a diameter 2 times the length overall of the design ship
2) Special cases in connection with small craft
In basins provided for use in turning of small crafts, in cases where the area of the basin must unavoidably
be reduced due to topographical conditions, the following values can be used as an area which does not
hinder safe turning, with the use of a mooring anchor, winds, or tidal currents.
Turning utilizing thrusters having adequate thrust may be equivalent to turning using a tugboat.
• W hen turning under the ship’s own power, a circle having a diameter 2 times the length overall of the
design ship
• W hen turning using a tugboat, a circle having a diameter 1.5 times the length overall of the design ship
(c) Mooring/unmooring basins
In determining the scale of basins in the performance verification of mooring/unmooring basins, appropriate
consideration shall be given to the method of turning of the design ship, whether the ship is equipped with
thrusters or not, the effects of winds and tidal currents, ease of maneuvering.
(2) Water Depth of Basins (usability)
① An appropriate water depth greater than the draft of the design ship is a value obtained by adding a keel
clearance, which is set corresponding to the maximum draft, to the assumed maximum draft of the design ship,
such as the load draft. In determining the water depth of a basin in the performance verification of the basin,
an appropriate depth greater than the draft of the design ship under the datum level for port management shall
be secured. Provided, however, that this shall not apply to basins for use in fitting of ships and other basins
provided for use in special anchorage or mooring of ships.
② Turning using thrusters
In determining the keel clearance in the performance verification of the basins with the use of special turning
methods such as turning using thrusters by ferries shall set approximately 10% larger than the general maximum
draft, taking consideration of the special turning method.
– 578 –
(3) Calmness of Basins (usability)
Calmness of basins means the percentage of time when the basin concerned is in a condition in which ships can
use the basin safely and smoothly. In verification of calmness in the performance verification of the basins, when
necessary, the condition of waves which may hinder anchorage and mooring of ships and cargo handling in the
basin shall be evaluated appropriately. In the verification of the calmness of the basin, the wave height in the
basin can generally be used as an index; however, when necessary, appropriate consideration shall be given to the
direction and period of waves affecting ship motion of the design ship while moored, and to the mooring method
of the design ship.
(4) Condition of Waves in Basin During Rough Weather (usability)
In the verification of the condition of waves during rough weather in the performance verification of the basins,
the allowable range of the condition of waves during rough weather shall be set appropriately giving appropriate
consideration to the height, direction, and period of waves in the objective basin, depending on the type and
principal dimensions of the design ship and sheltering method.

[1] Location and Area
(1) Area of Basins Provided for Use in Anchorage or Mooring

① A single anchoring, see Fig. 3.2.1(a) and a dual anchoring, see Fig. 3.2.1(b), are the most popular mooring
methods. A two anchoring method and a bow-and-stern anchoring method are also applied.
② It is necessary to determine the chain length in such a way that the holding powers of the mooring anchor and
the chain lying on the sea bottom can resist the actions exerted on the ship under such conditions as the type
of ship, anchorage method, and meteorological and marine conditions. In general, the stability of the mooring
system increases as the length of the anchor chain increases.
③ The area of anchorage area is defined as a circle having a radius equivalent to the sum of the ship’s length and
the horizontal distance between the bow and the center of rotation of the laying chain.
④ When the conditions required to calculate the length of the anchor chain are unknown, Table 3.2.1 may normally
be used as a reference.
⑤ Fig. 3.2.1(c) shows a single-buoy mooring, and Fig. 3.2.1(d) shows a dual-buoy mooring with the buoys
located in the bow and stern of the ship. In this double-buoy mooring, it is necessary to locate the buoys in such
a way that the line connecting the two buoys become parallel with the directions of tidal currents and winds. In
the determination of the area of these types of buoy mooring, Table 3.2.2 may be used as a reference.
⑥ The width of basins between multiple parallel piers can be set referring to the values specified below.
(Loa: length overall of design ship)
(a) When the number of piers on one side of a groin is approximately 3 or less: 1.0 Loa
(b) When the number of berths on one side of a pier is approximately 4 or more: 1.5 Loa
In cases where the back of the pier is to be used as a small craft basin, and when used by bunkering ships or
barges, it is preferable to consider those use conditions.
⑦ In determining the anchoring method and scale in rough weather, References 1) – 4) can be used as reference.
– 579 –
(b)Dual anchoring
(a)Single anchoring
(d) Dual buoy mooring
(c)Single buoy mooring
Fig. 3.2.1 Concept of Scale of Basin (Per Ship)
Table 3.2.1 Anchorage Basins
Purpose of use Method of use Bottom soil or wind velocity Diameter (m)
Offshore waiting or cargo Single anchoring Good anchoring Loa+6D
handling Poor anchoring Loa+6D+30
Dual anchoring Good anchoring Loa+4.5D
Poor anchoring Loa+4.5D +25
Note) Loa: length overall of design ship (m), D: water depth (m)
Table 3.2.2 Size of Basins for Buoy Mooring
Method of use Area

Single buoy mooring Circle with radius (Loa +25)
Dual buoy mooring Rectangle with sides of (Loa + 50) (m) and Loa/2
Note) Loa: length overall of design ship (m)
(3) Area of Basins Provided for Use in Maneuvering

Mooring/unmooring basins
① In general, the mooring/unmooring water area and waterways can be planned at the same water area from
the viewpoints of efficient layout and the use of the port facilities. Provided, however, that it is preferable to
separate the two in cases where ship traffic is congested.
② When examining the size of a mooring/unmooring basin using tugboats, References 5) and 6) can be used as
reference.
[2] Water Depth

“Appropriate depth” in the water depth of basins shall be a water depth which secures keel clearance corresponding
to the maximum draft in the expected maximum draft such as the full load draft below the datum level used in
construction.
– 580 –
[3] Harbor Calmness
(1) In conducting the performance verifications in connection with harbor calmness, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.5 Concept
of Harbor Calmness can be used as reference.
(2) Determination of the threshold wave height for cargo handling works in the performance verifications in
connection with harbor calmness must be conducted properly based on the type and dimensions of the design
ship, the features of cargo handling works, and the direction and period of the waves considered. In determining
the critical wave height for cargo handling, Environmental Assessment Manual of Long Period Waves in
Harbors7) can be used as reference. In determining the threshold wave height for cargo handling works in cases
where there is no danger of cargo handling problems caused by ship motion of the design ship due to swell, or long
period waves, the values shown in Table 3.2.3 can be used as reference.
Table 3.2.3 Reference Values of Threshold Wave Height for Cargo Handling Works not Affected by Swell, or Long
Period Waves
Ship type Threshold wave height for cargo handling works (H1/3)
Small craft 0.3m
Medium/large ship 0.5m
Very large ship 0.7–1.5m
Note) Here, the small craft means ships of roughly <500GT class which mainly use the small craft basin, the very large ship means ships of
roughly ≥50,000GT class which mainly use large-scale dolphins or offshore berths, and the medium/large ship means ships other than
the small craft and the very large ships.
References
1) Iwai, A.: New Edition Ship maneuvering theory, Kaibun-do Publishing, 1977
2) Honda, K.: Ship maneuvering theory (Enlarged 5th Edition), Seizan-do Publishing, 1978
3) Japan Association for Maritime Safety Edition: Maneuvering of Guideline for Very Large ships, Seizan-do Publishing, 1975
4) Suzuki, Y.: Study on the Design of Single Point Buoy Mooring, Technical Note of PHRI No.829,1996
5) Nakajima, T.: Maneuvering of tug boats- Technique-, Kaibun-so Publishing, 1979,
6) Yamagata, H.: Tug boats and their utilization method, Seizan-do Publishing, 1992
– 581 –
4 Small Craft Basin

Performance Requirements for Small Craft Basins
Article 11
The performance requirements for small craft basins shall be such that the requirements specified by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied in light of geotechnical characteristics,
waves, water currents, and wind conditions along with the usage conditions of the surrounding water areas,
for securing the safe and smooth use by small crafts.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Small Craft Basins
Article 32
The requirement specified in item (2) of the preceding article shall be applied to the performance criteria for
small craft basins with modification as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding item, the performance criteria for the small craft basins shall
be such that the basins have the shape, area, and calmness necessary for the safe and smooth use of ships.
[Technical Note]
As the scale of rest facilities, it is preferable to calculate the necessary extended length by adding an appropriate width
clearance, mutual clearance between ships, based on consideration of the actual condition of use. In rest facilities used
by small craft such as fishing boats, Table 4.1 can be used as reference for the width clearance in case of mooring by
longitudinal mooring.
Table 4.1 Relationship between Ship Width and Width Clearance
Ship width Width clearance

<2m 1.0–2.0m
2m to <4m 1.5–2.5m
4m or more 2.0–3.0m
– 582 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 4 PROTECTIVE FACILITIES FOR HARBORS
Chapter 4 Protective Facilities for Harbors
1 General
General Provisions
Article 13
Protective facilities for harbors shall be installed at appropriate locations in light of geotechnical
characteristics, meteorological characteristics, sea states, and other environmental conditions, as well as
ship navigation and other usage conditions of the water areas around the facilities concerned.
Necessary Items concerning Protective Facilities for Harbor
Article 24
The matters necessary for the performance requirements of protective facilities for harbor as specified in
this Chapter by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other requirements shall
be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Protective Facilities for Harbors
Article 33
The items to be specified by the Public Notice under Article 24 of the Ministerial Ordinance concerning the
performance requirements of protective facilities for harbors shall be as provided in the subsequent article
through Article 46.
[Technical Note]
(1) The purposes of protective facilities for harbors include ensuring harbor calmness, maintaining water depth,
preventing beach erosion, controlling the rise of water level in the areas behind the facilities during storm surges,
and diminishing invading waves by tsunami, as well as protecting harbor facilities and the hinterland from waves,
storm surges, and tsunamis. In recent years, water intimate amenity functions have also been required. In
general, there are many cases in which the protective facilities for harbors are expected to provide a combination
of several of these functions. Accordingly, in performance verifications, due consideration to enable the facilities
to fulfill these purposes is necessary.
(2) When constructing protective facilities for harbors, their layout and structural type shall be decided after giving
careful consideration to the influences that will be exerted on the nearby water area, facilities, topography, and
water currents. The influences caused by the protective harbor facilities for harbors are as follows:
① When the protective facilities are constructed on a coast of sandy beach, they may cause various morphological
changes to the surrounding area such as beach accretion or erosion.
② Construction of breakwaters may increase the wave height at the outside of the protective facilities because of
reflected waves.
③ In the inside of a harbor, the calmness of water area may be disturbed because of multiple wave reflections
triggered by construction of the new protective facilities or harbor oscillations due to the changes of harbor
shape.
④ Construction of the protective facilities may bring about changes in the surrounding tidal currents or flow
conditions of a river mouth, thus inviting localized changes of water quality.
(3) Because of the fact that the protective facilities also provide a habitat for marine organisms such as fish, marine
plants, and plankton, the biological environments must also be taken into consideration when planning a facility
layout and making structural design.
(4) When locating the protective facilities adjacent to the areas such as natural park zones or cultural facilities, it
is preferable to consider not only the functions of the facilities themselves but also external appearance such as
shape and color. In addition, in situations where water intimate amenity functions will be added to the protective
facilities, convenience and safety of people must also be taken into consideration.
– 583 –
(5) Because there is a danger that damage to the protective facilities may affect the safety of ships in the harbor, the
mooring facilities, hinterland facilities, it is preferable to conduct an adequate examination corresponding to
the performance requirements of the protective facilities when constructing, improving, and maintaining those
facilities.
– 584 –
2 Common Items for Breakwaters

Performance Requirements for Breakwaters
Article 14
1 The performance requirements for breakwaters shall be as specified in the subsequent items depending on
the structure type for the purpose of securing safe navigation, anchorage and mooring of ships, ensuring
smooth cargo handling, and preventing damage to buildings, structures, and other facilities in the port by
maintaining the calmness in the harbor water area.
(1) Breakwaters shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism so as to enable reduction of the height of waves intruding into the harbor.
(2) Damage to a breakwater due to self weight, variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, and/or
other actions shall not impair the functions of the breakwater concerned and shall not adversely affect
its continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for breakwaters
mentioned in the following are specified in the respective items.
(1) The performance requirements for a breakwater which is required to protect the hinterland of the
breakwater concerned from storm surges or tsunamis shall be such that the breakwater satisfies the
requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to enable
appropriate reduction of the rise in water level and flow velocity due to storm surges or tsunamis in the
harbor.
(2) The performance requirements for a breakwater which is provided for use by an unspecified large
number of people shall be such that the breakwater satisfies the requirements specified by the Minister
of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to ensure the safety of the users of the breakwater.
(3) The performance requirements for a breakwater in the place where there is a risk of serious impact
on human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity, in consideration of its structure type, shall be
such that the damage from tsunamis, accidental waves, Level 2 earthquake ground motions and/or
other actions do not have a serious impact on the structural stability of the breakwater concerned with
respect to the breakwater types even though the damage may impair the functions of the breakwater
concerned. Provided, however, that as for the performance requirements for the breakwater which
is required to protect the hinterland of the breakwater concerned from tsunamis, the damage due to
tsunamis, Level 2 earthquake ground motions and/or other actions shall not adversely affect restoration
through minor repair works of the functions of the breakwater concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Breakwaters
Article 34
1 The performance criteria which are common for breakwaters shall be as specified in the subsequent items.
(1) Breakwaters shall be arranged appropriately so as to satisfy the harbor calmness provided in item iii)
of Article 31, and shall have the dimensions which enable the transmitted wave height to be equal to or
less than the allowable level.
(2) Breakwaters having wave-absorbing structures shall have the dimensions which enable full performance
of the intended wave-absorbing function.
2 In addition to the requirements specified in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of the
breakwaters specified in the subsequent items shall be as provided in the respective items:
(1) The performance criteria for the breakwaters which are required to protect the hinterland from storm
surge shall be such that the breakwaters are arranged appropriately so as to reduce the rise of water
level and flow velocity in the harbor due to storm surge and have the dimensions necessary for their
function.
(2) The performance criteria for the breakwaters which are required to protect the hinterland from tsunamis
shall be such that the breakwaters are arranged appropriately so as to reduce the rise of water level and
flow velocity in the harbor due to tsunamis and have the dimensions necessary for their function.
– 585 –
(3) The performance criteria for the breakwater which is utilized by an unspecified large number of people
shall be such that breakwaters have the dimensions necessary to secure the the safety of users in
consideration of the environmental conditions to which the facilities concerned are subjected, the
utilization conditions, and others.
(4) The performance requirements for the breakwater in the place where there is a risk of serious impact
on human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity by the damage to the breakwater concerned shall
be such that the degree of damage owing to the actions of tsunamis, accidental waves, or Level 2
earthquake ground motions, which are the dominant actions in the accidental action situation, is equal
to or less than the threshold level corresponding to the performance requirements.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria for Breakwaters

① Common criteria for breakwaters
(a) Harbor calmness (usability)
1) Allowable transmitted wave height
The allowable transmitted wave height is the limit value of the wave height of waves transmitted
from outside the harbor to inside the harbor over the breakwaters. Provided, however, that the
index of the limit value in the performance verifications is not limited to the transmitted wave
height, but also includes cases in which the wave transmission ratio is used. In the performance
verifications of breakwaters, the allowable transmitted wave height or wave transmission ratio
shall be set appropriately in order to secure harbor calmness. Furthermore, the allowable
transmitted wave height or wave transmission ratio shall generally be calculated considering the
type of structure and crown height of the breakwater.
2) Dimensions for securing harbor calmness
The dimensions for securing harbor calmness shall indicate a structure including shape and
crown height which affects the transmitted wave height or transmission ratio of waves. In setting
the crown height in the performance verifications of breakwaters, appropriate consideration shall
be given to the effect of settlement of the ground.
② Specific breakwaters
(a) Storm surge protection breakwaters (usability)
The dimensions of storm surge protection breakwaters shall indicate the crown height, opening
width, and water depth at the opening. In setting the arrangement, crown height, opening width,
and water depth at the opening in performance verifications of storm surge protection breakwaters,
appropriate consideration shall be given to the effect of storm surge and tide levels so that the
breakwater demonstrates a peak cut effect in reducing the water and flows of water due to storm
surges.
(b) Tsunami protection breakwaters (usability)
The dimensions of tsunami protection breakwaters shall indicate the crown height, opening width,
and water depth at the opening. In setting the arrangement, crown height, opening width, and water
depth at the opening in the performance verifications of tsunami protection breakwaters, appropriate
consideration shall be given to the effect of tsunamis and tidal levels so that the breakwater
demonstrates a peak cut effect in reducing the water level and flows of water due to tsunamis.
(c) Amenity-oriented breakwaters (usability)
The dimensions of amenity-oriented breakwaters shall indicate the structure, cross-sectional
dimensions, and ancillary facilities. In setting the structure and cross-sectional dimensions in the
performance verifications of amenity-oriented breakwaters, consideration shall be given to the
effects of wave overtopping and spray, prevention of slipping, overturning, and falling into the
water of users, smooth execution of rescue activities for users who fall into the water, and ancillary
equipment such as falling prevention fences shall be installed appropriately.
(d) Breakwaters of facilities prepared for accidental incidents
The settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situations (limited to accidental
situations) which are common to breakwaters of facilities prepared for accidental incidents shall be
as shown in Attached Table 15. The reason for indicating “damages” in the “verification items”
column of Attached Table 15 is that it is necessary to use a comprehensive term taking account that
– 586 –
the verification items will vary depending on the type of structure. In the performance verifications
of breakwaters of facilities prepared for accidental incidents, among the settings for the performance
criteria and the design situations in connection with accidental situations associated with Level
2 earthquake ground motion, tsunamis, and accidental waves, those for which the performance
verification is necessary shall be set appropriately, depending on the type of structure of the objective
breakwater.
Attached Table 15 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations limited to Accidental Situations Common to
Breakwaters of Facilities Prepared for Accident
Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements Dominating limit value

Item
Item
Situation Non-dominating action

action
14 2 3 34 2 4 Safety Accidental L2 earthquake Self weight, water pressure Damage –

ground
motion
Tsunami Self weight, water Damage –
pressure, water flows
Accidental Self weight, water pressure Damage –

waves
(e) Tsunami protection breakwaters of facilities against accidental incidents

The settings in connection with the performance criteria and the design situations limited to accidental
situations of tsunami protection breakwaters of facilities prepared for accidental incidents shall be as shown in
Attached Table 16. In the performance verification of tsunami protection breakwaters of facilities prepared
for accidental incidents, among the settings for the performance criteria and the design situations in connection
with the accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion, tsunamis, and accidental
waves, those for which the performance verification is necessary shall be set appropriately, depending on the
type of structure of the tsunami protection breakwater of interest.
It may be noted that, as the performance criteria in connection with the accidental situations which are
common to breakwaters of facilities prepared for accidental incidents, in addition to these provisions, the
settings in connection with the Public Notice, Article 22 Performance Criteria Common to Members
Comprising Facilities subject to the Technical Standards shall be applied as necessary.
Attached Table 16 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations limited to Accidental Situations Common to
Tsunami Protection Breakwaters of Facilities Prepared for Accidental Incidents
Ministerial
Ordinance Public Notice Design situation
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
14 2 3 34 2 4 Restorability Accidental L2 Self weight, Deformation of Limit value of residual

earthquake water pressure breakwater body deformation
ground
motion
Tsunami Self weight, Sliding and Limit value of sliding
water pressure, overturning of Limit value of overturning
water flows breakwater body, Limit value of bearing
bearing capacity of capacity
foundation ground
Safety Accidental Self weight, Sliding and Limit value of sliding

waves water pressure overturning of Limit value of overturning
breakwater body, Limit value of bearing
bearing capacity of capacity
foundation ground
– 587 –
[Technical Note]
2.1 Principals of Performance Verification
[1] General
Maintenance of harbor calmness shall be examined from the two viewpoints which include the enabling of cargo
handling in the basin and the condition of waves enabling refuge during rough weather. For harbor calmness in the
basin and the condition of waves during rough weather, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.5 Concept of Harbor Calmness and
Chapter 3, 3 Basins can be used as references.
[2] Layout
(1) Breakwaters are constructed to maintain the harbor calmness, facilitate smooth cargo handling, ensure the safety
of ships during navigation or anchorage, and protect port facilities. To fulfill these requirements, the following
are required:
① Breakwaters should be so located that the harbor entrance is at the location not facing the direction of the most
frequent waves and the direction of the highest waves in order to reduce entrance of waves to the harbor.
② Breakwater alignment should be arranged to protect the harbor from the most frequent waves and the highest
waves.
③ The harbor entrance should have a sufficient effective width so that it will not present an obstacle to ship
navigation, and it should orient the navigation channel in a direction that makes navigation easy.
④ Breakwaters should be located at the place where the speed of tidal currents is as slow as possible. In cases
where the speed of tidal currents is high, it is necessary to take appropriate countermeasures.
⑤ The influences of reflected waves, Mach-stem waves, and wave concentration on the waterways and basins
should be minimized.
⑥ Breakwaters should enclose a sufficiently large water area that is needed for ship berthing, cargo handling, and
ship anchorage.
These objectives are also mutually contradictory goals, however. A narrow harbor entrance width, for
example, is best in order to achieve the calmness in a harbor but is inconvenient for navigation. The direction
of most frequent waves and the direction of the highest waves are not necessarily the same. In this situation
the breakwater layout should be determined through a comprehensive investigation of all the factors such as
conditions of ship use, construction cost, construction works, and ease or difficulty of maintenance.
(2) In situations where concerns for deterioration of water quality exist, consideration is preferably given to the
exchangeability of seawater with the outside sea so that seawater within the harbor does not stagnate.
(3) In the construction of breakwaters, economy should also be examined considering the natural conditions and
construction conditions. In particular, it is preferable to consider the following.
① Layouts which cause wave concentrations should be avoided.
② Locations where the ground is extremely poor should be avoided, considering constructability and economy.
③ The layout should consider the effects of topographical features such as capes and islands.
④ On sandy beaches, the layout should consider invasion of littoral drift into the harbor.
⑤ Adequate consideration should be given to the effect on adjacent areas after the construction of the
breakwater.
For wave concentration, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.3.4[3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners near
the Heads of Breakwaters and around Detached Breakwaters can be used as reference; for breakwaters to
be constructed on sandy beaches, Part II, Chapter 2, 6.3 Littoral Drift can be used as reference.
(4) Breakwaters should be so located that they do not form an obstacle to the future development of the harbor.
(5) The “effective harbor entrance width” means the width of the waterway at the specified depth of water, not
merely the width across the harbor entrance. The speed of the tidal currents cutting across the harbor entrance is
preferably less than 2 to 3 knots.
(6) In the areas surrounding shoals, the wave height often increases owing to wave refraction. In some cases, impact
wave forces will act on the breakwater constructed on a seabed with steep slope. It should be noted that a very
large structure may be required when a breakwater is placed over or directly behind a shoal.
– 588 –
(7) For detached breakwaters which are to be constructed in isolation offshore, if the length of the breakwater is
less than several times that of the incident waves, the distribution of the wave heights behind the breakwater
will fluctuate greatly due to the effect of diffracted waves from the two ends of the breakwater, which will affect
the stability of the breakwater body; therefore, caution is necessary. For the effects of diffracted waves, Part II,
Chapter 2, 4.3.2 Wave Diffraction and Part II, Chapter 2, 4.3.4 [3] Transformation of Waves at Concave
Corners near the Heads of Breakwaters and around Detached Breakwaters can be used as reference.
[3] Selection of Structural Type and Setting of Cross Section
(1) In setting the cross sections of breakwaters, it is preferable to select the type of structure based on a comparative
examination of the layout conditions, natural conditions, use conditions, importance, construction conditions,
economy, term of construction work, ease of obtaining materials, and ease of maintenance, considering the
features of respective types of structures.
(2) Breakwaters are generally classified as shown in Fig. 2.1.1 by the type of structure and functions or purposes. In
this figure, ordinary breakwater means a breakwater having basic functions.
(3) Selection of a permeable type breakwater structure is advantageous for promoting circulation of sea water in
the harbor. However, because this also invites inflow of littoral drift and an increase in the height of transmitted
waves, adequate consideration of the merits and demerits is necessary when adopting this type.
(4) There are also cases in which creative ingenuity is used to promote adhesion of marine life inside and outside the
harbor.1), 2), 3), 4), 5), 6), 7), 8), 9), 10)
(5) In cases where the layout of a breakwater includes a concave corner, the wave height around the concave corner
will increase. Therefore, it is preferable to adopt a low reflective structure around concave corners.
(6) In determining the cross-sectional dimensions of the wave-dissipating work in the wave-dissipating function of a
breakwater, it is necessary to give adequate consideration to hydraulic characteristics so that the specified wave-
dissipating function is demonstrated. In particular, it is preferable that the crown height of the wave-dissipating
section be approximately the same as that of the breakwater body so that impulsive breaking wave pressure will
not act on the breakwater body.
Ordinary breakwater
(breakwater having basic functions) Amenity-oriented breakwater
Breakwater
Breakwater with combination Tsunami protection breakwater
of added functions
Storm surge protection breakwater
Breakwater for timber handling facilities
(a) Classification by function
Composite breakwater Types of structures enclosed in broken line

are gravity type breakwaters.
Upright breakwater
Sloping breakwater
Breakwater armored with Upright wave-dissipating block type breakwater
Breakwater wave-dissipating blocks
Gravity type special breakwater Wave-dissipating caisson type breakwater
Pile type breakwater Sloping top caisson breakwater
Floating breakwater
Breakwater with wide footing on soft ground
(b) Classification by type of structure
Fig. 2.1.1 Classification of Breakwaters
– 589 –
(1) In the performance verification of breakwaters, the crown height of the breakwater, relationship between the
position of the breakwater and waterways and basins, and position and direction of the harbor entrance should
be examined, considering the harbor calmness necessary for cargo handling and refuge. In the performance
verifications in connection with the harbor calmness of basins, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.5 Concept of Harbor
Calmness can be used as reference. Furthermore, it is preferable that conditions be set to enable protection of the
harbor facilities behind the breakwater, including during typhoons and other rough weather.
(2) The crown height of a breakwater necessary in securing harbor calmness can generally be set to an appropriate
height at least 0.6 times the significant wave height (H1/3) used in examination of the safety of the breakwater above
the mean monthly-highest water level. In this case, the appropriate height is set considering harbor calmness in
the basin behind the breakwater, preservation of facilities in the harbor behind the breakwater. In the existing
breakwaters, there are many examples in which the crown height is determined as follows.
① In a harbor of large ships’ calling, where the water area behind the breakwater is so wide that wave overtopping
is allowed to some extent, the crown height is set at 0.6H1/3 above the mean monthly-highest water level in
situations where it is not necessary to consider the influence of storm surge.
② In a harbor where the water area behind the breakwater is small and is used for small ships, overtopping waves
should be prevented as much as possible. Hence the crown height is set at 1.25H1/3 above the mean monthly-
highest water level.
(3) Even in case of a harbor of large ships’ calling with a wide water area behind the breakwaters at the harbor where
large storm waves close to the design waves attack frequently with long duration, the activities of harbor may be
limited by the influence of waves overtopping the breakwaters, if the crown height is set at of 0.6H1/3 above the
mean monthly-highest water level. Accordingly, in such a harbor, the crown height is preferably set higher than
0.6H1/3 above the mean monthly-highest water level.
(4) In the performance verification for the effects of reflected waves, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.3.4 Wave Reflection can
be used as reference.
(5) In 3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Composite Breakwaters), the standard performance verification method and
the partial factors are shown in respective types of structures. However, the breakwaters used in recent years
have included types with multiple structural features. In this case, it is necessary to determine the partial factors
based on an appropriate evaluation of the probability distributions associated with design parameters such as wave
force, considering each structural features. Reference 11) presents a method of determining the partial factors for
a sloping-top caisson breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks as an example of cases of this type and can
be used as reference.
References
1) Furukawa, K., K. Muro and T. Hosokawa: Velocity Distribution around Uneven Surface for Promotion of Larvae Settlement
on Coastal Structure, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 3-26, 1994
2) ASAI, T., Hiroaki OZASA and Kazuo MURAKAMI: Effect of physical conditions onto accommodation of attached
organisms, Technical Note of PHRI No.880, p.27, 1997
3) ASAI, T., Hiroaki OZASA and Kazuo MURAKAMI: Field experiment of accommodation of marine organisms onto concrete
blocks, Technical Note of PHRI No. 881, p.40, 1997
4) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport Edition: Port in symbiosis with environment (Eco-port), National Printing
Bureau, Ministry of Finance, 1994
5) Furukawa, K., K. Muro and T. Hosokawa: Introduction to water front science for creation of coastal environment, Asakura-
shoten Publishing, 1994
6) Eco-port (water area)Technical Working Group Edition: Eight viewpoints for the consideration of marine environment in
ports, Waterfront Vitalization and Environment Research Center, Port and water area environment Research Institute, 1996
7) Port Environment Creation Study Group: Revitalization of coastal environment creation 21, Sankai-do Publishing,
1997Restoring
8) Eco-port (water area)Technical Working Group Edition: Compilation of examples of creation of Nature-creature-friendly
marine environment, Waterfront Vitalization and Environment Research Center, Port and water area environment Research
Institute, 1999
9) Working Group for Regeneration of Marine Nature: Handbook of Marine nature- Planning, Technology and practice-,
Gyosei, 2003
10) Hokkaido Regional Development Bureau: Design Manual for natural-environment-harmonious coastal structures in cold
region- Volume for sea grass meadow and spawning, Cold Region and Harbour Engineering Research Center, 1998
– 590 –
11) Miyawaki, S. and T. Nagao: A study on determination of partial coefficient of gravity type breakwater having plural
structural characteristics- an example of sloping top caisson breakwater covered with wave absorbing blocks,- Technical
Note of National Institute of Land and Infrastructure Management (NILIM), No. 350, 2006
– 591 –
3 Ordinary Breakwaters
3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Composite Breakwaters)
Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Gravity-type Breakwaters
Article 35
The performance criteria for gravity-type breakwaters shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is self weight, the risk of circular
slip failure of the ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(2) Under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are variable waves and Level 1
earthquake ground motions, the risk of failures due to sliding and overturning of the breakwater body,
and/or insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria for Gravity-type Breakwaters

① Composite breakwaters
(a) Among the settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situations excluding
accidental situations of gravity-type breakwaters, those pertaining to composite breakwaters shall
be as shown in Attached Table 17.
As settings pertaining to composite breakwaters, in addition to these provisions, the settings in
connection with the Public Notice, Article 22, Paragraph 3 (Scouring and Sand Washing Out) and Article
28 Performance Criteria for Armor Stones and Blocks can be applied as necessary, and the settings in
connection with Article 23 through Article 27 can be applied depending on the type of members comprising
the objective composite breakwater.
Attached Table 17 Settings in Connection with Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental
situations) of Composite Breakwaters (Gravity-type Breakwaters)

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements Dominating dominating

Item
Item
14 1 2 35 1 1 Serviceability Permanent Self weight Water Circular slip failure Failure probability in permanent
pressure of ground situation for self weight (Pf = 4.5
x 10-4)
2 Variable Variable Self weight, Sliding of Exceedence probability of sliding
waves water breakwater body for allowable sliding
pressure System failure probability for
variable situations associated with
Overturning of waves (Pf = 8.7 x 10 -3 )
breakwater body,
bearing capacity of
foundation ground
L1 Self weight, Sliding/overturning Limit value for sliding
earthquake water of breakwater body, Limit value for overturning
ground pressure bearing capacity of Limit value for bearing capacity
motion foundation ground (Target values of maximum and
residual deformation)
(b) Permanent situation when dominating action is self weight

1) Failure probability
The index expressing the danger of ship failure for the permanent situation when the dominating
action is self weight is the probability that the ground will fail due to circular slip failure. Its
standard allowable value is Pf = 4.5 x 10-4. This standard limit value can be determined as the
safety level for caisson type composite breakwaters that roughly minimizes the expected total
cost which is the sum of the initial construction cost and the expected value of recovery costs.
(c) Variable situation when dominating action is variable waves
– 592 –
1) System failure probability

The indices expressing the danger of failure occurring due to sliding, overturning and foundation
failure of the breakwater body, for the variable situation when the dominating action is variable
waves is the system failure probability based on the balance of forces for the action of waves with
a 50 year return period. Its standard limit value is Pf = 8.7 x 10-3. This standard limit value can
be determined as the average safety level possessed by caisson type composite breakwaters and
breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks which were designed by using the conventional
design method based on factor of safety.
2) Exceedence probability of sliding displacement relative to allowable sliding displacement
One of the indexes of the danger of failure occurring due to sliding of the breakwater body for the
variable situation when the dominating action is variable waves is the probability that the sliding
displacement of the breakwater body will exceed the allowable sliding displacement. When
conducting a performance verification using this index, the allowable sliding displacement of
the breakwater body and the limit value of its exceedence probability shall be set appropriately
considering the importance of the object facilities. Methods of setting these items comprise the
method of setting the limit value as the probability that the total sliding displacement during the
design working life will exceed the allowable sliding displacement, and the method of setting
the limit value as the probability that the sliding displacement for multiple design waves having
different return periods will exceed the allowable sliding displacement. In addition to the
verification of sliding of the breakwater body described here, verification shall also be conducted
appropriately for overturning and bearing capacity.
(d) Variable situation when dominating action is Level 1 earthquake ground motion
1) Necessity of performance verification
In the performance verifications in connection with Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the
necessity of verification shall be judged based on the relative relationship of the degree of influence
of variable waves and Level 1 earthquake ground motion on the stability of the breakwater body.
In general, there are many cases in which the performance verification for Level 1 earthquake
ground motion is omitted in the performance verifications of breakwaters. However, caution is
necessary in judging the necessity of the performance verification for Level 1 earthquake ground
motion when the construction position of the facilities is deep and the design wave height is
small, as actions associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion can become the dominant
factor in such cases.
2) Deformation
The deformation of the breakwater body is defined as the index of the danger of failure occurring
due to sliding or overturning of the breakwater body for the variable situation when the dominating
action is Level 1 earthquake ground motion. When performing a performance verification using
this index, the allowable deformation of the breakwater body shall be set appropriately.
3) Others
In the performance verifications in connection with Level 1 earthquake ground motion, there is a danger
that the functions required in the objective breakwater may be impaired by settlement of the ground
and liquefaction of the ground. Therefore, appropriate consideration shall be given to the effects of the
settlement and the liquefaction of the ground due to the action of Level 1 earthquake ground motion as
stipulated in the Public Notice, Article 15 Ground Subsidence and Article 17 Ground Liquefaction.
② Upright breakwaters
(a) The performance criteria for upright breakwaters shall be applied to the performance criteria for
composite breakwaters.
③ Sloping breakwaters
Among the settings in connection with the performance criteria and designs states excluding accidental situations
of gravity-type breakwaters, those pertaining to sloping breakwaters shall be as shown in Attached Table 18.
As performance criteria for sloping breakwaters, in addition to these criteria, the settings in connection with
the Public Notice, Article 22, Paragraph 3 (Scouring and Sand Washing Out) and Article 28 Performance
Criteria for Armor Stones and Blocks shall be applied as necessary.
– 593 –
Attached Table 18 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Sloping
Breakwaters

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
14 1 2 35 1 1 Serviceability Permanent Self weight Water Circular slip Resistant moment

pressure failure of ground
2 Variable Variable Self weight, Sliding and Limit value of sliding
waves water overturning of Limit value of overturning
pressure superstructure
Bearing capacity Limit value of bearing capacity
of foundation
ground
L1 Self weight, Bearing capacity Limit value of bearing capacity
earthquake water of foundation
ground pressure ground
motion
④ Breakwaters armored with wave-dissipating blocks

(a) The performance criteria and the design situations of breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating
blocks is as shown in the Attached Table 17, except a failure probability in the permanent situation
for self weight is Pf = 2.0 x 10-4.
Because the breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks is a structural type having a wave-dissipating
structure, the Public Notice, Article 34, Paragraph 1, Item (2) (Usability related to Wave-dissipating
Function) shall be applied to the performance criteria in addition to this criteria.
⑤ Gravity-type special breakwaters
(a) Upright wave-dissipating block type breakwaters
1) The performance criteria and the design situations of gravity-type breakwaters is as shown in the
Attached Table 17, except a system failure probability in the variable situation for waves is Pf =
2.1 x 10-2. This standard limit value can be determined as the average safety level possessed by
upright wave-dissipating block type breakwaters which were designed by using the conventional
design method based on safety factors.
Because the upright wave-dissipating block type breakwater is a structural type having a wave-
dissipating section, the Public Notice, Article 34, Paragraph 1, Item (2) (Usability related to Wave-
dissipating Function) shall be applied as performance criteria in addition to this criteria.
(b) Wave-absorbing type caisson breakwaters
1) The performance criteria and the design situations of gravity-type breakwaters is as shown in the
Attached Table 17, except a system failure probability in the variable situation for waves is Pf =
2.0 x 10-2. This standard limit value can be determined as the average safety level possessed by
wave-absorbing type caisson breakwaters which were designed by using the conventional design
method based on safety factors.
Because the wave-absorbing type caisson breakwater is a structural type having a wave-dissipating
structure, the Public Notice, Article 34, Paragraph 1 Item (2) (Usability related to Wave-dissipating
Function) shall be applied as performance criteria in addition to this criteria.
(c) Sloping-top caisson breakwaters
1) The performance criteria and the design situations of sloping-top caisson breakwaters is as shown
in the Attached Table 17, except a system failure probability in the variable situation for waves is
Pf = 1.5 x 10-2. This standard limit value can be determined as the average safety level possessed
by sloping-top caisson breakwaters which were designed by using the conventional design method
based on safety factors.
– 594 –
[Technical Note]
3.1.1 Principals of Performance Verification
(1) An example of the performance verification procedure for composite breakwaters is shown in Fig. 3.1.1. Because
the assessment of the effect of liquefaction due to ground motion is not shown in the figure, it is necessary to
conduct an appropriate examination as to whether or not liquefaction can be expected and the countermeasures
for liquefaction referring to Part II, Chapter 6 Ground Liquefaction. The detailed procedure for judging the
necessity of the performance verification of seismic-resistant shall be as shown in 3.1.4 Performance Verification,
(11) Judgment of Necessity of Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant.
Determination of layout

*1
Variable situation associated with waves
Verification of sliding and overturning of upright section
and bearing capacity of foundation
Variable situation associated with

No Judgment of necessity of
seismic performance verification
Yes
Verification of sliding and overturning of
upright section and bearing capacity of foundation
*2
Verification of deformation of upright section
*3
Accidental situation associated
with tsunamis and waves
Verification of stability of upright section
Accidental situation associated

with Level 2 earthquake
ground motion
Verification of deformation
Permanent state
Verification of slip of foundation ground
Determination of cross-sectional dimensions
Verification of structural members
*1: The evaluation of the effects of liquefaction and settlement are not shown, so this must be separately considered.
*2: The analysis of deformation due to Level 1 earthquake ground motion may be carried out by dynamic analysis when necessary. For facilities where damage
to the objective facilities is assumed to have a serious impact on life, property, and social activity, it is preferable to conduct an examination of deformation
by dynamic analysis.
*3: For facilities where damage to the objective facilities is assumed to have a serious impact on life, property, and social activity, it is preferable to conduct
a verification for the accidental situations when necessary. Verification for accidental situations associated with waves shall be conducted in cases where
facilities handling hazardous cargoes are located directly behind the breakwater and damage to the objective facilities would have a catastrophic impact.
Fig. 3.1.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Composite Breakwaters
– 595 –
(2) Examples of the cross sections of composite breakwaters are shown in Fig. 3.1.2.
Seaward side Harbor side

Concrete crown
H.W.L
Concrete lid
Foot protection blocks Caisson
Irregular blocks Foot protection blocks
Armor stones
Rubble for foundation
(a) Caisson type composite breakwater (sandy ground)
Concrete crown
H.W.L
Foot protection blocks Concrete lid

Caisson
Armor stones
Armor stones
Replaced sand
(b) Caisson type composite breakwater (soft ground)
Concrete crown
H.W.L
Cellular block
Armor stones
(c) Cellular block type composite breakwater
Concrete crown
H.W.L
Concrete blocks
Foot protection blocks
Armor stones Armor stones
(d) Concrete block type composite breakwater
Fig. 3.1.2 Examples of Cross Sections of Composite Breakwaters
3.1.2 Actions
(1) The design tidal level when calculating wave force is generally examined in the condition in which the facilities
are most unstable. Specifically, in harbors where it is not necessary to consider the effect of storm surge, the
mean monthly-highest water level and mean low water level are assumed, and in harbors where consideration of
storm surge is necessary, an appropriate deviation is added to the mean monthly-highest water level and mean low
water level. For slip failure of the ground, the mean monthly-lowest water level is used, and for calculations of
settlement, the mean water level is used. Caution is required in the performance verifications, as there are cases
in which the most dangerous water level differs depending on the verification items and object of verification.
– 596 –
(2) The wave parameters necessary in the performance verifications are the wave height, wave direction, wavelength,
period, etc. In determining these parameters, Part II, Chapter 2, 4 Waves can be used as reference. For data
on wind for use in wave hindcasting, Part II, Chapter 2, 2 Winds can be used as reference. It may be noted that
data on wind are necessary in calculating wind pressure when designing lighthouses. The duration of waves is
also considered to be an element which affects the stability of breakwaters. However, at present, this has not
been adequately clarified. Therefore, caution is necessary, as damage to breakwaters facing the open sea and
in particular, damage to the breakwater mound, would appear to be due to the effect of repeated waves over
an extended period of time. Furthermore, because there are also cases in which facilities are damaged during
construction, it is necessary to decide the parameters for waves during construction considering the construction
plan and construction process.
(3) If the crest of the rubble mound is high and the berm width of the rubble mound is moderately wide, there are cases
in which these conditions induce impulsive breaking wave force. Due caution should be paid in connection with
the occurrence of impulsive breaking wave force, referring to Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2 Wave Forces on Upright
Walls. Because there are cases in which the intensity of wave pressure will increase if the crown height of the
breakwater is increased, caution is also necessary in this case.
(4) In the performance verifications, there are cases in which the wave that induces the greatest danger to the upright
section differs from the most dangerous wave in mass calculations for armor units; therefore, caution is necessary.
(5) In cases where the still water level differs inside and outside the breakwater, it is preferable to consider the
hydrostatic pressure equivalent to that difference in water level.
(6) It is necessary to consider the buoyancy of the breakwater body below the still water level. When the still water
level differs inside and outside the breakwater, buoyancy can be considered for the breakwater body below the
water surface joining the water levels on the two sides of the breakwater.
(7) In cases where erosion, sedimentation, changes in the gradient of the sea bottom can be expected after construction
of a breakwater, the effects of those phenomena should also be considered.
(8) For dynamic water pressure during earthquakes, Part II, Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure can be used
as a reference.
3.1.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section
(1) In cases where the foundation ground is soft and settlement can be expected, the crown height should include a
height margin in advance, or a structure whose height can easily be increased should be adopted.
(2) In cases where the foundation ground is soft and remarkable settlement or extensive sinking of the rubble is
conceivable, countermeasures should be taken, such as soil improvement, use of mattresses under the rubble
mound to disperse actions from the body of the breakwater.
(3) The thickness of the concrete crown should be 1.0 m or more in situations where the design significant wave height
is 2 m or greater, and is desired at least 50 cm when the design significant wave height is less than 2 m to avoid its
destruction by overtopped waves.
(4) If the height of the caisson top is low, constraints will be encountered on caisson placement, sand filling, and
placement of the concrete lid and concrete crown. Therefore, the height of the top of caissons is generally set
higher than the mean monthly-highest water level. In case of block type breakwaters, it is preferable that the
height of the top of the uppermost layer of blocks or cellular blocks be set at least higher than the mean water level
(M.W.L.), and if possible, higher than the mean monthly-highest water level, so as to facilitate construction of the
superstructure works.
(5) It is preferable that the water depth of the crest of the rubble section be as deep as possible in order to avoid the
action of impulsive breaking wave force. Provided, however, that in the case of caissons, the upright section shall
be set at a depth at which installation is possible. The mound width on the seaward side of the rubble mound
should be sufficiently wide, depending on the wave height, paying attention to reduce the unfavorable effect of the
action of impulsive breaking wave force as much as possible, in referring to Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2(4) Impulsive
Breaking Wave Force.
(6) The berm width of the rubble mound shall be set so as to secure the specified stability against slip failure of
ground and eccentric and inclined loads. In addition, it is preferable that the berm width on the seaward side be
set to a width of at least 5m or more in a condition that does not include the footing, paying attention to reduce the
favorable effect of the action of impulsive breaking wave force. However, this shall not apply in the case of hybrid
caissons and other special structural types. On the harbor side, a berm width on the order to 2/3 that at the seaward
side is acceptable. If this berm width is satisfied, it shall be assumed that the structure demonstrates the standard
– 597 –
strength constants c'=20kN/m2, φ =35° for rubble mound in the simplified Bishop method used in the verifications
of stability for eccentric and inclined loads. The partial factors used in the performance verifications are all values
for cross sections having an adequate berm width. Caution is necessary when the berm width is narrow, as it is
considered that the structure cannot demonstrate the standard strength constants. Reference equations for the
harbor-side berm width BM2 include equation (3.1.1) as proposed by Yoshioka et al.1) and others.
(3.1.1)

where
H1/3 : significant wave height (m)
HC : caisson height (m)
T U : thickness of superstructure work (m), in structures having a parapet, the parapet is not included
BC : width of breakwater body (m), in structures having a footing, the footing is not included
(7) A high rubble backing is effective for increasing the sliding resistance of the upright section. However, caution
is necessary in this case, as the rubble is easily scattered by overtopped waves. When necessary, it is preferable
to provide armor using cubic blocks or deformed blocks. In the performance verifications, an appropriate
performance verification shall be performed, referring to 3.1.4 (8) When Harbor Side of Upright Section is
Strengthened, which is presented below.
(8) A rubble mound foundation is effective to spread broadly the weight of the upright section, to provide a level
ground where the upright section is placed, and to prevent scouring by waves. To achieve these functions, the
thickness of rubble mound is desired to be 1.5 m or greater.
(9) The slope gradient of the rubble mound foundation is determined based upon the calculation of stability. In many
cases, the seaward side of the breakwater normally may be a gradient between 1: 2 to 1: 3, and the harbor side may
be a gradient between 1: 1.5 to 1: 2, depending upon wave conditions.
(1) Items to be Considered in Verification of Stability of Composite Breakwaters

The composite breakwaters are structures in which stability is maintained by the weight of the breakwater
body, so that the following items are generally examined.
① Sliding of the upright section
② Overturning of the upright section
③ Bearing capacity of the foundation ground
④ Slip failure of the ground
⑤ Settlement
⑥ Stability against Level 1 earthquake ground motion
For the partial factors used in the performance verification of these items, see Table 3.1.1 in (6) Performance
Verification and Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning, Foundation Failure, and Circular Slip Failure.
The performance verifications in connection with accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake
ground motion shall be conducted in accordance with (13) Performance Verification for Level 2 earthquake
ground motion. The performance verifications in connection with accidental situations in respect of tsunamis
shall be conducted in accordance with (14) Performance Verification for Tsunamis.
(2) Examination of Sliding of Breakwater Body
① In examination of the stability of the breakwater body against sliding, equation (3.1.2) can be used. In the
following, the subscript d denotes design values.
(3.1.2)
where
f : f riction coefficient between bottom of body and foundation
W : weight of body (kN/m)
PB : buoyancy (kN/m)
PU : uplift force (kN/m)
PH : horizontal wave force (kN/m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equations. In the following, the
– 598 –
symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and
(3.1.3)
The design value Wd of the weight of the breakwater body can be calculated by the following equation, using
the characteristic value WRC of the weight of reinforced concrete, the characteristic value WNC of the weight of
non-reinforced concrete, and the characteristic value WSAND of the weight of the filling sand.
(3.1.4)
In cases where a caisson has a footing with a rectangular cross section extending to both the seaward and
landward sides, the following equation can be used in calculating the design value PBd of buoyancy.
(3.1.5)
where
wl : water level (m)
h : installation depth (m)
BC : width of breakwater body (m)
hf : height of footing (m)
Bf : width of footing (m)
It is preferable to determine the tidal level by calculating the ratio (hereinafter, r wl) of the highest high water
level, H.H.W.L., and the mean monthly-highest water level, H.W.L., based on the records of observation of tidal
levels. However, at harbors where tidal levels are not monitored, r wl for object harbor may be set referring to the
distribution of r wl shown in Fig. 3.1.3, and the partial factors may be selected from Table 3.1.1.
Fig. 3.1.3 Distribution of r wl 2)
② In calculations of wave force, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2 Wave Forces Acting on Upright Walls can be used as
reference.
③ In order to increase the friction coefficient between the upright section and the rubble mound surface, there are
cases in which friction enhancement mats are laid at the bottom of the upright section. For friction enhancement
mats, Part II, Chapter 11, 9 Friction Coefficient can be used as reference.
(3) Examination of Overturning of Breakwater Body
In examination of the stability of the breakwater body against overturning, equation (3.1.6) can be used. In the
following, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic
(3.1.6)
– 599 –
where
a1–a4 : arm lengths of actions (m), see Fig. 3.1.4
The design values PHd and PUd of the wave force in equation (3.1.6) can be calculated using equation (3.1.3);
the design value Wd of the weight of the breakwater body can be calculated using equation (3.1.4). In cases
where a caisson has a footing with a rectangular cross section extending to both the seaward and landward sides,
equation (3.1.5) can be used in calculating the design value PBd of buoyancy.
PH PB
a2
a4
W a1
PU a3
Fig. 3.1.4 Arm Lengths when Calculating Moments
(4) Examination of Bearing Capacity of Foundation Ground

① Examination of the stability against foundation failure at the bottom of the upright section can be conducted in
accordance with Chapter 2, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions. As standard partial
factors for use in the performance verification, the values shown in Table 3.1.1 can be used.
② In examinations of the bearing capacity of foundation ground, equation (3.1.7) can be used. The method shown
here is the simplified Bishop method, and is one method of calculating circular slip by the discrete method. The
simplified Bishop method is adopted because it is the model which can best explain stability with respect to
bearing capacity, in comparison with the modified Fellenius method and friction circle method, by experiments
in a centrifugal field.4) However, deformation experiments with rubble mounds under the action of eccentric and
inclined loads have demonstrated that when a rubble mound fails, the sliding surface does not necessarily occur
along the circular arc with the lowest stability against slip failure. Caution is also necessary in adoption of this
method as numerical analysis using the discrete element method has shown that the actual failure mechanism is
different from circular slip failure according to the simplified Bishop method.5)
In the following equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscript d denote the
characteristic value.
(3.1.7)

where
a1 : arm length of horizontal wave force (m)
c' : for cohesive soil ground, undrained shear strength, and for sandy ground, apparent cohesion in
drained condition (kN/m 2)
q : surcharge acting on slice segment (kN/m)
φ' : apparent angle of shear resistance based on effective stress (°)
θ : angle formed by slice segment with bottom (°)
Ff : supplementary parameter showing ratio of design value of resistance and design value of effect
of action
R : radius of slip circle (m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equations.
– 600 –
(3.1.8)
③ For the load width 2b' of the surcharge, adopting the average value, using the biases of the average value of the
design parameters, is standard. In addition, the partial factor γq of the surcharge is set for the average value and
not for the characteristic value. These calculations can be performed using the following equation (3.1.9) and
equation (3.1.10). In these equations, μ denotes the average value of the parameter of the subscript, and μ/X k
denotes the bias (average value/characteristic value) of the average value of the parameter X.
(3.1.9)
(3.1.10)

where
Wi : weight of parts comprising breakwater body (kN/m)
a1–a4 : arm lengths of actions (m)
In the equation, X denotes the average value of the parameter X. The bias of the average value of buoyancy
can be calculated using equation (3.1.11). In Table 3.1.1, the bias of the average value of tidal levels is assumed
to be 1.00; therefore, here, μPB/PBk = 1.00 should be used.
(3.1.11)

where
wl : tidal level (m)
h : installation depth (m)
Bc : width of breakwater body (m)
hf : height of footing (m)
Bf : width of footing (m)
(5) Examination for Slip of Ground
① It is necessary to conduct an examination of stability with respect to slip failure referring to Chapter 2, 3.2.1
Stability Analysis by Circular Slip Failure Surface, considering the characteristics of the ground and the
characteristics of the structure.
② In case soil improvement is to be performed, Chapter 2, 4 Soil Improvement Methods can be used as reference.
③ As the tidal level used in examination of slip failure of the ground, it is preferable to use the tidal level which is
most dangerous for the facilities. In determination of the tidal level, Part II, Chapter 2, 3 Tidal Level can be
used as reference.
④ Verification of circular slip failure of the foundation ground in the permanent situation for self weight can be
conducted using equation (3.1.12). In the following, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the
subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and design value, respectively.
– 601 –
(3.1.12)
where
c' : for cohesive soil ground, undrained shear strength, and for sandy ground, apparent cohesion in
drained condition (kN/m 2)
q : spatially distributed load acting on slice segment, obtained by dividing effective weight of
breakwater body by width of breakwater body (kN/m)
φ' : apparent angle of shear resistance based on effective stress (°)
θ : angle formed by slice segment with bottom (°)
(3.1.13)
When all of the soil layers are below water level, the design value w'd of the weight of the slice segments
can be calculated using equation (3.1.14). Because the unit weights of the soil layers and mound used when
calculating the weight of the slice segments contribute to both the action side and the resistance side, the unit
weights of the soil layers and mound are classified as w1, w2, and w3, considering their positional relationship,
and the partial factors γ1, γ2, and γ3 are set for each, respectively. Caution is necessary with regard to the soil
layers and mound falling under these divisions, as the values will differ depending on the position of the mound
as shown in Fig. 3.1.5.
(3.1.14)
where
wni : unit weight of soil layer comprising slice segment (kN/m)
n : shows number of soil layers (n = 1, 2, 3; see Fig. 3.1.5)
PBi : buoyancy acting on slice segment being considered (kN/m)
In calculating the characteristic value of buoyancy, equation (3.1.5) can be used as reference, excluding the
terms in connection with the footing.
– 602 –
Caisson
Foot protection work Foot protection work Caisson Foot protection work
Armoring work Foot protection work w Armoring work Armoring work

1 w1
Mound w Mound
2 w2
w 3 w3
Division of Soil layer, mound, etc. Division of Soil layer, mound, etc.
unit weight unit weight
w1 Caissons, armoring work, foot protection w1 Caissons, mound, armoring work, foot
work, wave-dissipating work, above level of protection work, wave-dissipating work,
sea bottom above level of sea bottom
w2 Sandy soil layer below level of mound and w2 Sandy soil layer below level of sea bottom
sea bottom
w3 Cohesive soil layer below level of sea w3 Cohesive soil layer below level of sea
bottom bottom
(1) When position of mound is lower than level of sea (2) When position of mound is higher than level of sea
bottom bottom
Fig. 3.1.5 Classification of Weight of Slice Segments
(6) Performance Verification and Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning, Foundation Failure, and Circular Slip
Failure
① For the standard system failure probability of sliding, overturning, and foundation failure of the upright section
of composite breakwaters in variable situations due to the action of waves, and the partial factors for the standard
failure probability for circular slip failure in the permanent situation, the values shown in Table 3.1.1 can be
used as reference 3), 6). The standard system failure probability for sliding and overturning of the upright
section of composite breakwaters, and for the bearing failure of the foundation ground, has been obtained based
on evaluation by reliability theory for the average safety level of breakwaters designed by the conventional
design method.
For circular slip failure, a value of 3.3, converted to failure probability, 4.5 x 10 -4, is set as the reliability index
which minimizes the expected total cost. Here, the expected total cost is expressed by the sum of the initial
construction cost and the expected value of the recovery cost due to failure.
If the safety level based on minimization of the expected total cost is evaluated by reliability theory, the
partial factors are as shown in Table 3.1.1 b). If based on the average value of the safety levels in the design
methods of the past, the reliability index is 6.5, failure probability: 3.1 x 10-11. For details, Reference 6) can be
used as reference.
② In the table, α, μ/X k , and V are the sensitivity factor of each design parameter, bias of the average value, and
coefficient of variation, respectively.
③ For the partial factors in connection with circular slip failure, when the soil under the breakwater body is improved
by the sand compaction pile (SCP) method with a replacement ratio of 30–80%, the partial factors shown in
4.10.6 Performance Verification for the sand compaction pile method in Chapter 2, 4 Soil Improvement
Methods shall be used.
– 603 –
(a) Variable situations associated with waves

Target system reliability index βT 2.38
Target system failure probability PfT 8.7×10 -3
Target reliability index βT’ used in calculation of γ 2.40
γ α μ/X k V
γf Friction coefficient 0.79 0.689 1.060 0.150
γP , γP Change of water depth: Mild 1.04 -0.704 0.740 0.239
H U
Change of water depth: Steep 1.17 0.825 0.251
γ wl r wl = 1.5 1.03 -0.059 1.000 0.200
Sliding
r wl = 2.0, 2.5 1.06 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γW RC Unit weight of RC 0.98 0.030 0.980 0.020
γW NC Unit weight of NC 1.02 0.025 1.020 0.020
γW SAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.01 0.150 1.020 0.040
γP , γP Change of water depth: Mild 1.15 -0.968 0.740 0.239
H U
γ wl r wl = 1.5 1.04 -0.092 1.000 0.200
Overturning
r wl = 2.0, 2.5 1.09 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γW RC Unit weight of RC 0.98 0.044 0.980 0.020
γW NC Unit weight of NC 1.02 0.040 1.020 0.020
γW SAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.00 0.232 1.020 0.040
γPH Change of water depth: Mild 1.12 -0.894 0.740 0.239
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground
γq Surcharge on slice segment 0.91 0.640 0.605 0.061

γw ’ Weight of slice segment 1.00 0.032 1.000 0.030
γ tanφ ’ Ground strength: Tangent of angle of shear 0.96 0.288 1.000 0.059
resistance
γc ’ Ground strength: Cohesion 0.99 0.072 1.000 0.059
*1: α: sensitivity factor, μ/X k: bias of average value (average value/characteristic value), V: coefficient of variation.
*2: RC: reinforced concrete, NC: non-reinforced concrete.
*3: Change of water depth Mild/Steep: Gradient of sea bottom <1/30/≧1/30.
*4: r wl denotes the ratio of the highest high water level (H.H.W.L.) and mean monthly-high water level (H.W.L.).
*5: γq is applied to the average value of the surcharge. The average value of the surcharge is obtained using.
*6: In calculations of wave force, Goda’s formulas is used.
– 604 –
(b) Permanent situation

Target failure probability Pf T 4.5×10 -4
γ α μ/X k V
γc ' Ground strength: Cohesion 0.90 0.285 1.00 0.038
Ground strength: Tangent of angle of shear
γ tanφ ' resistance 0.90 0.380 1.00 0.038
1 Wave-dissipating work, etc. above level of

Circular slip failure
When mound sea bottom 1.00 -0.007

is positioned
2 Sandy soil below mound and level of sea 1.00 0.03
below level of 0.90 0.070
bottom
sea bottom
γ wi 3 Clayey soil below level of sea bottom 0.90 0.125
When mound 1 Mound, wave-dissipating work, etc. above 1.00 -0.007
is positioned level of sea bottom
1.00 0.03
above level of 2 Sandy soil below level of sea bottom 0.90 0.070
sea bottom 3 Clayey soil below level of sea bottom 0.90 0.125
γq Spatially-distributed load 1.10 -0.463 1.02 0.04
*2: γ w1, γ w2, and γ w3 are partial factors for the weight of the slice segment; classification follows that in Fig. 3.1.5.
*3: Wave-dissipating work, etc. includes wave-dissipating work, armoring work, foot protection work, etc.
*4: In application of the partial factors for circular slip failure, reference shall be made to the notes shown in Chapter 2, 3 Stability of Slope,
3.1(7) Partial Factors. When soil is improved by the sand compaction pile (SCP) method with a replacement ratio of 30–80%, the partial
factors shown in 4.10.6 Performance Verification for the sand compaction pile method in Chapter2, 4 Soil Improvement Methods shall
be used.
(7) Reliability-based Design Methods Considering Sliding Displacement

The performance verification method based on partial factors shown in (6) is a reliability-based design method
based on the balance of forces basically limited to the design wave height. However, even in cross sections
verified by this method, the probability that displacement will occur during the design working life is not 0, and
furthermore, that probability will also differ depending on such features as the appearance of high waves and the
water depth.
On the other hand, for the sliding mode, reliability-based design methods using the probability of appearance
of displacement and the amount of displacement as indexes have also been proposed, and these methods of
performance verification may also be used. Where the sliding stability of the breakwater body is concerned,
Shimosako et al.7) proposed a method of verification of the average sliding displacement, expected sliding
displacement, of breakwaters during the design working life using the sliding model of the breakwater body
proposed by Tanimoto et al.8)
Table 3.1.2 shows an example of setting of the allowable values of the exceedence probability for composite
breakwaters. When this method is used, the conditions of sliding displacement which determine the cross section
will differ, depending on such features as the appearance of high waves and water depth. As a result, it is possible
to set cross sections having approximately the same stability regardless of the design conditions. As the average
value of the exceedence probability of a total sliding displacement of 30cm by the conventional design method,
Reference 17) can be used as reference. For examples of setting for breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating
blocks, 3.4.3 Performance Verification of 3.4 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Breakwaters Covered with Wave-
dissipating Blocks) can be used as reference.
Table 3.1.2 Example of Setting of Allowable Values of Exceedence Probability for Composite Breakwaters 16)
Importance of facilities
High Ordinary Low
10cm 15% 30% 50%
Sliding 30cm 5% 10% 20%
displacement
100cm 2.5% 5% 10%
– 605 –
(8) When Harbor Side of Upright Section is Strengthened
① When the harbor side of the upright section is strengthened with a mound of rubble stones or concrete blocks,
careful attention must be paid to the following matters:
(a) The possibility of hindrance to ship navigation and mooring for within the harbor.
(b) In verification of the stability of the upright section for sliding and overturning ignoring strengthening section
behind the breakwater, the design value of resistance assuming the partial factor is 1.0 must exceed the design
value of the actions. If design value of resistance/design value of action is small, there will be a danger of
violent rocking of the upright section, increase in the heel pressure, and sliding or overturning of the upright
section to the seaward side during wave troughs.
(c) Adequate armoring must be provided so that the strengthening section will not be damaged by overtopped
waves.
(d) The height of the strengthening section h should preferably be 1/3 or greater of the height of the upright
section, and the width b should be the same as or greater than the height h.
(e) In the case of concrete block strengthening, construction should be made to ensure that there are no voids
between the concrete blocks and the upright section.
② When the harbor side of the upright section is strengthened with rubble or blocks, if the height of the strengthening
material a is greater than 1/3 of the height of the upright section, and the top width b is greater than height a,
the performance verification for sliding can be conducted using equation (3.1.15). In the following equation,
the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic value and
(3.1.15)
where
f : f riction coefficient between bottom of breakwater body and foundation
W : weight of breakwater body (kN/m)
R : sliding resistance of strengthening rubble or blocks (kN/m)
Among the design values used in the equation, the design values of wave force PHd and PUd and the design
value of the weight of the breakwater body Wd can be calculated using equation (3.1.3) and equation (3.1.4),
respectively. In cases where a caisson has a footing with a rectangular cross section extending to both the
seaward and landward sides, equation (3.1.5) can be used in calculating the design value PBd of buoyancy. The
design value of sliding resistance Rd can be calculated by the following equation.
(3.1.16)
The characteristic value of sliding resistance Rk can be calculated by the following method.
(a) Sliding resistance of rubble.
(3.1.17)
where
Ws : weight in water of rubble above sliding surface, excluding uppermost armor layer (kN/m)
θ : angle of sliding surface (°)
φ : φ =tan-1f1, f1 is the coefficient of friction between rubble stones, f1=0.8 (°)
(b) Takeda et al.20) have shown experimentally that resistance force R can be expressed by equation (3.1.18), based
on the assumption that R is a function of the ratio of the wave height and breakwater installation depth, see Fig.
3.1.6.

(3.1.18)
Provided, however, that when H/h'≤0.5, H/h'=0.5.
– 606 –
where
Ws : weight in water of rubble or blocks (kN/m)
α : friction coefficient
Rubble : α = 0.9 + 0.2(H/h' – 0.5)
Blocks : α = 0.4 + 0.2(H/h' – 0.5)
H : wave height (m)
h' : installation depth of breakwater (m)
H
b
h' W
a WS
Fig. 3.1.6 Sliding Resistance Surface of Strengthening Section
③ Regarding the bearing capacity of the foundation ground and slip failure of the ground when the harbor side
of the upright section is strengthened, it is preferable to conduct an appropriate examination referring to the
above-mentioned (4) Examination of Bearing Capacity of Foundation Ground and (5) Examination of Slip
of Ground.
(9) All partial factors shown here are values when the design working life is the normal 50 years. When it is necessary
to evaluate the stability of facilities during construction, verification must be conducted appropriately, considering
the conditions in which the facilities are placed, the return period of the actions, and the relationship with the
verification of the stability of the facilities when completed. In the performance verifications, the description in
3.4.4 (6) can be used, as equivalent to breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks.
(10) Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant
In general, the performance verification for Level 1 earthquake ground motion is frequently omitted with
breakwaters. However, in cases where the installation depth is great and the design wave height is small, there are
cases in which actions due to Level 1 earthquake ground motion become predominant. In such cases, performance
verification of seismic-resistant is necessary.
The general procedure for performance verification of seismic-resistant of breakwaters is as shown in Fig.
3.1.7.
– 607 –
Judgment of necessity of
verification of seismic-resistance
performance (see (11)) Not necessary
Determination of seismic coefficient Necessary

for use in verification
Acceleration time history of Setting of ground conditions (see (12) ③ )

engineering bedrock
Setting of filter considering frequency

characteristics (see (12) ⑤ )
Setting of target for residual deformation

1-dimensional seismic response analysis
(see (12)④)
Calculation of maximum deformation
Acceleration time history of Setting of filter

bottom of caisson
Consideration of frequency dependency by filter processing
Calculation of characteristic value of seismic coefficient for use in verification (see (12)⑥)
Verification based on balance of forces (see (12)⑦⑧ )

*1
Dynamic analysis by model with 1 degree of freedom
END
*1: For breakwaters where damage to the objective facilities is assumed to have a serious impact on life, property, and socioeconomic
activity, it is preferable to confirm the amount of deformation by dynamic analysis.
Fig. 3.1.7 Example of Procedure Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant
(11) Judgment of Necessity of Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant 23), 24)

For sliding and overturning due to Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the necessity of performance verification of
seismic-resistant is decided from the relationship between the cross-sectional dimensions of the breakwater body
determined in the variable situation in respect of waves and Level 1 earthquake ground motion. The judgment
of necessity can be made based on Fig. 3.1.8, from the relationship between the maximum acceleration on the
seismic bedrock and the ratio Bw/h of the breakwater body width Bw not including the footing and the water
depth h (a condition in which the ratio of the resistance force and effect of actions is smallest). The performance
verification of seismic-resistant can be omitted for cases where the maximum acceleration on the seismic bedrock
is positioned below the curve in the figure. It should be noted that this figure is prepared assuming the allowable
value of residual deformation of the upright section of the breakwater for Level 1 earthquake ground motion is
30cm. Therefore, if other allowable values are adopted, it is preferable to conduct a concrete verification of the
deformation.
– 608 –
Maximum acceleration at engineering

450
400
350
300
250
200
bedrock (cm/s2) 150
100 Without friction enhancement mat
50 With friction enhancement mat
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Bw/h
Fig. 3.1.8 Diagram of Judgment of Necessity of Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant
(12) Seismic Coefficient for Verification of Sliding, Overturning, and Bearing Capacity of Upright Section for Level 1
① General
In the performance verifications for sliding and overturning of the upright section and failure due to insufficient
capacity of the foundation ground in variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion, it
is possible to evaluate whether performance is maintained by a direct evaluation of deformation by detailed
methods such as dynamic analysis methods. However, verifications can also be performed by simplified
methods such as the seismic coefficient method. In this case, the seismic coefficient for the verification which
is to be used in the performance verification needs to be set appropriately, corresponding to the deformation
of the facilities in question, considering the frequency characteristics of the ground motion. In general, the
seismic coefficient for verification assumes Level 1 earthquake ground motion in the seismic bedrock as the
input ground motion and is smaller than the seismic coefficient (αmax /g) obtained as the ratio of the maximum
acceleration αmax in the acceleration time history of the bottom of the caisson obtained by a one-dimensional
seismic response analysis and the gravitational acceleration g.
② An outline of the method of calculating the seismic coefficient for verification is shown in Fig. 3.1.9. First, the
Level 1 earthquake ground motion in the seismic bedrock is set, and the acceleration time history at the bottom
of the caisson is calculated by a one-dimensional seismic response analysis using this as the input ground
motion. The result of a fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the acceleration time history obtained in this manner is
multiplied by a filter which considers the frequency characteristics of the ground motion, and the acceleration
time history at the bottom of the caisson after filter processing is calculated by performing an inverse fast
Fourier transform (IFFT) on the result of the previous calculation. The characteristic value of the seismic
coefficient for verification is then calculated using the maximum value of this acceleration time history.
– 609 –
Dres_t
Bottom of caisson ×
Acceleration spectrum Filter

at bottom of caisson
Engineering
bedrock Setting of ground model
Uniform deformation spectrum after filter processing

Setting of level 1 seismic motion
in engineering bedrock
Inverse fast Fourier
1-dimensional seismic transform (IFFT)
response analysis α max
accmax
accmin
Acceleration time history at bottom of caisson Acceleration time history after filter processing
Fast Fourier transform

(FFT)
Calculation of characteristic value of seismic
coefficient for verification
k h =αmax /g
Acceleration spectrum at bottom of caisson
Fig. 3.1.9 Outline of Calculation Method of Seismic Coefficient for Verification
③ Setting of ground conditions

In calculation of the seismic coefficient for verification, it is necessary to set the ground conditions so as to
enable an appropriate evaluation of the characteristics of the ground at the location concerned. In setting the
ground conditions, Part II, Chapter 3, Geotechnical Conditions, ANNEX 4, 1 Seismic Response Analysis
of Local Soil Deposit, and Chapter 5, 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls (2.2.2(1)③ Setting of Geotechnical
Conditions) can be used as reference.
④ One-dimensional seismic response analysis
The acceleration time history at the bottom of caissons shall be calculated by a 1-dimensional seismic response
analysis which can appropriately consider the features of the ground at the location concerned, assuming the
Level 1 earthquake ground motion set for the seismic bedrock as the input ground motion. One-dimensional
seismic response analysis shall be performed based on an appropriate technique and setting of the analysis
conditions, referring to ANNEX 4, 1 Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit and Chapter 5, 2.2
Gravity-type Quaywalls (2.2.2(1) ③ Setting of Geotechnical Conditions).
⑤ Setting of filter considering frequency characteristics and deformation
(a) Setting of maximum deformation
In calculation of the seismic coefficient for verification for breakwaters, evaluation is not possible using
residual deformation in its unmodified form as an index because the process of accumulation of deformation
is different from that in quaywalls due to the effects of the frequency characteristics of the ground motion and
the repetition of actions. Therefore, among ground motions, the maximum value of deformation when a certain
wave acts is defined as the maximum deformation, and a filter is calculated in such a way that a constant value
of the maximum deformation can be obtained independent of frequency. Because the relationship shown in
equation (3.1.19) exists between the maximum deformation Dmax and the target value of residual deformation
– 610 –
Dres_t¸depending on whether friction enhancement mats are used or not, the maximum deformation can be
calculated if residual deformation is given. Here, the standard allowable value of deformation Dres_t of a
breakwater for Level 1 earthquake ground motion can be given as Dres_t = 30cm. The shape of the filter in
this case is as shown in Fig. 3.1.10.
(3.1.19)
where
Dmax : maximum deformation (cm)
Dres_t : target value of residual deformation (Dres_t = 30cm)
accmax, accmin : the maximum acceleration and the minimum acceleration in acceleration time history
of caisson bottom (cm/s2)
(b) Setting of filter

The filter which considers the frequency characteristics of ground motion and amount of deformation for
use in performance verification for seismic-resistant of breakwaters can be calculated by equation (3.1.20)
using the maximum deformation obtained in the above (a) Setting of maximum deformation. This filter is
obtained by evaluating the contribution of the waves of each frequency component comprising the ground
motion to the deformation of the breakwater. This shows the relationship between the maximum deformation
of the breakwater caisson which is the target and the maximum value of the input acceleration at the bottom
of the caisson based on the results of a seismic response analysis for a system with one degree of freedom
performed on multiple sine waves using models of quaywalls with different ground conditions and water
depths.

(3.1.20)
where
F : filter for use in calculation of seismic coefficient for verification
f : f requency (Hz)
a, b : coefficients
Dmax : maximum deformation (cm)

⑥ Calculation of characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification
The seismic coefficient for verification to be used in the performance verification of breakwaters can be
calculated by equation (3.1.21).
(3.1.21)
where
αmax : the maximum value of acceleration at caisson bottom after filter processing (cm/s2)
g : gravitational acceleration (cm/s2)
⑦ When conducting a performance verification based on the balance of forces, the performance verification can
be performed using equation (3.1.22) and equation (3.1.23). In this case, the cross section obtained in the
variable situation is respect of waves can be used as the cross section for verification. The tidal level shall be
the condition which gives the smallest ratio of the resistance force and the effect of actions. In the following
– 611 –
equations, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its subscript, and the subscripts k and d denote the characteristic
(Sliding stability) (3.1.22)
(Overturning stability) (3.1.23)
where
W : weight of caisson (kN/m)
Pdw : resultant of dynamic water pressure (kN/m); calculated using equation (3.1.25)
(3.1.24)

H : installation depth of caisson (m)
W' : effective weight of caisson in water ( = W – PB) (kN/m)
μ : f riction coefficient between caisson and rubble mound; Part II, Chapter 11, 9 Friction
Coefficient can be used as reference.
a1–a3 : arm lengths for actions (m)
Here, the design value of the seismic coefficient for verification in equation (3.1.22) and equation (3.1.23) can
be calculated by the following equation. For khk, the seismic coefficient for verification obtained by equation
(3.1.21) can be used.
(3.1.25)
The design value of the weight of the breakwater body and the design value of the buoyancy acting on the
breakwater body can be calculated using equation (3.1.4) and equation (3.1.5), respectively.
Here, all of the partial factors with the exception of the structural analysis factors can be assumed to be 1.00,
and the structural analysis factors for sliding and overturning can be assumed to be 1.2 and 1.1, respectively.
⑧ Verification of the bearing capacity can be performed referring to Chapter 2, 2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations,
giving appropriate consideration to actions due to ground motion. For breakwaters in which stability with
respect to the bearing capacity and settlement of the foundation ground due to Level 1 earthquake ground
motion are major problems, it is preferable to conduct a detailed examination by dynamic analysis.
(13) Performance Verification for Level 2 earthquake ground motion
The performance verification in the accidental situation in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion is equivalent
to that for the gravity-type quaywalls. Therefore, Part III, Chapter 5, 2.2.3 (8) Performance Verification for
Ground Motion (Detailed Methods) can be used as reference. Provided, however, that the breakwaters are only
affected by settlement, with the exception of cases where settlement is a problem, no verification is frequently
necessary. A simplified method of predicting the amount of settlement from the results of a 1-dimensional analysis
is proposed, and depending on the accuracy necessary in the predicted value of the settlement, it is also possible
to substitute the simplified method.
(14) Performance Verification for Tsunamis
① In performance verifications for tsunamis, 6 Tsunami Protection Breakwaters can be used as reference.
② Partial factors
For the partial factors for use in examination of the stability of the upright section of composite breakwaters in
the accidental situation in respect of tsunamis against sliding and overturning and the stability against failure
due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground, Table 3.1.3 can be used as reference. Provided,
however, that the values shown in Table 3.1.3 are standard values which are used when setting the wave
force of the largest class tsunami assumed at the construction location of the facilities as an accidental action.
Accordingly, in cases where uncertainty is expected in calculation of the characteristic value of the tsunami
force, the structural analysis factor should be set to an appropriate value of 1.0 or larger, as necessary.
– 612 –
Table 3.1.3 Partial Factors used in Performance Verification for Tsunamis
γ α μ/X k V
γf Friction coefficient 1.00 – – –
γPH, γPU Tsunami force 1.00 – – –
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.00 – – –
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.00 – –
Sliding
H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γW RC Unit weight of RC 1.00 – – –
γW NC Unit weight of NC 1.00 – – –
γW SAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.00 – – –
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.00 – – –
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.00 – –
Overturning
H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γPH Tsunami force 1.00 – – –
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground
γq Surcharge on slice segment 1.00

γw ' Weight of slice segment 1.00
γ tanφ ' Ground strength: Tangent of angle of shear 1.00
resistance
γc ' Ground strength: Cohesion 1.00
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00
*3: Change of water depth mild/steep: Gradient of sea bottom <1/30/≧1/30.
(15) Performance Verification for Accidental Waves

Performance verification for accidental waves can be considered equivalent to the verification of the variable
situation in respect of waves upon appropriate evaluation of the actions due to accidental waves. Provided,
however, that, the partial factors used in the performance verification in respect of tsunamis shown in Table 3.1.3
may be as applied to the partial factors when the performing verification is conducted based on the static balance
of forces.
(16) Performance Verification for Stability of Sloping Sections
① With breakwaters, the examination is conducted for slip failure of the rubble section. However, this may be
examined as slip failure due to eccentric and inclined loads.
② For slip failure due to eccentric and inclined loads, Chapter 2, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and
Inclined Actions can be used as reference.
③ In armor units for the rubble section, in addition to an adequate stable mass against wave force, the thickness
should be sufficient to prevent flowing out of the materials in the mound interior.
④ For the required mass of armor units, Chapter 2, 1.7.2 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks in
Composite Breakwater Foundation Mound against Waves can be used as reference.
⑤ As the required mass of the rubble and blocks under the armor units, it is preferable that the mass of these
materials be approximately 1/20 or more that of the armor units. It is preferable that the mass of the stones under
these underlying materials be approximately 1/20 or more than that of the underlying materials.
(17) Performance Verification for Stability of Breakwater Head and Concave Corners
① In comparison with the breakwater trunk, there are various unclear points regarding scouring of the foundation
– 613 –
and actions affecting the heads of breakwaters. Therefore, it is preferable that the mass of the armor stones
and armor blocks be set larger for the breakwater head than for the trunk. In calculations of the mass of armor
units, Chapter 2, 1.7.2 Required Mass of Armor Stones and Blocks in Composite Breakwater Foundation
Mound against Waves can be used as reference.
② In the case of soft ground, slip failure in the direction of the breakwater extension should also be examined. In
this case, the frictional resistance of the sides of the slip surface may also be considered.
③ In the performance verification of concave corners, increase of the wave height should be considered.
④ In breakwater alignment which includes concave corners, in addition to the concentration of waves at the
concave corner itself, an increase in wave height based on superposition of the reflected waves from the various
parts in the breakwater alignment will also occur around the corners. Because there have been examples of
damage which is considered to be attributable to this phenomenon, in determining the breakwater alignment
and calculating stability, examination can be performed using Part II, Chapter 2, 4.3 Wave Transformations
and 4.7.2(8) Calculation of Wave Force considering Effect of Alignment of Breakwater.
3.1.5 Performance Verification of Structural Members
In the performance verification of structural members for caissons, cellular blocks, and hybrid caissons, Chapter 2,
1 Structural Members can be used as reference.

Items for respective types of upright sections are described in (1)to(4). Common items are described in (5) and after.
(1) Caisson Type Composite Breakwaters
① Various materials are used as filling in caissons, including concrete, concrete blocks, stones, gravel, sand and
slag. When selecting a filling material, it is preferable to consider construction costs, construction conditions
and natural conditions.
In general, sand is frequently used. However, when sand or gravel is used as a filling material, it is necessary
to cover the surface completely with a concrete lid or blocks. Slag may absorb water and expand, depending
on the type of material. Accordingly, when using slag, attention should be paid to the material properties of the
slag as a filling material, including the method of treating the slag before filling the caissons.
② The thickness of the concrete lid should normally be 30 cm or greater, and should be 50 cm or greater under
rough sea conditions. There are also examples of the thickness of 1.0 m or greater in the cases where wave
conditions are severe and the concrete lids are left without placement of crown concrete for a long time.
③ Because there are many unclear points regarding the wave forces acting on crown concrete, the concrete lid
placement should be performed in such a way that the crown concrete is integrated with the breakwater body.
Methods of further increasing integration of the concrete lid with the crown concrete include pouring of the
crown concrete in such a way that it is squeezed inside the caisson, fabrication of concave/convex shapes in the
concrete lid (frequently used with the precast concrete), use of reinforcing bars or shape steel, see Fig. 3.1.10.
In order to unify the parapet and crown concrete, it is preferable to adopt a method such a providing tenons at
construction joints, use of reinforcing bars or shape steel, etc.
④ Because scouring of the foundation occurs easily at the bottom of the upright section, when the structure is not
built on bedrock, adequate foot protection work should be performed.
(a) Squeezing joint (b) Convex form (c) Concave form

Crown Crown Crown
Concrete squeeze
in caisson
Concrete lid Concrete lid Concrete lid
Fig. 3.1.10 Placement Surface of Crown Concrete
– 614 –
(2) Mass Concrete Block type Composite Breakwaters
① Methods of stacking blocks include horizontal stacking and inclined stacking. In general, however, horizontal
stacking is used considering ease of construction work. In the crown concrete, it is preferable to provide joints
at intervals of 10–20m in the direction of breakwater alignment. In case of horizontal stacking, in order to
maintain integration, it is preferable that vertical joints in the cross section perpendicular to the breakwater
alignment be arranged in a cross-stitched form so as not to penetrate from the top to the bottom.
② With concrete blocks, in order to avoid sliding, a method of mutual interlocking using concave/convex shaped
tenon joints of the shape shown in Fig. 3.1.11 is generally used. In many cases, the width a and height b of the
convex part are on the order of 50cm and 20cm, respectively, and the width a' and height b' of the convex parts
are approximately 5cm larger than the corresponding parts a and b.
b'
a'
Fig. 3.1.11 Joint in Concrete Block
(3) Cellular Block Type Composite Breakwaters

① It is preferable that a footing be attached to the bottommost layer of cellar blocks secure stability.
② Concrete or stones can be used as filling for cellular blocks. If concrete is used as the filling, poor integration
of the upright section cellular block type is eliminated.
③ Because integration is reduced if cellular blocks are laid in two layers, it is preferable to use a one block type
whenever possible. If blocks are obliged to be laid in layers, the integration should be increased by interlocking
of the upper and lower layers by fabricating convex/concave shape at the top and bottom of the wall of the
cellular blocks, as shown in Fig. 3.1.2(c).
④ If stones are to be used as filling, a bottom plate shall be provided on the cellular blocks in order to prevent
dislodgement of the stones From the cellular section.
(4) Mass Concrete Single Block Type Composite Breakwaters
① In the upright section of mass concrete type composite breakwaters, the size of one block should be 5–10m in
order to prevent cracking due to shrinkage or uneven settlement.
② A certain degree of irregularity on the foundation surface does not pose a serious problem. However, together
with carefully removing sand, debris, and seaweed on the bedrock in order to assure good adhesion with the
concrete, parts in contact with the shuttering form should also be leveled to improve contact with the shuttering
form.
(5) The rubble mound foundation of composite breakwater is extremely important to ensure the stability of the
upright section. Particularly if the rubble mound beneath the upright section is scoured or washed out, the upright
section will lean or easily experience sliding failure, and then the upright structure will be destroyed at worst.
It is therefore necessary to protect the rubble mound beneath the upright section with foot protection blocks and
prevent damage from scouring or washing-out due to the action of waves or currents.
(6) Uplift forces acting on blocks can be reduced and stability against waves can be greatly improved by providing
holes in foot protection blocks.
(7) Because the study by Tanimoto et al.8) shows that large holes in foot protection blocks reduce the effect of
preventing scouring and washing out, the opening ratio of about 10% is optimal.
(8) It is preferable that two or more rows of foot protection blocks be placed on the seaward side of the upright section
and one or more rows on the harbor side.
(9) The required thickness of the foot protection blocks can be determined by using equation (3.1.26).28)
– 615 –
(3.1.26)
where
t : required thickness of the foot protection blocks (m)
df : 0.18 for the breakwater trunk, 0.21 for the breakwater head (m)
h : design water depth (m)
h' : water depth at the top of rubble mound foundation excluding the foot protection blocks (m)
the application range should be h '/h=0.4–1.0.
(10) For the determination of the dimensions of the foot protection block, the required thickness can be calculated
using equation (3.1.26) and the dimensions listed can be determined using Table 3.1.4. Examples of the block
shapes and dimensions are shown in Fig. 3.1.12.
Table T 3.1.4 Required Thickness and Dimensions of Foot Protection Blocks
Required thickness of Dimensions Mass (t/unit)

foot protection blocks (m)×b(m)×t(m) Block with Block without
t(m) openings openings
0.8 or less 2.5×1.5×0.8 6.23 6.90
1.0 or less 3.0×2.5×1.0 15.64 17.25
1.2 or less 4.0×2.5×1.2 24.84 27.60
1.4 or less 5.0×2.5×1.4 37.03 40.25
1.6 or less 5.0×2.5×1.6 42.32 46.00
1.8 or less 5.0×2.5×1.8 47.61 51.75
2.0 or less 5.0×2.5×2.0 52.90 57.50
2.2 or less 5.0×2.5×2.2 58.19 63.25
Fig. 3.1.12 Shapes and Dimensions of Foot Protection Blocks
(11) The number of cases of failure of the foot protection blocks inside a harbor has been quite small, and it is acceptable
to use a mass that is lighter than the mass of the foot protection blocks of seaward side. In the past designs there
were many cases where the mass was one-half of that at the seaward side. However, the mass must not be smaller
than the mass required by the waves inside the harbor or the waves during construction. Especially, the mass
should be carefully determined where the offshore end of a breakwater under construction remains as a temporary
head during the offwork season of each year.
(12) In situations where there are concerns about scouring or flowing-out of rubble stones, preventive countermeasures
should be performed. Methods used for scour prevention at the toe of slope are the provision of a berm of rubbles
– 616 –
at the toe of slope, and the placement of concrete blocks, mattress work, asphalt mats 29), 30), or composite resin
mats. For the prevention of the settlement of the rubble mound due to washing-out, mattress works and other
methods including the spreading of canvas sheets are employed.31)
– 617 –
3.2 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Upright Breakwaters)

The performance verification of the upright breakwaters can be conducted by applying that of the composite
breakwaters. In addition to 3.1.4 Performance Verification, the following can be used as reference.

Examples of the cross sections of the upright breakwaters are shown in Fig. 3.2.1.
Crown concrete
H.W.L
Foot protection blocks Concrete lid

Caissons
Deformed
shape blocks Foot protection blocks
1) Caisson type upright breakwater
Crown concrete
H.W.L
Foot protection Concrete blocks

blocks Foot protection blocks
2) Concrete block type upright breakwater
Fig. 3.2.1 Examples of Cross Sections of Upright Breakwaters
– 618 –
3.3 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Sloping Breakwaters)

The performance verification of the sloping breakwaters can be conducted by applying that of the composite
breakwaters. In addition to 3.1.4 Performance Verification, the following can be used as reference.

Examples of the cross sections of the sloping breakwaters are shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
Seaward side Crown concrete Harbor side

Deformed blocks Deformed blocks
H.W.L

Rubble
Scouring prevention mat

(a) Rubble mound breakwater

Deformed blocks Rubble Precast concrete
Deformed blocks
H.W.L
Dumping blocks

Scouring prevention mat
(b) Dumping block mound sloping breakwate
Fig. 3.3.1 Examples of Cross Sections of Sloping Breakwaters
(1) The crown height can be determined by applying that of the composite breakwaters and can be set in accordance
with 3.1.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section.
(2) Because the sloping breakwaters transmit waves, caution is necessary in setting the crown height, as there are
cases where the transmitted wave height in the harbor is greater that with upright breakwaters having the same
crown height. For wave overtopping and transmitted waves, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.3.7 Wave Runup Hight, Wave
Overtopping and Transmitted Waves can be used as reference.
(3) The crest width can be set based on the results of appropriate model experiments.
(4) When waves overtop heavily, a sufficiently broad crown width is required because the armor units on the top of
the breakwater will become unstable.
(5) For breakwaters constructed from land as a rubble mound sloping breakwater extending from the shore, in addition
to an adequate width necessary for the performance verification, the width should also be determined considering
ease of construction.
(6) The slope gradient should be appropriately determined based upon the stability calculation.
(7) For breakwaters on soft ground, the crown height and construction method can be determined by applying those
of the composite breakwaters, and can be set based on 3.1.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section.
(8) If the crest of breakwater covered with deformed concrete blocks is set at an elevation of 0.6H1/3 above the mean
monthly-highest water level, the crown width may be equivalent to that of three or more blocks as shown in Fig.
3.3.2. Because the stability of the breakwater top section will depend upon the characteristics of the armor units
and wave conditions, however, it is desirable to determine the width based upon appropriate hydraulic model tests.
– 619 –
(9) There are many cases where the slope gradient for rubble mound type sloping breakwaters is about 1: 2 on
the seaward side of the breakwater and about 1: 1.5 on the harbor side, and about 1: 1.3 to 1: 1.5 in the case of
breakwaters covered with deformed concrete blocks. When the gradient of the slope and the mass of the armor
units are different between the upper and lower portions of the slope on the seaward side of the breakwater, the
point at which the gradient and the mass of armor units change should be deeper than 1.5H1/3 below the design
water level.
0.6H1/3 or more 3 blocks or more
H.W.L
Concrete blocks
The number of pieces listed above are the number of hatched blocks
in the upper layer of the crown.
Fig. 3.3.2 Crown Width of Sloping Breakwater
(1) In the verification of the stability of sloping breakwaters having a superstructure, 3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters
(Composite Breakwaters) can be used as a reference.
(2) Performance verification of stability of superstructure
Examination of the stability of the superstructure in the variable situation in respect of waves is generally
performed for sliding and overturning of the superstructure.
(3) Performance Verification of Stability of Sloping Section
① In sloping breakwaters, slip failure of the rubble mound section is examined. The examination of slip of the
rubble mound section can be performed for slip due to eccentric and inclined loads.
② For slip failure due to eccentric and inclined loads, Chapter 2, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and
Inclined Actions can be used as a reference.
③ In the armor materials of the rubble mound section, in addition to an adequate stable mass against wave forces,
the thickness should also be adequate to prevent sucking-out of the material in the mound interior.
④ In calculation of the necessary mass of armor units, Chapter 2, 1.7 Armor Stones and Block can be used as a
reference.
⑤ In case regular placing and stone panels are used rather than pellmell placing of the armor material, the
necessary mass may be determined depending on the judgment of the responsible engineer. The thickness of
the armor layer in case of pellmell placing shall generally be 2 layers.
⑥ As the required mass of the rubble and blocks under the armor materials, it is preferable that the mass of these
materials be approximately 1/10 to 1/15 that of the armor units or more. It is preferable that the mass of the
stones under these underlying units be approximately 1/20 that of the underlying units or more.
(4) Partial Factors
As partial factors for sliding and overturning of the superstructure of sloping breakwaters, the partial factors
shown in Table 3.3.1 may be used. The partial factors shown in Table 3.3.1 were set considering the settings in
the conventional design method.
As partial factors for use in verification of the bearing capacity of the foundation ground and circular slip
failure of the ground, the partial factors shown in Chapter 2, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined
Actions and Chapter 2, 3.2.1 Stability Analysis using Circular Slip Failure Surface, respectively, may be used
with the appropriate modifications.
– 620 –
Table 3.3.1 Partial Factors for use in Verification of Stability of Superstructure
γ α μ/X k V
γP , γP Change of water depth: Mild 1.00 – – –
H U
Change of water depth: Steep 1.00 – –
γwl r wl =1.5 1.00 – – –
r wl =2.0, 2.5
Sliding
1.00 – –
H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γP , γP Change of water depth: Mild 1.00 – – –
H U
Change of water depth: Steep 1.00 – –
γwl r wl =1.5 1.00 – – –
Overturning
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.00 – –

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
(5) Performance Verification for Stability of Breakwater Head

It is preferable that the head section of sloping breakwaters be constructed in a semi-circular shape using armor
units with a mass 1.5 times that of the trunk section or more. In calculation of the mass of the sloping breakwater
and wave-dissipating blocks, Chapter 2, 1.7 Armor Stones and Blocks can be used as a reference.
– 621 –
3.4 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Breakwaters Covered with Wave-dissipating Blocks)

The performance verification for breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks is equivalent to that for
composite breakwaters. In addition to 3.1.4 Performance Verification, the following can be used as a reference.

Examples of the cross sections of breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks are shown in Fig. 3.4.1.

Crown concrete
H.W.L
Wave-dissipating blocks
Caissons Foot protection works
Armor blocks Rubble Armor stones

H.W.L Crown concrete
Wave-
dissipating
blocks Caissons
Foot protection Armor stones
works
Armor stones Foot protection works
Fig. 3.4.1 Examples of Cross Sections of Breakwaters Covered with Wave-dissipating Blocks
(1) The crown height of the upright section is equivalent to that of composite breakwaters and shall be set to a height
which satisfies performance requirements, referring to 3.1.4 Performance Verification.
(2) When the crown height of wave-dissipating works is lower than that of the upright section, the impulsive breaking
wave force is likely to act on the upright section. Contrary to this, where the former crown height is higher than
the latter, blocks at the crown will become unstable.
(3) In order to achieve a sufficient wave-dissipating performance, the crown width of the wave-dissipating works
must have the width equivalent to two or more units of wave absorbing blocks 32), 33).
(4) The thickness of the superstructure and installed crown height of caissons can be considered equivalent to those
of the upright breakwaters. The thickness of the rubble mound section can be considered equivalent to that of the
composite breakwaters.
(5) With the breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks, overtopping waves and transmitted waves will be
smaller in comparison with the upright breakwaters and the composite breakwaters with the same crown heights.
For overtopping waves and transmitted waves, Part II, Chapter 2, 4 Waves can be used as a reference.
(6) Wave-dissipating works have the functions of decreasing the wave pressure, overtopping waves, transmitting
waves and reflecting waves. Accurate evaluation of these functions should preferably be made based upon
hydraulic model tests.
(7) If the vertical faces of the upright section are not fully covered with wave-dissipating blocks at the tip of breakwater
extension, large wave forces are likely to act on these vertical faces. Caution is necessary.
(1) Performance Verification and Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning Foundation, Failure, and Circular Slip
Failure
① Partial factors
For the partial factors for the standard system failure probabilities for sliding and overturning of the upright
– 622 –
section of breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks and foundation failure of in the variable situation
in respect of the action of waves, and for the standard failure probability for circular slip failure in the permanent
situation, the values in Table 3.4.1 can be used as reference 3), 34). The standard system failure probabilities
of sliding and overturning of the upright section of breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks and
foundation failure is based on an evaluation by reliability theory of the average safety levels of breakwaters
designed by the conventional design method.3) For circular slip failure, the target reliability index is set at 3.6,
converted failure probability of 2.0 x 10 -4, which minimizes the expected sum cost expressed by the total of
the initial construction cost and the expected value of the recovery costs associated with failure recovery. If the
safety level based on minimization of the expected total cost is evaluated by reliability theory, the partial factors
are as shown in Table 3.4.1 (b).34) If based on the average safety level of the conventional design method, the
average reliability index is 6.9, converted failure probability of 3.1 x 10 -12.34)
(a) Variable situations in respect of waves

Target system failure probability Pf T 8.7×10 -3
Target reliability index βT ’ used in calculation of γ 2.40
γ α μ/X k V
γ PH , γ P U Change of water depth: Mild 0.91 -0.636 0.702 0.191
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.04 -0.081 1.000 0.200
Sliding
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.08 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γWRC Unit weight of RC 0.98 0.030 0.980 0.020
γWNC Unit weight of NC 1.02 0.031 1.020 0.020
γWSAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.01 0.150 1.020 0.040
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.06 -0.133 1.000 0.200
Overturning
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.13 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γ PH Change of water depth: Mild 0.97 -0.842 0.702 0.191
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground

γw ' Weight of slice segment 1.00 0.047 1.000 0.030
resistance
*5: γq is a term which is multiplied by the average value of the surcharge. The average value of the surcharge is obtained using.
– 623 –
(b) Permanent situation

γ α μ/X k V
γc’ Ground strength: Cohesion 0.90 0.327 1.00 0.035
resistance
γ wi When mound 1 Wave-dissipating work, etc. above level of 1.00 -0.034 1.00 0.03
is positioned sea bottom

below level of 2 Sandy soil below mound and level of sea 0.90 -0.027
sea bottom bottom
3 Cohesive soil below level of sea bottom 0.90 0.285
When mound 1 Mound, wave-dissipating work, etc. above 1.00 -0.034 1.00 0.03
is positioned level of sea bottom
above level of 2 Sandy soil below level of sea bottom 0.90 -0.027
sea bottom
3Clayey soil below level of sea bottom 0.90 0.285
γq Spatially distributed load 1.10 -0.410 1.02 0.04
*2: γ1, γ2, and γ3 are partial factors for the weight of the slice segments.
*3: The calculated γw2 is 1.0. However, considering convenience in performance verification, the same value as for composite breakwaters,
0.9, was adopted.34)
*4: Wave-dissipating work, etc. includes wave-dissipating work, armoring work, foot protection work.
*5: In application of the partial factors for circular slip failure, reference shall be made to the notes shown in Chapter 2, 3 Stability of Slopes,
3.1 (7) Partial Factors. When soil is improved by the sand compaction pile (SCP) method with a replacement ratio of 30–80%, the partial
factors shown in 4.10.6 Performance Verification for the sand compaction pile method in Chapter 4 Soil Improvement Methods shall
be used.
(2) Performance Verification for Stability of Armoring Section

① In calculating the necessary mass of armor unit for breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating
blocks, Chapter 2, 1.7 Armor Stones and Blocks can be used as a reference.
② In case regular placing and stone panels are used rather than pellmell placing of the armor material, the necessary
mass may be determined at the judgment of the responsible engineer. The thickness of the armor layer in case
of pellmell placing shall generally be 2 layers or more.
(3) Performance Verification For Stability of Breakwater Tip
It is preferable that the tip of breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks be constructed in a semi-circular
shape using armor units with a mass of 1.5 times that of the trunk or more. For calculation of the mass of wave-
dissipating blocks, Chapter 2, 1.7 Armor Stones and Blocks can be used as a reference.
(4) Performance Verification for Stability of Wave-dissipating Work
In the performance verifications, Chapter 2, 1.7 Armor Stones and Blocks can be used as a reference.
(5) All partial factors indicated here are values for the case where the design working life is the normal 50 years.
Because techniques for the period during construction where a structure is left for a certain period with an
unfinished cross section have not been particularly examined at the present point in time, for convenience, the
verification may be carried out using the same partial factors as for composite breakwaters when completed, using
actions of waves with a probability on the order of 10 years.37)
(6) The performance verification in the accidental situation in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion is
equivalent to that for gravity-type quaywalls. The method shown in (9) Performance Verification for Ground
Motion (detailed methods) of Chapter 5, 2.2.3 Performance Verification can be used as a reference.
– 624 –
3.5 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Upright Wave-absorbing Block Type Breakwaters)

Upright wave-absorbing block type breakwaters are mass concrete block type upright breakwaters or composite
breakwaters which are constructed by vertical stacking of special blocks, called the upright wave-absorbing block,
having a wave-dissipating function. The performance verification for the upright wave-absorbing block type
breakwaters is equivalent to that for the composite breakwaters. In addition to 3.1.4 Performance Verification, the
following can be used as a reference.
(1) Because various types of structures have been developed for the upright wave-absorbing blocks, it is preferable to
select appropriate blocks based on an adequate investigation of their wave-absorbing performance.
(2) The wave reflection coefficient of the upright wave-absorbing blocks greatly depends upon the wave period.
When determining the reflection coefficient, it is best to carefully consider the influence of wave period based on
hydraulic model tests corresponding to the design conditions. It is also acceptable to estimate it by referring to
the data from past experiments.
(3) With the exception of large-scale blocks to be used as a single block structure, the upright wave-absorbing block
type breakwaters are generally used in inner bays or the inside of harbors where wave heights are relatively small.
(4) An example of the cross section of the upright wave-absorbing block type breakwater is shown in Fig. 3.5.1.
Superstructure Upright wave-absorbing blocks
H.W.L
Bottom slab block

Foot protection block Foot protection block
Fig. 3.5.1 Example of Cross Section of Upright Wave-absorbing Block Type Breakwater
(1) The crown height of the upright wave-absorbing block type breakwaters is equivalent to that of the composite
breakwaters and can be decided considering the height which satisfies the performance requirements and height of
the wave-absorbing section, referring to 3.1.4 Performance Verification. The crown height of the wave-absorbing
section shall be determined considering the wave-absorbing performance. In structures with permeability, it is
preferable that the dimensions of the opening section be determined considering the transmission characteristics.
(2) The wave-absorbing performance of the upright wave-absorbing block type breakwaters will vary, depending on
the crown height and bottom elevation of the wave-absorbing block section.
(3) In the upright wave-absorbing block type breakwaters, wave overtopping and transmitted waves are small in
comparison with those with the composite breakwaters, but tend to be larger than those with breakwaters covered
with wave-absorbing blocks. Accordingly, it is preferable that the crown height be determined giving adequate
consideration to the conditions of use behind the breakwater. In addition, in determining the crown height, the
thickness required for construction of the crown concrete should be secured.
(4) It is preferable that the crown height hc' be at least 0.5 times higher or more than the significant wave height used
in the stability examination of the facilities above mean monthly-high water level. It is preferable that the bottom
height hu be set to a depth 2 times or greater than the significant wave height used in the stability examination of
the facilities below the mean monthly-high water level (see Fig. 3.5.2).
– 625 –
hc≧1.0 H1/3
Crest elevation of breakwater
h'c≧0.5 H1/3
Crest elevation of hu≧2.0H1/3
wave-absorbing block section hc Crown concrete
H.W.L. h' c
H1/3
Upright wave-absorbing
L.W.L.
blocks
hu
Bottom elevation of
wave-absorbing block section
Foundation mound
Fig. 3.5.2 Explanatory Diagram for Crown height of Upright Wave-absorbing Block Type Breakwaters
(1) Performance Verification and Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning, Foundation Failure of the Ground, and
Circular Slip Failure
① Verification of the stability of upright wave-absorbing block type breakwaters can be considered equivalent to
that for the composite breakwaters. Provided, however, that it is necessary to use the values shown below for
the standard partial factors used in the verification of sliding, overturning, and failure of the bearing capacity of
the foundation ground.
② Partial factors
(a) As partial factors for standard system failure probabilities for sliding and overturning of the upright section
of upright wave-absorbing block type breakwaters and foundation failure of the foundation ground, in the
variable situation in respect of the action of waves, the values in Table 3.5.1 can be used as a reference.
The partial factors for the standard failure probability for circular slip failure in the permanent situation are
equivalent to those for the composite breakwaters. Table 3.1.1 of 3.1.4 (6) Performance Verification and
Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning, Bearing Failure of Foundation Ground, and Circular Slip
Failure can be used as a reference.
– 626 –
Table 3.5.1 Standard Partial Factors (Variable situations in respect of Waves)

γ α μ/X k V
γwl r wl =1.5 1.05 -0.125 1.000 0.200
Sliding
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.11 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γWRC Unit weight of RC – – 0.980 0.020
γWSAND Unit weight of filling sand – – 1.020 0.040
γwl r wl =1.5 1.08 -0.182 1.000 0.200
Overturning
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.15 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γWRC Unit weight of RC – – 0.980 0.020
γWSAND Unit weight of filling sand – – 1.020 0.040
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground

resistance
*5: γq is a term which is multiplied by the average value of the surcharge. The average value of the surcharge is obtained using .
– 627 –
3.6 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Wave-absorbing Caisson Type Breakwaters)

Wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters are one type of deformed caisson breakwaters which use caissons with
special shapes. The front section of the caissons has a porous wall and a wave chamber, giving the breakwater a wave-
absorbing performance.45) The performance verification of wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters is equivalent
to that for the composite breakwaters. In addition to 3.1.4 Performance Verification, the following can be used as a
reference.
(1) With wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters, it is necessary to select an appropriate structure, giving due
consideration to wave-absorbing performance, etc. Because the hydraulic characteristics of wave-absorbing
caisson type breakwaters, including the wave transmission and reflection coefficients, hydraulic conductivity, are
still insufficiently understood, it is preferable to perform hydraulic model tests as necessary.
(2) Wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters have the following features in comparison with the composite
breakwaters.
① It can reduce reflected waves.
② It can reduce wave overtopping and transmitted waves.
③ It can reduce wave force. In particular, when the mound is high, there are cases in which powerful impulsive
breaking wave force acts on conventional caisson breakwaters; however, with wave-absorbing caisson type
breakwaters, there is no remarkable wave force increase.
④ it possesses a sea water aeration function, as the breakwater structure promotes mixing of air bubbles with the
water. In addition, the wave chamber has the effect of fish banks.46), 47)
(3) Fig. 3.6.1 shows an example of the cross section of a wave-absorbing caisson type breakwater. Depending on the
shapes of the respective elements and the combination of elements, various types of structures are conceivable,
including vertical slit-wall caissons, horizontal slit-wall caissons, curved-slit caissons, perforated-wall caissons,
and others. As the structural type for wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters, an appropriate structure should
be selected considering the design conditions, use conditions, economy, etc. based on a careful investigation of the
wave-absorbing performance, and wave resistance of each structure.
(4) For the structures and their features of various types of wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters the Technical
Manual of New Type Breakwaters 48) can be used as a reference.
Ceiling slab (permeable or impermeable) * In many cases, breakwaters do not have a ceiling slab.
Caisson crown
Porous front wall Caisson body
Back
Perforated wall wall
(round holes or square holes) Intermediate
Wave horizontal porous wall
Slit wall * In general, this type of breakwater
(vertical slit or horizontal slit) chamber Intermediate
upright porous wall frequently does not have intermediate
porous walls
Others
Bottom slab
Fig. 3.6.1 Example of Cross Section of Wave-absorbing Caisson Type Breakwater
3.6.2 Actions
(1) The conditions of waves for use in the verification of wave-absorbing performance can be set separately from the
conditions of waves for use in the performance verification of the stability of the facilities and the performance
verification of the structural members, corresponding to the purpose of wave absorption and the wave conditions.
(2) In many cases, wave-absorbing caissons are generally adopted for the purpose of reducing reflected waves.
Consequently, it is preferable to determine the conditions of the waves which are the object of wave-absorption
and the target reflection coefficient corresponding to the required wave-absorbing performance. In particular,
because the reflection coefficient of wave-absorbing caissons differs remarkably depending on the wave periods,
– 628 –
the conditions of the waves which are the object of wave-absorption should be determined based on an investigation
of the characteristics of wave height and wave period.
(3) It is necessary to determine wave force using calculation formulas suitable for the wave-absorbing caisson type
breakwaters or hydraulic model tests adapted to the conditions. In particular, in complex structures, in addition
to the wave force used in the stability examination of the upright section as a whole, it is preferable also to conduct
an adequate examination for the wave forces acting on the structural members. For wave forces acting on wave-
absorbing caisson type breakwaters, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2(7) Wave Forces on Upright Wave-absorbing
Caisson can be used as a reference.
(4) As the wave force used in the performance verification of the structural members, the most severe wave force
conditions for each member should be used. For wave forces acting on the structural members of the wave-
absorbing caisson type breakwaters, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2(7) Wave Forces on Upright Wave-absorbing
Caisson, and 1.5.2 Action of Chapter 2, 1.5 Upright Wave-absorbing Caissons, can be used as a reference.
– 629 –
(1) In wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters, the required dimensions should be determined appropriately,
considering the shape of the structure. In particular, because the transmission coefficient will differ depending on
the structure, it is preferable that the crown height be determined appropriately corresponding to the transmission
characteristics of the objective structures. In cases where the structure has permeability, it is preferable that the
dimensions of the opening section be determined appropriately.
(2) In addition to wave-absorbing performance, the structure and dimensions of the wave-absorbing section are also
related to wave overtopping, transmitted waves and wave force. Therefore, it is preferable to determine the
dimensions and structure also considering these characteristics.

Performance verification and partial factors for sliding, overturning foundation, failure, and circular slip failure
① The verification of the stability of wave-absorbing caisson type breakwaters can be considered equivalent to that
for the composite breakwaters. Provided, however, that it is necessary to use the values shown below for the
standard partial factors used in the verification of sliding, overturning, and foundation failure.
② Partial factors
As the standard system failure probabilities for sliding and overturning of the upright section of wave-absorbing
caisson type breakwaters and failure of the bearing capacity of the foundation ground, in the variable situation
in respect of the action of waves, the values in Table 3.6.1 can be used as a reference. The partial factors for
the standard failure probability for circular slip failure in the permanent situation are equivalent to those for the
composite breakwaters. Table 3.1.1 of 3.1.4 (6) Performance Verification and Partial Factors for Sliding,
Overturning, Foundation Failure, and Circular Slip Failure can be used as a reference.
– 630 –
Table 3.6.1 Standard Partial Factors (Variable Situations in respect of Waves)

γ α μ/X k V
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.02 -0.053 1.000 0.200
Sliding
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.04 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.03 -0.063 1.000 0.200
Overturning
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.05 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground
γq Surcharge on slice segment 1.01 -0.126 1.000 0.041

resistance
– 631 –
3.7 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Sloping-top Caisson Breakwaters)

Sloping-top caisson breakwaters are one type of deformed caisson breakwaters which uses caissons with special
shapes. This type is a breakwater which utilizes the wave force acting on the sloping wall to stabilize the breakwater
body simultaneously by reducing the horizontal wave force. The performance verification of the sloping-top caisson
breakwaters is equivalent to that for the composite breakwaters. In addition to 3.1.4 Performance Verification, the
following can be used as a reference.
(1) Normally the sloping surface of the sloping-top caisson breakwater is set to begin at the still water level. However,
with a semi-submerged shape in which the toe end of the sloping surface is set below the still water level, further
reduction of wave forces is possible.50)
(2) When the upright part at the front of the caissons is armored with wave-dissipating blocks, there are cases in
which this causes to the generation of impulsive breaking wave pressure, depending on the crown height of the
wave-dissipating works. Furthermore, because the wave-dissipating blocks only extend as high as the still water
level, particular caution is needed with regard to the stability of the blocks.
(3) An example of the cross section of a sloping-top caisson breakwater is shown in Fig. 3.7.1.

Superstructure
H.W.L
Filling material
Filling material
Filling material
Filling material
Foot protection blocks Foot protection blocks

Fig. 3.7.1 Example of Cross Section of Sloping-top Caisson Breakwater
3.7.2 Actions
(1) It is preferable that the wave forces acting on the sloping-top caisson breakwaters be decided based on hydraulic
model tests. However, in cases where this would be difficult, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.2(6) Wave Forces on
Sloping-top Caisson Breakwaters can be used as a reference.
(2) There is a study by Sato et al.51) on the wave force acting on a sloping-top caisson breakwater covered with wave-
dissipating blocks.
(1) The coefficient of wave transmission of the sloping-top caisson breakwaters is approximately 2 times that of the
upright breakwaters of the same crown height, as shown in Fig. 3.7.2. Therefore, if the crown height is set on the
same level as the significant wave height H1/3, it is possible to reduce the transmitted wave height to approximately
the same as when the crown height of the upright breakwater is 0.6 times the significant wave height.
(2) With sloping-top caisson breakwaters, as the gradient of the sloping wall becomes steeper, the effectiveness of the
structure against wave transmission in the harbor increases, but conversely, wave pressure increases, reducing its
effect as a sloping-top breakwater. According to hydraulic metal tests carried out with various slope gradients, no
remarkable difference in the coefficient of wave transmission can be observed with gradients of 30°, 45°, and 60°.
Therefore, considering the effect in reducing wave pressure and convenience in construction works, it is preferable
that the slope gradient be set at 45°.
– 632 –
0.5
Wave height transmission coefficient Kr

hc
θ=45°
0.4 h
d
Symbols d/h
0.3 0.55 Sloping-top
0.66 caisson
0.64 breakwater
Upright breakwater
0.2
0.1
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
hc/H1/3
Fig. 3.7.2 Coefficient of Wave Transmission and Relative Crown height
(1) Performance verification and partial factors for sliding, overturning, foundation failure, and circular slip failure
① The verification of the stability of the sloping-top caisson type breakwaters can be considered equivalent to that
for the composite breakwaters. Provided, however, that it is necessary to use the values shown below for the
standard partial factors used in the verification of sliding, overturning, and foundation failure.
② Partial factors
As the standard system failure probabilities for sliding and overturning of the upright section of wave-dissipating
caisson breakwaters and failure of the bearing capacity of the foundation ground, the values in Table 3.7.1
can be used as a reference. The partial factors for the standard failure probability for circular slip failure are
equivalent to those for the composite breakwaters. Table 3.1.1 of 3.1.4(6) Performance Verification and
Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning, Foundation Failure and Circular Slip Failure can be used as
a reference. The sloping-top caisson breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks are equivalent to the
breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks; therefore, Table 3.4.1 of 3.4.3(1) Performance Verification
and Partial Factors for Sliding, Overturning, Foundation Failure and Circular Slip Failure can be used
as a reference.
– 633 –
Table 3.7.1 Standard Partial Factors (Variable Situations in respect of Waves)

γ α μ/X k V
Change of water depth: Mild 1.05 0.777 0.232
γ PH , γ P U -0.670
r wl =1.5 1.03 1.000 0.200
Sliding
γ wl r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.05 -0.058 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γ PH , γ P U -0.970
r wl =1.5 1.04 1.000 0.200
Overturning
γ wl r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.09 -0.096 1.000 0.400

H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γ PH -0.872
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground

Ground strength: Tangent of angle of shear
γ tanφ ’ 0.96 0.325 1.000 0.060
resistance
– 634 –
3.8 Pile-type Breakwaters

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Pile-type Breakwaters
Article 36
The performance criteria of the pile-type breakwaters under the variable action situations, in which the
dominant actions are variable waves and Level 1 earthquake ground motions, shall be as specified in the
subsequent items:
(1) The risk that the axial force acting on the piles may exceed the resistance based on failure of the ground
shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(2) The risk that the stress generated in the piles may exceed the yield stress shall be equal to or less than
the threshold level.
[Commentary]
(3) Performance Criteria of Pile-type Breakwaters

① Pile-type breakwaters
Settings of the performance criteria and the design situations excluding accidental situations of pile-
type breakwaters shall be as shown in Attached Table 19.
The performance criteria of the superstructure and curtain wall of pile-type breakwaters shall be equivalent
to the settings in Article 23 through Article 27, corresponding to the type of members comprising the objective
pile-type breakwater.
Attached Table 19 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Pile-type
Breakwaters

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
actions actions
14 1 2 36 1 1 Serviceability Variable Variable waves Self weight, Axial force acting Resistance based on failure of
water pressure on piles ground (pushing and pulling)
2 Level 1 Self weight, Yielding of piles

earthquake water pressure
ground motion
Variable waves Self weight, Axial force acting Design yield stress
water pressure on piles
Level 1 Self weight, Yielding of piles

earthquake water pressure
ground motion
[Technical Note]
(1) The pile-type breakwaters can be broadly divided into curtain wall breakwaters and steel pipe pile breakwaters.
The curtain wall breakwater is a permeable breakwater and was developed for use in waters with a comparatively
low wave height, such as enclosed bays, or locations with soft sea bottom ground. Steel pipe pile breakwater is
breakwater in which the curtain section is eliminated and waves are stopped only by the piles.
(2) For curtain wall breakwaters, it is preferable to select an appropriate structure considering the coefficient of wave
reflection and transmission, and when necessary, to conduct the performance verification by performing hydraulic
model tests.
(3) An example of the performance verification procedure for curtain wall breakwaters is shown in Fig. 3.8.1.
– 635 –

*1
Variable situation in respect of waves
and Level 1 earthquake ground motion
Verification of cross-sectional forces in superstructure
Verification of stress and axial force in piles
Verification of joints between curtain wall and piles

*2
Accidental situation in respect of Level 2
earthquake ground motion,
tsunamis, and waves
Verification of cross-sectional forces in superstructure
Verification of stress and axial force in piles
*1: Because assessment of the effects of liquefaction is not shown, separate consideration is necessary.
*2: For facilities where damage to the facilities can be assumed to have a serious impact on life, property, and social activity, it is
preferable to conduct verification for accidental situations when necessary. Verification for accidental situations in respect of waves
shall be conducted in cases where facilities handling hazardous cargoes are located directly behind the breakwater and damage to
the objective facilities would have a catastrophic impact.
Fig. 3.8.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Pile-type Breakwaters
(4) The curtain wall breakwaters can be broadly divided into the single-curtain-walled type and the double-curtain-
walled type, depending how the so-called curtain wall such as concrete plates is arranged relative to the direction
of wave propagation. Furthermore, a variety of types are conceivable, depending on the shape of the pile structure
supporting the curtain wall or the shape of slits provided in the curtain wall. Examples of the cross sections of
pile-type breakwaters are shown in Fig. 3.8.2.
– 636 –
Curtain Pile
(a) Single-curtain-walled breakwater (b) Single-curtain-walled breakwater

(vertical pile-type) (coupled pile-type)
(c) Double-curtain-walled breakwater (d) Double-curtain-walled breakwater

(rigid frame type) (coupled pile-type)
Fig. 3.8.2 Examples of Cross Sections of Pile-type Breakwaters
(5) Curtain wall breakwaters generally have the following features.

① The reflection coefficient can be reduced so as to the same level as in the breakwaters covered with wave-
dissipating blocks or less.
② Exchange of sea water can be expected by tides and waves passing through slits provided in the curtain wall or
the gap between the lower edge of the curtain wall and the sea bed.
③ Comparing the single-curtain-walled and the double-curtain-walled breakwaters, because an energy dissipating
effect can be expected between the front and the back curtain walls with the double-curtain-walled type
breakwater, reflected waves and transmitted waves can be reduced in comparison with the single-curtain-walled
breakwaters.
④ Because the velocity of flows passing under the curtain wall is quite high, it is necessary to take appropriate
countermeasures to prevent or suppress washing-out of sand.
3.8.2 Actions
It is necessary to set the wave force acting on the curtain wall breakwaters based on the results of hydraulic model
tests, numerical analysis, or appropriate calculation formulas. When using the single-curtain-walled breakwater, the
result obtained by subtracting the wave pressure distribution acting deeper than the lower edge of the curtain wall
from the wave pressure distribution shown in Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7 Wave Pressure and Wave Force can be used as
the wave force acting on the curtain wall.
(1) The structural type and the shape of curtain wall breakwaters shall be determined considering the condition of sea
states in the area, the target reflection coefficient, the target transmission coefficient and constructability.
(2) In setting the cross section of the curtain wall breakwaters, including the crown height, the depth of the lower
end of the curtain and the size of the slits provided in the curtain, and in the case of the double-curtain-walled
breakwaters, and the spacing between the curtain walls, it is preferable to set the cross section based on model
tests adapted to the conditions. It is preferable that the dimensions of members such as the curtain wall, and
piles be determined appropriately considering the spacing between the piles in the direction of the breakwater
extension.
(3) Examples of model tests for the single-curtain-walled breakwaters include, for example, model tests by Morihira
et al.57) The depth of the lower end of the curtain wall can be obtained from Fig. 3.8.3 if the wave transmission
coefficient is determined, and the crown height of the curtain wall can be obtained from Fig. 3.8.4. Provided,
– 637 –
however, that the crown height of the curtain in Fig. 3.8.4 was corrected so that R/H = 1.25 at d/h = 1.0, and does
not show a crest capable of completely preventing wave overtopping. In the figure, d is the depth of the lower end
of the curtain, h is the water depth, L is the wave length, R is the crown height of the curtain, and H is the wave
height. The relationship with the wave reflection coefficient of waves by a single curtain wall is shown in Fig.
3.8.5.
(4) In steel pipe pile breakwaters, if the steel pipes are driven with a space between the piles, the structure can
function as a permeable type breakwater. According to the research by Hayashi et al., 53) the relationship between
the pile spacing/pile diameter ratio b/D and the coefficient of wave transmission γT is as shown in Fig. 3.8.6.
The moment due to wave force decreases as the spacing between the piles is increased, but this effect reaches
to the limit at around b/D = 0.1. With this type of breakwater, caution should also be paid regarding scouring of
the ground between the piles.
Transmitted wave height (HT)
Incident wave height (HI)
1.0
h/L=0.078
0.097
0.8 0.141
0.6
0.170
0.4
transmission coefficient =
0.235
0.340
Wave height
0.2
0.680
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
d/h
Fig. 3.8.3 Relationship between d/h and Coefficient of Wave Transmission (Single Curtain Wall)
Fig. 3.8.4 Calculated Curve of Crown height (Single Curtain Wall)
– 638 –
100
Reflection Coefficient Kr (%)

:h/L=0.235
80
: =0.097
60
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
d/h
Fig. 3.8.5 Relationship between d/h and Wave Reflection Coefficient (Single Curtain Wall)
1.0
h/H1=5
0.8 h/H1=4
0.6
γT (=HT/HI)
Test Values
0.4 Hayashi, etc.
Theoretical value
by Wiegel
0.2
Hayashi, etc.
Wiegel
00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
b/D h:water depth
Fig. 3.8.6 Relationship between Ratio of Pile Spacing/Pile Diameter and Coefficient of Wave Transmission 53)
– 639 –
3.9 Breakwaters with Wide Footing on Soft Ground

[Commentary]
(1) Breakwaters with Wide Footing on Soft Ground (pile foundation)

Because breakwaters with a wide footing on soft ground with a pile foundation are a structural type which has
the respective structural features of the gravity-type breakwater and the pile-type breakwater, the performance
criteria for breakwaters with wide footing on soft ground are equivalent to the respective settings in the Public
Notice, Article 35 Performance Criteria for Gravity-type Breakwaters and Article 36 Performance Criteria for
Pile-type Breakwaters.
[Technical Note]
(1) Breakwaters with wide footing on soft ground (hereafter, soft landing breakwaters) resist against the horizontal
wave force by the piles and the cohesion between the bottom of the breakwater body and the surface layer of
the cohesive soil. On the other hand, the bottom slab and footing resist against the vertical force. In general,
because this type of structure is developed for construction of breakwaters on soft cohesive soil, there are cases
where this type is economically advantageous because the weight of the breakwater body can be reduced and soil
improvement is not required.
(2) Examples of the cross sections of soft landing breakwaters are shown in Fig. 3.9.1. Although structural types
can be broadly divided into the “flat base type” and the “flat base type with piles,” the flat base type with piles is
generally used.
Soft ground
(a) Flat base type/inverted T type
Steel piles
Soft ground
(b) Flat base type with piles/inverted π type
Fig. 3.9.1 Examples of Cross Sections of Soft Landing Breakwaters
(3) Because the soft landing breakwater is constructed directly on soft ground, it is affected by scouring by waves and
water currents in the area around the breakwater body. Therefore, appropriate countermeasures shall be taken as
necessary.
– 640 –
3.10 Floating Breakwaters

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Floating Breakwaters
Article 37
The performance criteria of floating breakwaters under the variable action situation, in which the dominant
action is variable waves, shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The risk of capsizing of the floating body shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(2) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the floating body shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
(3) The risk that the stress generated in mooring lines may exceed the yield stress shall be equal to or less
than the threshold level.
(4) The risk of losing the stability due to tractive force acting on the mooring anchor shall be equal to or
less than the threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Floating Breakwaters

① Settings in connection with the performance criteria and the design situation excluding accidental
situations of floating breakwaters shall be as shown in Attached Table 20.
Attached Table 20 Settings in Connection with Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental
situations) of Floating Breakwaters

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
actions actions
14 1 2 37 1 1 Serviceability Variable Variable waves Self weight, Capsizing of Limit value for capsizing
wind, water floating body
pressure,
2 water currents Integrity of -
members
3 Yielding of Design yield stress
mooring lines
4 Stability of Resistance (horizontal and
mooring anchor, vertical) of mooring anchor
etc.
② Stability of mooring anchor (serviceability)

Mooring anchor is a collective term for equipment placed on the surface of the sea bottom to fix the
floating body. Concretely, in addition to the mooring anchors, sinkers are also included.
[Technical Note]
(1) Floating breakwaters are breakwaters in which transmitted waves are reduced by moored floating body. Although
the shapes of the floating body include many types, the pontoon type is widely used.
(2) An example of the performance verification procedure for floating breakwaters is shown in Fig. 3.10.1.
(3) The floating breakwaters have various advantages, including the fact that they do not prevent movement of sea
water and littoral drift, they are not affected by tidal levels changes or ground conditions, and they are moveable.
However, they also have numerous problems, in that they allow large transmitted waves, their effects differ
remarkably depending on the characteristics of waves, they can only be used in locations with small waves due to
their limited wave resistance, and the mechanism of resistance of the anchor system against repeated impulsive
actions is not adequately understood. Furthermore, because there is a danger of secondary damage due to drifting
of the floating body if the mooring lines break, appropriate measures should be taken.
– 641 –

including draft and freeboard
Variable situation in respect of waves
Verification of capsizing and transmission coefficient
Performance verification of mooring lines, anchor, etc.
Performance verification of body section

(floor slab, bottom slab, side walls and bulkheads)
Performance verification of anchor

and mooring line attachment parts
*1
Accidental situation in respect of
tsunamis and waves
Performance verification of mooring lines and anchor
Performance verification of body section

(floor slab, bottom slab, side walls and bulkheads)
Verification of joints and attachment parts
*1: For facilities where damage to the facilities can be assumed to have a serious impact on life, property, and social activity, it is
preferable to conduct verification for accidental situations when necessary. Verification for accidental situations in respect of waves
shall be conducted in cases where facilities handling hazardous cargoes are located directly behind the breakwater and damage to
the objective facilities would have a catastrophic impact.
Fig. 3.10.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Floating Breakwaters

The layout and the shape of the floating breakwaters should be set so that the required harbor calmness can be obtained.
In determining these settings, it is preferable to measure the wave transmission coefficient by conducting hydraulic
model tests. As theoretical analysis methods, Ito et al.59) proposed an approximation method for the motion of a
2-dimensional rectangular floating body, and Iijima 60) proposed a theory in connection with free floating bodies.
(1) The performance verification of mooring system can be conducted referring to Part II, Chapter 2, 4.9 Actions on
Floating Body and its Motions.
(2) Mooring-related design can be divided into two stages:
① First stage in which the tensions that will be exerted on mooring lines and sinkers are determined through static
and dynamic analyses by assuming various conditions concerning mooring-related matters such as the mooring
method and line length.
– 642 –
② Second stage in which detailed design of the actual mooring lines and sinkers is carried out and the stability is
confirmed, based on the tensions and other findings in the first stage above.
(3) Dynamic analysis of the mooring lines consists of determining the fluctuating tension and displacement that arise
from the motions of floating body. This analysis can be classified into the following two procedures:
① Methods to analyze these factors based on the static mooring characteristics.
② Methods to analyze these factors based on the dynamic response characteristics of mooring lines.
(4) The performance verification for the mooring anchor is equivalent to that for floating piers. In addition to referring
to Chapter 5, 6.4 Performance Verification, Reference 62) can also be used as a reference.
(5) The structure of the floating body of a floating breakwater shall possess adequate safety as a whole, and shall also
possess adequate local strength. With structures having a relatively long length relative to their width and depth,
such as floating breakwaters, it is generally preferable to examine the following points.
Longitudinal strength: The cross-sectional forces such as longitudinal flexural moment, shearing force and
torsional moment in the permanent situation and under action of waves shall be obtained for the floating body as
a whole.
Lateral strength: The cross-sectional forces such as flexural moment and shearing force in the direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis under action of waves shall be obtained for the floating body as a whole.
Local strength: The cross-sectional forces such as flexural moment and shearing force generated in individual wall
panels and girders shall be obtained.
(6) Longitudinal strength calculation methods are divided into two categories, one of which considers floating body
motions, while other that does not. Among calculation methods that do not consider floating body motions, the
Muller equation, the Prestressed Concrete Barge Standards, and the Veritus Rule are frequently used. On the
other hand, the Ueda's formulae 63) is used as a calculation method that does take into account the floating body
motions. A comparison of the methods of both categories is cited in the References 63), which can be referred to
when applying the calculations.
(7) The performance verification for the stability of the floating body is equivalent to that for floating pier. Chapter 5,
6.4 Performance Verification can be used as a reference. For other concepts in connection with the verification
of stability when inundated, Reference 64) can be used as a reference.
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56) Okiya, T., T. Sakakiyama, M. Shibata, O. Nakano and Y. Okuma: Characteristics of wave force on curtain wall structure
having permeable lower portion, Proceedings of Offshore Development, Vol. 46, pp.791-795, 1999
57) Morihira. M., S. Kakizaki and Y. Goda: Experimental investigation of curtain-wall breakwater, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 3 No. 1,
1964
58) Shimonoseki port and Airport Technical Survey Office, Kyu-shu Regional Development Bureau Home Page: Design Manual
for breakwaters with wide footing on soft ground (Draft), http:〃www.gityo.gojp/,2005
59) Itou, Y. and S. Chiba: An Approximate Theory of Floating Breakwaters, Rept. of PHRI Vol 11 No.2, pp.43-77,1972
60) Ijima, T., M. Tabuchi and Y. Yumura: Motions of Rectangular-cross-section floating body due to wave action and the
transformation of waves, Proceedings of JSCE, No. 202, pp.33-48, 1972
61) Japan International Marine Science and Technology Federation: Floating Breakwaters-Present status and problems-. 1987
62) JSCER: Guideline and commentary for design of offshore structures (Draft), 1973
63) UEDA, S., Satoru SHIRAISHI and Kazuo KAI: Calculation Method of Shear Force and Bending Moment Induced on
Pontoon Type Floating Structures in Random Sea, Technical Note of PHRI No.505, p.27, 1984
64) Oogushi, M:. Theoretical naval architect, Kaibun-do Publishing, 1991
– 645 –
4 Amenity-oriented Breakwaters
It is necessary to examine the crown height of the amenity-oriented breakwaters which will be visited by the general
public from the viewpoint of public use and safety, including spray, and the wave overtopping.
References
1) Coastal Development Institute of Technology : Technical Manual for the Improvement of Port environment, 1991
2) TAKAHASHI, S., Kimihiko ENDOH and Zen-ichirou MURO: Experimental Study on People’s Safety against Overtopping
Waves on Breakwaters- A study on Amenity-oriented Port Structures (2nd Rept.)-, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 31 No.4, 1992
– 646 –
5 Storm Surge Protection Breakwaters

The performance verification for storm surge protection breakwaters can be considered equivalent to 3 Ordinary
Breakwaters. In addition to this, the following points need to be considered corresponding to the structural type.
5.1 Fundamentals of Performance Verification
(1) In the storm surge protection breakwaters, it is necessary to set the layout, and crown height appropriately,
considering the effect of the breakwater in reducing the effects of storm surge.
(2) In the storm surge protection breakwaters, in addition to the stability of the facilities against the action of waves,
it is also necessary to secure the stability of the facilities considering the characteristics of attack by storm surges
such as the rise in the water level inside the breakwater.
5.2 Actions
In the examination of the stability of the upright section, the rise in the water level inside the breakwater due to the
inflow of the storm surge shall be considered. In this case, Part II, Chapter 2, 4 Waves and Part II, Chapter 2, 3
Tidal Level can be used as a reference for waves and tidal levels, respectively.
5.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section

The crown height of the storm surge protection breakwaters shall be the required height based on appropriate
consideration of the waves and tidal levels at the construction site. For waves and tidal levels, Part II, Chapter 2, 4
Waves and Part II, Chapter 2, 3 Tidal Level can be used as a reference, respectively.
References
1) JSCE: Handbook of coastal facilities (2009 Edition), pp465-468,2000
– 647 –
6 Tsunami Protection Breakwaters

The performance verification for tsunami protection breakwaters can be considered equivalent to 3 Ordinary
Breakwaters. In addition to this, the following points need to be considered, corresponding to the structural type.
(1) It is necessary to set the layout and, crown height of the tsunami protection breakwaters, appropriately, considering
the effect of the breakwater in reducing the effects of tsunamis.
(2) In addition to the stability against the action of waves, it is also necessary to secure the stability of the tsunami
protection breakwaters considering the characteristics during tsunami attack.
6.2 Actions
(1) For tsunamis, Part II, Chapter 2, 5 Tsunamis can be used as a reference.
(2) In the performance verification for tsunamis, it is preferable that the difference in the water level inside and
outside the breakwater during action of tsunamis be evaluated appropriately based on a numerical simulation.
Attention should be paid to the fact that the water level behind the breakwater will not necessarily be the same as
the still water level, depending on inflow and outflow of tsunamis.
(3) In the calculation of tsunami force, Part II, Chapter 2, 5(7) Tsunami Wave Force can be used as a reference.
However, because many points still require clarification, it is preferable to confirm the wave force by an appropriate
method such as hydraulic model tests or the like.
6.3 Setting of Basic Cross Section

It is necessary to set the crown height of the tsunami protection breakwaters to the crown height required against
wave overtopping in both cases of action of waves and tsunamis at appropriately set tidal levels.
(1) In the performance verification of the tsunami protection breakwaters in the accidental situation in respect of
tsunamis, in general, an examination shall be performed for the stability against sliding and overturning of the
upright section and the failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground.
(2) In the examination of the stability against sliding and overturning of the upright section for tsunamis, equation
(6.4.1) and equation (6.4.2) can be used. In the following equations, the symbol γ is the partial factor for its
subscript, and the subscripts d denote the characteristic value.
① Sliding
(6.4.1)
where
f : f riction coefficient between bottom of wall body and foundation
PU : uplift force of tsunami (kN/m)
PH : horizontal wave force of tsunami (kN/m)
② Overturning of breakwater body
(6.4.2)
where
PU : uplift of tsunami (kN/m)
PH : horizontal wave force of tsunami (kN/m)
a1–a4 : arm lengths of actions (see Fig. 3.1.4 of 3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Composite
Breakwaters))
– 648 –
The design values of wave force PHd and PUd in equation (6.4.1) and equation (6.4.2) can be calculated using
equations (5.4) and (5.5) in Part II, Chapter 2, Section2, 5 Tsunamis. The design value of the weight of the
breakwater body Wd can be calculated using equation (3.1.4) in 3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters (Composite
Breakwaters). When caissons do not have a footing, equation (3.1.5) in 3.1 Gravity-type Breakwaters
(Composite Breakwaters) can be used in calculating the design value of buoyancy PBd.
(3) The examination for the failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground for tsunamis is
equivalent to that for variable situations in respect of waves in composite breakwaters. 3.1.4 Performance
Verification can be used as a reference. Provided, however, that the partial factors used in verification shall be in
accordance with the following (4) Partial factors.
(4) Partial factors
For the partial factors used in the examination of the stability against sliding and overturning of the upright section
and the failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground for tsunami protection breakwaters
in the accidental situation in respect of tsunamis, the values in Table 6.4.1 can be used as a reference. Provided,
however, that the values shown in Table 6.4.1 are the standard values when setting the tsunami force of the largest
class as the accidental action expected at the location where the facilities are to be constructed. Here, in cases
where uncertainty is expected in calculation of the characteristic value of the tsunami force, there are examples in
which 1.2 is set as a structural analysis factor.
Table 6.4.1 Partial Factors for use in Performance Verification of Tsunami Protection Breakwaters
γ α μ/X k V
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.00 – – –
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.00 – –
Sliding
H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 or over – – –
γ wl r wl =1.5 1.00 – – –
r wl =2.0, 2.5 1.00 – –
Overturning
H.H.W.L. 1.00 – –
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 or over – – –
γPH Tsunami force 1.00 – – –
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground
γq Surcharge on slice segment 1.00

γw ’ Weight of slice segment 1.00
γ tanφ ’ Ground strength: Tangent of angle of shear 1.00
resistance
γc ’ Ground strength: Cohesion 1.00
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 or over
*3: Change of water depth mild/steep: Gradient of sea bottom <1/30/ Longer than 1/30.
(5) The tsunami protection breakwaters are frequently constructed in locations where the water is deep. In this
case, the height of the breakwater body is also large, and the stability during action of ground motion becomes
– 649 –
a particular problem. Therefore, it is preferable to examine seismic resistance by performing seismic response
analyses considering the nonlinearity of the mound materials. In addition, it is also preferable to examine the
stability of the mound during action of ground motion. The performance verification of the mound for the
stability during action of ground motion is equivalent to that for the composite breakwaters; 3.1.4 Performance
Verification can be used as a reference.
6.5 Structural Details
(1) An experimental study by Tanimoto et al.1) has confirmed that in the situation where a tsunami flows in through
a narrow harbor entrance, the flow velocity will increase and there are produced strong vortices that exert a
substantial influence on the stability of the armor material of the submerged mound section of breakwater.
Tsunami also exercises strong tractive forces on the bed, which are said to be even greater than those by storm
surges. Attention, therefore, must be paid in particular to the reinforcement for the stability of the breakwater
section at a harbor entrance and to scour prevention works for the foundation ground.
(2) Because the rubble mound becomes thicker as the water becomes deeper, it is necessary to pay careful attention to
the stability of the rubble mound against wave forces and wave transformation on the slope surface of the rubble
mound. It will also be necessary to make extra-banking for the rubble mound against large settlement of the
rubble mound by its own weight.
6.6 Tsunami Reduction Effect of Tsunami Protection Breakwaters

Regarding the effect of tsunami protection breakwaters, oscillation analysis of Ofunato Bay, Iwate Prefecture, for
both states before and after the construction of the tsunami protection breakwater when Tokachi-oki Earthquake
Tsunami of May 1968 occurred, was carried out based on records of the tidal levels measured in the bay 2) According
to the results, the wave height amplification ratio M, amplitude at back of bay/amplitude of incident waves, after the
construction is reduced in the low order oscillation frequency with a long period T was reduced in comparison with
that before the construction, as shown in Fig. 6.4.1, confirming that tsunami protection breakwaters demonstrate a
tsunami reduction effect.2) This has also been verified by numerical calculations by Itoh et al.3)
Tide level observation station

6
Wave height amplification ratio M
Ofunato
5
Nagasaki
Without breakwater
4
Tide level observation station
3
Hosoura Tsunami protection breakwater
N 2
After construction
of breakwater
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Oscillation period T [min]
Fig. 6.4.1 Effect of Tsunami Protection Breakwater (Case of Ofunato Bay)
References
1) TANIMOTO, K., Katsutoshi KIMURA and Keiji MIYAZAKI: Study on Stability of Submerged Dike at the Opening Section
of Tsunami Protection Breakwaters, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 27 No.4, pp.93-121, 1988
2) Horikawa, K. and H. Nishimura: Performance of Tsunami breakwaters Proceedings of 16th Conference on Coastal
Engineering, JSCE, pp.365-369,1969
3) ITO, Y., katsutoshi TANIMOTO and Tsutomu KIHARA: Digital Computation on the Effect of Breakwaters against Long-
period Waves (4th Report)- On the Effect of Ofunato Tsunami Breakwater against the Tsunami caused by the Earthquake on
May 16, 1968.-, Rept. of PHRI Vol.7 No.4, pp.55-83, 1968
– 650 –
7 Sediment Control Groins

Performance Requirements for Sediment Control Groins
Article 15
1 The performance requirements for sediment control groins shall satisfy the requirements specified by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism for the mitigation of siltation in waterways and
basins caused by littoral drift through effective control of sediment movement.
2 The provisions of the item (2) of the paragraph 1 of the preceding article shall be applied correspondingly
to the performance requirements for sediment control groins.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Sediment Control Groins
Article 38
1 The provisions of Article 35 or 36 shall be applied to the performance criteria of sediment control groins
with modifications as necessary in consideration of the structural type.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of sediment control
groins shall be such that these facilities are arranged appropriately so as to enable control of littoral drift,
in consideration of the environmental conditions and others to which the facilities concerned are subjected
and have the dimensions necessary for their function.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria for Sediment Control Groins

In the performance verification for sediment control groins, appropriate consideration shall be given to
the increase in earth pressure due to the sedimentation by littoral drift and effects due to river currents.
[Technical Note]
7.1 General
(1) Layout of Sediment Control Groins

① Sediment control groins shall be appropriately located by considering the characteristics of sediment transport,
so as to exercise the expected function of longshore transport control.
② In general, the sediment control groins on the updrift side of longshore sediment transport, shall be located
perpendicular to the shoreline in the surf zone and shallower, and in deeper waters, shall be located so that
littoral drift is dispersed to the side opposite the harbor entrance.
③ In cases where sediment control groins are constructed on the downdrift side of longshore sediment transport
in order to prevent entrainment of littoral drift into the harbor from the shore on the downdrift side of longshore
sediment transport, in general, the groin shall be constructed perpendicular to the coastline and shall also have
an appropriate length considering wave direction and wave transformation. Provided, however, that in cases
where a sediment control groin also functions as a breakwater, an appropriate layout considering its required
functions as a breakwater is necessary.
④ If a sediment control groin in required in places such as the vicinity of waterways inside a harbor, it shall be
constructed in an appropriate location in consideration of the natural conditions.
(2) Layout of Updrift Side Breakwaters
It is preferable that the updrift side breakwater is extended beyond the surf zone in the direction perpendicular to
the shoreline in order to cause deposition of littoral drift at the updrift side of the breakwater (refer to Fig. 7.1.1).
When this extension part is short or slanted towards the downdrift side from the shoreline, the efficiency of
sediment catchment at the updrift side is reduced and sediment can easily move along the breakwater towards the
harbor entrance. When this section is extended with a slant angle towards the downdrift side from the shoreline,
it can easily become the cause of local scouring at the updrift side.1) In the area deeper than the breaker line, the
breakwater shall be slanted so that it simultaneously stops waves and disperses littoral drift toward the updrift side
of the harbor entrance with the aid of reflected waves or Mach-stem waves (refer to Fig. 7.1.1).
– 651 –
Contour lines Waves
Kd =1.0
Deposition
Reflected waves
Updrift side break water

Breaker line Downdrift side sediment control groin
Breakwater
Longshore sediment transport (Sediment control groin)
Kd: Diffraction coefficient
Fig. 7.1.1 Conceptual Layout of Breakwater (Sediment Control Groin)
(3) Position of the Downdrift Side Breakwater and Construction Time

When the updrift side breakwater is extended beyond the extension line of the downdrift side breakwater,
deposition will start at the downdrift side of the latter breakwater. Sand bar will then be formed from the shore
toward the harbor entrance, and it will cause beach erosion at the far downdrift shore.2) If the downdrift side
breakwater is extended during construction of the updrift breakwater and the slant section of the latter is not
extended enough, remarkable local erosion may be caused at the harbor side of the downdrift breakwater, as
shown Fig. 7.1.2(a). Conversely, if the extension of the downdrift breakwater is delayed, it may cause deposition
in the harbor and erosion at the downdrift shore as shown in Fig. 7.1.2(b). Very careful attention should therefore
be paid to the extension speed of both the updrift and downdrift side breakwaters, and care must be taken to
maintain the appropriate balance of extensions.
Kd=1.0
Deposition
Deposition
Erosion Erosion
(a) Case with rapid extension of (b) Case with slow extension of
thedowndrift-side breakwater the downdrift-side breakwater
Fig. 7.1.2 Construction Time of Downdrift Side Breakwater
(4) Length of Breakwater and Water Depth at Tip

Because longshore sediment transport occurs mainly in the surf zone, it is necessary to extend the breakwater
offshore beyond the surf zone. In small ports where the water depth at the tip of the breakwater remains in the
surf zone during stormy weather, it is difficult to completely prevent littoral drift from entering the port. At major
ports in Japan, there are many cases in which the water depth at the tip of updrift side breakwater is approximately
equal to the maximum depth of the navigation channels in the port concerned.
(5) Structural Forms of Sediment Control Groin
Because the required function of a sediment control groin is to stop sediment transport firmly, in principal a
sediment control groin should have an impermeable structure. Where rubble stones or concrete blocks are used
to build a sediment control groin around the shoreline, the core is to be filled with quarry run or small stones
of up to 100 to 200 kg; there are also cases where the harbor side of the sediment control groin is covered with
impermeable materials such as sand mastic asphalt. In the following situations, it is preferable to adopt the
structure of wave-dissipating types.
① When there is a large concern about scouring by currents.
② When there are concerns of shoaling caused by reflected waves or of causing obstruction to the navigation of
ships.
– 652 –
(1) Crown Height of Sediment Control Groin

Although it is preferable for sediment control groins not to allow overtopping of waves to prevent the inflow of
suspended sediment, there are also cases where overtopping is permitted due to structural constrains or by reasons
of construction costs. The crown height should be determined by taking the following into considerations:
① Section around shoreline
It is preferable that the crown height of the section around the shoreline of sediment control groins be sufficiently
high as to prevent overtopping by running-up waves. Because sand carried by runup waves may overtop the
crest of the section around shoreline of the sediment control groin, the crest should be sufficiently high. It is
preferable to raise the crown height or extend the groin itself to the landward direction, in view of conditions
after construction.
② Sections located shallower than the breaker line depth
The crown elevation of the sediment control groin in the sections located shallower than the breaker line depth
may be 0.6H1/3 above the mean monthly-highest water level (HWL), where H1/3 should be the significant wave
height around the tip of sediment control groin.
③ Sections located deeper than the breaker line depth
The crown elevation of the sediment control groin in the sections located deeper than the breaker line depth
should be a height that is obtained by adding a certain margin to the mean monthly-highest water level. In the
water deeper than the breaker zone, the suspended sediment is concentrated near the seabed and overtopping
water contains almost no sediment, and therefore overtopping may be permitted.
References
1) Tanaka, N: Transformation of sea bottom and beach near port constructed within the beach, Proceedings of Annual
Conference, pp.1-46,1974
2) SATO, S., Norio TANAKA and Katsuhiro SASAKI: The Case History on Variation of Sea Bottom Topography Caused by
the Construction Works of Kashima Harbour, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 13 No.4, pp.3-78, 1974
3) Nakase, A., T. Okumura and M. Sawaguchi: Easy-to-understand Foundation works, Kajima Publishing, p.376、1981
– 653 –
8 Seawalls
Performance Requirements for Seawalls
Article 16
1 The performance requirements for seawalls shall be as specified in the subsequent items for the purpose
of protecting the land area behind the seawall in consideration of its structure type.
(1) Seawalls shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Tourism so as to enable protection of the land area behind the seawall concerned from waves and storm
surges.
(2) Damage due to self weight, earth pressure, variable waves, and Level 1 earthquake ground motions,
and/or other actions shall not impair the functions of the seawall concerned and shall not adversely
affect its continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for seawalls in the
place where there is a risk of serious impact on human lives, property, and/or socioeconomic activity by the
damage to the seawall concerned shall include the subsequent items, in consideration of the type of seawall.
(1) The performance requirements for a seawall which is required to protect the land area behind the seawall
concerned from tsunamis or accidental waves shall be such that the seawall satisfy the requirements
specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to enable protection of
the land area behind the seawall concerned from tsunamis or accidental waves.
(2) Damage due to tsunamis, accidental waves, Level 2 earthquake ground motions, and/or other actions
shall not have a serious impact on the structural stability of the seawall concerned, even in cases where
the functions of the seawall concerned are impaired. Provided, however, that for the performance
requirements for a seawall which requires further improvement of its performance due to environmental,
social and/or other conditions to which the seawall concerned is subjected, the damage due to said
actions shall not adversely affect the restoration through minor repair work of the functions of the
seawall concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Seawalls
Article 39
1 The provisions concerning the structural stability in Article 49 through Article 52 excluding the provisions
concerning ship berthing and traction by ships shall be applied with modifications as necessary to the
performance criteria of seawalls in consideration of the type of structure.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of seawalls shall be as
specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The seawall shall be arranged appropriately so as to enable control of wave overtopping in consideration
of the environmental conditions and others to which the seawalls concerned are subjected and shall
have the dimensions necessary for their function.
(2) Under the variable action situation in which the dominant action is water pressure, the risk of losing the
stability due to seepage failure of the ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(3) In the case of the structure having a parapet, the risk of sliding and overturning of the parapet under
the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are variable waves and Level 1 earthquake
ground motions shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
3 In addition to the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs, the performance criteria of the seawalls in
the place where there is a risk of serious impact on human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity by
the damage to the facilities concerned shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Seawalls which are required to protect the hinterland from tsunamis or accidental waves shall have the
dimensions as necessary for protection of the hinterland from tsunamis or accidental waves.
(2) Under the accidental action situation in which the dominant actions are tsunamis, accidental waves, or
Level 2 earthquake ground motions, the degree of damage owing to the dominant actions shall be equal
– 654 –
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria for Seawalls

① Common performance criteria for seawalls
The settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situations excluding accidental situations
for the stability of the facilities of seawalls shall be as shown in the Attached Table 21. In the performance
criteria for seawalls, in addition to these provisions, the settings in connection with the Public Notice, Article
22, Item 3 (Scouring and Sand Washing Out) and Article 28 Performance Criteria of Armor Stones and
Blocks shall apply, as necessary, and depending on the type of members comprising the objective seawall, the
setting in connection with Article 23 through Article 27 shall also apply.
Attached Table 21 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Stability
of Facilities Common to Seawalls

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
16 1 2 39 2 2 Usability Variable Water pressure Self weight Seepage failure of Limit value for seepage failure
ground
3 Variable waves Self weight, Sliding or Limit value for sliding
earth pressure, overturning of Limit value for overturning
water pressure parapet*1)
Level 1 Self weight, Limit value for sliding
earthquake earth pressure, Limit value for overturning
ground motion water pressure
*1): Limited to structures having parapets.
② Seawalls as facilities against accidental incidents

(a) Stability of facilities (safety, restorability)
1) The settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situations limited to accidental
situations of seawalls designed as facilities against accidental incidents shall be as shown in the
Attached Table 22. In performance verification of seawalls as facilities against accidental incidents,
among the settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situations for the accidental
situations of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, tsunamis, and accidental waves, values shall be set
appropriately corresponding to the structural type of the objective seawall and the performance
requirements of the objective seawall.
The items safety and restorability are specified in the performance requirements in the Attached
Table 22 because the performance requirements will differ depending on the functions required in
the objective seawall designed as facilities against accidental incidents.
As performance criteria in connection with accidental situations for seawalls designed as facilities against
accidental incidents, in addition to these provisions, the settings in connection with the Public Notice Article
22 Performance Criteria Common to Structural Members shall also apply as necessary.
Attached Table 22 Settings for Performance Criteria and Design Situations limited to Accidental Situations for Seawalls
as Facilities against Accidental Incidents

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
16 1 2 39 3 2 Safety, Accidental Level 2 earthquake Self weight, Damage –

restorability ground motion earth pressure,
(Tsunami) water pressure
(Accidental wave)
*1): Limited to structures having parapets.
– 655 –
2) Degree of damage
In setting the limit value of the degree of damage for accidental situations in which the dominating
actions are Level 2 earthquake ground motion, tsunamis, and accidental waves in the performance
verifications of seawalls as facilities against accidental incidents, consideration shall not be limited
to the functions of the objective seawall, but shall also include comprehensive considerations of the
condition of implementation of the surrounding protective facilities for the harbor and other facilities
for protection of the hinterland, and soft countermeasures related to disaster reduction and disaster
prevention in the objective region. In seawalls used as facilities against accidental incidents in which
restorability is a performance requirement, appropriate consideration shall be given to the allowable
restoration period when setting the limit value of the degree of damage.
3) Accidental situation in which dominating action is tsunami
In the performance verifications in connection with tsunamis, in cases where the expected tsunami
occurs as a result of an earthquake with a hypocenter located near the objective facilities, appropriate
consideration shall be given to the fact that the facilities will be affected by the action of the ground
motion caused by the objective earthquake before they are affected by the action of the tsunami.
In other words, in cases where the dominating action is the accidental situation associated with
tsunamis, it is necessary to conduct the performance verification for tsunamis based on consideration
of the effects caused by the action of the ground motion which precedes a tsunami. It should be noted
that the ground motion which precedes the tsunami which is expected in this case is not necessarily
identical with the Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
References
1) Shore protection facility Technical Committee: Technical standards and commentary for shore protection facilities, Japan
Port Association, 2004
– 656 –
9 Training Jetties
Performance Requirements for Training Jetties
Article 17
1 The performance requirements for training jetties shall be such that the requirements specified by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied for the prevention of closure of a
river mouth by littoral drift through effective control of sediment transport.
2 The provisions of the item (2) of the paragraph (1) of Article 14 shall be applied correspondingly to the
performance requirements for training jetties.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Training Jetties
Article 40
The provisions of Article 38 shall be applied to the performance criteria of training jetties with modifications
as necessary.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Training Jetties

The settings in connection with the Public Notice, Article 38 Performance Criteria of Sediment Control
Groins shall be applied with the necessary modifications to the performance criteria of training jetties. In the
performance verifications of training jetties, appropriate consideration shall be given to the increase of earth
pressure due to sedimentation of littoral drift and to waves and river currents.
[Technical Note]
9.1 General
(1) Layout of Training Jetties

Examples of the layout of training jetties in relation to the direction of longshore sediment transport are shown
in Fig. 9.1.1.1) The most preferable one for maintaining the water depth of river mouth is to extend two parallel
training jetties, because a single training jetty alone is not effective. Where two training jetties of different
lengths are put in place, usually it is effective to make the training jetty on the downdrift side longer. Bending the
updrift training jetty towards the downdrift side will prevent sediment moving into the area between two training
jetties and make the sediment transported alongshore pass smoothly to the downdrift side. For actual examples of
river mouth improvement, refer to the reference 2).
(2) Water Depth at Tip of Training Jetties
① The water depth at the tip of a training jetty should be equal to or greater than the water depth of the waterway
in the vicinity of the training jetty.
② The tip of the training jetty should be located at equal to or greater water depth than the limiting wave breaker
depth.
– 657 –
A narrow but deep

gut is preserved Grows shallow Longshore
Longshore sediment transport
sediment transport
River mouth will move
towards the downdrift side
A narrow but deep
gut is preserved Grows shallow Longshore
sediment transport
Longshore
sediment transport
Longshore
sediment transport
Fig. 9.1.1 Varieties of Training Jetty Layout 1)

Because the training jetty is generally longer than groins and is exposed to intensive wave actions, it is necessary to
consider scouring at the tip and sides of a jetty. In addition, it should be considered that the river side of the training
jetty will be subject to scouring action by the river current.
References
1) JSCE: Handbook of Civil Engineering, (Vol. 2), pp.2268-2270,1974
– 658 –
10 Floodgates
Performance Requirements for Floodgates
Article 18
1 The performance requirements for floodgates shall be as specified in the subsequent items for the purpose
of protecting the hinterland of the floodgate from inundation and of draining unnecessary inland water.
(1) Floodgates shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism for prevention of overflow due to storm surges.
(2) Floodgates shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism for protection of the hinterland from inundation and for drainage of unnecessary inland
water.
(3) Damage due to self weight, water pressure, variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, or
other actions shall not impair the functions of the floodgate concerned and not affect its continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for floodgates
which have a risk of having a serious impact on human lives, property, and/or socioeconomic activity by
the damage to the floodgate concerned shall include the subsequent items in consideration of the type of
floodgate.
(1) In the performance requirements for a floodgate which is required to protect the hinterland of the
floodgate concerned from tsunamis or accidental waves, the floodgate shall satisfy the requirements
specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to enable protection of
the hinterland of the floodgate concerned from overflows by tsunamis or accidental waves.
(2) The damage due to tsunamis, accidental waves, Level 2 earthquake ground motions, or other actions
shall not have a serious impact on the structural stability of the floodgate concerned, even in cases
where the functions of the floodgate concerned are impaired. Provided, however, that as for the
performance requirements for floodgates which require further improvement in the performance due to
environmental, social, or other conditions to which the floodgates concerned are subjected, the damage
due to said actions shall not affect the restoration through minor repair works of the functions of the
floodgate concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Floodgates
Article 41
1 The performance criteria of floodgates shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Floodgates shall be located appropriately so as to enable protection of the land behind the facilities from
inundation and drainage of unnecessary water accumulated there in consideration of the environmental
conditions and others to which the facilities concerned are subjected and shall have the dimensions
necessary for their function.
(2) Floodgates shall have the dimensions necessary in consideration of storm surges, waves, and tsunamis.
(3) Under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is self weight, the risk of impairing
the integrity of the members and losing the structural stability shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
(4) Floodgates shall satisfy the following standards under the variable action situation in which the
dominant action is water pressure:
(a) The risk of impairing the integrity of the structural members shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
(b) The risk of losing the structural stability due to seepage failure of the ground shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
(5) Floodgates shall satisfy the following standards under the variable action situation in which the
dominant actions are variable waves and Level 1 earthquake ground motions:
– 659 –
a) The risk of impairing the integrity of the structural members shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
b) The risk of losing the stability of floodgate system shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of floodgates in which
there is a risk of serious impact on human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity by the damage to the
facilities concerned shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Floodgates which are required to protect the hinterland from tsunamis or accidental waves shall have
the dimension necessary to control overflows.
(2) Under the accidental action situation in which the dominant actions are tsunamis, accidental waves, or
Level 2 earthquake ground motions, the degree of damage owing to the dominant actions shall be equal
[Technical Note]
(1) Layout and Dimensions of Floodgates

① Layout
In setting the layout in the performance verifications of floodgates, it is necessary to give appropriate
consideration to installation in a position where the water gate can demonstrate its full water collecting capacity,
and to avoiding installation in positions where sediments will tend to accumulate due to the effects of wind,
waves, and water currents.
② Structure
In setting the structure of the transitional part of gate in the performance verifications of floodgates, it is
necessary to give appropriate consideration to the quality, shape, and dimensions of the materials and to a
watertight structure so as to secure the required water-tightness.
③ Cross-sectional dimensions
In setting the height and other dimensions in the performance verifications of floodgates, it is necessary to give
appropriate consideration to the dewatering capacity of the objective floodgate, the effects of littoral drift and
settlement of the ground, the water levels inside and outside the objective water gate and in the surrounding
ground. In floodgates which allow passage of ships, when setting the height, appropriate consideration shall be
given to setting a height which will not impede the passage of ships.
④ Ancillary equipment
In the performance verifications of floodgates, it is necessary to examine the installation of ancillary equipment
for use in maintenance control, such as control bridges, stairs, handrails, as necessary, so as to enable safe and
smooth operation and maintenance control of the gate.
References
1) Shore Protection Facility Technical Committee: Technical standards and commentary for shore protection facilities, Japan
Port Association, 2004
– 660 –
11 Locks
Performance Requirements for Locks
Article 19
1 The performance requirements for locks shall be as specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism for the purpose of enabling the safe and smooth navigation of ships between the
water areas having different water levels.
2 The provisions of the items (1) and (3) of the paragraph (1) and the paragraph (2) of the preceding article
shall be applied correspondingly to the performance requirements for locks.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Locks
Article 42
1 The provisions of the preceding article shall be applied to locks with modifications as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of locks shall be such that
the locks are located appropriately so as to enable ships to navigate safely and smoothly in consideration
of the environmental conditions to which the facilities concerned are subjected, the utilization conditions,
and others, and the locks have the dimensions necessary for their function.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria for Locks

① Safe and smooth navigation of ships (usability)
(a) The specifications of locks shall comprise the structure and cross-sectional dimensions of the lock and the
ancillary equipment. In setting the layout and dimensions in the performance verifications of locks, the
settings in connection with the Public Notice, Article 41 Performance Criteria of Floodgates shall be
applied; in addition, appropriate consideration shall be given to the necessary conditions for safe and smooth
navigation of ships.
(b) Cross-sectional dimensions
In the performance verifications of locks, water depth, width, and length shall be set appropriately
considering the respective clearances, based on appropriate consideration of the effects of the
dimensions and motion of the design ship and the expected traffic volume.
(c) Ancillary equipment
In the performance verifications of locks, the layout of the ancillary equipment for maintenance
control, including emergency equipment, lighting equipment, power-related equipment, monitoring
and instrumentation equipment, and maintenance and control equipment shall be examined, as
necessary, in order to secure safe and smooth operation of the objective lock.
[Technical Note]
(1) General
① The names of the respective parts of locks shall be as shown in Fig. 11.1.
– 661 –
Front gate chamber Rear gate chamber

Lock chamber
Effective length
Gate recess Effective width of lock chamber
of gate chamber
Effective width
of lock chamber
Lock gate Plane view
Sill height Side view
Fig. 11.1 Names of Respective Parts of Lock
② Installation position of locks

(a) There are cases in which locks impose constraints on the functions of the surrounding harbor, for example,
by limiting the area of basins, land designated for extension of mooring facilities, and hinder other navigating
ships depending on whether the installation position of the lock is appropriate or not. The natural conditions
at the installation position also have a large effect on construction costs. Accordingly, it is preferable to use
due care in selecting the positions of locks.
(b) It is preferable that installation of locks on soft ground be avoided whenever possible. However, in cases where
installation on soft ground is unavoidable, adequate countermeasures should be taken for uneven settlement.
Because the functions of the lock will decline by settlement of the gate at locations where ground settlement
occurs, it is preferable to raise the crown height in advance in such cases.
(c) Because ship’s ingress and egress may become difficult owing to the factors such as winds, waves, tidal
currents, and littoral drift, it is optimal to choose a calm water area for the lock location. In cases where the
water is not calm, breakwaters should be constructed, or training jetties or guiding jetties should be extended
to make the water zone calm in the vicinity of the lock.
(d) The size and number of ships that will pass through the lock are also factors in the selection of the location.
That is, the lock must be located at the site where a sufficiently wide area of water can be secured for anchorage
and turning basin for use by waiting ships.
(e) In addition to the above, the lock’s location must be selected with adequate consideration given to the
conditions of land usage or traffic conditions of the inland area.
③ Size and shape of locks
(a) The scale of the lock chamber can generally be set based on equation (11.1). In this case, appropriate values
shall be set considering the keel clearance, beam clearance, and length clearance mentioned in the following
items, considering the motion of traffic ships.
Effective water depth

= Draft of ship passing through lock + Keel clearance
Effective width
= Beam of ships passing through lock x Number of ships in parallel
x Beam clearance (11.1)
Effective length
= Length of ships passing through lock x Number of ships in one line
x Length clearance

(b) Generally, the clearances for the various dimensions for locks depend upon the ship size. Fukuda, however,
has proposed the following values for locks used by small ships:
Clearance for effective water depth: 0.2–1.0m
Clearance for effective width: 0.2–1.2m
Clearance for effective length: 3–10 m
– 662 –
(2) Performance Verification
① Lock doors
The doors of locks should have a structure which makes it possible to secure the assumed difference in water
levels and the required stability against actions due to waves, and should also have a structure which satisfies
the following requirements.
1) It shall consider the scale of the lock, time required for opening and closing.
2) It shall be easy to inspect the machinery section and other moving parts.
3) It shall consider wear and prevention of corrosion of members.
② Lock chamber
The lock chamber shall have a structure appropriate to meet the conditions such as the foundation condition,
water level difference between inside and outside the lock chamber, the dimensions and number of ships to be
accommodated, and the quantity of water changing and discharging of the lock chamber.
References
1) Nishihata, I.: Design of Water Gate and Lock Gate, Ohom Publishing, 2004
2) Fukuda, H.: Lock, Jyo-ritsu Publishing, 1955
3) Planning Division, The third Port Construction Bureau, Ministry of Transport: Storm surge countermeasure works (
Improvement of Lock gate)at the coast of Amagasaki, Nishinomiya and Ashiya, Disaster Prevention in Ports and Harbours,
Association of disaster Prevention in Ports and coast, pp.41-45,1990
– 663 –
12 Revetments
Performance Requirements for Revetments
Article 20
1 The provisions of Article 16 shall be applied correspondingly to the performance requirements for
revetments.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for revetments
to be utilized by an unspecified large number of people shall satisfy the requirements specified by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to secure the safety of the users of the
revetment concerned.
12.1 Common Items for Revetments

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Revetments
Article 43
1 The provisions of Article 39 shall be applied to the performance criteria for revetments with modifications
as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria for the revetments
which are utilized by an unspecified large number of people shall be such that the revetments have the
dimensions necessary to secure the safety of users in consideration of the environmental conditions to
which the facilities concerned are subjected, and the utilization conditions, and others.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Revetments

① Amenity-oriented revetments (usability)
(a) In setting the structure and dimensions in the performance verifications of amenity-oriented
revetments, consideration shall be given to the effects of wave overtopping and spray, prevention
of slipping and falling and falling into the water of users, and smooth implementation of rescue
activities for users who have fallen into the water. Ancillary equipment such as fences to prevent
falling shall be installed appropriately.
[Technical Note]
(1) In cases where a reclamation revetment is built adjoining to the existing land area, construction of the revetment
may cause the groundwater level to rise or may result in deterioration of groundwater quality. Adequate attention
should be paid to these aspects when studying the reclamation layout plan and revetment structure. It is preferable
to investigate the conditions of the groundwater in the land area in advance. In addition, in cases where it is thought
that reclamation revetment construction will cause deterioration of the groundwater quality, countermeasures
such as construction of a watertight wall must be considered in order to insulate the groundwater of the land from
the reclaimed area.
(2) In the case of reclamation where a large water area is enclosed by revetments, the opening becomes smaller with the
progress of revetment construction, and a considerable rapid flow occurs at closing sections due to the difference
of water levels between the inside and outside of revetments. Therefore, careful consideration is required for
structure of revetments at the final closing section, which should have enough stability against the expected flow
speed.
The flow velocity at closing sections is controlled by the water area being closed, the cross-sectional area of
the closing section, the average water depth and the difference in tidal levels. In closing sections, it is preferable
that ground hardening work be conducted at a location with good ground before the flow velocity increases as
work progresses. Depending on the flow velocity at the closing section, there are also cases in which a submerged
weir or broad-crested weir is used.
– 664 –
12.1.2 Actions
(1) For the ground conditions of landfill soil, Part II, Chapter 3 Geotechnical Conditions can be used as a
reference.
(2) For actions due to ground motion, Part II, Chapter 4 Earthquakes can be used as a reference.
(3) For dynamic water pressure, Part II, Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure can be used as a reference.
(4) As the water level in reclaimed areas, two water levels are generally set, these being the water level in the
reclaimed area and the residual water level. The water level in the reclaimed area is used in seepage calculations
and the performance verification of waste water treatment facilities. The residual water level is the water level
immediately behind the revetment and is used in examination of the stability of the revetment. Provided, however,
that in cases where the water level at positions near the revetment is higher than the residual water level, the danger
of circular slip failure may be underestimated if the residual water level is used in the examination of circular slip
failure. In such cases, it is necessary to conduct the examination of the stability of the revetment for the water level
in the reclaimed area.
① Water level inside reclamation
The water level inside the reclamation area should be established by considering the stability of revetment
both during the construction and after completion, and the influence on the surrounding water. Regarding the
influence on the surrounding waters, particular caution should be paid in connection with overtopping flows
due to waves generated inside revetments during construction. If the water level inside the reclamation area is
excessively high in comparison with the water level at the front of the revetment, the water discharge of polluted
water from the revetment and foundation ground may increase; therefore, caution is necessary. Furthermore,
attention shall also be paid to the fact that the water level inside the reclaimed area will influence the cost of
construction of the revetment and the construction and maintenance control costs of waste water treatment
facilities.
② Residual water level
(a) For reclamation revetments, the structures with low permeability are often used to reduce to the seepage of
contaminated water through revetments. For this reason, the residual water level behind them is generally
higher than that behind quaywalls or ordinary revetments.
(b) Reviewing examples of the past construction, in reclamation revetments with gravity-type structures, there
are more cases in which permeability is reduced by increasing the layer thickness of the levee-widening
earth or the backfilling sand than by reducing the permeability of the revetment body itself. Accordingly, in
revetments of this type, the residual water level used in the performance verification of the revetment body
should be the same as in ordinary gravity-type revetments, as the water level just behind the revetment body
shows behavior similar to that in ordinary gravity-type revetments.
(c) For reclamation revetments using a sheet pile, there are examples where grout material is poured into the
sheet pile joint or a double sheet pile structure is used to increase the watertightness. For these cases, the
residual water level behind the reclamation revetment tends to be higher than that behind the ordinary sheet
pile quaywalls.
(5) In case of reclamation using suction dredgers, there are cases in which suspended soft soil concentrates behind
the revetment and greater-than-expected earth pressure acts on the revetment body, and cases in which the action
of the water pressure at the back side of the structure extends as far as the crest of the revetment. Therefore, it is
necessary to give adequate consideration to these phenomena in the performance verifications.
(1) In the performance verifications of revetments, the following items shall generally be examined.
① The crown height shall be the height to enable preservation and use of the reclaimed land unaffected by waves
and storm surges.
② Stability against the actions of waves, earth pressure, etc. shall be secured.
③ The structure shall prevent leakage of the landfill soil.
④ Consideration shall be given to the effect on surrounding water areas, including prevention of outflow of turbid
water during reclamation work.
⑤ In amenity-oriented revetments, safe and pleasant use of the structure by users shall be possible.
– 665 –
(2) Setting of Crown Height
① For revetments, an appropriate crown height shall be set considering the wave overtopping quantity, tidal level
at high tide so as to enable preservation of the landfill behind the revetment and not hinder use of the revetment
or the land behind it.
② In setting the crown height of revetments, the following method 1) can be used.
(a) The required crown height hd above the design high water level of the revetment can be set as follows, using
the required crown height hc above the water level corresponding to the importance of the hinterland, or the
required crown height hc' considering ground motion and the crest settlement ds due to consolidation obtained
from the ground conditions.
(12.1.1)
(b) The required crown height hc above the water level in equation (12.1.2) shall be a value obtained by adding
a height allowance to the calculated crown height for the design wave at the design high water level of the
revetment. The required crown height hc above the water level can be calculated by setting the exceedence
probability P for the permissible wave overtopping rate. The exceedence probability P for the permissible
wave overtopping rate can be calculated using equation (12.1.2). For the mean value and the standard deviation
of hc/hcd, 1.00 and 0.15 can be used, respectively.
(12.1.2)

where
P : exceedence probability of permissible wave overtopping rate
hc : required crown height above water level (m)
hcd : calculated crown height for design wave at design high water level of revetment (m)
ζ : standard deviation of ln(hc/hcd); given by
λ : mean value of ln(hc/hcd); given by
μ : mean value of hc/hcd (= 1.00 can be assumed)

σ : standard deviation of hc/hcd (= 0.15 can be assumed)

Equation (12.1.2) is shown graphically in Fig. 12.1.1. For example, assuming the exceedence probability
of the permissible wave overtopping rate is 0.01, the required crown height hc above the water level, which is
obtained by adding a height allowance to the calculated crown height hcd, is given as 1.40 times the calculated
crown height hcd.
– 666 –
Exceedence probability
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1.00 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.60 1.75 1.90
hc / hcd
Fig. 12.1.1 Relationship of Exceedence Probability of Permissible Wave Overtopping Rate to hc/hcd
(Required Crown height above Water Level / Calculated Crown height)
(3) In order to estimate the quantity of seepage of polluted water into the sea from reclamation revetments, it is
necessary to perform an analysis of seepage flows. In general, Darcy’s law can be applied to seepage flow analysis.
However, as will be discussed below, the cross section of a revetment consists of different materials, including
sheet piles and concrete members, and backfilling sand. Furthermore, permeability of sheet piles will differ at the
joints and in the sheet piles themselves. For this reason, there are cases in which Darcy’s law cannot be applied.
In analysis of seepage flows in this case, it is realistic to treat the cross section of the revetment as a structure
comprising materials to which Darcy’s law can be applied. Therefore, it is necessary to convert the coefficient of
permeability and the wall width, applying ingenuity in order to apply Darcy’s law in an approximate manner.
In seepage flow analysis, the scope of analysis extends to the point where the water level within the reclaimed
area can be considered uniform. However, analysis can be performed by setting the scope corresponding to the
required accuracy, considering the structure of the revetment body, and condition of backfilling sand. Provided,
however, that caution is necessary when the permeability of the landfill soil deposited in the reclaimed area is
itself low, as the water level within the reclaimed area will have a steep gradient in the landfill soil.
① Permeability of steel sheet pile structures
(a) The permeability of steel sheet pile structures cannot be derived from Darcy’s law. However, it can be
applied by using an appropriate equivalent width and the equivalent coefficient of permeability for that width.
In addition, because it cannot be assured that a laboratory test could reproduce the joint conditions of the
protorype structure in proper scale, it is preferable to use the values measured in-situ.
(b) Reference 11) is available concerning the permeability of steel sheet pile-type structures. It describes the
result of analyses taking into account the in-situ measurements on residual water levels at five project sites.
In the analyses, it was assumed that the sheet pile wall below the seabed are impermeable and the part of
wall above the seabed is equivalent to the permeable layer of 1 m thick to which Darcy’s law can be applied.
The results obtained for the coefficient of permeability, equivalent coefficient of permeability, were in the
range of 1x10-5 – 3x10 -5 cm/s. The results of the similar analysis carried out for two examples of steel pipe
pile-type quaywall with diameter of approximately 80 cm yielded a value of 6x10 -5 cm/s. The coefficient of
permeability for backfilling material of the foregoing surveys was in the range of 10 -2 – 10 -3 cm/s.
(c) The permeability of sheet pile joint has the following characteristics:
In cases without backfilling material, the sheet pile joint is similar in nature to a narrow orifice of abrupt
sectional reduction, and can be expressed in equation (12.1.3) with the constant n = 0.5 12), 13)
(12.1.3)
where
q : flow rate per unit joint length (cm3/s/cm)
h : difference in the water level between the front and the rear of the sheet pile (cm)
K, n : constant
In cases with backfilling material, the property of the backfilling material greatly affects the quantity of
seepage through the joint. In the vicinity of the backfilling material behind the sheet pile joint, there are areas
at which Darcy’s law cannot be applied. There has been an effort to evaluate the permeability as a composite
joint that includes a certain thickness of backfill and sheet pile joint. This idea is effective for seepage
– 667 –
analysis. Shoji et al.14) proposed an empirical equation based on the comprehensive tests considering both
the difference in the degree of tensile force in the joint and conditions with or without sand filling. From the
results of the tests, for the case that there is backfilling and joints are filled with sand, it was found that the
constant n could be given an approximate value of 1.0 and the K value representing the results of the tests was
derived.
② Permeability of foundation ground
(a) Permeability of natural ground
The permeability of the natural ground as a whole can be evaluated using the coefficients of permeability for
each soil layer comprising the natural ground. In calculating the coefficients of permeability for each soil
layer, Part II, Chapter 3, 2.2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil can be used as a reference. In ground which
was formed by natural sedimentation, the coefficient of permeability displays directionality, and in many
cases, the coefficient of permeability is larger in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction.
(b) Permeability of soil improvement sections
In cases where soil improvement is to be carried out as part of construction of a reclamation revetment, in
addition to evaluation of the permeability of the natural ground, it is also necessary to examine the changes
in permeability due to the soil improvement.
(c) In case that the foundation is made of rocks, careful investigations and consideration of permeability should
be required, because the rock foundation may contain cracks or fissures which govern the rate of seepage 16)
– 668 –
12.2 Revetments with Amenity Function

Performance Requirements for Revetments
Article 20
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for revetments
to be utilized by an unspecified large number of people shall satisfy the requirements specified by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to secure the safety of the users of the
revetment concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Revetments
Article 43
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria for the revetments
which are utilized by an unspecified large number of people shall be such that the revetments have the
dimensions necessary to secure the safety of users in consideration of the environmental conditions to
which the facilities concerned are subjected, and the utilization conditions, and others.
[Technical Note]
(1) In amenity-oriented revetments, the cross section of the revetment shall be set considering the danger of users
falling into the sea, and ancillary facilities such as fences to prevent falling shall be provided appropriately, as
necessary.
(2) In facilities where wave overtopping can be expected to reach parts where people normally walk during even high
wave conditions, it is necessary to ensure general public knowledge of the danger by appropriate means such as
signs.
(3) When facilities are used by elderly persons, and persons with physical disabilities, efforts must be made to enable
safe movement of wheelchairs when designing passages on the revetment, the width and gradient of slopes.
References
1) Nagao, T., K. Fujimura and Y. Moriya
2) Shibata, K., H. Ueda and K. Ohori: Study on the Dimensions of Embankment and Seawall, Technical Note of PHRI No. 448,
1983
3) Sekimoto, T., Y. Moriya and T. Nagao: Estimation method for settlement rate of sloping sea walls based on overtopping rate,
4) Nagao, T., K. Fujimura and Y. Moriya: Study on examination of performance of sea walls, Proceedings of Offshore
Development, Vol. 20, pp.101-106,2004
5) Iai, S., Y. Matsunaga and T. Kameoka: Parameter Identification for a Cyclic Mobility Model, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 29, No. 4,
pp.27-56,1990
6) Higashijima, Y., K. Fujita, K. Kazui, S. Iai, T. Sugano and M. Kitamura: Development of Chart-sype earthquake proof
Inspection system for coastal facilities, Proceedings of 31stSimposium on Offshore Development, JSCE, 2006
7) Japan Institute of Construction Engineering: Analytical method for deformation of river dikes during earthquake, 2002
8) FLIP Study Group: Report of Precision Improvement Working Group 2003, 2004
9) FLIP Study Group: Report of Working Group for the examination of shear deformation of locks 2004, 2005
10) Kobe Technical survey office, Kinki Dstrict Development Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport: Guideline
for Chart-sype earthquake proof Inspection system for coastal facilities, 2005
11) Furudoi, M. and T. Katayama: Field observation of residual water level, Technical Note of PHRI No. 115, 1971
12) Kubo, K. and M. Murakami: An experiment on water sealing performance of steel sheet pile wall, Soil and Foundation, Vol.
11, No.2, 1963
13) Yamamura, K, T. Fujiyama, M. Inutuka and K. Futama: Experiment on water sealing performance of steel sheet pile wall,
Report of Public Works Research Institute, Vol. 123 No.3, 1964
14) Syouji, Y., M. Kumeta and Y. Tomita: Experiments on Seepage through Interlocking Joints of Sheet Pile, Rept. of PHRI Vol.
21,No. 4,pp. 41-82, 1982
15) Nippon Steel Corporation: Report of water tightness test of steel sheet piles, 1969
16) Rock Engineering for Civil Engineers. Gihodo Publishing, pp. 238-254, 1975
– 669 –
17) Technical Committee for Coastal protection facilities: Technical standards and commentary of coastal protection facilities,
Japan Port Association, 2004
18) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Technical Manual for Port environment upgrading, 1991
19) JSCE Edition: Landscape design of ports and harbours, Giho-do Publishing, 1991
20) Transport Economy Research Center: Guideline of the facilities for elderly and handicapped people in public transport
terminal, 1994
– 670 –
13 Coastal Dikes
Performance Requirements for Coastal Dikes
Article 21
The provisions of Article 16 shall be applied correspondingly to the performance requirements for coastal
dikes.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Coastal Dikes
Article 44
The provisions of Article 39 shall be applied to the performance criteria for coastal dikes with modifications
as necessary.
References
1) Technical Committee for Coastal Protection Facilities: Technical standards and comment\ary of coastal protection facilities,
Japan Port Association, pp. 3-19- 3-60, 2004
– 671 –
14 Groins
Performance Requirements for Groins
Article 22
1 The performance requirements for groins shall be as specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism for the purpose of mitigating the influence of littoral drift through effective control
of sediment transport.
2 The provisions of the item (2) of the paragraph (1) of Article 14 shall be applied correspondingly to the
performance requirements for groins.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Groins
Article 45
The provisions of Article 38 shall be applied to the performance criteria of groins with modifications as
necessary.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Groins

① Application with necessary modifications of performance criteria of sediment control groins
(a) Settings in connection with the Public Notice, Article 38 Performance Criteria for Sediment Control
Groins shall be applied with the necessary modifications to the performance criteria of groins. In the
performance verifications of groins, appropriate consideration shall be given to the effect of increased earth
pressure due to accumulation of littoral drift, as necessary, and appropriate consideration shall also be given
to the effects of waves and river currents.
(b) Control of littoral drift (usability)
In the layout of groins, in addition to the positions where groins are installed, their direction and
the mutual spacing between groins shall be considered. In the dimensions, the structure, crown
height, crest width, and length shall be considered. In setting the layout and dimensions in the
performance verifications of groins, appropriate consideration shall be given to the predominant
direction of waves and water currents, topography, expected conditions of use of the objective groin,
and the impact on the natural environment, etc. so that the facilities can demonstrate their required
function of controlling littoral drift.
(c) Layout (usability)
In the layout of groins, attention shall be paid to the fact that excessive reduction of longshore
sediment transport by installation of groins may increase the possibility of shoreline retreat on the
surrounding coast.
References
1) Technical Committee for Coastal Protection Facilities: Technical standards and comment\ary of coastal protection facilities,
Japan Port Association, pp.3-77-3-85, 2004
– 672 –
15 Parapets
Performance Requirements for Parapets
Article 23
The provisions of Article 16 shall be applied correspondingly to the performance requirements for
parapets.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Parapets
Article 46
The provisions of Article 39 shall be applied to the performance criteria of parapets with modifications as
necessary.
– 673 –
[Technical Note]
16 Siltation Prevention Facilities
16.1 General
(1) In cases where siltation of harbors and waterways is expected, the mode of siltation shall be analyzed based on
an adequate investigation of the potential causes of siltation, and appropriate countermeasures shall be taken,
considering the various types of effects caused by siltation prevention works, safe navigation of ships and economy.
(2) Causes of Siltation
Causes of siltation are listed below.
① Invasion and accumulation of littoral drift mainly caused by waves or that caused by currents
② Settling and accumulation of river erosion sediments
③ Deposition of wind blown sand
④ Movement of sediments within the objective area and change in location of deposition
⑤ Movement of sediments due to disturbances in the harbor, collapse of slopes in waterways, and formation of
sand waves.
16.2 Facilities for Trapping Littoral Drift and River Erosion Sediment
(1) When it is aimed to prevent shoaling due to littoral drift by means of maintenance dredging, an appropriate
facility to trap the sediment should be built at a proper location, at which the facility can prevent sediment from
invading to waterways or basins. The facility should be able to reduce the wave actions around it and increase the
dredging efficiency. The type and layout of these sand trap facilities is preferable to be determined by taking into
consideration their capability to trap the sediment, the dredging conditions, and the construction and operational
costs, based on adequate investigations and researches.
(2) Facilities to Trap the Sediment Transport
As the method to trap the sediment, provisions to limit sediment deposition area are commonly employed in
various countries, by means of building a detached breakwater or partially reducing the crown height of updrift
breakwater. There are also sediment traps such as pocket dredging executed in the waterways crossing a large
sand bar in the sea floor of straits, which is gradually restored by natural process after dredging. Pocket dredging
is also done on the river bed, where shoaling occurs by river discharged sediment.
(3) Proper Positioning of Sediment Trap
The sediment traps may be installed in areas where deposition occurs easily under natural conditions, as shown
in Fig. 16.2.1(a), (b), and (c), or artificial conditions may be created to encourage sediments to settle out of flows
with a high concentration of littoral drift, as shown in Fig. 16.2.1(d), (e), and (f). To identify suitable locations of
this type and capture littoral drift in the most efficient manner, an adequate understanding of the condition and
mechanism of sediment transport is indispensable. Furthermore, in selecting the positions for sediment traps, in
addition to sediment trapping efficiency, in cases where the trapped sediments will be dredged, it is preferable
to give adequate consideration to dredging conditions, in other words, to easily maintaining the water depth
necessary for navigation of dredgers and calm conditions during navigation and work.
– 674 –
Sea bottom shoal Pocket dredging River mouth harbor
Pocket dredging
Waterway
(a) (b) (c)
Breaking wave Submerged

breakwater
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 16.2.1 Positioning of Sediment Traps
16.3 Wind Blown Sand Prevention Work

16.3.1 General
Wind-blown sand, i.e., sand that is moved by winds, is carried into harbors or waterways where it settles and deposits,
and cause shoaling there. In some cases it also accumulates on road surfaces and is dispersed into residential areas,
disrupting the daily living of the resident. In particular, there are many instances that open digging of dune or land
reclamation cause problems related to wind-blown sand, and thorough countermeasures must be prepared in advance.
References
1) OZASA, H.: Field Investigation of Submarine Sand Banks and Large Sand Waves, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.3-46,
1975
2) Tanaka, K., Y. Nakajima, H. Endou and E. Kinnai: Sabo at coast (Coastal erosion control), Sabo Science, Compendium of
Sabo Series, III-9, Japan Society of Erosion Control Engineers, Ishibashi-shoten Publishing,1985
3) JSCE, Civil Engineering Handbook, Vol. II, pp. 2135-2136, 1989
– 675 –
Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities
1 General
General Provisions
Article 25
Mooring facilities shall be installed in appropriate locations in light of geotechnical characteristics,
meteorological characteristics, sea states, and other environmental conditions, as well as ship navigation
and other usage conditions of the water area around the facilities concerned for the purpose of securing the
safe and smooth usage by ships.
Necessary Items concerning Mooring Facilities
Article 34
The items necessary for the performance requirements of mooring facilities as specified in this Chapter by
the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other requirements shall be provided by
the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Mooring Facilities
Article 47
The items to be specified by the Public Notice under Article 34 of the Ministerial Ordinance concerning
the performance requirements of mooring facilities shall be as provided in the subsequent article through
Article 73.
[Technical Note]
1.1 General
(1) Mooring facilities include quay walls, piers, lighter’s wharfs, floating piers, docks, mooring buoys, mooring
piles, dolphins, detached piers, air cushion craft landing facilities, etc. Among quaywalls, piers, and lighter’s
wharfs, facilities which are particularly important from the viewpoint of earthquake preparedness and require
strengthening of seismic-resistant performance are termed high earthquake-resistance facilities, and are classified
as high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (emergency supply transport)), high earthquake-
resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo transport)), and high earthquake-resistance facilities
(standard (emergency supply transport)), corresponding to the functions required in the objective facilities after
action of ground motion.
(2) Examples of the standard performance verification procedure for Level 1 earthquake ground motion and Level 2
earthquake ground motion of mooring facilities are shown in Fig. 1.1.1 and Fig. 1.1.2, respectively. For details,
the descriptions of the respective structural types may be referenced.

– 676 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 5 MOORING FACILITIES
Acceleration time history of engineering ground
1-dimensional seismic
response calculation
Study of Liquefaction Judgment of

counter measures liquefaction
No liquefaction
Pier tipe Gravity type Sheet pile type
Acceleration time history at 1/β ground level Acceleration time history at ground surface
Maximum value of acceleration αf obtained from

acceleration time history after filter processing
Response spectrum calculation (Filter will differ depending on the structural type.)
Maximum value of acceleration αc considering

Response acceleration αr corresponding the effect of duration
to natural period of pier (Compensation method will differ depending
on structural type.)
kh= α r /g k h = ( αc , Da )
f ( ) ( f ( ) will differ in each structural type.)
Partial factor design method
Stress on piles: Stress Sheet pile,

Sliding, overturning,
Stress ≤ Yield stress tie rod,
and bearing capacity of ground:
Axial direction force on pile: anchor piles:
Effect of action ≤ Strength
Axial direction force ≤ Stress≤ Yield stress
allowable arial bearing capacity of pile
Pier type Gravity type Sheet pile type
Study of deformation, etc. by dynamic analysis

(nonlinear finite element analysis enabling consideration of dynamic interaction of ground and structure)
Fig. 1.1.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Level 1 earthquake ground motion
Acceleration time history of engineering ground
Pier ttype Gravity type/Sheet pile type
Verification by appropriate technique Non-linear finite element analysis of effective stress

(response displacement method, nonlinear enabling consideration of dynamic interaction of
effective stress analysis, etc.), considering ground and structure
the structural type, importance, accuracy
of analytical method, etc.
Gravity type Sheet pile type
Damage of structural members≤Allowable damage Deformation≤ Deformation≤Allowable deformation

Deformation≤Allowable deformation Allowable deformation Sectional force≤Sectional strength
Pier Gravity type Sheet pile type
Fig. 1.1.2 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Level 2 earthquake ground motion
– 677 –
1.2 Dimensions and Layout of Mooring Facilities
(1) The dimensions of mooring facilities are preferably determined based on an understanding of the actual
circumstances, including the number and type of cargoes and passengers utilizing the port, the type of packing,
marine and land transportation, and other relevant factors, with due consideration given to future trends in cargo
and passenger volumes, increased size of vessels, changes in transportation systems, and the like.
(2) The layout of mooring facilities is preferably determined so that ship berthing and unberthing are easy, giving
due consideration to sea conditions, topography, and subsoil conditions, and considering also the land transport
network and land utilization in the hinterland. In particular, the locations of the following facilities should be
selected as follows.
① Mooring facilities used by passenger ships should be isolated from the areas where hazardous cargoes are
handled, and a sufficient area of land should be secured in the vicinity of the facilities for waiting rooms and
parking lots.
② Mooring facilities used by vessels loaded with hazardous cargoes should be located in accordance with the
following conditions:
a) Mooring facilities are isolated from such facilities as housing, schools, and hospitals.
b) The required safety distance from other mooring facilities and sailing vessels is secured.
c) Countermeasures against spills of hazardous materials are easily mobilized.
③ Mooring facilities where a considerable amount of noise may be generated by vessels or cargo handling equipment
should be isolated from such facilities as housing, schools, and hospitals to preserve a good environment for
daily living.
④ Mooring facilities where conspicuous dust and offensive odors may be generated during cargo handling work
should be isolated from such facilities as housing, schools, and hospitals to preserve a good environment for
daily living.
⑤ Offshore mooring facilities should not hinder the navigation or anchorage of vessels.
⑥ Whenever possible, high earthquake-resistance facilities and large-scale mooring facilities are preferably
arranged in areas with good ground conditions, as large investment may be required for ground improvement,
etc., depending on the ground conditions.
⑦ Regarding facilities which may have a large effect on life, property, and social and economic activities.
If those facilities are damaged and high earthquake-resistance facilities, in cases where such facilities are
located near the hypocenter of an inland active fault, the objective facilities are preferably constructed in such
a way that the face line is orthogonal to the direction of the seismogenic fault. This is recommended because
particularly strong ground motion may occur in the direction orthogonal to the inland active fault near the fault
hypocenter, and an arrangement in which the face line of the facilities is orthogonal to the seismogenic fault is
structurally advantageous against actions due to ground movement generated by such active faults.
1.3 Selection of Structural Type of Mooring Facilities

The selection of the structural type for mooring facilities is preferably determined based on a comparative study of the
following items, considering the characteristics of each structural type.
① Natural condition
② Usage condition
③ Construction condition
④ Economic condition
1.4 Standard Concept of Allowable Deformation of High Earthquake-resistance Facilities for Level
2 Earthquake Ground Motion
(1) The standard limit for deformation in accidental situations for Level 2 earthquake ground motion may be set
as follows, depending on the performance requirements of the facilities. Provided, however, that this shall not
apply to cases in which deformation is set based on a total judgment, considering site conditions, performance
requirements, structural type, etc. of the objective facilities.
(a) High earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (emergency supply transport))
From the viewpoint of function, the allowable residual deformation of high earthquake-resistance facilities
(specially designated (emergency supply transport)) can be set, as a standard, at approximately 30-100cm, and
– 678 –
the allowable residual inclination angle can be set at approximately 3°. For example, because materials, etc.
for emergency restoration are stockpiled at all times and a system for emergency restoration is prepared, in
cases where it is judged that serviceability can be secured even in the event of large deformation, allowable
deformation can be set at approximately 100cm.
(b) High earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo transport))
The allowable residual deformation for high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line
cargo transport)) is set based on the period until the expected functions can be restored. From the viewpoint of
maintaining the trunk line cargo transport function, it is more rational to set a shorter period for earthquakes
in which a wide area suffers damage, as in ocean trench type earthquakes, than that for earthquakes in which
damage is concentrated in a comparatively narrow area, as in an inland active fault earthquakes. In this case,
a smaller allowable deformation can be set for an ocean trench type earthquake than for an inland active fault
earthquake.
In high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo transport)), in order to secure
the same level of earthquake resistance in cranes as that of the mooring facilities, cranes with a seismic isolation/
damping mechanism are installed. In this case, a seismic response analysis which considers the dynamic
interaction of the mooring facilities and cranes is performed, and the response of the structural members of
the cranes is set within the elastic limit. The limit of the relative deformation of the rail span shall be set
depending on the characteristics of the cargo handling equipment mounted on the rails. For example, if the
elastic deformation range of the crane legs is 70cm and the limit (displacement stroke) of the seismic isolation
mechanism is 30cm, the limit of the relative deformation of the rail span may be set at 100cm.
(c) High earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply transport))
The allowable residual deformation for high earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply
transport)) must be set with consideration given to enabling cargo handling after a certain period following the
action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion. An appropriate value roughly on the order of 100cm or more can
be set for residual horizontal deformation.
References
1) Takahashi, H., T. Nakamoto and F. Yoshimura: Analysis of maritime transportation in Kobe Port after the 1995 Hyogoken-
Nanbu Earthquake, Technical Note of PHRI No.861,1997
2) Kazui, K., H. Takahashi, T. Nakamoto and Y. Akakura: Evaluation of allowable damage deformation of gravity type quay
wall during earthquake, Proceedings of 10th Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, K-4,1998
– 679 –
2 Wharves
Performance Requirements for Quaywalls
Article 26
1 The performance requirements for quaywalls shall be as specified in the subsequent items in consideration
of its structural type:
(1) The performance requirements shall be such that the requirements specified by the Minister of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied so as to enable the safe and smooth mooring of
ships, embarkation and disembarkation of people, and handling of cargo.
(2) Damage to the quaywall due to self weight, earth pressure, Level 1 earthquake ground motions,
berthing and traction by ships, imposed load or other actions shall not impair the functions of the
quaywall concerned and not adversely affect its continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the previous paragraph, the performance requirements for quaywalls which
are classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that the damage due to the action of
Level 2 earthquake ground motions and other actions do not affect the restoration through minor repair
works of the functions required for the quaywall concerned in the aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2
earthquake ground motions. Provided, however, that for the performance requirements for the quaywall
which requires further improvement in earthquake-resistant performance due to environmental conditions,
social conditions or other conditions to which the quaywall concerned is subjected, the damage due to
said actions shall not affect the restoration through minor repair works of the functions of the quaywall
concerned and its continued use.
[Commentary]
(1) Wharves classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities (restorability, serviceability)

The following classifications are used as standards in provisions stipulating the appropriate performance
of high earthquake-resistance facilities, corresponding to the functions necessary after action of Level
2 earthquake ground motion and the allowable period for restoration in order to demonstrate those
functions.
① Specially designated (emergency supply transport): Facilities which can be used by ships and perform
embarkation/disembarkation of persons and cargo handling of emergency supplies, etc. immediately
after action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
② Specially designated (trunk line cargo transport): Facilities which can be used by ships and perform
cargo handling of trunk line cargoes within a short period after action of Level 2 earthquake ground
motion.
③ Standard (emergency supply transport): Facilities which can be used by ships and perform embarkation/
disembarkation of persons and cargo handling of emergency supplies, etc. within a certain period after
action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
[Technical Note]
(1) Wharves Classified as High Earthquake-resistance Facilities

① In wharves which are classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities, it is necessary to secure restorability
for accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion. In the case of wharves in which
further improvement in earthquake resistance is necessary, depending on the natural conditions and social
conditions where the wharf is installed, it is necessary to secure serviceability for the same Design situation.
Provided, however, that restorability and serviceability, as used here, refer to the performance requirements of
the functions considered necessary in the quaywall after action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, and are
independent of the essential functions considered necessary in the objective wharf under normal conditions.
② Classification of high earthquake-resistance facilities
High earthquake-resistance facilities are classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated
(emergency supply transport)), high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo
transport)), and high earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply transport)), corresponding to
– 680 –
the functions required in the objective facilities after action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, and settings
in connection with the performance criteria and design situation are given corresponding to these classifications.
For details of the classification of high earthquake-resistance facilities, see Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Classification of Earthquake-Resistance Facilities
Class of earthquake-resistance facility

Specially designated Standard
Emergency supply
Trunk line cargo transport Emergency supply transport
transport
Functions Must retain structural Must retain structural Must retain structural
required after stability after earthquake stability after earthquake stability after earthquake
action of Level and enable immediate and enable quick use (after and enable cargo handling
2 earthquake use by ships, boarding/ short time) by ships and of emergency supplies, etc.
ground motion deboarding of persons, cargo handling of trunk line after a certain period.
and cargo handling of cargoes.
emergency supplies, etc.
Functions necessary after Essential functions. Functions necessary after
earthquake (essential earthquake (essential
functions are not functions are not necessary).
necessary).
Performance Serviceability*) Restorability Restorability *)
requirement
Allowable Slight restoration Slight restoration Certain degree of restoration
restoration
*): This performance requirement corresponds to functions (emergency supply transport) which are necessary after an earthquake, and is
different from the performance requirement of the essential functions of the facilities.
(2) Emergency Supply Transport Type High Earthquake-resistance Facilities

① Specially designated (emergency supply transport)
In high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (emergency supply transport)), it is necessary to
secure serviceability with respect to accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
Here, this serviceability does not necessarily mean that the facilities concerned will be completely undamaged
after action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion; rather, it means that the damage must be limited to a degree
at which the facilities will be utilized for the transport of emergency supplies.
② Standard (emergency supply transport)
In high earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply transport)), it is necessary to secure
restorability with respect to accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion. Here,
this restorability means that it is necessary to limit damage to a degree where restration is possible, so that
emergency supplies can be transported, after a certain period by emergency restration, even in cases in which
facilities are damaged by action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion. “Certain period,” as used here, means a
period on the order of approximately 1 week after the action of Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
(3) Trunk Line Cargo Transport Type High Earthquake-resistance Facilities
In high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo transport)), it is necessary to secure
restorability with respect to accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion. Here,
restorability means that it is necessary to limit damage to a degree where transport of trunk line cargoes can
be performed after a short period by slight restoration, for example, within the allowable deformation set in line
with the characteristics of the cargo handling equipment, even in case of damage by action of Level 2 earthquake
ground motion. “Short period,” as used here, will differ depending on the functions necessary in the facilities
concerned, and therefore should be set appropriately corresponding to the respective facilities.
– 681 –
2.1 Common Items for Wharves

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Quaywalls
Article 48
1 The performance criteria which are common for quaywalls shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Quaywalls shall have the water depth and length necessary for accommodating the design ships in
consideration of their dimensions.
(2) Quaywalls shall have the crown height as necessary in consideration of the range of tidal levels, the
dimensions of the design ship, and the utilization conditions of the facilities concerned.
(3) Quaywalls shall have the ancillary equipment as necessary in consideration of the utilization
conditions.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of quaywalls which are
classified as the high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that the degree of damage owing to
the actions of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, which are the dominant action in the accidental action
situation, is equal to or less than the threshold level corresponding to the performance requirements
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria for Wharves

① Quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities
(a) In settings in connection with the common performance criteria and design situation (limited to
accidental situation) for wharves classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities, the following
can be used, corresponding to the Design situation. The performance requirements of restorability
and serviceability in Attached Table 25 will differ depending on the classification of the high
earthquake-resistance facilities. Furthermore, “Damage” has been adopted as the verification item
in Attached Table 25 from the viewpoint of comprehensiveness, considering the fact that verification
items will differ depending on the structural type. Regarding the performance criteria in connection
with accidental situations common to quaywalls which are classified as high earthquake-resistance
facilities, it may also be noted that settings in connection with Technical Standard public notice
Article 22 (Common Performance Criteria of Component Members of Target Facilities Subject to the
Technical Standard) may also be applied, when necessary, in addition to this code.
Attached Table 25 Settings in Connection with Common Performance Criteria and Design Situation of Wharves
Classified as High Earthquake-resistance Facilities (Limited to Accidental Situations)
Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
Situation actions actions
26 2 - 48 2 - Restorability, Accidental L2 Self weight, Damage -

Serviceability earthquake water pressure,
ground surcharge
motion
*) In this table, “serviceability” means serviceability with respect to “necessary function after earthquake (emergency supply transport).”
*) In this table, “restorability” means restorability with respect to “essential function” or “necessary function after earthquake (emergency
supply transport).”
(b) Gravity-type quaywalls (high earthquake-resistance facilities)

1) Among the settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situation (limited to
accidental situations) of quaywalls which are classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities,
those concerning gravity-type quaywalls are as shown in Attached Table 26.
– 682 –
Attached Table 26 Settings in Connection with Performance Criteria and Design Situation of Gravity-type Quaywalls
Classified as High Earthquake-resistance Facilities (Limited to Accidental Situations)

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
26 2 - 48 2 - Restorability, Accidental L2 Self weight, Deformation of face Limit of residual deformation

Serviceability earthquake earth pressure, line of quay wall
ground water pressure,
motion surcharge
**) In this table, “serviceability” means serviceability with respect to “necessary function after earthquake (emergency supply transport).”
*) In this table, “restorability” means restorability with respect to “essential function” or “necessary function after earthquake (emergency
supply transport).”
2) High earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (emergency supply transport))

(serviceability)
The limit of deformation of gravity-type quaywalls which are classified as high earthquake-
resistance facilities (specially designated (emergency supply transport)) shall be deformation
of a degree such that berthing of ships for marine transport of emergency supplies, evacuees,
construction machinery for removing obstructions, etc. is possible, and shall be set appropriately.
As the index of deformation, in general, the residual horizontal displacement of the quaywall can
be used.
3) High earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line supply transport)
(restorability)
resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo transport)) shall be deformation of a
degree such that trunk line cargo transport can be performed after slight restoration, within the
permissible displacement set in line with the characteristics of the cargo handling equipment, or
similar, and shall be set appropriately. As indexes of deformation, in general, the residual horizontal
displacement of the quaywall, residual inclination angle of the wall, and relative displacement of
the rail span can be used. In the case of quaywalls using cargo handling equipment for trunk line
cargo transport, appropriate consideration shall be given to the form, type, and characteristics of
the cargo handling equipment when setting limit values.
4) High earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply transport)
resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply transport)) shall be deformation of a degree such
that cargo handling of emergency supplies can be performed after emergency restoration within a
given period of time, and shall be set appropriately. As the index of deformation, in general, the
residual horizontal displacement of the quaywall can be used.
(c) Sheet pile quaywalls (high earthquake-resistance facilities)
1) In the commentary on the performance criteria and design situation (limited to accidental
situations) for quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities, the items in connection
with sheet pile quaywalls are as follows, corresponding to the type of high earthquake-resistance
facilities.
2) High earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (emergency supply transport)
(serviceability)
i) Settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situation (limited to accidental
situations) of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially
designated (emergency supply transport) are as shown in Attached Table 27.
– 683 –
Attached Table 27 Settings in Connection with Performance Criteria and Design situation (limited to Accidental
Situations) of Sheet Pile Quaywall type High Earthquake-resistance Facilities (Specially Designated (Emergency
Supply Transport), Specially Designated (Trunk Line Cargo Transport)

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph Non- Verification item

Article
Article
requirements Dominating dominating limit value

Item
Item
26 2 - 48 2 - Restorability, Accidental L2 Self weight, Deformation of face line Limit of residual

Serviceability earthquake earth pressure, of quay wall deformation
motion surcharge Yielding of sheet piles Design yield stress
Rupture of tie members Design rupture strength
Fully plastic state of Design section strength
anchorage work*1) (fully plastic state moment)
Axial force acting on Resistance based on

anchorage work*2) ground failure (pushing,
pulling)
Stability of anchorage Design ultimate capacity
work*3) of section (ultimate limit
state)
Cross sectional failure of Design ultimate capacity
superstructure of section (ultimate limit
state)
*1): The structural type of anchorage work is limited to the cases of vertical pile anchorage, coupled-pile anchorage, and sheet pile anchorage.
*2) The structural type of anchorage work is limited to the case of coupled-pile anchorage.
*3) The structural type of anchorage work is limited to the case of concrete wall anchorage.
*) In this table, “serviceability” means serviceability with respect to “necessary function after earthquake (emergency supply transport),”
and indicates the required capacity for specially designated (emergency supply transport).
*) In this table, “restorability” means restorability with respect to “essential function,” and indicates the required capacity for specially
designated (trunk line cargo transport).
ii) Deformation of face line of quaywall

The limit of deformation shall be equivalent to the limit for gravity-type quaywalls.
iii) Yielding of sheet pile
Verification of yielding of sheet piles shall mean verification that the risk of stress generated in
the sheet pile exceeding the yield stress is less than the limit value.
iv) Rupture of tie member
Verification of rupture of tie rods shall mean verification that the risk of stress generated in the
tie members exceeding the design rupture strength is less than the limit value.
v) Fully plastic state of anchorage work (case of sheet pile anchorage)
Structural types of anchorage work are broadly classified as vertical pile anchorage, coupled-
pile anchorage, sheet pile anchorage, and concrete wall anchorage. In performance verification
of anchorage work, appropriate verification items shall be set corresponding to the structural
type. It should be noted that, in Attached Table 27, verification items are presented for
anchorage work by vertical pile anchorage and coupled-pile anchorage; verification of a fully
plastic state of anchorage work means verification that the flexural moment generated in the
members of the anchorage work has not achieved a fully plastic state moment.
vi) Axial force acting on anchorage work (batter-type coupled-pile anchorage)
As mentioned in v), Attached Table 27 presents verification items for anchorage work for
vertical pile anchorages and coupled pile anchorages; verification of the axial force acting on
the anchorage means verification that the risk of the axial force acting on the anchorage piles
exceeding resistance based on failure of the ground is less than the limit value. Here axial
force is either pushing force or pulling force and the resistance based on the failure of the
ground include pushing or pulling resistance of the anchorage.
vii) Cross sectional failure of superstructure
Verification of cross sectional failure of the superstructure means verification that the risk of
the sectional force generated in the superstructure exceeding the design ultimate strength is
– 684 –
3) High earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated (trunk line cargo transport)

(restorability)
The performance criteria of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities
(specially designated (trunk line cargo transport) shall be equivalent to the performance criteria
of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated
(emergency supply transport)
4) High earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply transport) (restorability)
i) Settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situation (limited to accidental situations)
of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (emergency supply
transport) shall be as shown in Attached Table 28. Regarding the commentary on the performance
criteria and design situation of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities
(standard (emergency supply transport)), with the exception of the verification items in connection
with sheet pile, the commentary shall be equivalent to that for the performance criteria and design
situation of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities (specially designated
(emergency supply transport)).
Attached Table 28 Settings in connection with Performance Criteria and Design Situation (limited to Accidental
Situations) of Sheet Pile Quaywalls Classified as High Earthquake-resistance Facilities
(Standard (Emergency Supply Transport))

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
26 2 - 48 2 - Restorability Accidental L2 Self weight, Deformation of face Limit of residual deformation

earthquake earth line of quay wall
ground pressure,
motion water Fully plastic state of Fully plastic state moment
pressure, sheet pile
surcharge
Rupture of tie member Design rupture strength
Fully plastic state of Design section strength (fully

anchorage work*1) plastic state moment)
Axial force acting on Resistance based on ground

anchorage work*2) failure (pushing, pulling)
Stability of anchorage Design ultimate capacity of

work*3) section (ultimate limit state)
Cross sectional failure Design ultimate capacity of

of superstructure section (ultimate limit state)
*1): T he structural type of anchorage work is limited to the cases of vertical pile anchorage, coupled-pile anchorage, and sheet pile anchorage.
*2) The structural type of anchorage work is limited to the case of coupled-pile anchorage.
*3) The structural type of anchorage work is limited to the case of concrete wall anchorage.
*) In this table, “Restorability” means restorability with respect to “necessary function after earthquake (emergency supply transport.)”
d) Cantilevered sheet pile quaywalls (high earthquake-resistance facilities)

Among the settings in connection with the performance criteria and design situation (limited to
accidental situations) of quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities, those applicable
to cantilevered sheet pile quaywalls, with the exception of the verification items for tie rods and
anchorage work, shall be equivalent to the performance criteria and design situation of sheet pile
quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities.
e) Double sheet pile quaywalls (high earthquake-resistance facilities)
to double sheet pile quaywalls shall be equivalent to the settings of the performance criteria and
design situation of sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities.
f) Performance criteria of quaywalls with relieving platform (high earthquake-resistance facilities)
– 685 –

to quaywalls with relieving platform shall be equivalent to the settings of the performance criteria and
design situation for gravity-type quaywalls and sheet pile quaywalls classified as high earthquake-
resistance facilities, corresponding to the structural characteristics of the respective members.
g) Cellular-bulkhead quaywalls (high earthquake-resistance facilities)
Among the settings in connection with performance criteria and design situation (limited to
to cellular-bulkhead quaywalls shall be equivalent to the settings of the performance criteria and
design situation for gravity-type quaywalls classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities.
[Technical Note]
2.1.1 Dimensions of Wharves
(1) Dimensions of Wharves

① Length
The length of a wharf used in performance verification of the wharf shall be set as the value obtained by adding
the necessary lengths of the bow and stern mooring lines to the total length of the design ship, preconditioned
on exclusive use of the objective wharf by the design ship.
② Water depth
The water depth used in performance verification of a wharf shall be set as the value obtained by adding the keel
clearance corresponding to the design ship to the maximum draft, for example, the load draft, etc., of the design
ship in order to obtain a value which will not hamper use of the design ship.
③ The crown height of a wharf used in performance verification of the wharf shall give appropriate consideration
to the assumed use conditions of the facilities, so as to enable safe and smooth use of the wharf.
④ Shape of wall and front toe
In addition to the items provided here, in performance verification of wharves, the shape of the wall and front
toe of the wharf (clearance limits of structure) shall be set so that the ship does not come into contact with the
wharf members during berthing.
(2) Length, Water Depth and Layout of Berths
① It is preferable that the length and water depth of berths be set to appropriate values based on a study of the main
dimensions of ships, etc.
② When a vessel is moored parallel to a wharf, the mooring lines shown in Fig. 2.1.1 are required. The bow and
stern lines are usually set at an angle of 30 to 45º with the quay face, because these lines are used to prevent both
the longitudinal movement (in the bow and stern directions) and lateral movement (in the onshore and offshore
directions) of the vessel.
③ The water depth of berths can be calculated using equation (2.1.1). Here, the maximum draft represents the
maximum draft in a calm water condition, such as when the ship is moored, etc., in the operating condition,
e.g. Full load draft of the design ship. For the keel clearance, in general, it is preferable to use a value equal
to approximately 10% of the maximum draft. Provided, however, in mooring facilities where sheltering by
ships in a moored condition in abnormal weather or the like is conceivable, addition of a keel clearance which
considers wind and wave factors, etc. is necessary.
Berth water depth = Maximum draft + Under Keel Clearance (2.1.1)
④ In case of a berth where flammable dangerous cargoes are handled, it is necessary to secure a distance of 30 m
or more from oil tanks, boilers, and working areas that use open fire to the cargo handling area and the mooring
vessel at the berth. However, when there is no risk that the cargo will catch fire in the event of leakage because
of the surrounding topography or structure of the facilities of the berth, the distance may be shortened to around
15 m.
⑤ In case of a berth where flammable dangerous cargoes are handled by tankers, etc., it is necessary to secure a
distance of 30 m or more from other anchored vessels and also to secure a distance of 30 m or more from other
vessels navigating nearby in order to provide a room for their maneuvering. However, this distance may be
increased or decreased as necessary in consideration of the size of the cargo carrying vessel, the type and size
of vessels anchored or navigating nearby, and the condition of ship congestion.
– 686 –
A D C C D B
A: bow line
B: stern line
C: spring lines
D: breast lines
Fig. 2.1.1 Arrangement of Mooring Ropes
⑥ Standard values of wharf dimensions

In setting the length and water depth of a wharf in cases where the design ship cannot be identified, the standard
values of the main dimensions of wharves by ship type shown in Table 2.1.1 can be used. Here, the standard
values have been set based on the standard values of the main dimensions of the design ships shown in Part II,
Chapter 8 Ships, Table 1.1. In principle, the standard values shown in Table 2.1.1 have been set assuming that
the design ship moors parallel to the wharf; however, the standard values for ferries have been set also assuming
cases of bow and stern side docking type wharves. In the standard values for small cargo ships, because there
are large deviations in comparison with other ship types, as with the standard values of the main dimensions
of design ships, due consideration of this point is necessary when applying the standard values shown in Table
2.1.1 in setting the length and water depth of wharves for small cargo ships. Here, the gross tonnage GT in
Table 2.1.1, 4 to 7 is basically international gross tonnage, but there are also cases in which domestic gross
tonnage is used, corresponding to the features of the data used in setting the standard values. In Table 2.1.1, in
cases where gross tonnage GT refers to domestic gross tonnage, a note to that effect is added.
Table 2.1.1 Standard Values of Main Dimensions of Berths in Cases where Design Ship cannot be Identified
1. Cargo Ships
Self weight tonnage Length of berth Water depth of berth
DWT (t) (m) (m)
1,000 80 4.5
2,000 100 5.5
3,000 110 6.5
5,000 130 7.5
10,000 160 9.0
12,000 170 10.0
18,000 190 11.0
30,000 240 12.0
40,000 260 13.0
55,000 280 14.0
70,000 300 15.0
90,000 320 17.0
120,000 350 18.0
150,000 370 20.0
2. Container Ships
Self weight tonnage Length of berth Water depth of berth (Reference) Container
DWT (t) (m) (m) capacity (TEU)
10,000 170 9.0 500 – 890
20,000 220 11.0 1,300 – 1,600
30,000 250 12.0 2,000 – 2,400
40,000 300 13.0 2,800 – 3,200
50,000 330 14.0 3,500 – 3,900
60,000 350 15.0 4,300 – 4,700
100,000 400 16.0 7,300 – 7,700
– 687 –
3. Tankers
DWT (t) (m) (m)
1,000 80 4.5
2,000 100 5.5
3,000 110 6.5
5,000 130 7.5
10,000 170 9.0
15,000 190 10.0
20,000 210 11.0
30,000 230 12.0
50,000 270 14.0
4. Roll-on Roll-off (RORO) ships

Gross tonnage GT Length of berth Water depth of berth
(t) (m) (m)
3,000 150 7.0
5,000 180 7.5
10,000 220 9.0
20,000 240 10.0
40,000 250 12.0
60,000 270 12.0
(3,000, 5,000, 10,000GT : Domestic Gross Tonnage)
5. Pure Car Carriers (PCC)

(t) (m) (m)
3,000 150 6.5
5,000 170 7.0
12,000 180 7.5
20,000 200 9.0
30,000 230 10.0
40,000 240 11.0
60,000 260 12.0
(3,000, 5,000GT : Domestic Gross Tonnage)
6. Passenger Ships
(t) (m) (m)
3,000 130 5.0
5,000 150 5.5
10,000 180 7.5
20,000 220 9.0
30,000 260 9.0
50,000 310 9.0
70,000 340 9.0
100,000 370 9.0
– 688 –
7. Ferries
7–1 Intermediate- and Short-Distance Ferries (sailing distance less than 300km in Japan)
Case of bow and stern side docking type
Gross tonnage GT Length of bow and
(t) Length of berth Water depth of berth
stern side docking
(m) (m)
type quaywall (m)
400 60 20 3.5
700 80 20 4.0
1,000 90 25 4.5
3,000 140 25 5.5
7,000 160 30 7.0
10,000 190 30 7.5
13,000 220 35 8.0
(In all cases, domestic gross tonnage.)
7–2 Long-Distance Ferries (sailing distance of 300km or more in Japan)

Case of no bow Water depth of berth
and stern side type Case of bow and stern side type docking (m)
Gross tonnage docking
GT (t) Length of bow and
Length of berth Length of berth
stern side docking
(m) (m)
type quaywall (m)
6,000 190 170 30 7.5
10,000 220 200 30 7.5
15,000 250 230 40 8.0
20,000 250 230 40 8.0
(In all cases, domestic gross tonnage.)
8. Small Cargo Ships

DWT (t) (m) (m)
500 60 4.0
700 70 4.0
(3) Crown Height of Wharves

① As the tidal level used as the datum for the crown height of wharves, the mean monthly-highest water level can
be used.
② In cases where the design ship cannot be identified, in general, the values shown in Table 2.1.2 are widely used.
It should be noted that the values in this table are expressed using the mean monthly-highest water level as a
standard.
Table 2.1.2 Standard Crown Heights of Wharves
Tidal range 3.0m or more Tidal range less than 3.0m

Wharf for large vessels
+0.5–1.5m +1.0–2.0m
(water depth of 4.5m or more)
Wharf for small vessels
+0.3–1.0m +0.5–1.5m
(water depth of less than 4.5m)
(4) Clearance Limit of Wharves

① The shape of the wall and front toe of the wharves shall be set appropriately so as not come into contact with
ships during berthing.
② In the cross sections of a vessel, the bottom corner sections are slightly rounded and have projecting bilge keels.
In many cases, the radius of curvature of the corner sections and the height of the bilge keels are 1.0 to 1.5 m and
30 to 40 cm, respectively. Therefore the envelope of corner sections may be assumed to be nearly 90º, including
the bilge keels. The planned water depths of berths are generally deeper than the load draft of the design vessel
by 0.3 m or more.
– 689 –
③ Fig. 2.1.2 shows the clearance limit for wharves set in consideration of the above facts and past examples.1),
2) The clearance limit of wharves may be determined using this figure as reference. However, care should
normally be exercised in using the clearance limit shown in the figure, because the rolling, pitching, and heaving
motions of vessel at berth have not been taken into consideration in the figure.
Clearance limit line
b : height of fender from the face line of wharf

when it is compressed
Face line
of wharf
0.3m
Planned water depth 70°
20°
Fig. 2.1.2 Clearance Limit for Mooning Facilities
(5) Design Water Depth

① The design water depth of a wharf shall be determined by considering its planned water depth as well as the
structural type, the original sea bottom depth, the method and accuracy of execution of work, and the the result
of scouring in front of the mooring facility.
② In general, the design water depth is not equal to the planned water depth. The design water depth is ordinarily
obtained by adding a margin to the planned water depth in order to guarantee the required stability of the
mooring facility. As this margin will vary according to the structural type, the water depth of the site, the
construction method and accuracy, and the result of scouring, it is important to determine the design water
depth carefully in consideration of these factors.
③ When it is difficult to determine the depth of scouring due to berthing vessels or currents, it is advisable to
provide scour prevention measures as described in 2.1.2 Protection against Scouring.
2.1.2 Protection against Scouring

In cases where large scouring is anticipated at the front side of a wharf due to currents or turbulence generated by
ship propellers, etc., the front of the mooring facility shall be protected with armor stones, concrete blocks, or other
materials as a measure against scouring.
– 690 –
2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Gravity-type Quaywalls
Article 49
The performance criteria of gravity-type quaywalls shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The risk of sliding failure of the ground under the permanent action situation in which the dominant
action is self weight shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(2) The risk of failure due to sliding or overturning of the quaywall body or insufficient bearing capacity
of the foundation ground under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is earth
pressure and under the variable action situation in which the main action is Level 1 earthquake ground
motions shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Gravity-type Quaywalls

① The commentary of the performance criteria and design situation (excluding accidental situations) of
gravity-type quaywalls shall be as shown in Attached Table 29. In addition to this code, the settings
in connection with the Standard Public Notice, Article 22, Paragraph 3 (Scouring and Sand Washing
Out) shall be applied as necessary, and the settings in connection with Article 23 and Article 27 shall
be applied corresponding to the type of members comprising the objective gravity-type quaywall.
Attached Table 29 Settings of Performance Criteria and Design Situation

(Excluding Accidental Situations) of Gravity-type Quaywalls
Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
26 1 2 49 1 1 Serviceability Permanent Self weight Water Circular slip failure of System failure probability in
pressure, ground permanent situation for self
surcharge weight and earth pressure
(Earthquake-resistance
facilities: Pf =1.0x10 -3)
Earth Self weight, Sliding, overturning (Facilities other than
pressure water of quaywall, bearing earthquake-resistance facilities:
capacity of foundation Pf =4.0x10 )
-3
pressure,
surcharge ground
Variable L1 Self weight, Sliding, overturning Limit value for sliding

earthquake earth of quaywall, bearing Limit value for overturning
ground pressure, capacity of foundation Limit value for bearing capacity
motion water ground (Allowable deformation of
pressure, quaywall crown: Da=10cm)
surcharge
[Technical Note]
(1) Depending on the type of wall structure, gravity-type quaywalls are classified as caisson type quaywalls, L-shaped
block type quaywalls, mass concrete block type quaywalls, cellular concrete block type quaywalls, cast-in-place
concrete type quaywalls, upright wave-dissipating type quaywalls, and others. The description provided herein
can be applied to performance verification of these gravity-type quaywalls. Regarding upright wave absorbing
type quaywalls, the performance verification method shown in 2.11 Upright Wave-absorbing Type Quaywalls
can be used as reference.
(2) An example of the performance verification procedure for gravity-type quaywalls is shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
– 691 –
Provisional setting of cross section dimensions

*1
Evaluation of actions (including setting of seismic coefficient for verification)

Permanent state, variable states associated with
ship actions and Level 1 earthquake ground motion
Verification of sliding, overturning of superstructure
Permanent state
Verification in connection with sliding, overturning of wall structure,
and bearing capacity of foundation ground
Variable states associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion

Verification in connection with sliding, overturning of wall structure,
and bearing capacity of foundation ground
*2
Study of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Accidental state associatedwith

Verification of deformation by dynamic analysis
Permanent state
Verification of circular slip failurev
Determination of cross sectional dimensions
Verification in connection with structural members
*1 As Evaluations of the effects of liquefaction, subsidence etc. are not included in this procedure, separate consideration is
necessary.
*2 When necessary, study of deformation by dynamic analysis for Level 1 earthquake ground motion is possible. In earthquake-resistance
facilities, study of deformation by dynamic analysis is preferable.
*3 For earthquake-resistance facilities, verification for level 2 earthquake ground motion is performed.
Fig. 2 2.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Gravity-type Quaywalls
(3) An example of the cross section of a gravity-type quaywall is shown in Fig. 2.2.2.
H.W.L.
L.W.L.
Sand invasion prevention

Filling Filling
sand sand
Backfilling stones
Sand invasion prevention sheet

Planned water depth
Current water depth
Fig. 2.2.2 Example of Cross Section of Gravity-type Quaywall
– 692 –
2.2.2 Actions
(1) Seismic coefficient for verification used in verification of damage due to sliding and overturning of wall body and
insufficient bearing capacity of foundation ground in variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground
motion 9), 10)
① As the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification, it is necessary to set an appropriate
seismic coefficient corresponding to the deformation of the facilities concerned, considering the effects of the
frequency characteristics and duration of the ground motion and other relevant factors. The procedure of the
generally-used method of calculating the seismic coefficient for verification is as shown in Fig. 2.2.3.
Acceleration time history in engineering ground Setting of geotechnical conditions (see ③)
Setting of filter considering frequency

characteristics (see ⑤)
Evaluation of clayey ground
1-dimensional seismic response analysis (see ④) Calculation of initial natural period of

hinterland ground and ground directly
underlying wall (see (b))
Setting of filter (see (a))

Acceleration time history of ground surface
Consider frequency dependency by filter processing.
Setting of reduction factor (see ⑥)

Maximum value of acceleration time history
of ground surface considering frequency Calculation of root sum square of time history (see (b))
dependency α f
Calculation of reduction factor p (see (a))
Consider influence due to duration of seismic motion by reduction factor (α f × p).
Calculation of maximum corrected value of

acceleration αc (see ⑦) Setting of allowable deformation Dα (see ⑧(b))
Calculation of characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification (see ⑧(a))
Fig. 2.2.3 Example of Procedure for Calculation of Seismic Coefficient for Verification
② The outline of the method of calculating the seismic coefficient for verification is shown in Fig. 2.2.4. First, the
acceleration time history of the ground surface is calculated by setting the Level 1 earthquake ground motion in
the bedrock and performing a 1-dimensional seismic response analysis using this as the input ground motion.
A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is performed on the acceleration time history obtained in this manner to obtain
the acceleration spectrum of the ground surface. Filter processing is then performed on the result, taking into
consideration frequency characteristics corresponding to the deformation of the gravity-type quaywall. The
filter used here obtains the maximum value of acceleration at the free surface of the ground from the results
of a seismic response analysis performed on multiple sine waves of different frequencies in such way that
the horizontal residual displacement of the crown of the gravity-type quaywall becomes the target value, and
assesses the contribution to deformation of the quaywall of each frequency component of the ground motion.
Accordingly, after filtering, the spectrum is a uniform deformation spectrum. As a result, the maximum value of
acceleration obtained after an inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) is independent of frequency and is assigned
– 693 –
a correspondence with a certain amount of deformation. Next, the corrected peak acceleration αc at the ground
surface is obtained by obtaining the maximum acceleration from the acceleration time history after filtering, and
multiplying αf by a reduction factor p which considers the duration of the ground motion. The characteristic
value of the seismic coefficient for verification is calculated using this corrected peak acceleration αc and the
allowable deformation Da at the crown of the quaywall. It should be noted that the method of calculating
the characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification differs in cases where soil improvement is
performed using the deep mixing method and sand compaction (SCP) with a replacement rate of more than 70%.
Therefore, it is necessary to refer to the following ⑨(e).
Da
Ground surface
Backfill stones
Sea bottom Mound

Replaced sand
Uniform deformation spectrum after filtering
Engineering ground
Determination of
ground model Inverse fast Fourier
transform (IFFT)
αf
Setting of Level 1 earthquake ground motion

in engineering ground Acceleration time history after filtering
1-dimensional seismic
response analysis Consideration of
effect of duration
αf Reduction
× factor (p)
Acceleration time history of ground surface
Acceleration time history
Fast Fourier after filtering
transform (FFT)
αc
Acceleration spectrum of ground surface
Consideration of
frequency characteristics Corrected acceleration time history of ground surface
× Calculation of characteristic value of seismic

coefficient for verification based on maximum
corrected acceleration αc and allowable
Acceleration spectrum deformation Da.
of ground surface Filter
Fig. 2.2.4 Outline of Method of Calculating Seismic Coefficient for Verification
③ Setting of geotechnical conditions

In calculating the seismic coefficient for verification, it is necessary to define the geotechnical conditions so as
to enable an appropriate assessment of the geotechnical characteristics at the location concerned. In defining
the geotechnical conditions, Part II, Chapter 3 Geotechnical Conditions, Part II, ANNEX 4, 1 Seismic
Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit may be used as reference. In 1-dimensional seismic response analysis,
the object is the layered ground, as shown in the ground model in Fig. 2.2.4, and the effects of the mound and
local ground factors such as the backfilling stones, sand replacement, and the like are not considered.
④ One-dimensional seismic response analysis
The acceleration time history of the ground surface is calculated by a 1-dimensional seismic response analysis
which enables appropriate consideration of the ground characteristics at the location concerned, using the Level
1 earthquake ground motion set for the bedrock as the input ground motion. The 1-dimensional seismic response
analysis shall be performed based on and appropriate method and setting of analysis conditions, referring to
ANNEX 4, 1 Seismic Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit.
– 694 –
⑤ Setting of filter considering frequency characteristics

(a) Setting of filter
As a filter which considers the frequency characteristics of ground motion used in verification of gravity-type
quaywalls, the result given by equation (2.2.1) may be used. This is a filter which obtains the maximum
acceleration at the free ground surface of the ground from the results of a seismic response analysis performed
on multiple sine waves using quaywall models with different geotechnical conditions and water depths in
such a way that the horizontal residual displacement of the crown of the gravity-type quaywall becomes the
target value, and assesses the contribution to deformation of the quaywall by the waves of each frequency
component comprising the ground motion. In this method, if the frequency is large, an extremely large
input ground motion is necessary in order to cause deformation of the wall, and if the frequency is small,
equivalent deformation occurs due to an input ground motion of the same order. In other words, because
deformation occurs easily in the small frequency band and tends not to occur in the large frequency band, the
filter comprises a flat region with a large value of b for frequencies of 1.0Hz and under, and a region in which
frequencies greater than 1.0Hz attenuate rapidly.
(2.2.1)
where
a : filter considering frequency characteristics of ground motion
f : frequency (Hz)
H : wall height (m)
HR : standard wall height (= 15.0m)
Tb : initial natural frequency of hinterland ground (s)
TbR : standard initial natural frequency of ground (= 0.8s)
Tu : initial natural frequency of ground underneath of wall (s)
TuR : standard initial natural frequency of ground underneath of wall (= 0.4s)
i : imaginary unit
The value of b shall be set as a value in the range shown by equation (2.2.2) using the wall height H of the
quaywall. However, irrespective of the range set in equation (2.2.2), in all cases, the lower limit shall be 0.28.
(2.2.2)
Provided, however, b≥0.28.

where
H : wall height (m)
– 695 –
Fig. 2.2.5 Example of Filter
(b) Calculation of natural frequency of ground and ground direct underneath of wall
In calculations of the natural frequency for equation (2.2.1), calculations may be made by equation (2.2.3)
using the thickness of the respective soil layers above the seismic bedrock defined in the 1-dimensional seismic
response analysis and the shear wave velocity. As the natural frequency of the ground, the primary natural
period of the frequency response function obtained using linear multiple reflection theory may be used. In
this case, if the shear wave velocity cannot be obtained, this may be estimated from the N value of the ground
or other appropriate values, referring to Part II Chapter 3, 2.4 Dynamic Analysis. Provided, however, that,
in calculating the initial natural period of the ground T b and the initial natural period of the ground underneath
of the wall Tu, backfilling stones and rubble stones directly under the wall shall not be evaluated using the
physical properties of those materials, but by substituting the physical properties of the original ground. In
cases where soil improvement is performed on normally consolidated clay strata, etc. using replacement sand
or similar, limited to the area directly under a gravity-type quaywall, it is necessary to evaluated T b and Tu in
the state prior to soil improvement. That is, Tb and Tu can be calculated at the positions shown in Fig. 2.2.6.
Because the effective surcharge pressure will vary, the natural period for the ground under the sea bottom
may not be used.
(2.2.3)
where
T : natural period of ground (s)
Hi : thickness of layer i (m)
VSi : shear wave velocity in layer i(m/s)
Ground surface
Backfill stones
Sea bottom Object ground in

Mound calculation of Tb
Object ground in
Replaced sand calculation of Tu
Ground below sea bottom is not used for Engineering ground

natural period of ground.
Fig. 2.2.6 Object Ground in Calculation of Natural Period
⑥ Setting of reduction factor

(a) Setting of reduction factor
Even with the same maximum acceleration of ground motion, the effect on facilities will vary depending
on the duration of the ground motion. The reduction factor p, which considers the effect of the duration of
– 696 –
ground motion, can be set from equation (2.2.4), using the root sum square S of the acceleration time history
and the maximum acceleration αf of the ground surface on which filtering was performed. Equation (2.2.4)
was obtained statistically based on the above-mentioned numerical analysis. The upper limit of the reduction
factor is 1.0.
(2.2.4)
where
p : reduction factor (p≤1.0)
S : root sum square of acceleration time history after filtering (cm/s2)
αf : maximum acceleration after filtering (cm/s2)
(b) Calculation of root sum square of time history

The root sum square S of the acceleration time history used in calculating the reduction factor is calculated
from equation (2.2.5) using the acceleration time history of the ground surface on which filtering was
performed. Calculations of the root sum square shall be performed for the total duration of ground motion.
The sampling frequency of ground motion shall be 100Hz.
(2.2.5)
where
S : root sum square of acceleration time history (cm/s2)
acc : acceleration after filtering at respective times (cm/s2)
⑦ Calculation of maximum correction acceleration

The maximum correction acceleration α c can be calculated from equation (2.2.6) using the maximum acceleration
αf of the ground surface after filtering, considering the frequency characteristics of the ground motion and the
reduction factor p calculated considering the effect of duration.
(2.2.6)
where
αc : maximum correction acceleration (cm/s2)
αf : maximum acceleration after filtering (cm/s2)
p : reduction factor

⑧ Calculation of characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification
(a) Characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification
The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification khk which is used in performance verifications
of gravity-type quaywalls can be calculated from equation (2.2.7) using the maximum compensated
acceleration αc and the allowable deformation Da of the quaywall crown.
(2.2.7)
where
khk : characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification
αc : maximum correction acceleration (cm/s2)
g : acceleration of gravity (=980cm/s2)
Da : allowable deformation of quaywall crown (=10cm)
D r : standard deformation (=10cm)
(b) Setting of allowable deformation

The allowable deformation of facilities must be set appropriately depending on the functions required in the
facilities and the conditions where the facilities are located. The standard value of the allowable deformation
of gravity-type quaywalls for Level 1 earthquake ground motion can be given as Da =10cm. This standard
allowable deformation (Da =10cm) is the average value of residual deformation of existing gravity-type
quaywalls for Level 1 earthquake ground motion calculated by seismic response analysis.
– 697 –
⑨ Notes on calculation of seismic coefficient for verification

(a) The method presented here was developed assuming conditions under which liquefaction does not occur. If
the method is to be applied under other conditions, its applicability must be examined.
(b) The method presented here was prepared for allowable deformation Da of 5-20cm. Therefore, care is necessary
in cases where deformation outside of this range is adopted as the allowable value.
(c) Depending on the site, Level 1 earthquake ground motion may be underestimated. Therefore, if this method
is used, there is a possibility that extremely small values will be obtained for the seismic coefficient for
verification. In such cases, the lower limit shall be set at 0.05, considering the uncertainty of hazard analysis
when calculating Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the accuracy of the method of calculating the seismic
coefficient for verification, the method of defining allowable deformation, and similar factors.
⑩ In cases where examination of the vertical direction by the seismic coefficient for verification is necessary in the
seismic coefficient method, it is necessary to set an appropriate seismic coefficient for verification depending on
the characteristics of the facilities, characteristics of the ground, etc.
(2) For the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of structural members in accidental
situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion, calculation based on appropriate examination is
preferable. For convenience, the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of structural
members in accidental situations associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion may be calculated by the
method described in the above (1), using the acceleration time history of the ground surface of the free ground
area. In this case, the allowable deformation Da can be set at 50cm. However, in cases where this method is used,
a value greater than the seismic coefficient for verification for Level 1 earthquake ground motion must be used,
with an upper limit of 0.25. Provided, however, that in case the seismic coefficient for verification for Level 1
earthquake ground motion exceeds 0.25, the higher value shall be used.
(3) Determination of Wall Body Portion
① In cases where stability is to be confirmed by substituting inertia forces for seismic forces, it is necessary to
assess the inertia force based on an appropriate determination of the quaywall body. In this case, the quaywall
body may be defined as shown below, depending on the type of structure. Provided, however, that in cases
where deformation is assessed directly by a detailed method such as nonlinear effective stress analysis or the
like, examination by this method shall not be required.
② As shown in Fig. 2.2.7, the wall body of a gravity-type quaywall can be taken as the portion between the face
line of the quaywall and the vertical plane passing through the rear toe of the quaywall. Normally backfill is
placed at the rear of the quaywall. In many types of gravity quaywalls, some part of this backfill acts as self-
weight of the quaywall, and the portion of the backfill can be considered as a part of the quaywall body. It is
difficult to apply this concept to all cases unconditionally, because the extent of backfill considered as a part
of the quaywall body varies depending on the shape of the quaywall body and the mode of failure. In general,
however, the extent of backfill considered as a part of the quaywall body can be defined as shown by hatching
in Fig. 2.2.7 to simplify the design calculation, because modest changes in the location of the quaywall body
boundary plane do not affect the stability of the quaywall body significantly.
a a
a
b b b
(b) Wall of concrete block type (c) Wall of cellular concrete block type (d) Wall of caisson type
Fig. 2.2.7 Determination of Quaywall Body
③ In structures in which stability must be examined in each horizontal stratum, as in block type quaywalls, the
determination of the virtual wall body may be as follows. Normally, keys are provided between blocks for better
– 698 –
interlocking; however, in examination of the following items, it is preferable that the effect of the key structure
be ignored.
(a) Examination of sliding
As shown in Fig. 2.2.8, the portion in front of the vertical plane passing through the rear toe at the level under
examination can be regarded as wall body.
Wall body portion
Horizontal plane to be
assessed for stability
Fig. 2.2.8 Determination of Wall body Portion for Stability of Sliding at Horizontal Joints
(b) Examination of overturning

Backfill in front of a vertical plane passing through the most landward side edge among blocks stacked on a
block placed on the seaward side above the plane subject to stability examination may be regarded as a part
of the wall body. For example, in the case of a block-type quaywall, as in Fig. 2.2.9, in general, the weight of
the portion on the front (shown by hatched lines) from the vertical plane through the block placed on block Ⓒ
on the seaward side can be considered as resistance to overturning, but block Ⓑ and the weight of soil Ⓐ in
contact therewith are considered not to contribute to resisting overturning.
Wall body
　　
portion A
Horizontal plane to be
assessed for stability
C B
Fig. 2.2.9 Determination of Wall Body Portion for Stability Overturning
(c) Examination of failure due to inadequate bearing capacity of foundation ground

If calculations related to bearing capacity are made using the same virtual section as for overturning, the
proportion of the design value of resistance relative to the design value of actions will be extremely small.
However, when load actions from the wall body are concentrated locally on the ground, settlement will occur
in that portion; therefore, in actuality, load action is distributed over a relatively extensive area and is not
extremely concentrated. The results of examination of the stability of existing structures show that there is no
objection to assuming the portion in front of the vertical plane passing through the rear toe of the wall body
is a virtual wall body. In the case of cellular blocks, the bottom reaction appears to differ in the wall body
and filling parts. In consideration of these facts, it is preferable that the bottom most block be a single block.
(4) The residual water level should be set at a level one-third of the tidal range above the mean monthly-lowest water
level (LWL). In general, the range of residual water level difference increases as the tidal range increases and the
permeability of the wall body material decreases. Water behind the wall body permeates through voids in wall
joints, the foundation mound, and backfill. The residual water level difference can be reduced by improving the
permeability of these materials. On the other hand, care is necessary, as this approach may result in leakage of
the backfilling material. The above-mentioned value of the residual water level is applicable to cases in which
long-term permeability can be secured. In cases where permeability is low from the initial stage or reduction of
– 699 –
permeability is expected over the long term, it is preferable to assume a large residual water level difference in
consideration of those conditions. In cases where waves attack the front face of the wall body, the residual water
level difference may also consider the wave trough; in general, however, it is not necessary to consider the increase
in the residual water level difference due to attack by waves in performance verification of quaywalls.11)
(5) For the wall friction angle, in general, δ=15º can be used. For L-shaped blocks, the shear resistance angle of the
backfilling material at the virtual back plane can be used. For details, the Technical Manual for L-Shaped
Block Quaywalls 12) may be used as a reference.
(6) The surcharge may be determined in accordance with Part II, Chapter 10, 3 Surcharge.
(7) Buoyancy is affected by numerous indeterminate factors. Therefore, it is preferable to set buoyancy considering
the worst-case scenario for the facilities concerned. For example, as shown in Fig. 2.2.10, buoyancy may be
calculated for the submerged portion of the wall body below the residual water level. Provided, however, that
this approach is applicable to cases in which the difference between the front water level and the residual water
level is within normal levels; in cases where the difference in water levels is remarkable, buoyancy must be set
appropriately, depending on the natural conditions where the objective facilities concerned are located, and other
relevant factors.
The part below this line

is subjected to buoyancy Residual water level
Front water level
Wall body
The part subjected
to buoyancy
Fig. 2.2.10 Assumption for Calculating Buoyancy
(8) In earth pressure during action of ground motion, it is normal practice to use the equations for calculation of
earth pressure proposed by Monobe and Okabe, as shown in Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure. However,
this is based on the concept of the seismic coefficient method. The actual earth pressures resulting from the
dynamic interaction of structures, soil, and water will vary. When the seismic coefficient for verification shown
in (1) is used, verification corresponding to the deformation of the quaywall considering these points is possible.
Provided, however, that in cases where the verification is not limited to the seismic coefficient method, but is
performed using a combination of the seismic coefficient method and high accuracy seismic response analysis
techniques (nonlinear effective stress analysis considering the dynamic interaction of the ground and structure, or
the like) and/or techniques for actual physical assessment of deformation, such as model vibration tests, etc., when
defining the cross section for which deformation is to be verified, the earthquake pressure generated in the wall
body during earthquakes can be reduced to an intermediate value between the value given by the earth pressure
equations proposed by Monobe and Okabe and the active earth pressure in the Permanent situation. Provided,
however, that the content described herein may not be applied to structures other than gravity-type quaywalls.
(9) Effect of Earth Pressure Reduction by Backfill
In cases where good quality backfilling is placed (for example, a backfilling material with a shear resistance angle
of 40° is used for rubble), the effect of earth pressure reduction by the backfill can be obtained using an analytical
method (calculation of earth pressure by discrete method) which takes into consideration the composition of
the soil behind the wall body and the strength of each layer behind the quaywall.14) In ordinary gravity-type
quaywalls, rubble or cobble stones are used as the backfilling material. In this case, the effect of earth pressure
reduction may be assessed using the following simplified method.15)
① When the cross section of backfill is triangular: When the backfill is laid in a triangular shape from the point of
intersection of the vertical line passing through the rear toe of quaywall and the ground surface with an angle
of slope less than the angle of repose α of the backfilling material, as shown in Fig. 2.2.11, it may be assumed
that the entire rear of wall is filled with the backfilling material. Provided, however, that when the reclaiming
material is slurry like cohesive soil, application of filling-up work or installation of sand invasion prevention
sheets to the surface of the backfill shall be used to prevent the slurry cohesive soil from passing through the
voids in the backfill and reaching the quaywall.
– 700 –
② When the cross section of backfill is rectangular: In the case of a triangular-shaped backfill with a slope steeper
than the angle of repose of the backfilling material or any other irregular shape of backfill, the effect may be
considered as in the case of rectangular-shaped backfill which has an area equivalent to the backfill in question.
The effect of the rectangular backfill shown in Fig. 2.2.11(b) may be considered as follows: When the width b
of the rectangular-shaped backfill is larger than the height of the wall, this case should be considered in the same
manner as in the case of triangular backfill Fig. 2.2.11, and when the width b is equal to 1/2 of the height, it shall
be assumed that the earth pressure is equivalent to the mean of earth pressure due to the backfill and that due to
the reclaimed soil. If the width b is 1/5 or less of the height of the wall, the earth pressure reduction effect due
to the backfill shall not be considered.
(a) Triangular shape backfill (b) Rectangular shape backfill
Fig. 2.2.11 Shape of Backfill
(1) General
The stability of gravity-type quaywalls is maintained by the weight of the wall body. Therefore, in general,
the following items are examined in the permanent situation and variable situations associated with Level 1
① Sliding of the wall
② Bearing capacity of the foundation ground
③ Overturning of the wall
④ Circular slip failure
⑤ Settlement
In cases where verification of sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity for variable situations associated
with Level 1 earthquake ground motion is to be performed by the seismic coefficient method, verification may be
performed by the following (2)–(4). However, if verification is performed by a detailed method such as dynamic
analysis or the like, this above-mentioned method cannot be applied. Verification by detailed methods such as
dynamic analysis shall be performed in accordance with (9) Performance Verification for Ground Motion
(detailed methods).
(2) Examination of sliding of the wall in the permanent situation and variable situations associated with Level 1
① Examination of stability against sliding of the wall may be performed using the following equation. In this
equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor, and the suffixes k and d indicate characteristic values and design
values, respectively.
(2.2.8)
where
f : coefficient of friction between bottom of wall and foundation
W : weight of materials comprising wall (kN/m)
PV : resultant vertical force acting on wall (kN/m)
PB : buoyancy acting on wall (kN/m)
PH : resultant horizontal force acting on wall (kN/m)
PW : resultant residual water pressure acting on wall (kN/m)
– 701 –
PdW : resultant dynamic water pressure acting on wall (kN/m) (only during action of ground motion)
PF : inertia force acting on wall (kN/m) (only during action of ground motion)
（Using the horizontal component, may be assumed） (2.2.9)
where
δ : f riction angle on wall（°）
ψ : angle of wall to perpendicular（°）
ρw : density of seawater（kN/m3）
g : acceleration of gravity（m/s2）
h : water depth at wall front (depth from wall bottom to water level at wall front)（m）
The characteristic values of the horizontal and vertical components of earth pressure may be calculated
using equation (1.2.7) and equation (1.2.8) in Part II, Chapter 5, 1.2.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil,
respectively. However, for the residual water level when calculating earth pressure, the characteristic value
shall be used.
The design value of residual water pressure PWd shall be calculated appropriately referring to Part II,
Chapter 5, 2.1 Residual Water Pressure, after calculating the design value of the residual water level. The
design value of the residual water level RWLd can be calculated using the following equation (2.2.10).
(2.2.10)
The design value of the weight of the quaywall Wd can be calculated by the following equation, using the
weight of reinforced concrete wRC, weight of non-reinforced concrete wNC, and weight of filling sand wSAND.
(2.2.11)
② In examination of sliding of the wall, vertical force can be considered as follows.

(a) The weight of the wall, not including surcharges (load of bulk cargoes, etc.) anterior to the virtual boundary
plane with the wall, and subtracting buoyancy.
(b) Vertical component of earth pressure acting on virtual boundary plane.
③ In examination of sliding of the wall, horizontal force can be considered as follows.
(a) Horizontal component of the earth pressure acting on the virtual boundary plane with the wall, in a state with
a surcharge applied.
(b) Residual water pressure
(c) In performance verification for action of ground motion, in addition to the above, the inertia force and dynamic
water pressure acting on the wall shall be considered. As earth pressure, the horizontal component of earth
pressure during ground motion shall be used. In cases where cargo handling equipment is present on the wall,
the horizontal force of the legs shall be considered.
④ The coefficient of friction shall conform to Part II, Chapter 11, 9 Friction Coefficient.
(3) Examination of bearing capacity of foundation ground in permanent situation and variable situations associated
with Level 1 earthquake ground motion
① In many cases, gravity-type quaywalls are structures which are susceptible to settlement and inclination of the
wall. Therefore, performance verification of the foundation shall be performed so as to avoid impairment of
– 702 –
functions due to settlement or inclination of the wall.
② In examinations of shallow foundations, the force acting on the bottom of the wall is the resultant force of loads
acting in the vertical and horizontal directions, and therefore may be examined using Chapter 2, 2.2 Shallow
Spread Foundations, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Actions. As the standard partial
factor used in performance verification, the values shown in Table 2.2.2 may be used.
③ The following equation may be used in examination of the stability of the bottom of the wall as it relates to the
bearing capacity of the ground. In the following equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor, and the suffixes k
and d indicate characteristic values and design values, respectively.

(2.2.12)
where
c' : in case of clayey ground, undrained shear strength, and in case of sandy ground, apparent
cohesion in an undrained condition (kN/m 2)
s : width of segment (m)
w' : weight of segment (kN/m)
q : load of surcharge acting on segment (kN/m)
' : apparent shear resistance angle based on effective stress (°)
θ : angle of segment with bottom (°)
Ff : parameter showing that the design value of resistance exceeds the design value of action if 1.0
or higher
α : arm length from the center of the slip circle at the circular slip failure of the action point of PHd (m)
PHd : design value of horizontal action to the soil mas in the slip circle of circular slip failure (kN/m)
For the design values in the equation, in addition to referring to equation (2.2.9), design values can also be
calculated using the following equation (2.2.13).

(2.2.13)
④ In general, examination of the bearing capacity of the foundation ground is performed for a case in which no
surcharge is applied to the wall. However, when a surcharge is applied to the wall, eccentricity decreases, but
the resultant vertical force increases. Therefore, examination must also be performed in case a surcharge is
applied, as necessary.
⑤ The thickness of the foundation mound can be determined by examining inadequacy of the bearing capacity of
the foundation ground, the flatness of mound surface for installing the wall body, and alleviation of partial stress
concentration in the ground, etc. It is preferable that the minimum thickness satisfy the following values.
(a) For a quaywall with a water depth of less than 4.5m, a thickness of 0.5m or more; provided, however, that the
thickness of the mound is at least 3 times the diameter of the rubble.
(b) For a quaywall with a water depth of 4.5m or more, a thickness of 1.0m or more; provided, however, that the
thickness of the mound is at least 3 times the diameter of the rubble.
(4) Examination of overturning of wall in permanent situation and variable situations associated with Level 1
① Examination of the stability of the wall against overturning can be performed using the following equation. In
the following equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for the related suffix, and the suffixes k and d indicate
characteristic values and design values, respectively.
(2.1.14)
where
– 703 –
PV : resultant vertical earth pressure acting on wall (kN/m)
α : arm length from the center of the slip circle at the circular slip failure of the action point of PHd (m)
PHd : design value of horizontal action to the soil mas in the slip circle of circular slip failure (kN/m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using equation (2.2.9). The design value of residual water
pressure PWd can be calculated referring to Part II, Chapter 5, 2.1 Residual Water Pressure, after calculating
the design value of the residual water level RWLd using equation (2.2.10). For the design value of the weight of
materials comprising the wall Wd in the equation, equation (2.2.11) can be used. In cases where caissons have
footings with a rectangular cross section on both the sea and shore sides, equation (2.2.12) can be used for the
design value of buoyancy PBd.
(5) Examination of Sliding Failure of Ground in Permanent Situation
① In cases where the foundation ground is weak, circular slip failure from an arbitrary point behind intersection
of the vertical plane through the rear toe of the wall and the bottom plane of the rubble may be examined.
② Verification of circular slip failure of the foundation ground in the permanent situation as it relates to self weight
can be performed using the following equation. In the following equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for
the related suffix, and the suffix k indicates characteristic values.
(2.2.15)

where
c’ : in case of clayey ground, undrained shear strength, and in case of sandy ground, apparent
cohesion in an undrained condition (kN/m 2)
s : width of segment (m)
w' : weight of segment (kN/m)
q : load of surcharge acting on segment (kN/m)
qRWL : in case the residual water level (RWL) at the back of the facility is higher than the water level
(LWL) at the front of the facility, the weight of the water at the segment corresponding to the
difference in these water level ρwg(RWL – LWL)s (kN/m)
φ‘ : apparent shear resistance angle based on effective stress (°)
θ : angle of segment with horizontal plane (°)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equations. The design value of the
residual water level can be calculated using equation (2.2.10).
(2.2.16)
(6) Examination of Settlement
For gravity-type quaywalls, the stability of the structure against settlement due to consolidation of the ground, etc.
shall be secured, corresponding to the characteristics of the ground and the structure.
(7) Performance verification and partial factors for sliding, overturning, bearing capacity of the foundation ground,
and circular slip failure
① Standard partial factors for system failure probability related to sliding and overturning of the wall, bearing
capacity of the foundation ground, and circular slip failure in the permanent situation for gravity-type quaywalls
can be determined referring to the values in Table 2.2.2(a). If based on the average safety standards in past
design methods, the average system reliability index for the stability of the wall body is 2.3 (if converted to
failure probability, 1.1 x 10 -2), and the average reliability index for circular slip failure is 7.0 (failure probability,
1.1 x 10 -12). When considering the expected total cost expressed by the sum of the initial construction cost and
the cost of recovery incurred in case of failure, the system reliability index which minimizes the expected total
cost is 3.1 (failure probability, 1.0 x 10 -3) for high earthquake-resistance facilities and 2.7 (failure probability,
4.0 x 10 -3) for other quaywalls. The partial factors for sliding and overturning of the wall and bearing
capacity of the foundation ground in variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion
can be determined referring to the values in Table 2.2.2(b). The partial factors shown in Table 2.2.2(b) were
– 704 –
determined considering the average system reliability of the past design method.
② As partial factors for circular slip failure, in case of soil improvement using sand compaction (SCP) with a
replacement rate of 30-80% under the wall body, those given in this part, Chapter 2, 4 Soil Improvement
Methods for the sand compaction pile method (4.10.6 Performance Verification) shall be used.
– 705 –
Table 2.2.2 Standard Partial Factors 16)
High earthquake-resistance
Other facilities
facilities
Target system reliability index βT 3.1 2.7
Target system failure probability Pf T 1.0×10 -3 4.0×10 -3
Target system reliability index βT’ used in calculation of γ 3.31 2.89
γ α µ/X k V γ α µ/X k V
γf Friction coefficient 0.55 0.946 1.06 0.15 0.60 0.935 1.06 0.15
γPH , γPV Resultant of earth pressure 1.15 -0.288 1.00 0.12 1.15 -0.316 1.00 0.12
γ RWL Residual water level 1.00 -0.024 1.00 0.05 1.00 -0.027 1.00 0.05
Sliding
γW RC Unit weight of RC 0.95 0.026 0.98 0.02 0.95 0.028 0.98 0.02
γW NC Unit weight of NC 1.00 0.009 1.02 0.02 1.00 0.01 1.02 0.02
γW SAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.00 0.143 1.02 0.04 1.00 0.157 1.02 0.04
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 — — — 1.00 — — —
γPH ，γPU Resultant of earth pressure 1.35 -0.832 1.00 0.12 1.30 -0.842 1.00 0.12
γRWL Residual water level 1.05 -0.092 1.00 0.05 1.05 -0.092 1.00 0.05
Overturning
γW RC Unit weight of RC 0.95 0.097 0.98 0.02 0.95 0.094 0.98 0.02
γW NC Unit weight of NC 1.00 0.035 1.02 0.02 1.00 0.034 1.02 0.02
γW SAND Unit weight of filling sand 0.95 0.538 1.02 0.04 0.95 0.521 1.02 0.04
γPH Resultant of earth pressure 1.15 -0.328 1.00 0.12 1.15 -0.345 1.00 0.12
γ w’ Unit weight of foundation ground 1.00 0.032 1.00 0.03 1.00 0.033 1.00 0.03
Bearing capacity of
foundation ground
γq Surcharge 1.00 0.031 1.00 0.04 1.00 0.032 1.00 0.04

γ tanφ’ Soil strength: Tangent of angle of
0.70 0.903 1.00 0.10 0.70 0.894 1.00 0.10
shear resistance
γc ‘ Soil strength: Cohesion 0.90 0.252 1.00 0.10 0.90 0.257 1.00 0.10
γc' Soil strength: Cohesion 0.90 0.407 1.00 0.04 0.90 0.406 1.00 0.04
Soil strength: Tangent of angle of
γ tanφ’ 0.90 0.330 1.00 0.04 0.90 0.320 1.00 0.04
shear resistance
1Ground, wave-dissipating works,
1.10 -0.176 1.00 0.03 1.10 -0.173 1.00 0.03
When mound etc. above level of sea bottom
is positioned 2 Sandy soil below level of mound
0.90 0.227 1.00 0.03 0.90 0.227 1.00 0.03

below level of and sea bottom
sea bottom 3 Clayey soil below level of sea
1.00 0.000 1.00 0.03 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.03
bottom
γ wi
1 Ground, wave-dissipating works,
1.10 -0.176 1.00 0.03 1.10 -0.173 1.00 0.03
When mound etc. above level of sea bottom
is positioned 2 Sandy soil below level of sea
0.90 0.227 1.00 0.03 0.90 0.227 1.00 0.03
above level of bottom
sea bottom 3 Clayey soil below level of sea
1.00 0.000 1.00 0.03 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.03
bottom
γq Surcharge 1.80 -0.543 1.00 0.40 1.70 -0.551 1.00 0.40
*1: α: sensitivity factor, µ/X k: deviation of mean value (mean value/characteristic value), V: coefficient of variation.
*3: When calculating the resultant of earth pressure, for the soil strength, friction angle of wall, unit weight, residual water level, surcharge,
etc., the characteristic values (values not considering partial factors) shall be used.
*4: Surcharges (except in the case of circular slip) and sea level shall be set without considering partial factors.
*5: γ w1, γ w2 , and γ w3are partial factors for the weights of segments and shall be set in accordance with the classification in Fig. 2.2.13.
*6: Wave-dissipating works, etc. include wave-dissipating works, covering work, foot protection, and the like.
*7: Partial factors for the unit weight of soil and pavement at the top of caissons can be set in the same manner as the unit weight of filling
sand.
*8: In application of the partial factors for circular slip failure, refer to the notes shown in this volume, Chapter 2.3 Stability of Slopes, 3.1.(7),
Partial Factors. When soil improvement is performed by the Sand Compaction Pile (SCP) method with a replacement rate of 30-80%, the
partial factors shown for the Sand Compaction Pile method in this volume, Chapter 2.4 Soil Improvement Methods, 4.10.6 Performance
Verification shall be used.
– 706 –
(b) Variable situation for Level 1 earthquake ground motion
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γf Friction coefficient 1.00 — — —
γPH, γPU Resultant of earth pressure 1.00 — — —
γk h Seismic coefficient for verification 1.00 — — —
γ RWL
Sliding
Residual water level 1.00 — — —

γWRC Unit weight of RC 1.00 — — —
γWNC Unit weight of NC 1.00 — — —
γWSAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.00 — — —
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 — — —
γPH ，γPU Resultant of earth pressure 1.00 — — —
Overturning
γ RWL Residual water level 1.00 — — —

γWRC Unit weight of RC 1.00 — — —
γWNC Unit weight of NC 1.00 — — —
γWSAND Unit weight of filling sand 1.00 — — —
γ PH Resultant of earth pressure 1.00 — — —
Bearing capacity of foundation

γ w’ Unit weight of foundation ground 1.00 — — —
γq Surcharge 1.00 — — —
ground
γ tanφ’ Soil strength: Tangent of angle of 1.00 — — —

shear resistance
γc’ Soil strength: Cohesion 1.00 — — —
γ RWL Residual water level 1.00 — — —
*1: α: sensitivity factor, µ/X k: deviation of mean value (mean value/characteristic value), V: coefficient of variation.
*3: When calculating the resultant of earth pressure, the soil strength, friction angle of wall, unit weight, and residual water level shall be
calculated without considering partial factors.
*4: Surcharges and sea level shall be set without considering partial factors.
*5: Partial factors for the unit weight of soil and pavement at the top of caissons can be set in the same manner as the unit weight of filling
sand.
(8) Performance Verification of Cellular Blocks

① Unlike other gravity-type quaywalls, gravity-type quaywalls comprising cell blocks in which the wall body
has no bottom slab form a structure that maintains integrity with the wall body by sand filling. Therefore, in
addition to the examination of stability in other gravity-type quaywalls, overturning should be examined with
due consideration given to separation of the filling.
② Stability verification equation for cellular blocks
Examination of overturning considering separation of the filling in cellular blocks can be performed using
the following equation.
(2.2.17)
where
PV : resultant vertical earth pressure acting on wall (kN/m)
Mf : resistant moment due to friction of wall surfaces with filling (kN-m/m)
PH : resultant horizontal earth pressure acting on wall (kN/m)
PW : resultant residual water pressure acting on wall (kN/m)
– 707 –
PdW : resultant dynamic water pressure acting on body (kN/m) (only during action of ground motion)
PF : inertia force acting on body (kN/m) (only during action of ground motion)
a : distance from action line of resultant weight of wall to front toe of wall (m)
b : distance from action line of buoyancy to front toe of wall (m)
c : distance from action line of resultant vertical earth pressure to front toe of wall (m)
d : distance from action line of resultant horizontal earth pressure to bottom of wall (m)
e : distance from action line of resultant residual water pressure to bottom of wall (m)
g : acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
h : distance from action line of resultant dynamic water pressure to bottom of body (m) (only
during action of ground motion)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using equation (2.2.9) and the following equation
(2.2.18).
(2.2.18)
③ Values of partial factors

As standard values of partial factor for use in performance verification of cellular blocks, the partial factors for
overturning shown in Table 2.2.2 can be used. As the partial factor γMf of the resistant moment due to friction
between the wall surfaces and filling Mf, the same value as the partial factor γWSAND for the weight of filling
sand WSAND may be used.
④ If (design value of resistance)/(design value of action) < 1, the overturning moment due to external forces is
larger than the sum of the resistant moment of the resultant vertical force excluding the filling and friction
between the wall surfaces and filling. As a result, the cellular block will separate, leaving the filling in place.
In such cases, it is necessary to take appropriate measures such as increasing the weight of the cellular blocks or
providing partition walls for cellular block.
⑤ The characteristic value Mf of the resistant moment due to friction F1 and F2 between the wall surfaces and the
filling is obtained as follows. In Fig. 2.2.12, the moment around point A is l1F1+1F2. Here, F1=P1f and F2= P2f.
The value of f is the coefficient of friction between the wall surface and the filling. (P1 and P2 are the respective
earth pressures of the filling.) The concept of the earth pressure of the filling acting on the wall may conform
to Chapter 2, 1.4 Cellular Blocks. It is also preferable to consider the frictional resistance acting on partition
walls of cellular blocks in the same manner.
b
q p
q : earth pressure due to the vertical load transmitted to filling
H : H=b
p : earth pressure due to filling
p =KHγ'
H
K : coefficient of earth pressure
F1 F2 γ' : unit weight of filling material in the water
P1 , P2 : resultant force of earth pressure
P1 P2
A
1
2
Fig. 2.2.12 Determination of Frictional Resistance
⑥ The coefficient of friction used for the examination of the sliding of cellular concrete blocks with no bottom slab
should be 0.6 for reinforced concrete and 0.8 for filling stones. However, for convenience, an average value of
0.7 can be used.
(9) Performance Verification for Ground Motion (detailed methods)
Performance verification of seismic-resistant of gravity-type quaywalls for Level 2 earthquake ground motion is
performed by appropriate seismic response analysis or calculation of the amount of deformation, etc. of facilities
– 708 –
based on experimental results. Standard limit values for deformation in accidental situations associated with
Level 2 earthquake ground motion may be set appropriately referring, Chapter 5, 1.4 Standard Concept of
Allowable Deformation of High Earthquake-resistance Facilities for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion.
Performance verification techniques for deformation, etc. of facilities can be broadly classified into two
types, namely, methods employing seismic response analysis and shaking tests using a shaking table or similar
apparatus.
(a) Methods employing seismic response analysis
Seismic response analysis can be classified as shown in Table 2.2.3. In the following, the various types of
seismic response analysis methods will be explained in accordance with these classifications. Depending on
the seismic response analysis method, in some cases, these techniques may not be suitable for the purpose of
verification of deformation, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to select an analysis technique corresponding to the
intended purpose, based on the following explanation.
Table 2.2.3 Classification of seismic response analysis

Analysis method Effective stress analysis method, total stress analysis method
(treatment of saturated ground (individual layers and liquid layers, individual layers)
Object domain of calculation (dimensions) 1 dimension, 2 dimensions, 3 dimensions
General calculation models Multiple reflection model, point mass model, finite element model
Material characteristics Linear, equivalent linear, nonlinear
Calculation domain Time domain analysis method, frequency domain analysis
method
(b) Methods employing shaking tests

These are methods in which shaking is applied to a structure considering mechanical similarity, and are effective
for assessing the total behavior of the structure including the ground. Provided, however, that a high level of
experimental technology is necessary, including, for example, preparation of a model which adequately satisfies
the condition of similarity, etc.
1) Model shaking table test in 1G gravity field
Based on consideration of the shape and mechanical characteristics of the target structure and ground, a model
is prepared so as to satisfy similarity, and the assumed ground motion is applied in a gravitational field using
a shaking table. In general, it is possible to prepare large-scale models, and it is also possible to examine
cases involving complex ground and structural configurations. As the similarity law, laws which consider the
confining pressure dependency of the physical properties of soil are widely used.24)
2) Model shaking table test using centrifugal loading device
This is a type of test in which stress states similar to those in the actual object are reproduced in a model using
the centrifugal force generated by a centrifugal loading device. The assumed ground motion is applied by
the shaking test device under conditions which satisfy the law of similarity. Models are generally small in
scale; however, because a relationship between the properties of the soil and effective confining pressure is
not assumed, experiments which consider confining pressure dependency are possible. Provided, however,
that consideration based on a law of similarity is necessary for the coefficient of permeability, and care is also
required with regard to the influence of the particle size of the ground material used in the test.
3) In-situ shaking table test
In this type of test, a model similar to the target structure or model of substantially the same scale is prepared,
either at the location where construction is planned or under similar ground conditions, and the response of
the model to artificial ground motion or natural ground motion is observed. Methods of generating artificial
ground motion include use of a wave vibrator, methods employing explosion, and others.

In performance verification of the superstructure of parts where fenders are installed, it is permissible to consider
only the range in which the weight of the superstructure acts integrally. In cases where fenders are installed at
locations where the superstructure and body are connected with reinforcing bars, etc., at mooring posts or similar,
displacement of the superstructure where passive earth pressure functions effectively cannot be expected. Therefore,
it is desirable that resistance against the reaction of the fenders be borne completely by the reinforcing rods. In
performance verification of the superstructure cross section, the reaction of the fenders is assumed to be distributed
as a linear load in the range of width b in Fig. 2.2.13(a), and may be considered to act as shown in Fig. 2.2.13(b). In
many examples, the vertical direction verification is performed assuming a cantilever beam with the bottom edge of
– 709 –
the superstructure as a fulcrum, and the horizontal direction is verification performed assuming either a continuous
beam or a simple beam with a rigid point in the body as a fulcrum.
Fender
Passive earth pressure in permanent state

R/b (not considered in parts which are connected
45° to the wall by reinforcing bars, etc.)
b
Passive earth pressure in permanent state

R/b (not considered in parts which are connected
45° to the body by reinforcing bars, etc.)
b
b : width of action of berthing force (m)
(a) (b) R : ship berthing force (KN)
Fig. 2.2.13 Reaction of Protective Works Acting on Superstructure
– 710 –
2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Sheet Pile Quaywalls
Article 50
1 The performance criteria of sheet pile quaywalls shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Sheet pile shall have the embedment length as necessary for structural stability and contain the degree
of risk that the stresses in the sheet piles may exceed the yield stress at the level equal to or less than the
threshold level under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is earth pressure and
under the variable action situations in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(2) The following criteria shall be satisfied under the permanent action situation in which the dominant
action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are Level
1 earthquake ground motions and traction by ships:
(a) For anchored structures, the anchorage shall be located in appropriate positions corresponding to
the structural type, and the risk of losing the structural stability shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
(b) For structures having ties and waling, the risk that the stresses in the ties and waling may exceed the
yield stress shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(c) For structures having superstructures, the risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the
superstructure shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(3) For structures having superstructures, the risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the
superstructure shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation in
which the dominant action is ship berthing.
(4) Under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is self weight, the risk of occurrence
of slip failure in the ground below the bottom end of the sheet pile shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of cantilevered sheet
piles shall be such that the risk in which the amount of deformation of the top of the pile may exceed the
allowable limit of deformation is equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent action
situations in which the dominant action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which
the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing, and traction by ships.
3 In addition to the provisions in the first paragraph, the performance criteria of double sheet pile structures
shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The risk of occurrence of sliding of the structural body shall be equal to or less than the threshold level
under the permanent action situations in which the dominant action is earth pressure and under the
variable action situation in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(2) The risk that the deformation of the top of the front or rear sheet pile may exceed the allowable limit
of deformation shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent action situation
in which the dominant action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which the
dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(3) The risk of losing the stability due to shear deformation of the structural body shall be equal to or less
than the threshold level under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is earth
pressure.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Sheet Pile Quaywalls

① The performance criteria of sheet pile quaywalls shall use the following, in accordance with the design
situations excluding accidental situations and the constituent members.
Apart from these requirements, when necessary the setting of Article 22 Item 3 of the Public
Notice shall be applied. When sheet pile with special connections or large connections is used,
the performance criteria for the stresses occurring in the connections shall be appropriately set, as
necessary.
– 711 –
② Sheet pile quaywalls (serviceability)

(a) Performance criteria of sheet pile
The setting of the performance criteria for sheet pile quaywalls and the design situations excluding
accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 30 for the sheet piles.
Attached Table 30 Setting of the Performance Criteria and the Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) for
the Sheet Piles of Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Non– Verification item Index of standard limit value

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 1 1 Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Necessary System failure probability
surcharges embedment length under permanent situations of
self weight and earth pressure
(High earthquake-resistance
facility Pf = 1.7×10 –4)
Yielding of sheet pile (Other than high earthquake-
resistance facility Pf =
4.0×10 –3)
Variable L1 earthquake Earth pressure, Necessary Design yield stress (allowable

ground water pressure, embedment length deformation of top of
motion surcharges quaywall: Da = 15cm)
Yielding of sheet pile
(b) Performance criteria of anchorage work

accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 31 for anchorage work.
Attached Table 31 Setting of the Performance Criteria and the Design situations (excluding accidental situations)
for the Anchorage Work of Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 1 2a Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Necessary Embedment length required for
surcharges embedment length structural stability
Yielding of Design yield stress
anchorage*1)
Axial forces in the Resistance force based on failure
anchorage*2) of the soil (push in, pull out)
Stability of anchor ・Passive earth pressure of

wall*3) anchored wall
・Design cross-section
resistance (ultimate limit state)
Variable L1 earthquake Earth pressure, Necessary Embedment length required for
ground water pressure, embedment length structural stability
motion surcharges (Allowable deformation of top of
quaywall: Da = 15cm)
Yielding of Design yield stress
anchorage*1) (Allowable deformation of top of
Axial forces in the Resistance force based on failure
anchorage*2) of the soil (push in, pull out)
(Allowable deformation of top of
Stability of anchor ・Passive earth pressure of

wall*3) anchored wall
・Design cross-section
resistance (ultimate limit state)
(Allowable deformation of top
of quaywall: Da = 15cm)
*1): Only when the structural type of the anchorage is a vertical pile anchor, a coupled pile anchor, or sheet pile anchor.
*2): Only when the structural type of the anchorage is a coupled pile anchor.
*3): Only when the structural type of the anchorage is a wall anchor.
– 712 –
(c) Performance criteria of ties and waling

1) The setting of the performance criteria for sheet pile quaywalls and the design situations excluding
accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 32 for the ties and waling. For
permanent situations where dominating action is earth pressure, and for variable situations where
dominating action is Level 1 earthquake ground motion as shown in Attached Table 32, the
index representing the risk of failure due to yielding of the tie members shall comply with that of
the sheet pile.
the Ties and Waling of Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 1 2b Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Required System failure probability
surcharges embedment under permanent situations of
(Other than high earthquake-
4.0×10 –3)
Yielding of waling Design yield stress

Variable L1 earthquake Earth pressure, Yielding of tie Design yield stress (allowable
ground water pressure, deformation of top of quaywall:
motion surcharges Da = 15cm)
Yielding of waling Design yield stress (allowable

deformation of top of quaywall:
Da = 15cm)
Yielding of tie Design yield stress

Yielding of waling Design yield stress
(d) Performance criteria of superstructures

accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 33 for the superstructure.
the Superstructure of Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Non– Verification item

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 1 2c Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Serviceability of cross- Limit value of bending
surcharges section of superstructure compression stress
(serviceability limit state)
Variable L1 earthquake Earth pressure, Failure of cross-section Design cross-section
ground surcharges of superstructure resistance (ultimate limit
motion state)
Traction by
ships
3 Berthing
i) Serviceability of superstructure cross-section

Verification of serviceability of the superstructure cross-section is to verify that the risk that
the bending compression stress in the superstructure will exceed the limit value of the bending
compression stress is equal to or less than the limit value.
ii) Cross-section failure of the superstructure
Verification of cross-section failure of the superstructure is to verify that the risk that the design
cross-section forces in the superstructure will exceed the design cross-section resistance is equal
– 713 –
to or less than the limit value.

(e) Performance criteria of the foundation grounds
a) The setting of the performance criteria for sheet pile quaywalls and the design situations
excluding accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 34 for the foundation
grounds. The index representing the risk of occurrence of failure due to circular slip failure in
the foundations under permanent situations where dominating action is the self weight indicated
in Attached Table 34 shall comply with that of sheet pile.
the Foundation Grounds of Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 1 4 Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Circular slip failure of System failure probability
surcharges ground under permanent situations
of self weight and earth
pressure
(High earthquake-
1.7×10 –4)
(Other than high
earthquake-resistance
b) Circular slip failure of the ground

Circular slip failure of the ground is slip failure of the ground passing under the bottom of the sheet
pile.
③ Cantilevered sheet pile quaywalls (serviceability)
(a) Besides complying with the performance criteria of sheet pile quaywalls, excluding those with ties
and waling, the setting of the performance criteria for cantilevered sheet pile quaywalls and the
design situations excluding accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 35.
Cantilevered Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 2 – Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Deformation of top of Limit value of amount of
surcharges sheet pile deformation
Variable L1 earthquake Earth pressure,
motion surcharges
Traction by
ships
(b) Limit value of the amount of deformation of the top of the sheet pile
The limit value of the amount of deformation of the top of the sheet pile for permanent situations
where the dominating action is earth pressure and the variable situations where dominating action
are Level 1 earthquake ground motion, traction by ships, shall be set appropriately based on the
envisaged conditions of use of the facility.
④ Double sheet pile quaywalls (serviceability)
(a) Besides applying the performance criteria of sheet pile quaywalls, the setting of the performance
criteria for double sheet pile quaywalls and the design situations excluding accidental situations shall
be in accordance with Attached Table 36. The index representing the risk of occurrence of failure
due to sliding of the wall under permanent situations where dominating action is earth pressure and
the variable situations where dominating action is Level 1 earthquake ground motion indicated in
– 714 –
Attached Table 36 shall comply with that of gravity-type quaywalls.

Double Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph Non– Verification item Index of standard limit value

Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 50 3 1 Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Self weight, Sliding of wall body System failure probability
water pressure, under permanent situations of
surcharges self weight and earth pressure
4.0×10 –3)
49 1 – Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, Limit value for sliding

ground earth pressure, (allowable amount of
motion water pressure, deformation Da = 10cm)
surcharges
50 3 2 Permanent Self weight Water pressure, Circular slip failure of System failure probability
surcharges ground under permanent situations of
4.0×10 –3)
Earth pressure Self weight, Deformation of the Limit value of amount of

water pressure, front and rear of the deformation
surcharges top of the sheet pile
Variable L1 earthquake Self weight,
ground earth pressure,
motion water pressure,
surcharges
3 Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Shear deformation of Resistance moment
surcharges wall body
(b) Deformation of the top of the front and rear sheet pile
The limit value of the amount of deformation of the top of the sheet pile for the permanent situations
where dominating action is earth pressure and the variable situations where dominating action is
Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be set appropriately based on the structural stability of the
facility and the envisaged conditions of use of the facility.
(c) Shear deformation of wall body
Verification of shear deformation of wall body is to verify that the risk that the deformation moment
in respect of the shear deformation of a wall body will exceed the resistance moment is equal to or
[Technical Note]
(1) The performance verification of structural stability for a steel sheet pile quaywall with anchorage work can
generally be conducted by checking the stabilities of the sheet pile wall, the tie rods and the anchorage work.
(2) An example of the sequence of the performance verification of sheet pile quaywalls is shown in Fig. 2.3.1.
(3) An example of the cross-section of sheet pile quaywalls is shown in Fig. 2.3.2.
– 715 –

(including determination of the position of tie installation point)
*1
Evaluation of actions including seismic coefficient for verification

Permanent situation, variable situation in respect of
Determination of embedment length of sheet pile Level 1 ground motion
Evaluation of stresses in sheet pile wall
Permanent situation, variable situation in respect

of Level 1 ground motion and
Evaluation of stresses in ties
タイ材に生じる応力の検討 actions caused by ships
Evaluation of stresses in waling
Determination of dimensions of sheet pile wall, ties and waling
Assumption of dimensions of anchorage work
Permanent situation, variable situation in

respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion
Evaluation of anchorage stresses, embedment length and installation position
Determination of dimensions of anchorage work

*2
Variable situation in respect of

Level 1 earthquake
ground motion
Evaluation of amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Accidental state in respect of

Level 2 earthquake
ground motion
Verification of deformation and stresses by dynamic analysis
Permanent situation
Evaluation of circular arc slips
Determination of dimensions of cross-section
*1: Evaluation of liquefaction and settlement are not shown, so it is necessary to consider these separately.
*2: When necessary, an evaluation of the amount of deformation by dynamic analysis can be carried out for the Level 1 earthquake ground
motion.
For high earthquake-resistance facilities, it is preferable that an examination of the amount of deformation be carried out by dynamic
analysis.
*3: Verification in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion is carried out for high earthquake-resistance facilities.
Fig. 2.3.1 Example of Sequence of Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Quaywalls
– 716 –
Concrete paving
H.W.L.
Tie rods Subbase course
L.W.L.
Backfill rocks
Steel pipe pile

Rubble
Steel sheet pile
Sandy soil
Fig. 2.3.2 Example of Cross-section of Sheet Pile Quaywall
(4) Points of Caution on Soft Ground

① The performance verification of a sheet pile wall on soft ground such as alluvial cohesive soil on soft seabed
should preferably be conducted through comprehensive examination using performance verification methods
shown below for tie and anchorage work, as well as other performance verification methods. Unexpected large
deformation may occur in sheet piles constructed on soft ground due to lateral flows that are caused by the
settlement of the ground behind the sheet pile wall. Several methods for lateral flow prediction36) have been
proposed. Such effects should be taken into consideration in carrying out the performance verifications.
② Care should be exercised in using the performance verification methods for sheet pile quaywall described in
this section, because many of these methods assume that a steel sheet pile wall is driven mainly into sandy soil
ground or hard clayey soil ground. For soft ground, it is preferable to perform soil improvement work. When
it is not possible to perform soil improvement work because of site conditions, it is preferable to consider using
other performance verification methods, in addition to the methods described in this section, such as dynamic
analysis methods which can accurately evaluate the nonlinear characteristics of soil, so that a comprehensive
analysis can be made.
2.3.2 Actions
(1) The active earth pressure is normally used as the earth pressure that acts on the sheet pile wall from the backside.
For the front-side reaction that acts on the embedded part of the sheet pile, it is necessary to use an appropriate
value such as passive earth pressure or a subgrade reaction that corresponds to the deflection of the wall and
modulus of subgrade reaction.
(2) When the free earth support method and the equivalent beam method are used in the performance verification for
a sheet pile wall, it should basically be assumed that the earth pressure and residual water pressure act as shown
in Fig. 2.3.3, and the pressure values can be calculated in accordance with Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure
and Part II, Chapter 5, 2.1 Residual Water Pressure. The wall friction angle used for calculation of the earth
pressure acting on the sheet pile wall may usually be taken at 15º for the active earth pressure and –15º for the
passive earth pressure, respectively when the ground is sandy soil layer.
– 717 –
Residual water level Residual water level

L.W.L. L.W.L.
Residual water pressure

Active earth
Active earth pressure
pressure
Passive earth pressure

(a) Sandy soil ground (b) Hard clayey soil ground
Fig. 2.3.3 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure to be considered for Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Wall
(3) Since the earth pressure changes in response to displacement of the sheet pile wall, the actual earth pressure that
acts on the sheet pile wall varies depending on the following:
(a) The construction method i.e., whether backfill is executed or the ground in front of the sheet piles is dredged to
the required depth after the sheet piles have been driven in
(b) The lateral displacement of the sheet pile at the tie rod setting point
(c) The length of the embedded part of the sheet pile
(d) The relationship between the rigidity of the sheet pile and the characteristics of the sea bottom ground.
Therefore the earth pressure distribution is not necessary as shown in Fig. 2.3.3.
(4) When P. W. Rowe’s method, elastic beam analysis method, is used in a sheet pile stability calculation, it is
assumed that the earth pressure and residual water pressure act as shown in Fig. 2.3.4 and a reaction earth
pressure that corresponds to the modulus of subgrade reaction and the earth pressure at rest act on the front
surface of the sheet pile.
G.L.
Tie rod
Residual water level
L.W.L.

+ residual water pressure
Subgrade reaction
earth pressure
Earth pressure at rest
Fig. 2.3.4 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure to be considered for Performance Verification of Sheet Pile
Walls Using P.W. Rowe's Method
– 718 –
(5) When there is cargo handling equipment such as cranes on the quaywall, it is necessary to take into consideration
the earth pressure due to the self weight and the live load of the equipment.
(6) In the determination of the reaction force of earth pressure that acts on the front surface of the embedded part of
the sheet pile, it is necessary to assume that dredging of the sea bottom will be executed to a certain depth below
the planned depth, in consideration of the accuracy of dredging work.
(7) In the case of an earth retaining wall of an open-type wharf, the sea bottom in front of the sheet pile wall has a
composite shape of horizontal and sloped surfaces. In such a case, the passive earth pressure may be calculated
using Coulomb’s method in which the design passive earth pressure is trially calculated with several failure planes
of different angles. The smallest value among them is adopted as the passive earth pressure.41) However, it is
necessary to consider the empirical evidence by experiments that the behavior of the ground in front of the sheet
pile wall can be well predicted under the assumption of the ground being an elastic body.
(8) The residual water level to be used in the determination of the residual water pressure needs to be estimated
appropriately in consideration of the structure of the sheet pile wall and the soil conditions. The residual water
level varies depending on the characteristics of the subsoil and the conditions of sheet pile joints, but in many cases
the elevation with the height equivalent to two thirds of the tidal range above the mean monthly-lowest water level
(LWL) is used for sheet pile walls. In the case of a steel sheet pile wall driven into cohesive soil ground, however,
care should be exercised in the determination of the residual water level, because it is sometimes nearly the same
as the high water level. When sheet piles made of other materials are to be used, it is preferable to determine the
residual water level based on the result of investigations of similar structures.
(9) Seismic Coefficient used in Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Pile Anchorage for Variable
Situation in respect of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion 42)
① For the performance verification of seismic-resistant of sheet piles quaywalls with pile anchorage for the variable
situation in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the performance verification by direct evaluation of
the amount of deformation by a detailed method such as nonlinear effective stress analysis can be carried out,
but simplified methods such as the seismic coefficient method can also be used. In this case, it is necessary to
use an appropriate seismic coefficient in the performance verification, taking into consideration the effects of
the frequency characteristics and duration of the ground motions. A typical sequence of the seismic coefficient
calculation for the verification is as shown in Fig. 2.3.5.
– 719 –
Acceleration time history at seismic bedrock Setting of foundation conditions
Setting of filter considering frequency characteristics
Evaluation of cohesive soil ground

1-dimensional seismic response analysis
Calculation of initial natural periods of
ground and foundations below wall (see ③ (b))
Acceleration time history at ground surface Setting of filter (see ③ (a))
Considering of frequency dependence by filter processing
Setting of reduction ratio

Maximum value of ground surface acceleration Calculation of root mean sum of
time history considering frequency dependence squares of time history
Calculation of reduction ratio p (see ④ )
Considering of the effect of duration of seismic motion by means of

reduction ratio (αf × p)
Calculation of maximum value of Setting of allowable amount of
corrected acceleration αc deformation Dα (see ⑤ (b))
Calculation of characteristic value of seismic

coefficient for verification (see ⑤ (a))
Fig. 2.3.5 Example of Sequence for Calculation of Seismic Coefficient for Verification
② It is preferable that the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of sheet pile quaywalls
for the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion is set appropriately as a horizontal
ground motion for which the amount of deformation of the sheet pile quaywall does not exceed the limit value.
When Level 1 earthquake ground motion is acting, failure of sheet pile walls is preceded by deformation, and
if the allowable amount of deformation of a sheet pile quaywall is about 30cm, deformation will be dominant.
③ Setting of the filter considering the frequency characteristics
(a) Setting of the filter
With the same way as for gravity-type quaywalls, the acceleration response spectrum is obtained from the
Fourier transform of the acceleration time history at the ground surface obtained by 1-dimensional seismic
response analysis, and this is processed with a filter considering the frequency characteristics corresponding
to the deformation of the sheet pile quaywall. For this filter the value given by equation (2.3.1) may be used.
For details refer to 2.2.2(1)⑤ Setting of filter considering frequency characteristics in 2.2 Gravity-type
Quaywalls. An example of filter is shown in Fig. 2.3.6.
– 720 –
(2.3.1)
(vertical pile anchorage type)
(coupled-pile anchorage type)
where,
H : wall height (m)
HR : standard wall height (=15m)
Tb : initial natural period of the ground (s)
TbR : standard initial natural period of the ground (=0.8s)
Tu : initial natural period of the ground below the seabed surface (s)
TuR : standard initial natural period of the ground below the seabed surface (=0.4s)
The value of b shall be set within the range indicated by equation (2.3.2), using the wall height H of the wall
body. However, regardless of the setting range indicated by equation (2.3.2), in all cases the minimum value
shall be 0.41.
(2.3.2)
However, b ≥ 0.41
where,
H : wall height (m)
1.6 1.8
1.4 1.6
1.2 1.4
1.2
1.0
1.0
a (f )
0.8
a (f )
0.8
0.6 H =15.0m H =15.0m
0.6
0.4 T b =1.07s 0.4 T b =1.07s
0.2 T u =0.57s 0.2 T u =0.57s
0.0 0.0
0.1 1.0 10.0 0.1 1.0 10.0
f (Hz) f (Hz)
(a) Vertical pile anchorage type (b) Coupled-pile anchorage type
Fig. 2.3.6 Examples of Filters
(b) Calculation of the natural periods of the ground and the ground below the seabed surface
For calculation of the natural periods for equation (2.3.1), refer to 2.2.2(1)⑤ Setting of filter considering
frequency characteristics in 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls. However, the initial natural period of the ground
T b and the initial natural period of the ground below the seabed surface Tu are calculated as Tb and Tu at the
positions shown in Fig. 2.3.7.
– 721 –
Ground surface
Tie rod
Sheet pile wall
Anchorage
Seabed surface
Ground for calculation of Tb
Replacement Ground for calculation

sand of Tu
Engineering bedrock
Fig. 2.3.7 Ground Subject to the Calculation of the Natural Periods
④ Setting of the reduction ratio

The reduction ratio p that takes into consideration the effect of the duration of the ground motions used in
the verification of sheet pile quaywalls may be obtained from equation (2.3.3). For details refer to 2.2.2(1)⑥
Setting of reduction in 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls.
(2.3.3)
where,
p : reduction ratio (p ≤ 1.0)
S : square root of the sum of squares of the acceleration time history after filtering (cm/s2)
αf : maximum value of the acceleration after filtering (cm/s2)
⑤ Calculation of the characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification

(a) Characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification
The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification khk used in the performance verification
of sheet pile quaywalls may be calculated from equation (2.3.4), using the corrected maximum acceleration
αc, and the allowable amount of deformation of the top of the quaywall Da. For the corrected maximum
acceleration, refer to 2.2.2(1)⑦ Calculation of maximum corection acceleration in 2.2 Gravity-type
Quaywalls.
(vertical pile anchorage type) (2.3.4(a))
(coupled pile anchorage type) (2.3.4(b))
where,
khk
: characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification
αc
: corrected value of the maximum acceleration of the ground at the ground surface (cm/s2)
g
: gravitational acceleration (=980cm/s2)
Da
: allowable amount of deformation at the top of the quaywall (=15cm)
Dr : standard deformation amount (=10cm)
(b) Setting of the allowable amount of deformation

It is necessary to appropriately set the allowable amount of deformation for a facility, in accordance with the
function required of the facility and the circumstances in which the facility is placed. The allowable value of
the standard deformation amount of a sheet pile quaywall in Level 1 earthquake ground motion may be taken
to be Da =15cm. This allowable value of the standard deformation amount (Da =15cm) is the average value of
the amount of residual deformation of the existing sheet pile quaywalls in Level 1 earthquake ground motion,
calculated by seismic response analysis.
⑥ The calculation of the characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification for sheet pile anchorage type
and concrete wall anchorage type sheet pile quaywalls may apply that of vertical pile anchorage type sheet pile
quaywalls.
– 722 –
(10) The seismic coefficient for verification of superstructure of sheet pile for the accidental situation in respect of
the Level 2 earthquake ground motion may be conveniently calculated using the method in (10) above, using
the acceleration time history of the ground surface at the free ground part. In this case, the allowable amount of
deformation Da may be taken to be 50cm. When this method is used, the upper bound value shall be 0.25, and a
value equal to or greater than the seismic coefficient for the verification of Level 1 earthquake ground motion must
be used. However, if the seismic coefficient for the verification of Level 1 earthquake ground motion exceeds 0.25,
that value shall be used. For the verification of the superstructure of the anchorage for the accidental situations in
respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, the tie tension forces obtained by a dynamic analysis may be used.
(11) For the dynamic water pressure acting during an earthquake, refer to Part II, Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic Water
Pressure.
(12) For the tractive forces of ships, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.3 Actions Caused by Ship Motions, and Part II,
Chapter 8, 2.4 Actions due to Traction by Ships.
(13) The fender reaction force is generally considered for the performance verification of the coping. The tractive
force of ship is not considered when the foundation for bollards is to be constructed separately from the coping.
However, when bollards are to be installed on the coping of the sheet pile wall, it is necessary to consider the
tractive force of ship in the performance verification of the coping, tie rod and wale.
2.3.3 Setting of Cross-sectional Dimensions
(1) Position of Installation of Tie Members

① The cross sections of sheet pile and tie member will be largely influenced by the position of the tie member
installation. The position of the tie member installation should be determined considering the difficulty of the
work of tie member attachments and the costs.
② When the wall height of a sheet pile wall is high, tie rods may be provided at two levels to support the wall
structure at two points, to reduce the flexural moments in the wall structure.
(2) Selection of the structural type of anchorage work
The structural types of anchorage works are generally broadly classified as vertical pile anchorage, coupled-
pile anchorage, sheet pile anchorage, and slab anchorage. The economy, construction time, and construction
method differ depending on the structural type, so it is necessary to determine the structural type, considering the
elevation of the ground and other site conditions before construction.
(1) Fundamentals of Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Walls

① General
When verification for variable situation in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion is carried out using a
simplified method such as the seismic coefficient method, the following (2) – (4) may be used. In the verification
of the embedment length of the sheet pile wall, it is assumed that the embedded bottom end is fixed in the
ground. Also, for verification of stresses in the sheet pile wall, it is assumed that the point of intersection
between the sheet pile wall and the seabed surface is fixed in the ground. However, these assumptions used in
the simplified methods are not necessarily consistent with the actual mechanisms, so when these methods are
adopted, it is necessary to pay attention to this.43) If a detailed method such as dynamic analysis is used, (10)
Verification of Ground Motion by Dynamic Analysis Methods can be referred.
② Consideration of the effect of the rigidity of the sheet pile wall cross-section
(a) The cross-section of the sheet pile shall be set appropriately considering of the cross-sectional rigidity of the
sheet pile.
(b) The behavior of sheet pile wall with the anchorage work is strongly affected by the rigidity and embedded
length of the sheet piles and the characteristics of the ground. In particular, the rigidity of the sheet piles
strongly affects the determination of the embedded length. Therefore it is essential to consider the effect of
the cross-sectional rigidity of the sheet pile in the final selection of the cross-section.
(c) The analysis method described below, which is a modified Rowe’s method, examines the embedded part of
sheet piles as a beam set on an elastic bed.
Elastic beam analysis method of sheet piles
This elastic beam analysis method is applied to the sheet pile wall as the theoretical equation for beams on
elastic bed by introducing an elastic coefficient of subgrade reaction for the ground into which the sheet pile
– 723 –
wall is driven. The basic equation for the embedded part is as equation (2.3.5):
(2.3.5)
where
E : Young’s modulus of sheet pile（MN/m 2）
I : geometrical moment of inertia of sheet pile wall per unit width（m4/m）
pA0 : load intensity at the sea bottom generated by the active earth pressure and residual water
pressure（MN/m 2）
 h : modulus of subgrade reaction to the sheet pile wall（MN/m3）
D : embedded length of sheet pile（m）
As there is no general solution to a differential equation of this form, a special technique is required to solve
equation (2.3.5). Broms and Rowe proposed a method to obtain the coefficient of each term in a numerical
analysis by assuming a power series as the solution. Based on Rowe’s method,46) Takahashi and Ishiguro
have published details of a method to derive a solution of the deflection curve equation of sheet pile wall and a
computer-based numerical calculation method.47) Takahashi and Kikuchi have amended this method to better
reflect the behavioral characteristics of actual sheet pile walls as follows (see Fig. 2.3.8):
(2.3.6)
where
E : Young’s modulus of sheet pile（MN/m 2）
I : geometrical moment of inertia of sheet pile wall per unit width（m4/m）
pA0 : load intensity at the sea bottom generated by the active earth pressure and residual water
pressure（MN/m 2）
K AD : coefficient of active earth pressure in the embedded part of the sheet pile wall
γ : unit weight of soil（MN/m3）
DF : converged embedded length of sheet pile wall（m）
rf : ratio of the exerting depth of the primary positive reaction earth pressure acting on the front
surface of the embedded part of the sheet pile to DF
Fig. 2.3.8 Earth Pressure Distribution for the Analysis of Sheet Pile Wall
– 724 –
(2) Embedment length of sheet pile walls for permanent situations and variable situations in respect of Level 1
① The mechanical behavior of the sheet pile wall varies depending on the embedment length. With a short
embedment length the behavior characteristics are free earth support conditions, and with a long embedment
length the behavior characteristics are fixed earth support conditions. In order to ensure stability of the sheet
pile wall under permanent situations and variable situations, It is preferable that the bottom of the sheet pile is
fixed sufficiently in the ground, in other words that fixed earth support conditions be satisfied. Conventionally,
the embedment length was obtained by the free earth support method based on classical earth pressure theory.
Takahashi and Kikuchi 49) showed that the embedment length obtained with this method by considering
appropriate partial factors is considered to be fixed earth support condition. Also, the equivalent beam method
for obtaining the cross-section of sheet piles assumes fixed earth support conditions.
② If the embedment length of sheet piles is to obtain by the free earth support method, analysis of the embedment
length of the sheet pile wall can be carried out using the following equation. This equation is obtained from the
equilibrium of moments of the earth pressure and residual water pressure about the point of installation of the
ties, as shown in Fig. 2.3.3. In the following equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor corresponding to its
subscript, where the subscripts k and d indicate the characteristic value and the design value, respectively.
(2.3.7)
where,
Pp : resultant passive earth pressure acting on the sheet pile wall (kN/m)
Pa : resultant active earth pressure acting on the sheet pile wall (kN/m)
Pw : resultant residual water pressure acting on the wall structure (kN/m)
Pdw : resultant active water pressure acting on the wall body (kN/m) (only during earthquakes)
a–d : distance between the position of installation of the tie rod and the point of action of the resultant
force (m)
γa : structural analysis coefficient
In calculating the design values of earth pressure in the equation, the tangent of the angle of shearing
resistance tanφ, the cohesion c, the wall surface friction angle δ, the effective unit weight w', the surcharge
q, and the seismic coefficient for verification during earthquakes only kh may be calculated using equation
(2.3.8), and Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure may be used for reference. The design value of residual
water pressure may be calculated as appropriate by reference to Part II, Chapter 5, 2.1 Residual Water
Pressure, after calculating the design value of residual water level from equation (2.3.8), taking the tide level
and tidal difference at the front surface into consideration. Also, the design value of dynamic water pressure
used in the performance verification during an earthquake may be calculated as appropriate by reference
to Part II, Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure, after first calculating the design value of seismic
coefficient for verification from equation (2.3.8). The partial coefficients used in calculation of the design
values may be obtained by reference to Table 2.3.3.
(2.3.8)
③ In cohesive soil ground, normally if equation (2.3.9) is not satisfied, stability of embedment is not ensured.
(2.3.9)
where,
c : cohesion of the soil at the seabed (kN/m 2)
q : surcharge (kN/m 2)
wi : weight of the soil of the ith stratum above the seabed surface, for below the residual water level,
the weight in water (kN/m 2)
ρw : density of seawater (t/m3)
hw : difference in water level between the residual water level and the front surface tide level (m)
The design values in the equation may be calculated from the following equation.
(2.3.10)
– 725 –
When equation (2.3.9) is not satisfied because the soils at the seabed are weak, then either the seabed soils
should be improved by an appropriate method, or a structure such as a sheet pile wall with a relieving platform
should be adopted.
④ Characteristic embedment length considering the rigidity of the sheet pile wall cross-section
(a) According to the elastic beam analysis method described in (1) ④ above, the behavior characteristics of
a sheet pile wall can vary depending on the embedment length. In other words, if the sheet piling is not
longer by a certain value, the sheet pile wall will not be stable. The embedment length that brings about
the limiting stability state is called the limiting embedment length DC. If the embedment length is longer
than the limiting embedment length, the flexural moment in the sheet pile wall becomes the peak maximum
flexural moment MP under free earth support conditions. The embedment length obtained above is called the
transition embedment length DP. If the embedment length is increased further, the flexural moment becomes
the convergent maximum moment MF under fixed earth support conditions. The minimum embedment length
at which this is achieved is called the convergent embedment length DF.
(b) Flexibility number of the sheet pile
As a measure to indicate the rigidity of a sheet pile wall as a structure, the following flexibility number in the
equation (2.3.11) proposed by Rowe is used:
(2.3.11)
where
ρ : flexibility number (m3/MN)
H : total length of sheet pile (m)
E : Young’s modulus of the sheet pile (MN/m 2)
I : geometrical moment of inertia per unit width of the cross-section of the sheet pile (m4/m)
For H in ρ=H4/EI, Rowe uses the sum of total height of the sheet pile wall from the sea bottom to the top of
the sheet pile wall H and the embedded length D of fixed earth support state as the total length of sheet pile.
Also, Takahashi and Kikuchi Et al. suggest a new index called the similarity number that is derived by using
the flexibility number and ground characteristics. The height HT from the sea bottom to the tie rod installation
point is used for the length H in this equation:
(2.3.12)
where,
ω : similarity number
ρ : flexibility number (m3/MN)
 h : modulus of subgrade reaction of the sheet pile wall (MN/m3)
HT : height from the tie installation point to the seabed surface (m)
E : Young’s modulus of the sheet pile (MN/m 2)
I : geometrical moment of inertia per unit width of the cross-section of the sheet pile (m4/m)
By expressing the mechanical characteristics of a sheet pile wall with a similarity number, the effect of the
rigidity of the sheet piles can be estimated quantitatively.
(c) Modulus of subgrade reaction of sheet piles
There are a very few reference data that gives measured or suggested values of modulus of subgrade reaction
of the sheet pile  h. Therefore it is preferable to obtain these values by means of model tests and/or field
measurements. The proposed values that have traditionally been used include the values proposed by
Terzaghi and the ones proposed by Takahashi and Kikuchi, et al., which have been obtained by modifying
Terzaghi’s values. The research conducted by Takahashi and Kikuchi, et al. shows that the effect of errors in
the modulus of subgrade reaction is not fatal for practical use.49) Thus the values proposed by Takahashi and
Kikuchi, et al. may normally be used as the coefficient of subgrade reaction of sheet pile wall.
1) Values proposed by Terzaghi 51)
The values proposed by Terzaghi are as listed in Table 2.3.1.
Table 2.3.1 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Sheet Pile Wall in Sandy Ground ( h)（MN/m3）
Relative density of sand Loose Medium Dense

Modulus of subgrade reaction (lh) 24 38 58
– 726 –
2) Values proposed by Takahashi and Kikuchi, et al.49)
Takahashi and Kikuchi, et al. confirmed that the result of Tschebotarioff’s model test of sheet pile wall 52)
does not contradict with the values proposed by Terzaghi. They related the modulus of subgrade reaction
listed in Table 2.3.1 with the N-value, using the relationship between the modulus of subgrade reaction
and the relative density proposed by Terzaghi as well as the relationship between the N-value and the
relative density 53) also demonstrated by Terzaghi. Then they adopted the smaller value of modulus of
subgrade reaction to be on the safe side and connected the resultant values using a smooth line as shown
in Fig. 2.3.9. They also related the modulus of subgrade reaction with the angle of shearing resistance as
shown in Fig. 2.3.10, using one equation (2.3.13) of Dunham’s equations for calculating the smaller angle
of shearing resistance for a given N-value.
(2.3.13)
where,
φ : angle of shearing resistance (°)
N : N-value
However, it should be noted that Fig. 2.3.10 is an expedient graph to a certain degree, as Dunham’s
equations include cases that give the larger angle of shearing resistance depending on the grain size of
sandy soil.
Fig. 2.3.9 and 2.3.10 also show the values proposed by Terzaghi in addition to the values proposed by
Takahashi and Kikuchi, at al.
80
(MN/m3)
60
h
Modulus of subgrade reaction
Values proposed by Terzaghi

40
20
Values proposed by Takahashi, Kikuchi, et al.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
N-value
Fig. 2.3.9 Relationship between Modulus of Subgrade Reaction ( h) and N-value
– 727 –
80
(MN/m3)
60
h
Modulus of subgrade reaction Values proposed by Terzaghi
40
20
Values proposed by Takahashi, Kikuchi, et al.
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Angle of ineternal friction (°)
Fig. 2.3.10 Relationship between Modulus of Subgrade Reaction ( h) and Angle of Internal Friction ( )
(d) Determination of the embedded length of sheet pile using Rowe’s method
In the determination of the embedded length of sheet piles using Rowe’s method, a characteristic value that
satisfies equation (2.3.14) can be used. As equation (2.3.14) takes into consideration the stiffness of the sheet
pile without the earth pressure, when reducing the earth pressure of the existing steel sheet pile quaywall
or similar improvement method, it is necessary to be aware that the earth pressure reduction effect does not
necessarily result in a shortening of the embedment length. Therefore, when considering the earth pressure
reduction effect, it is preferable to also use the methods of ① to ④ above.
(2.3.14)
where
δs : ratio of the embedded length of sheet pile to the height of the tie rod installation point above the
sea bottom
DF : embedded length of sheet pile (m)
HT : height of the tie rod installation point above the sea bottom (m)
ω : similarity number (=ρ h)
ρ : flexibility number (＝HT4/EI）（m3/MN）
E : Young’s modulus of sheet pile (MN/m 2)
I : geometrical moment of inertia of sheet pile wall per unit width (m4/m)
 h : modulus of subgrade reaction to sheet pile wall (MN/m3)
The embedded length calculated with this equation is the converged embedded length. According to the
study conducted by Takahashi and Kikuchi, et al. an increase of just a 2%–plus in the maximum flexural
moment occurs when an embedded length corresponding to 70% of the converged embedded length is
employed. Therefore the use of the converged embedded length as the design embedded length secures the
safety, and there is no need to consider a margin against the safety.
Equation (2.3.14) formulates the relationship between the ratio of the convergent embedment length
DF to the virtual wall height HT, δ＝(DF/HT), and the similarity number ω shown in Fig. 2.3.11. This is
based on analysis carried out by Takahashi and Kikuchi, at al. using a simulation model for 72 cases with
a combination of conditions for water depth of the quay (–4 to –14m), soil conditions, seismic conditions
(kh =0.2), and material conditions of the steel sheet piles. In Fig. 2.3.11, δ for permanent situations and
earthquake conditions are obtained as δN and δS respectively, but in equation (2.3.14) δS is used for the action
of earthquakes because it indicates large values.
Also, in this analysis by Takahashi and Kikuchi, et al. the relationship between the similarity number, the
ratio µ (＝MF/MT), and the ratio τ (＝TF/TT) were studied. The ratio µ is the ratio of the maximum flexural
moment MF when there is convergent embedment length DF in the bending curve analysis to the maximum
flexural moment MT calculated by the equivalent beam method assuming the tie installation point and the
seabed surface as the support points. The ratio τ is the ratio of tie tension force TF when there is convergent
– 728 –
embedment length DF in the bending curve analysis to the tie tension force TT calculated from the virtual
beam method. These relationships are shown in Figs. 2.3.12 to 2.3.13.
Fig. 2.3.11  Relationship between ω and δ

During seismic motions
Permanent states
Fig. 2.3.12 Relationship between µ and ω
– 729 –
During seismic motions

Permanent states
Fig. 2.3.13 Relationship between τ and ω
(3) Flexural Moment of Sheet Piles and Reaction at Tie Member Installation Point
① The maximum flexural moment of sheet piles and reaction at the tie member installation point shall be calculated
with an appropriate method that takes into consideration the rigidity and embedded length of the sheet piles and
the characteristics of the ground.
② The maximum flexural moment and reaction force at the tie member installation point of sheet piles may be
determined using the equivalent beam method described below or Rowe’s method. However, care should be
exercised when using the equivalent beam method, because the section forces may be under estimated when the
rigidity of the sheet piles is high.
③ Equivalent Beam Method
The equivalent beam method calculates the maximum flexural moment and reaction force at the tie member
installation point of the sheet piles by assuming a simple beam supported at the tie member installation point
and the sea bottom with the earth pressure and residual water pressure acting as the load above the sea bottom
(see Fig. 2.3.14).

Reaction at the tie rod point (Ap)
L.W.L. Tie member
Residual
water pressure
Fig. 2.3.14 Equivalent Beam for Obtaining Flexural Moment
– 730 –
④ The seabed surface used in calculating the flexural moment should take margin of the depth into
consideration.
⑤ The design values of maximum flexural moment in the sheet pile wall and the reaction force at the tie member
installation point can normally be calculated using the following equation. In the following equation, the
subscript d indicates the design value.
(a) Reaction force at the tie installation point
(2.3.15)
where,
Ap : reaction force at the tie installation point (kN/m)
Pa : resultant active earth pressure from the top of the sheet piling to the seabed surface (kN/m)
Pw : resultant residual water pressure from the top of the sheet piling to the seabed surface (kN/m)
Pdw : resultant dynamic water pressure acting on the sheet pile wall (kN/m) (only during earthquakes)
a–c : distance from the installation position of the tie member to the point of action of the resultant
force (m)
L : distance from the installation position of the tie member to the seabed surface (m)
(b) Maximum flexural moment
(2.3.16)
where,
Ap : reaction at the tie installation point (kN/m)
P'a : resultant active earth pressure from the top of the sheet pile to the position where the shear force
S becomes 0 (kN/m)
P'w : resultant residual water pressure from the top of the sheet pile to the position where the shear
force S becomes 0 (kN/m)
P'dw : resultant dynamic water pressure from the top of the sheet pile to the position where the shear
force S becomes 0 (kN/m) (during an earthquake only)
a : distance from the position where the shear force S becomes 0 to the tie member installation
position (m)
b–d : distance from the position where the shear force S becomes 0 to the point of action of the
resultant force (m)
The design values of earth pressure, residual water pressure, and resultant dynamic water pressure force
may be appropriately calculated by reference to Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure. Part II, Chapter
5, 2.1 Residual Water Pressure, and Part II, Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic Water Pressure, after calculating
the design values of the tangent of the angle of shearing resistance tanφ, the cohesion c, the wall surface
friction angle δ, the effective unit weight w', the surcharge q, the seismic coefficient for verification during
earthquakes only kh, and the residual water level RWL, from equation (2.3.8).
⑥ When the maximum flexural moment of sheet piles and the tie member installation point reaction force are
to be determined taking the effects of the modulus of subgrade reaction and the rigidity of the sheet piles
into consideration, the following method can be used. The maximum flexural moment and reaction force are
calculated by using the equivalent beam method and the correction factors obtained from Figs. 2.3.12 and
2.3.13 are multiplied by those values. The seismic coefficient for performance verification purposes shown
in Figs. 2.3.12 and 2.3.13 has been set at 0.20. Values obtained from these figures may be used for the
performance verification for variable situation in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion unless a very
detailed verification is required.
(4) Verification of Stresses in the Sheet Pile Wall for Permanent Situation and Variable Situation in respect of Level
1 earthquake ground motion
① Analysis of stresses in the sheet pile wall may be carried out using the following equation. In the following
equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor corresponding to its subscript, where the subscripts k and d indicate
characteristic value and the design value respectively.
(2.3.17)
– 731 –
where,
σ y : bending yield stress of the steel material (N/mm 2)
Mmax : maximum flexural moment in the sheet pile wall (N mm/m)
Z : section modulus of the steel material (mm3/m)
γa : structural analysis factor (see Table 2.3.3)
Equation (2.3.18) may be used for calculating the design values of bending yield stress of the steel material
in the equation. For the design value of the maximum flexural moment in the sheet pile wall, refer to (3)
Flexural Moment of Sheet Piles and Reaction at Tie Member Installation Point.
(2.3.18)
② The joint length of steel sheet piles should be as long as possible, from the point of view of maintaining the
integrity of the sheet piles. However, taking into consideration damage to the joints during construction, the
joints do not normally extend to the bottoms of the sheet piles. Normally the bottom end of the joint is at the
depth where the active earth pressure strength and the passive earth pressure strength are equal, or is continuous
to the virtual fixity point (1/β, refer to the virtual fixing point shown in Chapter 5, 5.2.2 Setting of Basic Cross-
section), and is frequently 2–3m below the seabed surface. If the residual water level difference is large, the
joint length of steel sheet piles should be determined taking the piping phenomenon into account. The top end
of the joint is often extended up to 30–40cm above the bottom surface of the superstructure.
③ When U-shaped Steel sheet pile is subjected to bending, there is a possibility that vertical slip occur at joints
which locate at the center of the wall. In this case, the U-shaped steel sheet piles will not act integrally with the
adjacent sheet piles. In this situation the section modulus and the geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-
section calculated assuming the steel sheet piles act integrally in the wall may not be obtained. Methods for
evaluating the effect of this slip in the joints include the method of reducing the cross-section performance by
multiplying by a joint efficiency coefficient.55), 56)
(5) Verification of Stresses in the Tie Members under Permanent Situation and Variable Situations in respect of Level
1 earthquake ground motion
① Analysis of stresses in the tie members may be carried out using the following equation. In the following
equation, the subscript d indicates the design value.
(2.3.19)
where,
σ y : yield stress in tension in the tie member (N/mm 2)
Td : tension force in tie member (N)
A : cross-sectional area of tie member (mm2)
Equation (2.3.18) may be used for calculating the design value of tensile yield stress of the tie member in the
equation. For the design value of the tension force in the tie member, refer to ② Tension force of tie member,
below.
② Tension force of tie member
(a) The tension acting on a tie member can be calculated based on the reaction at tie installation point calculated
in accordance with (3) Flexural Moment of Sheet Pile and Reaction at Tie Member Installation Point
above. In this case, the reaction at tie member installation point should be calculated by taking the rigidity
of the sheet pile wall cross section into consideration. Take note that the tie member tension force that is
calculated in accordance with (3) Flexural Moment of Sheet Pile and Reaction at Tie Member Installation
Point above is the tension force per meter of quaywall length. Tie members are usually installed at fixed
intervals, and in some cases, tie members may be attached at a certain angle with the line perpendicular to the
sheet pile wall to avoid the existing structure located behind the wall. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate
the tie member tension force considering these site conditions.
(b) The tension force that acts on a tie member is generally calculated by equation (2.3.20). In the equation below,
subscript d stands for the design value.
(2.3.20)
where
T : tension force of tie member (kN)
– 732 –
Ap : reaction at the tie member installation point (kN/m)
 : tie member installation interval (m)
θ : inclination angle of tie member to the line perpendicular to the sheet pile wall (°)
(c) In some cases, bollards are installed on the coping of a sheet pile wall and the tractive forces of ships acting
on the bollards are transmitted to the tie members. Usually, the coping is assumed to be a beam with the
tie members as elastic supports and the tie member tension force may be calculated using equation (2.3.21),
assuming that the tractive force is evenly shared by four tie members near a bollard. In the equation below,
subscript d stands for the design value.
(2.3.21)
where
T : tension force acting in the tie member (kN)
Ap : reaction force at the installation point of the tie member (kN/m)
 : spacing of installation of tie members (m)
θ : inclination angle of tie member in perpendicular to the sheet pile wall and the tie member (°)
P : horizontal component of the tractive force of ship acting on a bollard (kN)
Refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.4 Actions due to Traction by Ships for details on tractive forces of ships.
③ Tie rods
(a) For the yield stress of tie rods, refer to Table 2.3.2.
(b) The tensile stress in the tie rod is calculated using the cross-section from which the amount of corrosion has
been deducted. For the amount of corrosion, refer to Part II, Chapter 11, 2.3.2 Corrosion Rates of Steel.
④ Tie wires
Instead of tie rods, so–called tie wire may be used, that is made from hardened steel wire having characteristics
equivalent to hardened steel wire (JIS G 3506), or PC steel wire having characteristics equivalent to piano wire
(JIS G 3502).
Table 2.3.2 Characteristics of Tie Rod Materials
Rupture strength Yield stress Elongation Yield stress / rupture

Type
(N/mm 2) (N/mm 2) (%) strength
(dia. 40mm or less)
SS400 ≥ 402 ≥ 24 0.58
≥ 235
(dia. > 40mm)
≥ 24 0.53
≥ 215
(dia. 40mm or less)
SS490 ≥ 490 ≥ 21 0.56
≥ 275
(dia. > 40mm)
≥ 21 0.52
≥ 255
High tensile strength
≥ 490 ≥ 325 ≥ 24 0.66
steel 490
≥ 590 ≥ 390 ≥ 22 0.66
steel 590
≥ 690 ≥ 440 ≥ 20 0.64
steel 690
≥ 740 ≥ 540 ≥ 18 0.73
steel 740
(6) Verification of Stresses in Wale

① Analysis of stresses in waling may be carried out using the following equation. In the following equation, the
subscript d indicates the design value. In the equation, all the partial factors except the structural analysis factor
may be taken to be 1.0. The structural analysis factor may be taken to be 1.4 for the permanent situations, and
1.12 for the variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion.
– 733 –
(2.3.22)
where,
σ y : bending yield stress in the waling (N/mm 2)
Mmax : maximum flexural moment in the waling (Nmm/m)
Z : section modulus of the waling (mm3)
Equation (2.3.18) may be used to calculate the design value of bending yield stress of the waling in the
equation. For the calculation of the maximum flexural moment in the waling, refer to ② below.
② Various equations for calculating the maximum flexural moment of wale have been proposed. The moment,
however, should be determined according to conditions at the site so that the cross section is safe and economical.
In general, the maximum flexural moment of wale may be calculated using equation (2.3.23). In the equation
below, subscript d stands for the design value.
(2.3.23)
where
: maximum flexural moment of wale (kN·m)
T : tension force of a tie member calculated in accordance with (5) ② Tension force of tie member
(kN)
 : tie rod installation interval (m)
This equation is obtained by analyzing a three–span continuous beam supported at the tie member installation
points and subjected to the reaction at the tie installation point (Ap) as a uniformly distributed load.
③ When bollards are installed on the coping, it is necessary to verify the performance of the wale near one of the
bollards using a tie member tension force that takes into consideration the tractive force of ship in accordance
with (5) ② Tension force of tie member above. However, when the wale is embedded into the coping, the
effect of the tractive force of ship may be ignored.
(7) Analysis of Slip Failure in the Ground under permanent situations
For analysis of slip failure in the ground of sheet piles quaywalls, refer to analysis of slip failure in the ground in
2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls. In this case, the analysis is carried out for circular slip failures passing below the
bottom of the sheet pile wall. Standard values of the partial factors used in the performance verification are shown
in Table 2.3.3.
(8) Partial Factors for permanent situations and variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion
① Partial factors for the standard system failure probabilities for the embedment length of sheet pile walls, sheet
pile wall stresses, tie rod stresses, and circular slip failure for sheet pile quaywalls under permanent situations
are shown in Table 2.3.3(a). Based on the average safety level for design methods of the past, the average system
reliability index for stability of wall structures is 5.6 or when converted into a failure probability 9.9×10 –9, the
average reliability index for circular slip failure is 6.0 or when converted into a failure probability 9.2×10 –10.
When the expected total cost expressed by the sum of the initial construction cost and the expected value of
the restoration cost due to collapse is taken into consideration, the system reliability index that minimizes the
expected total cost is 3.6 or when converted into a failure probability 1.7×10 –4 for high earthquake-resistance
facilities, and 2.7 or when converted into a failure probability 4.0×10 – for other quaywalls.358)
– 734 –
(a) Permanent situations (No. 1)
High earthquake-resistance Other than High earthquake-

facilities resistance facilities
Target system reliability index βT 3.6 2.7
Target system reliability index βT 1.7×10 –4 4.0×10 –3
γ γ µ/X k V γ α µ/X k V
γ tanφ’ Tangent of the angle of 0.65 1.000 1.00 0.100 0.75 1.000 1.000 0.100
shearing resistance
Sandy soil ground
γc’ Cohesion 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.100 1.00 0.000 1.000 0.100
γw’ Effective unit weight 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.050 1.00 0.000 1.000 0.050
Embedment length of sheet pile walls
γδ Wall surface friction angle 0.90 0.300 1.00 0.100 0.90 0.300 1.000 0.100
γq Surcharge 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
γ RWL Residual water level 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.050 1.00 0.000 1.000 0.050
γa Structural analysis factor 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
γ tanφ’ Tangent of the angle of 0.70 0.820 1.00 0.100 0.80 0.820 1.000 0.100
shearing resistance
Cohesive soil ground
γc’ Cohesion 0.75 0.700 1.00 0.100 0.80 0.700 1.000 0.100
γw’ Effective unit weight 1.05 –0.190 1.00 0.050 1.05 –0.190 1.000 0.050
γq Surcharge 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
γ tanφ ‘ Tangent of the angle of 0.75 0.760 1.00 0.100 0.85 0.760 1.000 0.100
shearing resistance
γc’ Cohesion 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.100 1.00 0.000 1.000 0.100
Sandy soil ground
γq Surcharge 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
γσ y
Sheet pile wall stresses
SY295，SY390，SKY490 1.00 0.720 1.20 0.065 1.00 0.720 1.200 0.065

γσ y SKY 400 1.00 0.720 1.26 0.073 1.00 0.720 1.260 0.073
γ tanφ ‘ Tangent of the angle of 0.80 0.500 1.00 0.100 0.85 0.500 1.00 0.100
shearing resistance
γc’ Cohesion 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.100 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.100
Cohesive soil ground
γq Surcharge 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
γσ y SY295，SY390，SKY490 0.90 1.000 1.20 0.065 1.00 1.000 1.20 0.065
γσ y SKY400 0.95 1.000 1.26 0.073 1.00 1.000 1.26 0.073
γσ y HT690 0.60 0.750 1.13 0.070 0.65 0.750 1.13 0.070
Stresses in tie members
Sandy soil
ground
γσ y SS400 0.65 0.750 1.26 0.073 0.70 0.750 1.26 0.073

γa Structural analysis 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
coefficient
γσ y HT690 0.55 0.940 1.13 0.070 0.60 0.940 1.13 0.070
soil ground
Cohesive
γσ y SS400 0.65 0.940 1.26 0.073 0.70 0.940 1.26 0.073

– 735 –
Table 2.3.3　Standard Partial Factors
(a) Permanent situations (No. 2)
High earthquake-resistance Other than high earthquake-

facilities resistance facilities
γ α µ/X k V γ α µ/X k V
γc’ Soil strength: cohesion 0.90 0.309 1.00 0.040 0.90 0.329 1.00 0.040
Soil strength: tangent of the angle
γ tanφ’ 0.90 0.398 1.00 0.040 0.90 0.396 1.00 0.040
of shearing resistance
γ w1 Unit weight of soils above the seabed

1.10 –0.259 1.00 0.030 1.10 –0.271 1.00 0.030
surface
γ w2 Unit weight of sandy soil strata
0.90 0.314 1.00 0.030 0.90 0.312 1.00 0.030
below the seabed surface
γ w3 Unit weight of cohesive soil strata below
1.00 0.000 1.00 0.030 1.00 0.000 1.00 0.030
the seabed surface
γq Surcharges 1.70 –0.467 1.00 0.400 1.60 –0.487 1.00 0.400
γ RWL Residual water level 1.10 –0.040 1.00 0.050 1.10 –0.040 1.00 0.050
*1: α: sensitivity factor, µ/X k: deviation of average value (average value / characteristic value), V: coefficient of variation.
*2: It is necessary to determine which is governing in the soil composition of the foundations under consideration, the sandy soil strata or the
cohesive soil strata, and use the partial factors appropriate for sandy soil ground or cohesive soil ground. For example, if it is determined
that the sandy soil strata are governing (sandy soil ground), when there is a thin stratum of cohesive soil, verification is carried out using
the partial factor for the cohesion of a sandy soil ground.
*3: σy indicates the yield strength of the steel material, and the partial factors are selected in accordance with the type of steel used.
*4: The design value of the tension force in the tie member is calculated from the design value of tie member installation point reaction
obtained from the verification of stresses in the sheet piles.
*5: The angle of shearing resistance φ' when calculating earth pressure is obtained from φ'=arctan(γ tanφ'･tanφ'k).
*6: For applying the partial factors to circular slip failure, refer to the points of caution given in Chapter 2, 3 Slope Stability, 3.1(7) Partial
Factors.

All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γ tanφ’ Tangent of the angle of shearing resistance 1.00 – – –
Embedment length of sheet
γc’ Cohesion 1.00 – – –

Sandy soil ground
γ w’ Effective unit weight 1.00 – – –

piled walls
γδ Wall surface friction angle 1.00 – – –

γq Surcharge 1.00 – – –
γ RWL Residual water level 1.00 – – –
γk h Seismic coefficient for verification 1.00 – – –
γ tanφ’ Tangent of the angle of shearing resistance 1.00 – – –
γc’ Cohesion 1.00 – – –
Stresses of sheet piled walls
γ w’ Unit weight 1.00 – – –

Sandy soil ground

γp Tractive forces (during traction by ships) 1.00 – – –
γ RWL Residual water level 1.00 – – –
γσ y Steel material yield stress 1.00 – – –
γσ y Steel material yield strength 1.00 – – –
Stresses in tie
members γa Structural analysis factor 1.67 – – –
*1: T he design value of the tension force in the tie member is calculated from the design value of the tie member installation point reaction
obtained from the verification of sheet piling stresses.
– 736 –
② It is necessary to determine which is dominant in the soil composition of the ground under consideration, the
sandy soil strata or the cohesive soil strata ground, and use the partial factors as appropriate. For example, if it
is determined that the sandy soil strata are dominant, when there is a thin stratum of cohesive soil, verification
is carried out using the partial factor for the cohesion of a sandy soil ground.
Regarding the partial factors of quaywalls other than high earthquake-resistance facilities, calculations shall
be carried out using a partial factor of 1.0 or higher for the steel material yield stress for the stresses in sheet
pile walls in sandy soil ground. For the performance verification of facilities other than ports, there are no
examples of the use of design values of the steel material yield strength greater than the JIS specification values.
Therefore, in setting the partial factors, the partial factor for the tangent of the angle of shearing resistance with
a large sensitivity factor is set to a value larger than the value calculated from a reliability analysis. In this way
the flexural moment in the sheet pile wall is reduced, and a correction is carried out so that the partial factor of
the steel material strength is 1.0.
③ In the verification of sheet piled quaywalls, it is necessary to take into consideration both the active and passive
earth pressure. Also, there are approaches that do not necessarily evaluate the resistance on the passive side
as earth pressure and rather evaluate as a beam on an elastic foundation, so partial factors are not provided for
earth pressure in Table 2.3.3.
(9) Performance Verification of Anchorages for Sheet Pile Quaywalls on Variable Situations in respect of Level 1
① Location of anchorage work
(a) In principle, the location of the anchorage work shall need to be set at an appropriate distance from the sheet
pile wall to ensure the structural stability of the main body of the wall and anchorage, depending on the
characteristics of the anchorage work. Normally, the further the position of installation of the anchorage work
from the surface of the sheet pile wall, the more effective in restraining deformation of the sheet pile wall
during an earthquake.59)
(b) The location of the anchorage work should be determined appropriately in consideration of the structural type
of the anchorage work, because the stability of the anchorage work itself is affected by its position and the
location at which the stability is achieved varies depending on the structural type.
(c) The location of concrete wall anchorage is preferably determined to ensure that the active failure plane starting
from the intersection of sea bottom and sheet pile wall and the passive failure plane of the slab anchorage
drawn from the bottom of the anchorage do not intersect below the ground surface as shown in Fig. 2.3.15.
(d) The location of vertical pile anchorage is preferably determined to ensure that the passive failure plane from
the point of lm1/3 below the tie member installation point of the anchorage and the active failure plane
from the intersection of sea bottom and sheet piles do not intersect at the level below the horizontal surface
containing the tie member installation point at the anchorage as shown in Fig. 2.3.16. The value of  m1 is the
depth of the first zero point of flexural moment for a free–head pile below the tie member installation point,
while the horizontal surface containing the installation point of tie member at the anchorage is assumed as the
ground surface.
Tie member
W.L. Slab anchorage
Residual
Sheet pile
water level Passive

failure plane
Active
failure plane
Fig. 2.3.15 Location of Slab Anchorage Works
– 737 –
Tie member
W.L. m1
Sheet pile
Residual water 3
level
Passive
failure plane
Vertical
Active pile anchorage
failure plane
Fig. 2.3.16 Location of Vertical Pile Anchorage
(e) The location of sheet pile anchorage may be determined in accordance with the location of vertical pile when
the sheet piles can be regarded as a long pile. When the sheet piles cannot be regarded as a long pile, the
location of anchorage may be determined by ignoring the part deeper than the level  m1/2 below the tie member
installation point at the sheet pile anchorage and then applying the method of the location determination of
concrete wall anchorage.
(f) For the method to obtain the first zero point of the flexural moment of the vertical pile anchorage and sheet pile
anchorage and the method to determine whether a sheet pile anchorage can be considered as a long pile, refer
to Port and Harbour Research Institute’s method described in Part III, Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile Foundations, 2.4
.5 Estimation of Pile Behavior using Analytical Methods.
(g) For ordinary sheet pile quaywalls whose tie members run horizontally, an angle of –15º may be used as
the wall friction angle in the determination of the passive failure plane that is drawn from the vertical pile
anchorage or sheet pile anchorage.
(h) The location of coupled-pile anchorage should be behind the active failure plane of the sheet pile wall drawn
from the sea bottom when it is assumed that the tension of the tie member is resisted only by the axial bearing
capacity of the piles as shown in Fig. 2.3.17. When the tension of the tie member is evaluated to be resisted
by both the axial and lateral bearing capacity in consideration of the bending resistance of the piles, it is
necessary to locate the anchorage in accordance with the location of the vertical pile.
(i) The partial factors used in determining the position of the anchorage work may all be taken to be 1.0.
Tie member
W.L.
Residual
Sheet pile
water level
Active
failure plane
Coupled-pile
anchorage
Fig. 2.3.17 Position of Coupled-Pile Anchorage
② Examination of the stability of slab anchorage

(a) The height and placing depth of slab anchorage may be determined to satisfy equation (2.3.24), on the
assumption that the tie member tension force and the active earth pressure behind the slab anchorage are
resisted by the passive earth pressure in front of the slab anchorage as shown in Fig. 2.3.18. In the following
equations, symbol γ represents the partial factor for its subscript, and subscripts d and k respectively stand
for the design value and the characteristic value. In the examination for the stability of the slab anchorage,
when calculating the reaction at the tie member installation point using the partial factor associated with the
verification of sheet pile stress in Table 2.3.3, the partial factor can be set at 2.1 when the structural analysis
factor is at permanent situation and 2.0 when it is at variable situation in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground
motion.
(2.3.24)
– 738 –
where
EP : resultant passive earth pressure acting on slab anchorage (N/m)
AP : reaction at the tie member installation point calculated according to (3) Flexural Moment of
Sheet Pile and Reaction at Tie Member Installation Point above, using the partial factor
associated with the verification of sheet pile stress in Table 2.3.3 (N/m)
EA : resultant active earth pressure acting on slab anchorage (N/m)
The design values in the equation may be calculated from the following equation. However, for calculating
the earth pressure acting on a slab anchored, normally it is assumed that the surcharge act as shown in Fig.
2.3.18, with active earth pressure considered and passive earth pressure not considered.
= 1.2 (Permanent situations), 1.0 (Variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion)
= 1.0 (Permanent situations, variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion)
= 1.0 (Permanent situations, variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground

motion)

(2.3.25)
q: Surcharge
KA
Kp
Ap
Ep EA
Fig. 2.3.18 Forces Acting on Slab Anchorage
(b) The wall surface friction angle used in calculating the earth pressure is normally assumed to be 15° in the
case of active earth pressure and 0° in the case of passive earth pressure. However, in the case of a dead man
anchor, an upward acting tension force acts on the anchored, so the wall surface friction force acts upwards,
which is the opposite of the normal case of passive earth pressure, and the passive earth pressure will be
reduced. In this case the wall surface friction angle is normally assumed to be 15°.
(c) When the active failure plane of the sheet pile and the passive failure plane of the slab anchorage drawn
in accordance with ① Location of anchorage work above intersect below the ground surface level, it
is preferable to consider the fact that the passive earth pressure acting on the vertical surface above the
intersection point does not function as a resistance force as shown in Fig. 2.3.19; it should be subtracted from
the design value of EP of equation (2.3.24). When the intersection point is located above the residual water
level, the passive earth pressure to be subtracted may be calculated using equation (2.3.26) In the following
equation, the subscript d indicates the design value.
(2.3.26)
where
w : weight of soil (kN/m 2)
hf : depth from the ground surface to the intersection of the failure planes (m)
– 739 –
K P : coefficient of passive earth pressure
The design value wd for the weight of soil is expressed as the product of the design value for the unit weight
of the soil layer under review and the depth hf from the ground surface to the intersection of the failure planes.
Pass
ce ive
failu
u rfa re su
es rfac
e
ur
ail
ef
tiv
Ac
to be deducted(∆ Ep)
Fig. 2.3.19 Earth Pressure to be subtracted from the Passive Earth Pressure that Acts on Anchorage Wall when the
Active Failure Plane of Sheet Pile Wall and the Passive Failure Plane of Slab Anchorage Intersect
(d) Cross section of slab anchorage

Slab anchorage should have stability against the flexural moment caused by the earth pressure and the tie
member tension. In general, the maximum flexural moment may be calculated by assuming that the earth
pressure is approximated to an equally distributed load and the slab anchorage is a continuous slab in the
horizontal direction and a cantilever slab fixed at the tie member installation point in the vertical direction,
and then using equation (2.3.27). In the following equation, the subscript d indicates the design value.
(2.3.27)
where
MH : horizontal maximum flexural moment (N·m)
MV : vertical maximum flexural moment per meter in length (N·m /m)
T : tie member tension according to (5) Verification of Stress in Tie Members under Permanent
Situation and Variable Situation in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion (N)
 : tie member interval (m)
h : height of slab anchorage (m)
The layout of the reinforcing bars for MH may be determined on the assumption that the effective width
of the slab anchorage is 2b with the tie member installation point as the center, where b is the thickness of
the slab anchorage at the tie member installation point.
③ Examination of stability of vertical pile anchorage

(a) Vertical pile anchorage may be verified for performance as vertical piles subjected to a horizontal force due
to tie member tension.
(b) For the partial factors used in the performance verification, refer to ⑤ Partial factors.
④ Examination of stability of coupled-pile anchorage
(a) Coupled-pile anchorage may be verified for performance as coupled piles subjected to a horizontal force due
to tie member tension.
(b) For the partial factors used in the performance verification, refer to ⑤ Partial factors.
⑤ Partial factors
For standard partial factors for use in the verification of the stability of vertical piles and coupled piles as
anchorage for the permanent situations and variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion
– 740 –
adopted for sheet pile quaywalls, refer to the values in Table 2.3.4. Partial factors are determined taking into
consideration the setting of design methods of the past.

(a) Permanent situations
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γk s ， γk c Lateral resistance coefficient 1.00 – – –
Vertical pile γσ y Steel yield strength 1.00 – – –
Stress
anchorage
γw Weight of superstructure 1.00 – – –
γ ws Weight of soil on superstructure 1.00 – – –
Stress
γkch Modulus of subgrade lateral reaction 1.00 – – –
γσ y Steel yield strength 1.00 – – –
Coupled
pile γa Structural analysis factor 1.45 – – –
anchorage γc’ Cohesion 1.00 – – –
γN N-value 1.00 – – –
Axial
resistance Pull-out piles 0.40 – – –
force γRu Resistance force
Push-in piles 0.45 – – –
*1: The design value of tie tension force is calculated from the design value of tie member installation point reaction obtained from the
verification of stresses in the sheet pile.
*2: The design value of the pile axial forces used in analysis of bearing forces in coupled-pile anchorage is obtained from the verification of
stresses in the coupled piles.
*3: The N-values and cohesion when calculating the characteristic value of resistance force used in analysis of bearing forces in coupled– pile
anchorage are characteristic values.
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γk s，γkc Lateral resistance coefficient 1.00 – – –
Vertical
pile Stress γσ y Yield strength of steel 1.00 – – –
anchorage γa Structural analysis factor 1.12 – – –
γw Weight of superstructure 1.00 – – –
γ ws Weight of soil on superstructure 1.00 – – –
Stress
γkch Modulus of subgrade lateral reaction 1.00 – – –
γσ y Yield strength of steel 1.00 – – –
Coupled γa Structural analysis factor 1.12 – – –
pile
anchorage γc’ Cohesion 1.00 – – –
γN N-value 1.00 – – –
Bearing Pull-out piles 0.40 – – –
forces Resistance
γRu Push-in End bearing piles 0.66 – – –
force
piles Friction piles 0.50 – – –
*1: The design value of tie tension force is calculated from the design value of tie member installation point reaction obtained from the
verification of stresses in the sheet pile.
*2: The design value of the pile axial forces used in analysis of bearing forces in anchored coupled piles is obtained from the verification
of stresses in the coupled piles.
*3: The N-values and cohesion when calculating the characteristic value of resistance force used in analysis of bearing forces in coupled
pile anchorage are characteristic values.
– 741 –
⑥ Examination of stability of sheet pile anchorage

(a) When the sheet pile anchorage below the tie member installation point is long enough to be regarded as a long
pile, the cross section of the sheet pile anchorage may be determined in accordance with ③ Examination of
stability of vertical pile anchorage above.
(b) Sheet piles anchorage that cannot be regarded as a long pile may be verified in accordance with ② Examination
of stability of slab anchorage above on the assumption that the earth pressure acts on a range down to  m1/2
point below the tie member installation point, as shown in Fig. 2.3.30. The length  m1 is the vertical distance
from the tie member installation point to the first zero point of the flexural moment of sheet piles assuming
that the sheet pile anchorage is a long pile.
Fig. 2.3.20 Virtual Earth Pressure for Short Sheet Pile Anchorage
(10) Verification of Ground Motions by Dynamic Analysis Methods

① For performance verification of sheet pile quaywalls for ground motions by dynamic analysis methods, refer
to (9) Performance Verification for Ground Motions (detailed methods) in 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls,
2.2.3 Performance Verification. However, for sheet pile quaywalls the stress distribution in the soil varies
depending on the construction process, so it is necessary to select an analysis method capable of reproducing
the stress distribution in the soil before the earthquake.
② For the accidental situations in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, the standard limit values when
carrying out the performance verification for the amount of deformation may be appropriately calculated by
reference to 1.4 Standard Concept of Allowable Deformation of High Earthquake-resistance Facilities for
Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
(11) Performance Verification of Superstructures
① Superstructure may be verified as a cantilever beam that is fixed at the top of the sheet pile and subjected to
the earth pressure as an action. However, it is necessary to consider the tractive forces of ships and the active
earth pressure behind the wall for the parts on which bollards are installed and the fender reaction force and the
passive earth pressure behind the wall for the parts on which fenders are installed. The only factor that should
be considered with regard to conditions during an earthquake is the active earth pressure.
② The tractive forces of ships and fender reactions may be applied as shown in Fig. 2.3.21 assumed to be acting
over a width b of the superstructure as shown in Fig. 2.3.21(b). In this case, normally when considering the
tractive forces, a surcharge shall be considered in the active earth pressure calculation, and when applying the
fender reactions the passive earth pressure surcharge shall not be considered. The wall surface friction angle
may be taken to be 15° for active earth pressure and 0° for passive earth pressure. For tractive forces of ships
and fender reactions, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2 Actions Caused by Ships.
– 742 –
P P/b
Permanent states of
active earth pressure
(b)
b=4l
b : width of action of tractive force (m)
l : tie member interval (m)
(a) P : tractive force of ship (N)
Fig. 2.3.21 Tractive Forces of Ships Acting on the Superstructure
(1) Installation of Sheet Piles, Ties, and Waling

① Waling is normally installed sandwiching tie members, and fixed to the sheet pile with bolts or similar. If waling
is installed to the rear of the sheet pile, the cross-section of the fastening bolts can be determined from equation
(2.3.28). However, if not embedded in the coping, it is necessary to consider a corrosion allowance. In the
following equation, the symbol γ is the partial factor for the subscript, and the subscript d indicates the design
value.
(2.3.28)
where,
A : bolt cross-sectional area (cm2)
Ap : reaction at tie member installation point obtained from the above 2.3.4(3) Flexural Moment of
Sheet Piles and Reaction at Tie Member Installation Point (N/m)
w : spacing of sheet pile fastened to the waling (m), when installed at one position intermediate
between tie members, equivalent to a half of the tie member spacing
n : number of bolts at one location (No.)
σ y : tensile yield stress of bolt (N/cm 2)
In the equation, all the partial factors except the structural analysis factor may be taken to be 1.0. If
intermediate bolts are used, the structural analysis factor may be taken to be 2.5 for permanent situations, and
1.67 for variable situations in respect of the Level 1 earthquake ground motion. Also, equation (2.3.18) may
be used to calculate the design value of the tensile yield stress of the steel material.
(2) Tie Member

Tie member tension force obtained in 2.3.4 (5) ② Tension force of tie member must be transmitted safely to the
anchorage work. When bending stress caused by the settlement of backfill soil is anticipated, this should be taken
into consideration.
(3) Installation of Anchorages and Tie Members
① A continuous beam along the face line of quaywall is usually constructed on top of the anchorage piles, and
the tie members are attached to the beam. This beam may be verified for performance as a continuous beam
subjected to the tie member tension force and the reaction force of the piles.
– 743 –
2.4 Cantilevered Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Sheet Pile Quaywalls
Article 50
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of cantilevered sheet
piles shall be such that the risk in which the amount of deformation of the top of the pile may exceed the
allowable limit of deformation is equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent action
situations in which the dominant action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which
the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing, and traction by ships.
[Technical Note]
(1) The performance verification methods described here apply to sheet pile walls driven into sandy soil ground, and
are not applicable to cohesive soil ground.
(2) An example of the sequence of performance verification of cantilevered sheet pile quaywalls is shown in Fig.
2.4.1.
– 744 –
Assumption of cross-section dimensions

*1

Permanent situations, variable situations of Level 1
earthquake ground motion and action of ships
Determination of embedment length of sheet pile
Permanent situations,
variable situations of action of ships
Verification of deformation of top of sheet pile by simple method
Permanent situations, variable situations in respect

of Level 1 earthquake ground motion and
action of ships
Verification of stresses in sheet pile wall
*2
Variable situations in respect of
Examination of deformation by dynamic analysis, etc.
*3
Permanent situations
Examination of circular slips failure, settlement
*1: Evaluation of the effect of liquefaction is not shown, so it is necessary to consider these separately.
*2: When necessary, an examination of the amount of deformation by dynamic analysis can be carried out for the Level 1 earthquake ground
motion.
For high earthquake-resistance facilities, it is preferable that examination of the amount of deformation be carried out by dynamic
analysis.
Fig. 2.4.1 Example of Sequence of Performance Verification for Cantilevered Sheet Pile Quaywalls
– 745 –
(3) Fig. 2.4.2 shows an example of a cross-section of a cantilevered sheet pile quaywall.
Curbing Bollard
Rubber fender Apron
H.W.L.
Backfill soil
(Crest height of steel pipe pile) Pavement curb
L.W.L.
Backfill rock
Original ground level
Design water depth
Steel pipe pile
Fig. 2.4.2 Example of Cross-section of Cantilevered Sheet Pile Quaywall
2.4.2 Actions
(1) Forces acting on a cantilevered sheet pile wall can refer to 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls.
(2) Where the seabed ground is of sandy soil, a virtual bottom surface is assumed at the elevation where the sum of
the active earth pressure and residual water pressure is equal to the passive earth pressure. It is assumed that the
earth pressure and residual water pressure will act on the part of cantilevered sheet pile wall above such the virtual
bottom surface, as illustrated in Fig. 2.4.3.

L.W.L
Active earth pressure +

Sea bottom
Difference between Virtual

(active earth pressure + bottom surface
residual water pressure)
and (passive earth pressure)
Fig. 2.4.3 Determination of Virtual Bottom Surface
(3) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in the performance verification of cantilevered
sheet piled quaywalls under the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be
appropriately calculated taking the structural characteristics into account. For convenience, the characteristic
value of the seismic coefficient for verification of cantilevered sheet piled quaywalls may be calculated as the sheet
piled quaywalls with vertical pile anchorage, in 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls, 2.3.2(9) Seismic Coefficient used in
Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Pile Anchorage for Variable Situations in respect of
– 746 –
(1) Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Walls

① The maximum flexural moment in a sheet pile wall shall be calculated appropriately by using an analysis
method corresponding to the mechanical behavior characteristics of the wall. The maximum flexural moment
in a sheet pile wall is normally calculated by the PHRI method concerning the lateral resistance of piles.
② The lateral resistance of pile can be calculated in accordance with 2.4.5[4] Estimation of Pile Behavior using
Analytical Methods in this Part, Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile Foundations.
③ When steel pipes are used as sheet piles, the secondary stress often develops in steel pipes of a sheet pile wall
due to the deformation of the steel pipe cross section (i.e. a circular cross section is deformed into an elliptic
one) that is caused by the earth and residual water pressure. Cantilevered sheet pile walls are the structures tend
to experience large displacement, and there is a risk about such walls that a relatively high secondary stress may
develop in the areas around the point where the flexural moment becomes maximum. The larger the diameter
of the steel pipe, the higher the level of secondary stress becomes. In such a case, therefore, it is preferable to
perform examination of strength against the secondary stress. The secondary stress of a steel pipe is calculated
using equation (2.4.1).
(2.4.1)
where
σt : secondary stress (N/mm 2)
p : earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the sheet pile wall (kN/m 2)
D : diameter of pipe (mm)
t : plate thickness of pipe (mm)
α : coefficient

The coefficient α in the equation may be defined by reference to Fig. 2.4.4, taking into consideration the
width of action, foundation conditions and constraint conditions. In this figure, “Sliding” and “Fixed” indicate
the displacement conditions of the joints of the steel pipe pile, in accordance with the ground conditions and
constraint conditions of the sheet piling.
0.25
Sliding
0.20
Load
Coefficient α
2θ 0.15
0.10
Fixed
0.05
0.00
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Width of action θ (˚)
Fig. 2.4.4 Coefficient α
Verification may be carried out using the following equation (2.4.2), based on the axial stress σl in the pile
obtained in accordance with 5.2 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and the secondary stress σt obtained
from equation (2.4.1). In the following, the symbol γ is the partial factor corresponding to the subscript, and the
subscripts k and d indicate the characteristic value and the design value, respectively. The structural analysis
factor may be taken to be 1.2 for permanent situations, and 1.0 for variable situations in respect of Level 1
(2.4.2)
where,
σl : stress due to axial forces in the pile (N/mm2)
– 747 –
σt : secondary stress due to bending moment in the pile (N/mm2)
f yd : design yield stress of the pile (N/mm 2), f yd = f yk /γm
f yk : yield stress of pile (N/mm 2)
γm : material coefficient (= 1.05)
γb : member coefficient (= 1.1)
The design values in the equation may be calculated from the following equation. Also, the partial factors
may be all taken to be 1.0.
(2.4.3)
(2) Examination of Embedded Lengths of Sheet Piles
The embedded length of sheet piles shall be equal to or longer than the effective length of piles that is calculated in
accordance with 2.4.5 Static Maximum Lateral Resistance of Piles in Part II, Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile Foundations.
Because a cantilevered sheet pile wall retains the earth behind the wall in the mechanism same as piles do, the
embedded length of the sheet pile may be calculated in the same way as in the case of a pile. In the PHRI method
for the lateral resistance of piles, the required embedded length is calculated as 1.5  m1, where  m1 represents the
depth of first zero point of the flexural moment of cantilevered pile. It should be noted that the embedded length
calculated here is that measured not from the sea bottom surface, but that measured from the virtual bottom
surface.
– 748 –
2.5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Raking Pile Anchorages

(1) The following is applicable to the performance verification of mooring facilities in which raking piles are driven
behind the sheet pile wall, and the tops of the sheet pile wall and the raking piles are connected to support the soil
behind the sheet pile wall.
(2) An example of the sequence of performance verification of sheet piled quaywalls with raking pile anchorages is
shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
(3) An example of a cross-section of sheet pile quaywalls with raking pile anchorages is shown in Fig. 2.5.2.

*1

of Level 1 earthquake ground motion

and action of ships
Verification of stresses in sheet pile and raking anchorage piles

and action of ships
Verification of bearing capacity of raking piles
*2
Examination of amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Verification of circular slip failure
Determine cross-sectional dimensions
*1: The evaluation of the effect of liquefaction is not shown, it is necessary to consider these separately.
motion.
For high earthquake-resistance facilities, it is preferable that the examination of the amount of deformation be carried out by dynamic
analysis.
*3: Verification in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion is carried out for high earthquake-presistance facilities.
Fig 2.5.1 Example of Sequence of Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Raking Pile Anchorages
– 749 –
H.W.L.
L.W.L.
Sheet pile
Raking anchorage pile
Fig. 2.5.2 Example of Cross-section of Sheet Pile Quaywall with Raking Pile Anchorage
2.5.2 Actions
(1) For the action on sheet piled walls with raking pile anchorages, refer to 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls.
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of sheet pile
quaywalls with raking pile anchorages for the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion
shall be appropriately calculated taking the structural characteristics into consideration. For convenience, the
characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification of sheet pile quaywalls with raking pile anchorages
may be calculated as the sheet pile quaywalls vertical pile anchorage, in 2.3.2(9) Seismic Coefficient used in
Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Pile Anchorage for Variable Situations in respect of
(2) Verification of Stresses in Sheet Pile and Raking Anchorage Piles

① For sheet pile quaywalls with raking pile anchorages, verification may be carried out for the resistance of the
sheet pile and the piles, against the actions in the horizontal and vertical direction at the connection point, earth
pressure and residual water pressure.
② The horizontal and vertical forces acting on the connection point between a sheet pile and a raking pile can be
calculated by assuming that the connection is a pin structure.
(3) Determination of Embedded Lengths of Sheet Pile and Raking Pile
The embedded length of the sheet pile or raking anchorage pile that is required to resist the forces acting in the
axial direction as well as the direction perpendicular to the axis can be calculated in accordance with Part II,
Chapter, 2.4 Pile Foundations. However, it is preferable to examine the bearing capacity in the axial direction
of the sheet pile and that of the raking anchorage pile through loading and pulling tests.

Performance verification of sheet piled quaywalls with raking pile anchorages can apply that of sheet piled quaywalls
and open type wharves on vertical piles. Refer to 2.3.4 Performance Verification, and 5.2.5 Performance Verification
of Structural Members.
– 750 –
2.6 Open-type Quaywall with Sheet Pile Wall Anchored by Forward Batter Piles
(1) The provisions in this section shall be applied to the performance verification of sheet pile quaywalls that are built
by coupling the sheet pile heads with the raking anchorage piles driven in the ground in front of the sheet piles
that retain the earth in the back.
(2) Open-type quaywall with sheet pile wall anchored by foreward batter piles are normally constructed with an
open–type wharf built in front of the sheet pile wall. The open–type wharf may or may not be integrated into
the sheet pile wall, but this section provides guidelines for the cases in which the open–type wharf and sheet pile
wall are integrated. For the cases in which the open–type wharf is not integrated into the sheet pile wall, refer
to 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls, 5.2 Open–Type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and 5.3 Open–Type Wharves on
Coupled Raking Piles. The performance verification method described in this section is based on the sheet pile
performance verification with the equivalent beam method. Therefore, the structural types covered by this section
are steel sheet pile walls driven into a sandy soil ground or a hard clayey soil ground.
(3) An example of the sequence of performance verification of Open-type Quaywall with Sheet Pile Wall Anchored
by Forward Batter Piles is shown in Fig. 2.6.1.
(4) Here, a method of carrying out the performance verification of the sheet piles and the performance verification
of the other piles in three stages is described, as a method of simple verification. Performance verification of
the sheet piles can be carried out in accordance with the methods of performance verification of sheet pile, by
considering the connection points between the raking support piles and the sheet pile to be fulcrums. Next,
the reaction at the connection points between the raking support piles and the sheet pile is considered to be a
horizontal force acting on the piled pier superstructure, and the axial forces acting in the sheet pile and the piles
are calculated in accordance with the performance verification of open type wharves on raking piles. Then, the
sheet pile and the raking support piles are considered to be a rigid frame structure fixed at a virtual fixing point,
and the moments in the top connection points due to earth pressure and other horizontal forces are calculated.
(5) An example of cross-section of open-type quaywall with sheet pile wall anchored by forward batter piles is shown
in Fig. 2.6.2.
– 751 –

*1
Variable situations in respect of action of ships,

surcharge, and Level 1 earthquake ground motion
Verification of stresses in piles
Verification of bearing capacity of piles
*2
Examination of amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Verification of deformation and
piled pier damage by dynamic analysis
Verification of circular slip failure
*1: The evaluation of the effect of liquefaction is not shown, it is necessary to consider these separately.
motion.
For high earthquake-resistance facilities, it is preferable that the examination of the amount of deformation be carried out by dynamic
analysis.
Fig. 2.6.1 Example of Sequence of Performance Verification of

Open-type Quaywall with Sheet Pile Wall Anchored by Forward Batter Piles
– 752 –
Bollard
Fenders
Backfill rocks
Design water depth
Steel pipe pile

Steel pipe pile
Steel sheet pipe pile
Fig. 2.6.2 Example of Cross-section of Open-type Quaywall with Sheet Pile Wall Anchored by Forward Batter Piles
2.6.2 Actions
(1) For the action on the piled pier part, refer to 5.2 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles.
(2) For the action of the sheet pile, refer to 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls.
(3) The self weight of reinforced concrete of the superstructure of open–type wharf can be calculated with a unit
weight of 21kN/m 2 in the performance verification of the vertical and raking piles and sheet piles in accordance
with 5.3 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles.
(4) The fender reaction force can be calculated using calculation methods described in 5.2 Open-Type Wharves on
Vertical Piles.
(5) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of open-type
quaywall with sheet pile wall anchored by foreward batter piles for the variable situations in respect of Level 1
earthquake ground motion shall be appropriately calculated taking the structural characteristics into consideration.
For convenience, the characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification
of open-type quaywall with sheet pile wall anchored by foreward batter piles may be calculated in accordance
with 5.2 Open Type Wharf on Vertical Piles, 5.2.3(10) Ground Motion used in Performance Verification of
Seismic–resistant.
2.6.3 Layout and Dimensions
(1) Refer to the size of deck block and layout of piles described in 5.2 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles for the
size of one block of the superstructure and layout of piles.
(2) It is preferable that layout and inclination of the raking piles are determined in consideration of their positional
relationship with other piles and construction work–related constraints such as those concerning the capacity of
pile driving equipment. A pile inclination of about 20º is normally used for raking piles.
(3) For the dimensions of the superstructure, refer to dimensions of superstructure in 5.2 Open-Type Wharves on
Vertical Piles.
(1) Performance verification of the sheet pile wall may be carried out considering the connection point between the
raking support pile and the sheet pile as fulcrums. Refer to 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls.
– 753 –
(2) For the earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the sheet pile, the connection point between the raking
support pile and the sheet pile may be considered to be a fulcrum reaction.
(3) If it is necessary to carry out verification of rotation of the piled pier block, this shall be appropriately
considered.
(4) Performance Verification of the Piled Pier Part
① For the performance verification of the piled pier part, refer to 5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and
5.3 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles.
② For assumptions regarding the seabed, refer to assumptions regarding the seabed in 5.2 Open–type Wharves
on Vertical Piles. For the horizontal resistance of piles, estimation of the behavior of the piles may be carried
out using the method of Y. L. Chang.
③ The vertical loads distributed to the pile heads can be calculated as the fulcrum reaction forces under the
assumption that the superstructure of open–type wharf is a simple beam supported at the positions of pile heads.
The axial forces on the raking pile and sheet pile should be calculated according to equation (2.4.60) in 2.4.5[6]
Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles in Part III, Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile Foundations using the horizontal
force on the quaywall and the vertical load distributed to pile heads. For the axial force of a vertical pile, the
vertical load distributed to the pile head may be used.
④ The flexural moment at the connection of the raking pile and the sheet pile may be calculated as the moment due
to the earth pressure, residual water pressure and other horizontal forces, by assuming that the raking and sheet
piles constitute a rigid frame fixed at the virtual fixed point.
(5) Examination of embedded length with respect to the axial force, and examination of the embedded length with
respect to the lateral resistance can be made in accordance with 5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles.
(1) The performance verification for structural members of sheet pile wall anchored by forword batter piles can be
made by referring to the provisions in 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls and 5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles.
(2) The connecting point of the sheet pile wall and raking pile need to be structured so that the load transmission
functions adequately.
(3) The superstructure of open–type wharf shall be structured so that it fully withstands the flexural moment
transmitted from the sheet pile wall.
(4) The connecting point between the sheet pile wall and raking pile must have sufficient reinforcement, because
breakage or damage at the connecting point could lead to the collapse of the entire quaywall. The flexural moment
generated in the head of the sheet pile is transmitted to the superstructure of open–type wharf. Therefore, this
flexural moment need to be taken into consideration in the performance verification of the superstructure.
– 754 –
2.7 Double Sheet Pile Quaywalls

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Double Sheet Pile Quaywalls
Article 50
3 In addition to the provisions in the first paragraph, the performance criteria of double sheet pile structures
shall be as specified in the subsequent items
(1) The risk of occurrence of sliding of the structural body shall be equal to or less than the threshold level
under the permanent action situations in which the dominant action is earth pressure and under the
variable action situation in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(2) The risk that the deformation of the top of the front or rear sheet pile may exceed the allowable limit
of deformation shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent action situation
in which the dominant action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which the
dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(3) The risk of losing the stability due to shear deformation of the structural body shall be equal to or less
than the threshold level under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is earth
pressure.
[Technical Note]
(1) The following is applicable to the performance verification of mooring facilities that use a double sheet
pile structure.
(2) A double sheet pile quaywall is a mooring facility in which two rows of sheet pile walls are driven and
connected by tie members or similar, then the space between the two walls is backfilled with soil so that
an earth retaining structure is formed.
(3) An example of the cross-section of a double sheet pile quaywall is shown in Fig. 2.7.1.
(4) An example of the sequence of performance verification of double sheet pile quaywalls is shown in Fig.
2.7.2.
line
all face High tensile steel tie rod
Waling Quayw
Waling
Apron
Filling
Paint coating
Steel pipe sheet pile Sand filling Steel pipe sheet pile
Design water depth
Replacement sand
Fig. 2.7.1 Example of the Cross-section of a Double Sheet Pile Quaywall
– 755 –
Provisional assumption of cross-sectional dimensions

*1
Permanent situation
Verification of shear deformation of double sheet pile wall structure
Permanent situations, variable situations of

Permanent situations, and variable situations

and action of ships
Verification of stresses in tie members
Permanent situations, and variable situations

Verification of stresses in waling
Permanent situation, and variable situation of

Verification of sliding of double sheet pile wall structure
*2
Variable situations of Level 1

Analysis of the amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Accidental states of Level 2

Verification of circular slip failure and settlement
*1: The evaluation of the effect of liquefaction is not shown, so this must be separately considered.
*2: Analysis of the amount of deformation due to Level 1 earthquake ground motion may be carried out by dynamic analysis when necessary.
For high earthquake-resistance facilities, analysis of the amount of deformation by dynamic analysis is desirable.
*3: For high earthquake-resistance facilities, verification is carried out for Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
Fig. 2.7.2 Example of the Sequence of Performance Verification of Double Sheet Pile Quaywalls
– 756 –
(5) In the performance verification of double sheet pile quaywalls, the performance verification methods for steel sheet
pile cellular-bulkhead quaywalls or sheet pile quaywalls with sheet pile anchorage have conventionally been applied.
Therefore, when verifying the performance of a double sheet pile quaywall with the conditions that are similar to
those used in existing quaywalls, performance verification methods described in this section may be used.
2.7.2 Actions
(1) For the action on double sheet pile quaywalls, refer to 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded
Sections.
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of double sheet
pile quaywalls for the variable situations of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be appropriately calculated
taking into consideration the structural characteristics. For convenience, the characteristic value of the seismic
coefficient for verification of double sheet pile quaywalls may be calculated in accordance with that for anchored
vertical pile type sheet piled quaywalls, in 2.3.2(9) Performance Verification of Anchorages for Sheet Pile
Quaywalls on Variable Situation in respect of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion.
(1) The examination to determine the width between two sheet pile walls to achieve the required strength against shear
deformation can be made in accordance with 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections.
(2) The calculation of the deformation moment can be made in accordance with 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls
with Embedded Sections.
(3) The calculation of the resistance moment can be made in accordance with 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls
with Embedded Sections. However, the resistance moment due to the frictions at the joints between sheet piles
of the partition walls is not considered normally.
(4) The embedded length of sheet piles is determined as the longer one of either that calculated by the method for sheet
piles having ordinary anchorage referring to examination of embedded lengths of sheet piles in 2.3 Sheet Pile
Quaywalls or that satisfying the allowable limit for horizontal displacement requirement referring to examination
of stability of wall body as a whole and examination of displacement of wall top in 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead
Quaywalls with Embedded Sections
(5) A double sheet pile quaywall can be considered as a kind of gravity wall. Thus it is necessary to verify the
stability against sliding of the quaywall and the overall slope stability including the wall structure, as in the case
of a cellular-bulkhead type quaywall. In the performance verification reference can be made in accordance with
the performance verification described in 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls. Sliding is usually examined either at the
virtual bottom surface which is taken at the sea bottom or the horizontal plane at the toe of the sheet pile wall. In
the former case, the resistance of the sheet pile wall below the sea bottom should be ignored. In the examination
of the overall slope stability including the double sheet pile quaywall, the embedded length of the double sheet pile
quaywall must be compared with the required embedded length calculated for a corresponding single sheet pile
quaywall with anchorage. If the former is found longer than the latter, the resistance of the portion of sheet piles
below the calculated toe of the latter sheet piles should be ignored against the circular slip plane passing the level
below the toe.
(6) Performance verification of the slab and upright section of the superstructure can be made in accordance with the
performance verification of relieving platform in 2.8 Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms. Foundation piles are
sometimes driven into the filling material to support the superstructure. These piles should have sufficient safety
against the horizontal and vertical forces transmitted from the superstructure. Here it is assumed that the vertical
force transmitted from the superstructure is entirely borne by the piles, and the vertical bearing capacity of the pile
is calculated by ignoring the skin friction between the pile and the filling material. The horizontal force that acts
on the superstructure is transmitted to the double sheet pile quaywall partly through the piles and partly through
the sheet piles. Therefore it is necessary to determine appropriate burden shearing of the horizontal force by the
two sections.
(7) When double sheet piled wall structures are used, the amount of deformation may be evaluated by a static method
using Sawaguchi’s method 72) or Ohori’s method.73)
– 757 –
2.8 Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms
Article 51
The performance criteria of quaywalls with relieving platforms shall be as specified in the subsequent
items:
(1) Sheet piles shall have the embedment length as necessary for structural stability and contain the degree
of risk that the stresses in the sheet piles may exceed the yield stress at the level equal to or less than the
under the variable action situation in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
(2) The risk of occurrence of sliding or overturning to the structural body shall be equal to or less than the
under the variable action situation in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions.
action is self weight:
(a) The risk that the axial forces acting in the relieving platform piles may exceed the resistance force
based on failure of the soils shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the relieving platform shall be equal to or less
action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are Level
1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing, and traction by ships:
(a) The risk that the axial forces acting on the relieving platform piles may exceed the resistance force
based on failure of the soils shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk that the stress acting on the relieving platform piles may exceed the yield stress shall be
equal to or less than the threshold level.
(c) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the relieving platform shall be equal to or less
(5) The risk of occurrence of a slip failure in the ground that passes below the bottom end of the sheet
piling shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the permanent action situation in which
the dominant action is self weight.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms

① The performance criteria of quaywalls with relieving platforms shall use the following in accordance
with the design situations and the structure members.
Besides these requirements, when necessary the settings of the Public Notice Article 22 Paragraph
3 (Scouring and Washing Out) shall be applied.
② Sheet pile and Structural Stability
(a) The setting for sheet pile and structural stability of the performance criteria of quaywalls with
relieving platforms and the design situations excluding accidental situations shall be in accordance
with Attached Table 37.
– 758 –
Attached Table 37 Setting for the Performance Criteria of Sheet Pile and Structural Stability of Quaywalls with
Relieving Platforms and the Design Situations excluding Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 51 1 1 Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Necessary embedment System failure probability
surcharges length under permanent situations
pressure
Yielding of sheet pile facility Pf = 1.7×10 –3)
(Other than high
Variable L1 earthquake Earth pressure, Necessary embedment Allowable amount of

ground water pressure, length deformation of top of
motion surcharges quaywall: apply sheet pile
Yielding of sheet piling quaywalls
2 Permanent Earth pressure Self weight, Sliding / overturning of System failure probability
water pressure, wall structure under permanent situations
surcharge of self weight and earth
pressure
(High earthquake-
1.7×10 –3)
(Other than high
Variable L1 earthquake Self weight Sliding / overturning of Limit value for sliding
ground earth pressure, wall structure Limit value for overturning
motion water pressure, (Allowable amount of
surcharge deformation of top of
quaywall: apply gravity-
type quaywalls)
5 Permanent Self weight Water pressure, Circular slip failure of System failure probability
surcharge ground under permanent situations
pressure
(High earthquake-
1.7×10 –3)
(Other than high
(b) Performance criteria of sheet pile

Of the settings for the performance criteria for relieving platform quaywalls and the design situations,
those applicable to the sheet pile shall comply with the settings in accordance with the Public Notice
Article 50 Paragraph 1 (Performance Criteria for Sheet Piled Quaywalls).
(c) Performance Criteria of Wall Structures
In the verification of the stability of the structure of quaywalls with relieving platforms, the wall
structure is equivalent to the wall structure in the case of a gravity-type quaywall. The wall structure
shall comply with the setting of the Public Notice Article 49 (Performance Criteria of Gravity-type
Quaywalls).
(d) Performance Criteria of Circular Slips in the Ground
The setting for circular slips in the ground shall comply with the settings of the Public Notice
Article 50 Paragraph 1 (Performance Criteria of Sheet Pile Quaywalls).
③ Relieving Platform and Relieving Platform Piles
(a) The settings for relieving platforms and relieving platform piles shall be as shown in Attached
Table 38.
– 759 –
Attached Table 38 Settings for the Performance Criteria for the Relieving Platform and Relieving Platform Piles of
Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms and the Design situations excluding Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 51 1 3a Serviceability Permanent Self weight Surcharging, Axial forces on relieving Resistance capacity based
water pressure platform piles on failure of the ground
(pushing, pulling)
3b Earth pressure, Serviceability of cross- Limit value of bending
water pressure, section of relieving compressive stress
surcharge platform (serviceability limit state)
4a Variable Earth pressure Self weight, Axial forces acting on Resistance capacity based
water pressure, the relieving platform on failure of the ground
surcharge piles (pushing, pulling)
L1 earthquake Self weight,
surcharge
Traction of
ships
4b Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Yielding of relieving Design yield stress
surcharge platform

Traction of surcharge
ships
4c Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Serviceability of cross- Limiting value of bending
surcharge section of relieving compressive stress
platform (serviceability limit state)
Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, Failure of cross-section Design cross-sectional
ground earth pressure, of relieving platform resistance force (ultimate
motion water pressure, limit state)
ships
(b) Axial Forces Acting on the Relieving Platform Piles

Verification of the axial forces acting on the relieving platform piles is to verify the risk that the axial
forces acting on the relieving platform piles will exceed the resistance force based on failure of the
ground is equal to or less than the limiting value.
(c) Yielding of Relieving Platform Piles
Verification of yielding in the relieving platform piles is to verify the risk that the stresses acting on
the relieving platform piles will exceed the yield stress is equal to or less than the limiting value.
(d) Serviceability of the Cross-section of the Relieving Platform
Verification of serviceability of the relieving platform is to verify the risk that the design bending
compressive stresses in the relieving platform will exceed the limiting value of compressive stress is
equal to or less than the limiting value.
(e) Cross-sectional Failure of the Relieving Platform
Verification of cross-sectional failure of the relieving platform is to verify the risk that the design
cross-sectional forces in the relieving platform will exceed the design cross-sectional resistance is
equal to or less than the limiting value.
[Technical Note]
2.8.1 Principles of Performance Verification
(1) The provisions in this chapter may be applied to the performance verification of quaywall with relieving platform
that comprises a relieving platform, a sheet pile wall in front of the relieving platform, and relieving platform piles.
(2) Sheet pile quaywall with a relieving platform normally comprise a relieving platform, a sheet pile wall in front
of the relieving platform, and relieving platform piles. The relieving platform is in many cases constructed
as an L-shaped structure of cast-in-place reinforced concrete and is usually buried under landfill material, but
sometimes a box shape platform is used to reduce the weight of the platform and the earthquake forces that act on
it see Fig. 2.8.1 and 2.8.2.
– 760 –
(3) The performance verification of a quaywall with a relieving platform can be made separately for the sheet piles,
the relieving platform, and the relieving platform piles.
W.L.
Relieving platform
Relieving platform piles

Sheet pile wall
Fig. 2.8.1 Structure of Quaywall with Relieving Platform (L-Shaped Platform)
W.L. Void
Relieving platform
Fig. 2.8.2 Structure of Quaywall with Relieving Platform (Box Shape Platform)
(4) An example of the sequence of performance verification of a quaywall with relieving platform is shown in Fig.
2.8.3.
– 761 –

*1
Permanent situation, variable situations of
Analysis of stresses in sheet pile wall
Determination of dimensions of sheet pile
Provisional layout of relieving platform
Permanent situation
Verification of axial forces on relieving platform piles
Permanent situation, and variable situations of

and action of ships
Verification of stresses in relieving platform piles
Permanent situation, and variable situations of

Verification of sliding and overturning as a gravity wall
*2
Variable situations of
Analysis of the amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Accidental situations of
Verification of deformation and stress by dynamic analysis
Permanent situation
Verification of circular slips failure and settlement
Verification of structural members (verification of relieving platform, etc.)
Fig. 2.8.3 Example of the Sequence of Performance Verification of a Quaywall with Relieving Platform
– 762 –
2.8.2 Actions
(1) The earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on sheet piles vary greatly according to structural
characteristics. Therefore, they shall be calculated appropriately in consideration of the height and width of the
relieving platform as well as support conditions.
(2) When the active failure surface of backfill soil from the intersection between the sea bottom and sheet piles
intersects the relieving platform, the active earth pressure acting on the sheet pile wall can be calculated on the
assumption that the bottom of the relieving platform is the virtual ground surface and no surcharge is on it as
shown in Fig. 2.8.4.
(3) The residual water pressure acting on the sheet pile wall should be considered the same as that of the case without
a relieving platform. The force to be adopted should be the residual water pressure acting on the range below the
bottom level of relieving platform, see Fig. 2.8.4.
(4) As for passive earth pressure in front of the embedded section of sheet pile, 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls can be
referred.
Design water level

(L.W.L) Residual water level

Passive Active
earth pressure earth pressure
Fig. 2.8.4 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure Acting on Sheet Pile Wall
(5) The characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification used in the performance verification of quaywalls
with relieving platforms for the variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be
calculated taking the structural characteristics into consideration. For convenience, the characteristic value of
seismic coefficient for verification of quaywalls with relieving platforms may be calculated by reference to the
2.2.2(1) Seismic Coefficient for Verification used in Verification of Damage due to Sliding and Overturning
of Wall Body and Insufficient Bearing Capacity of Foundations Ground in Variable Situations in Respect of
Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, complying with gravity-type quaywalls.
(6) It is not desirable that the width of the relieving platform be shortened to the range where it does not intersect with
the active failure surface extending from the seabed surface. However, if the use of a short relieving platform is
unavoidable, the following method can be used as the method of calculating the active earth pressure acting on the
sheet pile.
As shown in Fig. 2.8.5, the earth pressure acting on the sheet pile wall is calculated as the earth pressure
acting in the case that there is no relieving platform below the intersection point of the active failure surface drawn
from the rear end of the relieving platform and the sheet pile, and as the earth pressure acting in (2) above, above
the point of intersection of the natural failure surface during Level 1 earthquake ground motion drawn from the
rear end of the relieving platform and the sheet pile. Between these two, it may be assumed that the earth pressure
varies linearly.
The design value of the angle α formed between the natural failure surface and the horizontal during an
earthquake can generally be obtained from equation (2.8.1). In the following equation, the subscript d indicates
the design value.
(2.8.1)

where,
φ : angle of shearing resistance of the soil (°)
kh' : apparent seismic coefficient
The design values in the equation may be calculated from the following equation. In the equation, the symbol γ
is the partial factor corresponding to its subscript, and the subscripts k and d indicate the characteristic value and
– 763 –
the design value, respectively. Also, the partial factors may all be assumed to be 1.0.
(2.8.2)
Design tide level

(L.W.L.)
α= φ -tan-1k'
Active failure surface
Fig. 2.8.5 Earth Pressure Acting on Sheet Pile with Narrow Relieving Platform
(7) The horizontal force transmitted from the sheet pile wall may be calculated with the same method as that for the
reaction force at the tie rod setting point obtained in accordance with 2.3.4 Performance Verification of 2.3
Sheet Pile Quaywalls by regarding the bottom elevation of relieving platform as a tie rod setting point.
(8) The tractive force of ships and fender reaction force also act on the relieving platform. These external forces
should be considered as necessary.
(9) The external forces transmitted from the sheet pile wall to the relieving platform include the horizontal force and
flexural moment. However, the transmission of the flexural moment is ignored for the sake of safety, because the
fixing of the sheet piles to the relieving platform may not be rigid enough.
(10) The earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the back of the relieving platform can be calculated in
accordance with Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure and Part II, Chapter 5, 2.1 Residual Water Pressure.
In the calculation of earth pressure, surcharge should be taken into consideration. In the part below the bottom of
relieving platform, the difference between action earth pressure acting on the rear and the passive earth pressure
acting on the front acts as the active earth pressure down to the depth where the two pressures are balanced. This
should be added as shown in Fig. 2.8.6. The friction angle of the wall may be taken to be 15° for active earth
pressure, and –15° for passive earth pressure.
Force transmitted
from sheet piling pa Residual water level

Design tide level
(L.W.L) pp pa
pa- pp
Fig. 2.8.6 External Forces to be Considered for Performance Verification of Relieving Platform
(1) Performance Verification of Sheet Pile Wall

① The embedded length of sheet piles can be examined by assuming that the joint between the sheet pile wall and
relieving platform is a hinge support, replacing the bottom of the relieving platform with a tie rod setting point
and applying 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls.
② Verification of stresses in the sheet pile wall may be carried out in accordance with 2.3 Sheet Piled Quaywalls,
replacing the relieving platform bottom surface with the tie installation point.
③ In addition to the flexural moment due to earth pressure, the flexural moment and vertical force transmitted
from the relieving platform act on the sheet piles of a sheet pile wall. Normally the flexural moment transmitted
from the relieving platform is not taken into consideration, because it usually acts in a direction opposite to that
– 764 –
of the maximum flexural moment that acts on the sheet piles and thus reduces the maximum flexural moment.
Furthermore, the vertical force transmitted from the relieving platform to the sheet pile wall is normally not
taken into consideration when the front row of relieving platform piles is driven in as close to the sheet pile wall
as possible and this significantly reduces the vertical force acting on the sheet piles.
(2) Performance Verification of the Relieving Platform

A relieving platform should be verified for performance as a continuous beam for both the direction of quaywall
alignment and the direction perpendicular to the alignment (see Fig. 2.8.7). Loads should not be distributed in
the two directions. When the relieving platform is an L–shaped structure, the upright section should be verified
for performance as a cantilever beam supported at the slab section.
Vertical pile Coupled piles w +wd
Bending moment
Ap w +wd
M0
M0 : Maximum bending moment of upright part

Ap : Force transmitted from sheet pile
Bending moment due to surcharge W : Surcharge
wd : Load due to deadweight and soil
M0
Bending moment transmitted from upright part

Ap
Tensile force
Fig. 2.8.7 Continuous Beam Assumed in Performance Verification of Relieving Platform
(3) Performance Verification of the Relieving Platform Piles

① Performance of relieving platform piles can be verified in accordance with Part II, Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile
Foundations.
② In principle, relieving platform piles should consist of a combination of coupled piles and vertical piles. The
horizontal external force may be borne by the coupled piles only, and the vertical external force may be borne
by the vertical piles only. It may be assumed that each of the coupled piles burdens the horizontal force equally.
③ In the design of relieving platform piles, assessment should be made for the most dangerous state of each pile by
varying the surcharge, direction of seismic forces, and sea level within the design condition ranges.
④ In calculating the axial load resistance of each of the relieving platform piles, it is desirable to assume that in
the ground above the sheet pile active failure surface drawn from the seabed surface, the skin friction does not
contribute as the resistance force of the relieving platform piles.
⑤ If it is unavoidable that the relieving platform piles are all composed by vertical piles, when distributing the
horizontal force to the vertical piles, normally it is assumed in calculating the resistance force normal to their
axes that there is no soil above the sheet pile active failure surface drawn from the seabed surface.
(4) Analysis of the Stability as Gravity-type Wall Structures
① The examination of the stability of a quaywall with relieving platform as a whole can be made by assuming that
the quaywall with relieving platform is a kind of gravity-type wall.
– 765 –
② For analyzing the stability of the assumed gravity-type wall structure, refer to 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls. In
this case, the passive earth pressure to the front of the sheet pile is considered.
③ A quaywall with relieving platform may be considered as a rectangular shape gravity-type wall defined by a
vertical plane containing the rear face of the relieving platform and a horizontal plane containing the bottom
ends of the front side batter piles of the coupled piles, as shown in Fig. 2.8.8.
W.L.
Fig. 2.8.8 Virtual Wall as Gravity-type Wall
(5) Verification of Circular Slip Failure

For analysis of circular slip failure, refer to Chapter 2, 3 Stability of Slopes. In this case analysis is carried out
for circular slip failure passing under the bottom end of the sheet pile. Also, for setting the tide level, refer to Part
II, Chapter 2, 3 Tide Levels.
– 766 –
2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections
Article 52
1 The performance criteria of cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections shall be as specified in
the subsequent items:
(1) The following criteria shall be satisfied under the permanent action situations in which the dominant
action is earth pressure:
(a) The risk of losing the stability due to shear deformation of the structural body shall be equal to or
less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with embedded
sections shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
action is earth pressure and under the variable action situation in which the dominant action is Level 1
earthquake ground motions.
(a) The risk of occurrence of sliding of the structural body or failure due to insufficient bearing capacity
of the foundation shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk that the amount of deformation of the top of the cells may exceed the allowable limit of
deformation shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(3) The risk of occurrence of slip failure in the ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level
under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is self weight.
(4) The following criteria shall be satisfied by the superstructure of cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with
embedded sections under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is earth pressure
and under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground
motions, ship berthing, and traction by ships.
(a) The risk that the axial force acting in a pile may exceed the resistance force based on failure of the
ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk that the stresses in the piles may exceed the yield stress shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
(c) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of placement type cellular-
bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections shall be such that the risk of occurrence of overturning under
the variable action situation, in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions, is equal
to or less than the threshold level.
[Commentary]
① Cellular-bulkhead Quaywall with Embedded Sections (serviceability)

(a) The performance criteria of cellular-bulkhead quaywall with embedded sections shall be used in
accordance with the design situations and the constituent members. Besides this requirement, when
necessary the settings of Public Notice 22 Paragraph 3 (Scouring and Washing Out) and Article 28
Performance Criteria of Armor Stones and Blocks shall be applied.
(b) Stability of the Cell Structure and Integrity of Members
1) The stability of the cell structure and the integrity of members shall be in accordance with Attached
Table 39.
– 767 –
Attached Table 39 Setting of Performance Criteria for Structural Stability of the Cells and the Integrity of the Members
of Cellular-bulkhead Quaywall with Embedded Sections and the Design Situations excluding Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 52 1 1a Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Shear deformation of Resistance moment
surcharges wall
1b Yielding of all body System failure probability

under permanent situations
pressure (Pf = 4.0×10 –15)
Arc yielding System failure probability
under permanent situations
pressure (Pf = 3.1×10 –15)
Yielding of points Design yield stress
2a Permanent Earth pressure Self weight, Wall sliding, bearing System failure probability
water pressure, capacity of foundation under permanent situations
surcharges ground of earth pressure
(High earthquake-
resistance facilities: Pf =
1.0×10 –3)
(Other than high
facilities: Pf = 4.0×10 –3)
Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, – Limit value for sliding

ground earth pressure, Limit value for bearing
motion water pressure, capacity
surcharge (Allowable amount
of deformation: apply
gravity-type quaywalls)
2b Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Deformation of cell top Limit value of deformation
surcharges
surcharges
3 Permanent Self weight Water pressure, Circular slip failure of System failure probability
surcharges ground under permanent situations
of earth pressure
(High earthquake-
resistance facilities: Pf =
1.0×10 –3)
(Other than high
facilities: Pf = 4.0×10 –3)
2) Shear Deformation of Wall Structures

Verification of the shear deformation of wall structures is to verify that the risk that the deformation
moment for shear deformation of the wall structure will exceed the resistance moment is equal to or
less than the limiting value.
3) Yielding of Connections
Verification of yielding of joints is to verify that the risk that the tensile stress in the joints between
the cell structure and the arc will exceed the yield stress is equal to or less than the limiting value. In
the case of steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead structures, verification shall also be carried out for the
tensile strength of the joints of flat type steel sheet pile.
4) Sliding of Wall Structures, Bearing Capacity of Foundation Ground
Verification of sliding of wall structures is to verify that the risk of failure due to sliding of a wall
structure is equal to or less than the limit value. Verification of bearing capacity of foundation soils
is to verify that the risk of failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground is
equal to or less than the limit value.
The setting for sliding of wall structures and bearing capacity of foundation in permanent
situations where dominating action is the earth pressure and variable situations where dominating
action is Level 1 earthquake ground motion, shall comply with the setting of the Public Notice
– 768 –
Article 49 Performance Criteria of Gravity-type Quaywalls.

5) Deformation of the Cell Tops
The limit value of the amount of deformation of the cell tops under the permanent situations where
dominating action is the earth pressure and the variable situations where dominating action is Level
1 earthquake ground motion shall be appropriately set based on the envisaged conditions of use of
the facility, etc.
6) Circular Slip Failure of the Ground
The setting for circular slip failure of the ground shall comply with the setting of the Public Notice
Article 49 Performance Criteria of Gravity-type Quaywalls.
(b) Superstructures
1) The setting for superstructures shall be in accordance with Attached Table 40.
Attached Table 40 Setting for the Performance Criteria of the Superstructures of Cellular-bulkhead Quaywall with
Embedded Sections and Design Situations excluding Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 52 1 4a Serviceability Permanent Earth pressure Self weight, Axial forces acting on Resistance capacity based
water pressure, superstructure piles*1) on failure of the ground
surcharge (pushing, pulling)
ships
4b Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Yielding of Design yield stress
surcharge superstructure piles*1)
Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, – –
surcharge
4c Permanent Earth pressure Water pressure, Serviceability of Limit value of bending
surcharge superstructure cross- compressive stress
section (serviceability limit state)
Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional
ground earth pressure, of superstructure resistance (ultimate limit
motion water pressure, state)
Berthing and surcharge
traction of
ships
*1) Only for structures having superstructure supporting piles
2) Axial Forces Acting in the Piles of the Superstructure

Verification of axial forces acting on the piles of the superstructure is to verify that the risk that the
axial forces acting in the piles of the superstructure will exceed the resistance load based on failure
of the ground is equal to or less than the limit value.
3) Yielding of Piles of the Superstructure
Verification of yielding in the piles of the superstructure is to verify that the risk that the stress in the
piles of the superstructure will exceed the yield stress is equal to or less than the limit value.
4) Serviceability of the Cross-section of Superstructures
Verification of serviceability of the cross-section of superstructures is to verify that the risk that
the design compressive bending stress in the superstructure will exceed the limit value of the
compressive stress is equal to or less than the limit value.
5) Cross-sectional Failure of Superstructures
Verification of cross-sectional failure of superstructures is to verify that the risk that the design
cross-sectional force in the superstructure will exceed the design cross-sectional resistance is equal
to or less than the limit value.
② Placement Type Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls (Serviceability)
– 769 –
(a) Performance criteria of placement type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls shall comply with the
performance criteria of the cellular-bulkhead quaywall with embedded sections, excluding the
verification items for deformation of the top of cells, and in addition with Attached Table 41.
Attached Table 41 Setting for the Performance Criteria of Placement Type Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls and the Design
Conditions excluding Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
26 1 2 52 2 – Serviceability Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, Overturning of wall Limit value for overturning
ground earth pressure, body (allowable amount of
motion water pressure, deformation of top of
surcharge quaywall: apply gravity-
type quaywalls)
(b) Overturning of Wall Body

The setting regarding overturning of wall body under variable situations where dominating action
is Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall comply with the setting of the Public Notice Article 49
Performance Criteria of Gravity-type Quaywalls.
[Technical Note]
(1) The following is applicable to the performance verification of quaywalls using a steel cellular-bulkhead structure,
hereinafter referred to as steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, and quaywalls having a cellular-bulkhead structure
with embedded sections, hereinafter referred to as the steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections.
(2) The performance verification method described in this chapter is based on the results of cellular-bulkhead model
tests 78), 79), 80), 81) conducted on a sandy soil ground with an embedded length ratio of 0 to 1.5 and a ratio of
equivalent wall width to wall height of 1 to 2.5. For the cases where the embedded length ratio is very small, less
than 1/8, the equivalent wall width is very small relative to the wall height, or the quaywall is to be constructed
on a cohesive soil ground or ground improved by the sand compaction piles, etc., further examinations such as
a dynamic analysis taking into consideration nonlinear characteristics of the ground should be made as required
in addition to the examination using the performance verification method described in this section because these
cases involve factors that cannot be fully clarified with the method described here.
(3) Examples of the cross-section of a steel cellular-bulkhead quaywall and an embedded–type steel cellular-bulkhead
quaywall are shown in Fig. 2.9.1(a), (b).
(4) The approach in 2.9.2 Action, and 2.9.4 Performance Verification may be used for simple verification, but it is
necessary to be careful when adopting these approaches.
(5) An example of the sequence of performance verification of the cellular-bulkhead quaywall with embedded sections
is shown in Fig. 2.9.2.
– 770 –
H.W.L
L.W.L
Steel sheet pile cell
Soil filling
Steel pipe piles
(a) Embedded-type steel cellular-bulkhead quaywall
V-type rubber fender

H.W.L
L.W.L
Steel sheet pile cell
Soil filling
Steel pipe pile
Front placed soil

Replacement soil
Steel pipe pile
Steel pipe pile
(b) Embedded-type steel cellular-bulkhead quaywall
Fig. 2.9.1 Examples of the Cross-section Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections
– 771 –

*1
Verification of wall shear deformation, sliding,
bearing capacity of foundation soils, and deformation of cell top
Variable situations of the

Verification of wall sliding, bearing capacity of
foundation ground, and deformation of cell top
*2
Analysis on amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Determination of cell layout
Analysis of stresses in cell units, arcs, and joints
Steel plate cellular- Steel sheet pile cellular-
bulkhead quaywalls bulkhead quaywalls
Verification of stresses in joints of flat type sheet pile
Verification of circular slip failure, settlement
Fig. 2.9.2 Example of the Sequence of Performance Verification of the Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded
Sections
(6) It is recommended that the filling material in cells is a sufficient density sand or gravel of good quality. It is not
desirable to use a clayey soil as the filling material. When clayey soil is to remain in the cells, it is necessary to
make a separate examination because the deformation of the cells may become significantly large.
(7) When a foundation for a crane, shed, or warehouse is to be built within a cell, it is desirable to use foundation piles
to transmit the load to the bearing stratum.
– 772 –
2.9.2 Actions
(1) For calculating the action to be considered in the performance verification of embedded–type steel cellular-
bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections, refer to Part II, Chapter 4, 2 Seismic Action, Part II, Chapter 5,
1 Earth Pressure, Part II, Chapter 5, 2 Water Pressure, and Part II, Chapter 10 Self weight and Surcharges.
(2) The rear of the wall may be subjected to active earth pressure in the examination of shear deformation of the cell
wall body (see Fig. 2.9.3). According to the model tests, it can be understood that the embedded section of the
cell is subjected to the action corresponding to the earth pressure at rest because the deformation of the embedded
section of the cell is small. According to the results of shaking table tests, the earth pressure acting on this part
works as a resisting force against overturning of the wall but acting forces. In the examining the stability of the
entire system, therefore, the earth pressure acting on the rear of the wall is normally active earth pressure above
the seabed surface, and earth pressure that is generated by surcharge such as backfilling under the seabed surface.
The characteristic value of the earth pressure that is generated by surcharge such as backfilling during permanent
situation can normally be calculated using equation (2.9.1) (see Fig. 2.9.4).
(2.9.1)
where
pac : earth pressure acting on the rear of wall below the sea bottom (kN/m 2)
k : coefficient of earth pressure, k = 0.5 can be adopted
w : unit weight of each layer of backfilling (kN/m3)
h : thickness of each layer of backfilling (m)
q : surcharge (kN/m 2)
Surcharge
L.W.L. R.W.L.
Wall body Backfill
Seabed surface Active earth pressure
Fig. 2.9.3 Earth Pressure Acting on the Rear of Wall Body for Examination of Shear Deformation
Surcharge
L.W.L. R.W.L.
Backfill
Wall body
Seabed surface
Earth pressure below seabed surface by equation (2.9.1)
Fig. 2.9.4 Earth Pressure Acting on the Rear of Wall Body for Examination of the Stability as Gravity-type Wall
(3) In principle, the residual water level of the backfilling can be taken at the elevation with the height equivalent
to two thirds of the tidal range above the mean monthly–lowest water level, LWL. However, when using a
backfilling with low permeability, the residual water level may become higher than this and thus it is desirable to
determine the residual water level based on results of investigations of similar structures. The residual water level
in the filling material in the cells may be set to the same level as that of the backfilling for the wall body.
(4) Seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of the steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with
embedded sections
The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of the steel
cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections under variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake
ground motion and the allowable value of the amount of deformation set corresponding to the seismic coefficient
– 773 –
for verification shall be appropriately calculated taking the structural characteristics into consideration. For
the purpose of convenience, the characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification and the allowable
value of the amount of deformation for steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections may be set to
comply with 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls, 2.2.2 (1) Seismic Coefficient for Verification used in Verification
of Damage due to Sliding and Overturning of Wall Body and Insufficient Bearing Capacity of Foundation
Ground in Variable Situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion and ⑧ (b) Setting of allowable
deformation, Da=10cm.
However, it is necessary to be aware that the method described in this document does not necessarily evaluate
sufficiently the effect of the embedment of the steel cellular-bulkhead quaywall with embedded sections on the
seismic–resistant performance. For details, refer to Section 2.9.4 (2) ③ (f).
(5) For the seabed and above, the seismic coefficient to be used in the calculation of the seismic inertia force that acts
on the filling material shall be the seismic coefficient for verification. For the part below the sea bottom, this value
is reduced linearly in such a way that it becomes zero at 10 m below the seabed. In principle, the seismic inertia
force is not considered for the part deeper than that level, see Fig. 2.9.5.
Seismic coefficient for verification
Seabed surface
10m
Fig 2.9.5 Inertia Force Acting on Filling
2.9.3 Setting of the Equivalent Wall Width
(1) Equivalent wall width may be used for verifying performance. The equivalent wall width, in this case, shall be the
width of a rectangular virtual wall substituted the combination of cells and arc sections.
The equivalent wall width is the width of a rectangular virtual wall body that is used in place of the wall body
combined with cells and arc sections to simplify design calculations, see Fig. 2.9.6. The virtual wall is defined
in such a way that the area of the horizontal cross section of the virtual wall body becomes the same as that of the
combined cells and arc sections
θ 2L
B=S/L
r B : equivalent wall width (m)
θ 2S B L : effective length of one set of cell (m)
S : area of set of cell (m2)
(a) Circular cells

L
120°
2L
r 120° r θr
θ
S B 2S B
(b) Diaphragm Type Cells (c) Clover Leaf Type Cells
Fig. 2.9.6 Plan View of Cellular-bulkhead Structure and Equivalent Wall Width B
(2) The equivalent wall width is normally determined to satisfy the analysis of the shear deformation of the wall
structure.
– 774 –
(1) Analysis of the Shear Deformation of the Wall Structure

① The cell shell and filling of the cellular-bulkhead quaywall usually act as an integrated structure because the
filling is constrained in the cell shell. Therefore the deformation of the cell wall body may be ignored relative
to its displacement and the overall behavior of the cell wall body may be considered the same as that of a rigid
body. This has been verified by model tests in which the cell wall body did not show significant deformation
under loads much larger than the external forces that are expected to act on the cell wall body both under
permanent situation and variable situation associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion. In the case of
normal ground and filling soil, therefore, it can be understood that shear failure does not occur in the filling.
However, when the diameter of the cell is very small or the strength of the filling material is extremely low, it
may not be possible to satisfy the assumption that the cell wall body is a rigid body. Therefore it is necessary
to make examination of the strength of the filling against shear deformation due to the loads under permanent
situation in order to remain the deformation of the cell wall body to a negligible level.
② Normally, it is possible to analyze the shear deformation of the steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with equations
(2.9.2) and (2.9.3), using the resistance moment and the deformation moment of the cell bottom surface, and
the resistance moment and the deformation moment of the soil within the cells at the seabed surface. Also,
analysis of the shear deformation of the steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls can be carried out using equation
(2.9.3). The subscript d in the equations indicates the design value. For calculation of the design values, refer to
③ Calculation of deformation moment, ④ Calculation of the resistance moment at the bottom of cell, and
⑤ Resistance moment of the filling with respect to the seabed, below. An appropriate value of 1.2 or higher
may be used as the structural analysis factor γa.
(2.9.2)
(2.9.3)
where,
Mr : resistance moment of the cell bottom surface (kN·m/m)
Md : deformation moment of the cell bottom surface (kN·m/m)
M'r : resistance moment of filling soil at the seabed surface (kN·m/m)
M'd : deformation moment at the seabed surface (kN·m/m)
③ Calculation of deformation moment

(a) The deformation moment to be used in the performance verification of steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead
quaywalls shall be the moment at the bottom of the cell or the seabed due to external forces such as active
and passive earth pressures and residual water pressure above the cell bottom or the seabed. The deformation
moment for steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls shall be the moment at the seabed due to external forces such
as active and passive earth pressures and residual water pressure above the seabed.
(b) In the calculation of deformation moment, earth pressure is considered only in terms of the horizontal
component. The vertical component is not taken into consideration. The vertical force of the surcharge is
not taken into consideration in the calculation of deformation moment. However, the surcharge is taken into
consideration in the calculation of active earth pressure, see Fig. 2.9.7.
Surchargeing
L.W.L. Mr R.W.L.
Backfill
Active Residual water pressure
earth
Seabed surface pressure
Active
earth
Passive earth pressure pressure
Fig. 2.9.7 Loads and Resisting Forces to be taken into consideration in the Examination of Shear Deformation
– 775 –
④ Calculation of resistance moment at the bottom of cell

(a) The resistance moment at the bottom of cell shall be calculated appropriately in consideration of the structural
characteristics of the cell and deformation of the wall.
(b) The result of model tests 78) shows that the resistance moment with respect to the wall bottom may be
increased by increasing the embedded length ratio D/H, see Fig. 2.9.8. This can be calculated using equation
(2.9.4).
Shear resistance moment according to the modified formula of Kitajima Mr

Note : Plotted values are mean
Deformation moment obtained by experiment Md values of individual cases.
Case No.
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Group E
Embedded length ratio (D/H)
Fig. 2.9.8 Relationship between Resistance Moment and Embedded Length Ratio
（2.9.4）
where
Mr : resistance moment with respect to cell bottom（kN·m/m）
Mr0 : resistance moment of the filling with respect to cell bottom（kN·m/m）
Mrs : resistance moment due to the friction force of sheet pile joints, with respect to cell bottom
(kN·m/m)
D : embedded length（m）
H : height from wall bottom to wall top (m) (see Fig. 2.9.9)
α : required additional rate against the embedded length ratio (D/H)
For the required additional rate α, it is recommended to use 1.0, which is close to the lowest value found in the
test results shown in Fig. 2.9.8, because the equation given above has been derived based on tests and not fully
clarified theoretically.
– 776 –
L.W.L.
Pa Pp
x
d
D
ξa ξp
Fig. 2.9.9 Assumed shear surface of filling soil
(c) Equation for Calculating the Resistance moment of Filling

In the determination of the resistance moment of filling at the bottom of the cell, it is assumed that an active
failure surface is generated from the front of the bottom of the cell and a passive failure surface is generated
from the rear, and that the active and passive earth pressures act on the respective failure surfaces, as shown
in Fig. 2.9.9. The active and passive failure angles as well as the active and passive earth pressures may be
calculated using the following Rankine’s equations. The subscript d in the equation indicates the design value.
active failure surface
passive failure surface
active earth pressure ,
passive earth pressure , (2.9.5)
where
φ : angle of shear resistance of filling (º)
w : unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
h : thickness of soil layer (m)
The design values in equation (2.9.5) may be calculated using the equation below.
(2.9.6)
The moment caused by the earth pressure acting on the shear surface may be calculated by using equation
(2.9.7) see Fig. 2.9.9.
(2.9.7)
When the geotechnical constants of the ground and those of the filling differ, equation (2.9.7) becomes
complex as the failure angle and the earth pressure level vary from one soil layer to another. However, when
there is no significant difference in the internal friction angle between the ground and filling, or when the
embedded length ratio is large and the failure surfaces do not reach the filling portion, the following simplified
equation may be used. In the equations below, subscript d stands for the design value.
(2.9.8)

(2.9.9)
where
w0 : equivalent unit weight of filling, unit weight of the filling which assumes that the unit weight is
– 777 –
uniform throughout the filling; normally w0k＝10 kN/m3 is used.
H0d : equivalent wall height measured from the bottom of cell. The equivalent wall height is employed
to calculate the resistance moment due to the filling by using the equivalent unit weight of the
filling. It is calculated by equation (2.9.10).
(2.9.10)
wi : unit weight of the i–th layer of filling (kN/m3)

hi : thickness of the i–th layer, from cell bottom to top of quaywall (m)
B : equivalent wall width (m)
The design values in the equation may be obtained using the following equation.
(2.9.11)
All the partial factors used in calculating the resistance moment of the filling soil may be taken to be 1.0.
(d) Equation for Calculating Resistance moment due to Friction Force of Joints of Sheet Piles
The resistance moment due to friction force of joints is calculated as follows. In the equations below, subscript
d stands for the design value.
(2.9.12)
(2.9.13)
where
Hs : The equivalent wall height employed to calculate the resistance moment due to the friction
force between the sheet pile joints when the equivalent unit weight of the filling is used. It is
evaluated using equation (2.9.14) so that the resultant force of the distributed earth pressure in
diagram (a) becomes equal to that of (b) in Fig. 2.9.10. In this calculation, 0.5tanφ can be used
as the coefficient of earth pressure of the filling.
(2.9.14)
Pi : resultant earth pressure of the i–th layer of filling (kN/m)
in this case, surcharge is ignored.
w0 : equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3)

φ : angle of shear resistance of filling (º)
νsd＝B/Hsd

f : coefficient of friction between sheet pile joints; usually 0.3 is used.
The design value in the equation can be calculated using the following equation:
(2.9.15)
Note that all partial factors used in the equation for calculating resistance moment due to friction force of the
joints can be set at 1.00.
– 778 –
P1
H.W.L. γ1 h1
L.W.L.
P2
h2 Hs
γ2
P
P3
γ3 h3
1 γΗ tanφ
s
(a) Earth pressure (b) Converted earth pressure

distribution diagram distribution diagram
Fig. 2.9.10 Equivalent Wall Height
⑤ Resistance moment of the filling with respect to the seabed

(a) The resistance moment with respect to the seabed should be calculated appropriately taking into consideration
the structural characteristics of the cell and the deformation of the wall.
(b) In the calculation of the resistance moment of the filling with respect to the seabed, equations (2.9.16) and
(2.9.17) may be used.
(2.9.16)
(2.9.17)
where
Mr' : resistance moment of sheet pile cell with respect to seabed (kN·m/m)
H0' : equivalent wall height is employed to calculate the resistance moment due to the filling by using
the equivalent unit weight of the filling. It is evaluated by means of equation (2.9.18).
(2.9.18)
w'i : unit weight of the filling of the i–th layer above sea bottom (kN/m3)
h'i : thickness of the i–th layer above seabed between seabed and top of quaywall (m)
ν0'＝B/H0'
φ' : angle of shear resistance of the filling above seabed (º)
The design value in the equation can be calculated using the following equation:
(2.9.19)
Note that all partial factors used in the equation for calculating resisting of the filling with respect to the
seabed can be set at 1.00.
⑥ Increasing the strength of the filling enhances the rigidity of the cell wall. Therefore, improvement work of
filling is effective in increasing the stability of the cell wall.
(2) Calculation of the amount of deformation of wall structures under permanent situations and variable situations
associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion may be carried out based on the following items.
① General
(a) In the examination of the stability of the wall as a whole, the subgrade reaction generated against the load and
the displacement of the wall are calculated by considering the wall as a rigid body elastically supported by the
ground.
(b) Within the elastic range of the ground, the subgrade reaction force is calculated as the product of the modulus
of subgrade reaction and the displacement. Here it is considered that the stability of the wall as a gravity wall
is obtained when the subgrade reaction force and the displacement of the wall do not exceed the respective
– 779 –
allowable limits.
② Modulus of subgrade reaction
(a) The modulus of subgrade reaction includes the modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction, the modulus of
vertical subgrade reaction, and the horizontal shear modulus at the bottom of cell.
(b) The modulus of subgrade reaction may be calculated as below, based on the results of soil investigation:
1) Modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction
Modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction may be calculated by referring to Yokoyama’s diagram 82) shown
in 2.4.5 Static Maximum Lateral Resistance of Piles in Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile Foundations.
(2.9.23)
where
kCH : horizontal subgrade reaction coefficient (N/cm3)
N : N-value
When the ground consists of the strata of different characteristics, the modulus of horizontal subgrade
reaction should be calculated for each stratum.
2) Modulus of vertical subgrade reaction

For the modulus of vertical subgrade reaction at the cell bottom, the same value as the modulus of
horizontal subgrade reaction at the cell bottom can be used. When the ground consists of the strata of
different characteristics, the modulus of vertical subgrade reaction shall correspond to the stratum at the
cell bottom. However, when there is an extremely soft stratum below the cell bottom, it is necessary to
give careful consideration to its effects.
3) Horizontal shear modulus
The horizontal shear modulus at the wall bottom may be calculated by equation (2.9.24) using the modulus
of vertical subgrade reaction.
(2.9.24)
where
k s : horizontal shear modulus（N/cm3）
λ : ratio of the horizontal shear modulus to the modulus of vertical subgrade reaction
k v : modulus of vertical subgrade reaction（N/cm3）
Past studies suggest the use of λ values in the range of 1/2 to 1/5 83), 84). In the case of steel sheet pile
cellular bulkhead however, it is considered that the value of λ may be set as about 1/3.
③ Calculation of subgrade reaction and wall displacement

(a) The subgrade reaction acting on the embedded part of steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead and the wall
displacement can be calculated on the assumption that the wall subject to the external forces is supported by
the horizontal subgrade reaction, vertical subgrade reaction and horizontal shear reaction at the bottom of
wall, and vertical frictional force along the front and rear of the wall.
(b) Subgrade reaction
1) Horizontal subgrade reaction
Horizontal subgrade reaction may be calculated by equation (2.9.25), but this should not exceed the passive
earth pressure intensity calculated in accordance with Part II, Chapter 5, 1 Earth Pressure to prevent
the yielding of the ground. The angle of wall friction used to calculate passive earth pressure can basically
be taken at –15º. Fig.2.9.12 illustrates the distribution of subgrade reaction of a sample case in which the
subgrade reaction reaches the passive earth pressure up to a certain depth.
– 780 –
Cell
V Backfilling soil
Seabed M H
Passive earth pressure intensity
Portion where subgrade reaction reaches Cell
the passive earth pressure intensity embedment
portion
Portion where subgrade reaction force does
not reach the passive earth pressure intensity
Horizontal subgrade reaction due to the displacement of the cell
Fig. 2.9.12 Example of Distribution of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction
2) Vertical subgrade reaction

The vertical subgrade reaction at the cell bottom acts in a trapezoidal or triangular distribution. It should
be assumed that no tensile stress is generated.
(c) Vertical frictional force
It should be assumed that vertical frictional force acts on the front and rear of the wall and is calculated as the
product of the horizontal earth pressure or subgrade reaction force and tanδ, where δ denotes the angle of wall
friction.
(d) Distribution of external forces
Fig.2.9.13 shows standard distribution patterns of the external forces acting on steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead
quaywall.
Surcharge
L.W.L. R.W.L.
Seismic forces acting
of active earth pressure

Horizontal component
Active
Dead earth Residual
Dynamic water pressure water
on the wall
weight pressure
pressure
×tanδ
Seabed
Horizontal subgrade reaction
below the ground
acting on the part
reaction×tanδ
Earth pressure
surface×tanδ
Horizontal
subgrade
Shear reaction at the bottom surface Earth pressure acting on the

part below the ground surface
(Trapezoidal distribution)
Vertical subgrade reaction force (Triangular distribution)
Fig. 2.9.13 Distribution Patterns of External Forces Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-bulkhead Quaywall
(e) Displacement modes of cell

As shown in Fig. 2.9.14, it is assumed that the cell wall rotates around its center of rotation O, which is
horizontally away from the center axis of the cell by the distance e and vertically away from the seabed by the
depth h. When the center of rotation is located inside the cell, the horizontal subgrade reaction is generated
in the rear of the wall for the part below the center of rotation.
– 781 –
Center axis
Center axis
θ h
o
h θ e
o
e
(a) When the center of rotation is (b) When the center of rotation is
located outside the cell body located inside the cell body
Fig. 2.9.14 Displacement Modes of Cell
(f) Equation for calculating subgrade reaction and wall displacement

Figure 2.9.15 shows a calculation model for a case in which horizontal force, vertical force, and moment
act at the intersection of the ground surface and the center axis of the cell wall and the ground comprises n
layers of soil. Equations for calculating the subgrade reaction and cell wall displacement of the model shown
in Fig. 2.9.15 are as follows: This method does not necessarily accurately calculate the displacement during
an earthquake, so caution is needed. In other words, if the embedment length is increased to improve the
seismic–resistant performance, it has been pointed out that the following methods can over–evaluate the
deformation in seismic response analysis.
V Cell
Backfill
M
Seabed surface H
d1
1st stratum p
12 p
2nd stratum p22 21 d2
p31 D h
p32 d3 θ
3rd stratum z
pi1 di
ith stratum e
dn o
Horizontal ground reaction nth straum
Q pn2
Shearing reaction
q2 Trapezoidal distribution
q1
Vertical subgrade reaction Triangular distribution

q1
Fig. 2.9.15 Calculation Model
– 782 –
1) When the vertical subgrade reaction acts in a trapezoidal distribution
i) Horizontal subgrade reaction (kN/m 2)
(2.9.25)
ii.) Vertical subgrade reaction (kN/m 2)
(2.9.26)
iii) Shear reaction force that acts at the wall bottom (kN/m)
(2.9.27)
iv) Horizontal displacement of the wall (m)
(2.9.28)
v) A ngle of wall rotation (º)
(2.9.29)
vi) Depth of the center of wall rotation (m)
(2.9.30)
vii) Distance from the wall center axis to the center of rotation of the wall (m)
(2.9.31)
where
– 783 –
The angle of wall friction δ is negative for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction force acts on the front
of the wall, and positive for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction force acts on the rear of the wall.
2) When the vertical subgrade reaction acts in a triangular distribution
The horizontal subgrade reaction, horizontal wall displacement, angle of rotation, and depth of the center
of rotation are expressed in the same form as those in 1).
i) Vertical subgrade reaction (kN/m 2)
(2.9.32)
ii) Shear reaction that acts at the wall bottom (kN/m)
(2.9.33)
where
iii) Distance between the wall center axis and the center of rotation of the wall (m)
(2.9.34)
where
The angle of wall friction δ should be negative for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction acts on the
front of the wall, and positive for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction acts on the rear of the wall.
The notations used in equations in 1) and 2) are as follows:
V : vertical force acting on the wall (kN/m)

H : horizontal force acting on the wall (kN/m)
M : moment acting on the center of the wall at the level of ground surface (kN·m/m)
Provided external forces that act on the wall are those for the unit length in the direction along the face
line of wall
D : embedded length (m)

di : thickness of each soil layer of the embedded ground (m)
B : equivalent width (m)
kCHi : modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction of each layer of the embedded ground (kN/m3)
k v : modulus of vertical subgrade reaction at wall bottom (kN/m3)
k s : horizontal shear modulus at wall bottom (kN/m3)
A : area of wall bottom per unit length of the wall in the direction face line (m2/m)
A' : area of wall bottom per unit length of the wall in the direction of face line, when the value of
vertical subgrade reaction is positive (m 2/m)
④ Verification of the amount of deformation, tilt angle of wall structures
The allowable value of the amount of deformation, tilt angle, of wall structures is set by reference to relationships
between the amount of deformation of the tops and the amount of damage obtained from earthquake damage
– 784 –
reports from the past.87) It is verified that the amount of deformation of the wall structure, tilt angle, calculated
by the method described above is equal to or less than the allowable value. It is necessary to be aware that the
allowable amount of deformation of the wall structure indicated here is different from the allowable amount
of deformation indicated in 2.9.2(4) Seismic Coefficient for Verification used in Performance Verification
of the Steel Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Section. In other words, the allowable amount
of deformation indicated in 2.9.2(4) is a value that includes the deformation of the cell wall structure and the
deformation of the soils below the cell wall structure. However, the amount of deformation and tilt angle of the
wall structure indicated here is the amount of deformation based on the tilting of the cell wall structure, and is
a separately calculated value from the viewpoint of berthing performance.
(3) Analysis of Bearing Capacity of Grounds
For the analysis of the vertical bearing capacity of the grounds at the position of the bottom surface of the wall
structure, refer to Chapter 2, 2.2 Shallow Spread Foundations, 2.2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and
Inclined Actions.
(4) Examination against Sliding of Wall
① For the examination of wall stability against sliding, refer to the examination on wall sliding in 2.2 Gravity-
type Quaywalls.
② Sliding can be examined using equation (2.9.35). In this equation, γ represents the partial factor for its subscript,
and subscripts d and k respectively stand for the design value and the characteristic value.
(2.9.35)
where
W : weight of the wall (kN/m)
Pv : vertical component of earth pressure acting on the front and rear of the wall (kN/m)
φ : angle of shear resistance of the soil at wall bottom (º)
k s : horizontal shear modulus at cell bottom (kN/m 2)
δ : cell bottom displacement (m)
b : distribution of vertical subgrade reaction (m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using equations below:
(2.9.36)
③ The vertical components of the earth pressure acting on the front and rear of the wall that should be taken into
consideration include (a) the vertical component of the active earth pressure, (b) the friction force due to the
earth pressure below the ground surface, (c) the vertical component of the passive earth pressure, and (d) the
vertical component of subgrade reaction. The vertical component of earth pressure is considered a positive
force when it acts in the same direction as that of the wall weight.
④ When the internal friction angle of the soil above the wall bottom is different from that below the wall bottom,
it is recommended to use the smaller value as the internal friction angle at the wall bottom.
(5) Verification of Stability against Circular Slip Failure
When the ground is soft, examination of stability against circular slip failure shall be made as necessary. When
the angle of shear resistance of the soil behind the wall and the ground is 30º or larger, the examination of stability
against circular slip failure is often omitted. In the case of cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, it may be assumed that
the wall is a rigid body and thus the circular slip surface does not go through the inside of the wall.
(6) Layout of Cells
The cells shall be arranged to make the area equal to the area of the wall with the equivalent width obtained in (1)
and (2) above.
(a) Cells should be arranged evenly along the total length of the face line of the quaywall wherever possible. In
general, it is advisable to set the cell center interval 10 to 15% longer than the cell diameter.
(b) Arcs should be arranged in such a way that they are connected perpendicularly to the wall of cell shell. The
radius of the arc should be made smaller than that of the cell shell.
(c) In general, front tips of arcs tend to shift forward during and/or after the filling work. Therefore it is advisable
to arrange arcs in such a way that their front surface are located about 100 to 150 cm inside the front face line
of cell walls. It is also advisable to arrange cells in such a way that their front face line is located about 30 cm
– 785 –
inside the design face line of the quaywall.
(7) Analysis of Plate Thickness 89)
① Analysis of the plate thickness of the cell units and the arcs is normally carried out using equation (2.9.38). In
the following equation, γ is the partial factor corresponding to its subscript, and the subscripts k and d indicate
the characteristic value and design value respectively.
(2.9.38)
where,
T : tension force acting on the cell (N/mm)
σ y : yield stress of the cell material and the arc material ( N/mm 2)
t : plate thickness of the cell and the arc (mm)
Also, the tensile force acting on the cell may be calculating using equation (2.9.39).
(2.9.39)

where,
T : tensile force acting on the cell (kN/m)
Ki : earth pressure coefficient of filling
w0 : converted weight per unit volume of filling (kN/m3)
ρ0ghw : buoyancy force due to the difference in water level within the cell and on the front surface
(kN/m)
H0' : converted wall height (m)
R : radius of cell (m)
q : surcharge (kN/m2)
The design values in the equation can be calculated from the following equation. For the partial factors in the
equation, refer to Table 2.9.1.
(2.9.40)
where,
RWL : residual water level (m)
LWL : mean monthly lowest water level (m)
HWL : mean monthly highest water level (m)
② The equivalent wall height H0' can be calculated using equation (2.9.18) in (1) above.
③ When materials such as gravel with large angle of shear resistance are used for the filling or when no compaction
is performed, the characteristic value of the coefficient of filling earth pressure can be normally set as 0.6.
When the filling is to be compacted, tanφ can be used as the characteristic value of coefficient of filling earth
pressure, because the internal pressure of the cell and the angle of shear resistance of the filling become larger.
The characteristic value of the filling earth pressure coefficient for the arc sections can be taken at 1/2tanφ.
④ In determining the plate thickness of the cells and the arcs of the steel cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with
embedded sections, fabrication, construction, and maintenance aspects must be considered sufficiently. If a
corrosion allowance is considered for the cells and arcs, the corrosion allowance shall be added to the plate
thickness obtained from equation (2.9.38) to give the plate thickness. Equation (2.9.41) has been proposed as
a method of obtaining the plate thickness of the cells necessary for the stresses during driving, from tests on
buckling of cylindrical cells and from construction experience of the past.91)
(2.9.41)
where,
t : plate thickness of the cell (mm)
E : young’s modulus of the steel material (kN/mm 2)
R : radius of the cell (cm)
N : average N value of the soils into which the cell is driven
D' : depth of drive of the cell (cm)
– 786 –
Also, the minimum plate thickness of the cell for which there is experience of driving in the past is 8mm, so
it is desirable that the minimum plate thickness is about 8mm.
(8) Verification of T-shaped Sheet Piles of the Steel Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections
① Normally, cells and arcs are connected by using T-shaped sheet piles. T-shaped sheet pile is a sheet pile with a
special cross section to join the cell to arcs, see Fig. 2.9.16.
Fig. 2.9.16 T–Shaped Sheet Pile
② The structure of T-shaped sheet pile shall have sufficient safety against the tensile forces acting on the sheet pile
of cells and arcs. The standard structures of T-shaped sheet pile are shown in Figs. 2.9.17 and 2.9.18.
P
L 230×14(SM-490A equivalent material)
12.7 Rivet φ 25(SV-400)

Rivet spacing 85mm
200 60 14 14
14 28
75
Flat-type steel sheet pile (SY-295)t=12.7mm
12.7
14 PL 270×14 SM-490A equivalent material)
60 75 75 60
270
400 (Units ; mm)
Fig. 2.9.17 Standard Cross Section of T-shaped Sheet Pile for Rivet Connection with Rivet Intervals
PL 200×12(SM-490A)
12.7
200 12 9
12
24
12.7
Flat-type steel sheet pile (SY-295)t =12.7mm
200 200
400 (Units;mm)
Fig. 2.9.18 Standard Cross Section of T-shaped Sheet Pile for Welding Connection
③ Strength of the cross sections shown in Figs. 2.9.17 and 2.9.18 has been confirmed by a breaking test where the
tensile strength of the joint of the sheet pile in a cell is 3,900 kN/m and the arc diameter is 2/3 or less of the cell,
tensile strength = 2,600 kN/m. The rivet and welding joints for tests were made in a workshop.
(9) Partial Factors
For standard partial factors for use in analysis of shear deformation under permanent situations, sliding under
permanent situations and variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion, and the plate
thickness under permanent situations where dominating action is earth pressure, refer to the values in Table 2.9.1.
The partial factors shown in Table 2.9.1 were determined from probabilistic theory based on the average level
of safety of design methods of the past, for the members whose probability distribution of the parameters was
– 787 –
known such as plate thickness of cells and plate thickness of arcs. In other words, the system failure probability
based on equilibrium of forces was obtained from the index expressing the risk that the tensile stress in the cell and
arc units will exceed the yield stress, assuming a standard limiting value of Pf = 4.0×10 –15 for the cell units and Pf
= 3.1×10 –15 for the arc units. The other partial factors were determined taking the settings of the design methods
of the past into consideration.

All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γ tanφ Tangent of angle of shear resistance 1.00 – – –
γc Cohesion 1.00 – – –
Shear deformation
γ w , γ wi Unit weight 1.00 – – –

γ w0 Unit weight of filling soil 1.00 – – –
γPa, γPp, Resultant earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γP1, γP2 ,
γP 3
γW Weight of wall structure 1.00 – – –
γPv Resultant earth pressure 1.00 – – –
Sliding
γks Horizontal shear Modulus 1.00 – – –

Target reliability index used in calculating γ βT’ 7.6
Cell shell plate
γσ y Steel yield strength 0.65 0.805 1.26 0.073

thickness
γK i Filling earth pressure coefficient 1.15 –0.593 0.60 0.20

γw0 Converted unit weight of filling soil 1.00 – – –
Arc plate thickness
Target reliability index used in calculating γ βT’ 7.8

γσ y Steel yield strength 0.65 0.817 1.26 0.073
γK i Filling earth pressure coefficient 1.15 –0.576 0.60 0.20
γ w0 Converted unit weight of filling soil 1.00 – – –
*1: α: Sensitivity factor, µ/X k: Deviation of average values, average value / characteristic value, V: Coefficient of variation.
(b) Variable situations of Level 1 earthquake ground motion

All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γW Weight of wall structure 1.00 – – –
γPv Resultant earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γks
Sliding
Horizontal shear modulus 1.00 – – –

*1: α: Sensitivity factor, µ/X k: Deviation of average values, average value / characteristic value, V: Coefficient of variation.
– 788 –
2.10 Placement-type Steel Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections
Article 52
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of placement type cellular-
bulkhead quaywalls with embedded sections shall be such that the risk of occurrence of overturning under
the variable action situation, in which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions, is equal
to or less than the threshold level.
[Technical Note]
(1) The following is applicable to the performance verification of placement-type cellular-bulkhead

quaywalls. The performance verification method described here may also be applied to the performance
verification of seawalls using this structure.
(2) Placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls are cellular-bulkhead quaywalls without an embedded
section. In many cases these quaywalls are constructed on strong foundation subsoil whose bearing
capacity is considered sufficiently large or on the subsoil that has been improved to have sufficient
bearing capacity.
(3) An example of the sequence of performance verification of placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls
is shown in Fig. 2.10.1.
(4) In the performance verification of placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, normally analysis of
shear deformation of cells is carried out for permanent situations, and analysis of overturning of cells is
carried out for variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion.
(5) For the filling of cells, it is desirable that good quality sand or gravel is used, compacted to a sufficient
density.
2.10.2 Actions
For the action on placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, refer to 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with
Embedded Sections. The characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification used in the performance verification
of placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls under variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground
motion shall be appropriately calculated taking into consideration the structural characteristics. For the purpose
of convenience, the characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification of placement-type cellular-bulkhead
quaywalls may be calculated in accordance with 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywall, 2.2.2(1) Seismic Coefficient for
Verification used in Verification of Damage due to Sliding and Overturning of Wall Body and Insufficient
Bearing Capacity of Foundation Ground in Variable Situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion.
– 789 –
Provisional assumption of cross-section dimensions

*1
Verification of shear deformation and sliding of wall,
bearing capacity of foundation soils
Verification of sliding and overturning of wall,
and bearing capacity of foundation soils
*2
Analysis of amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Accidental situations of Level 2

Determination of cell layout

Analysis of stresses in cell, arcs, and connections between cell and arcs
Steel plate cellular- 4 Steel sheet pile cellular-
bulkhead quaywalls bulkhead quaywalls
Analysis of stresses in connections of flat-type sheet pile
*4: For steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, verification is carried out for the connections of flat-type sheet pile.
Fig. 2.10.1 Example of the Sequence of Performance Verification of Placement-type Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls
2.10.3 Setting of Cross-sectional Dimensions

The width of the wall structure used in performance verification may be the equivalent wall width, which is an
imaginary wall width obtained by replacing the cell and arc parts with a rectangular wall structure. For the converted
wall structure width, refer to 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections.
– 790 –
(1) Examination of Shear Deformation of Wall

① Examination of the shear deformation of the wall body shall be made in accordance with the performance
verification methods described in 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections. The resistance
moment shall be calculated appropriately in consideration of the structural characteristics of the cellular-
bulkhead and the deformation of the wall. The deformation moment to be used in the verification shall be the
moment at the sea bottom due to external forces acting on the wall body above the sea bottom, including active
earth pressure and residual water pressure.
② When the deformation of the wall body is not allowed, i.e. when the horizontal displacement of the cell top is
approximately less than 0.5% of the cell height, the resistance moment against deformation can be calculated
using equations (2.10.1) and (2.10.2).
(2.10.1)
(2.10.2)
where
Mrd : resistance moment of cell (kN･m/m)
Hd' : equivalent wall height used in the examination of deformation of cell (m)
R : deformation resistance coefficient
w0 : equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3)
ν : ratio of equivalent wall width to equivalent wall height used in examining cell deformation
ν=B/Hd'
φ : angle of shear resistance of filling material (º)
The design values in the equations can be calculated using the following equations. Here, the symbol γ
represents the partial factor for its subscript, and subscripts d and k respectively stand for the design value and
the characteristic value.
(2.10.3)
All partial factors used in calculating the cell's resistance moment can be set at 1.00.
③ In the calculation of resistance moment, the equivalent wall height of the cell Hd' is calculated by means of
equation (2.10.4). The height Hd' is that above the sea bottom.
(2.10.4)
where
Hd : height from sea bottom to top of quaywall (m)
Hw : height from sea bottom to residual water level (m)
wt : wet unit weight of filling above residual water level (kN/m3)
w' : submerged unit weight of saturated filling (kN/m3)
w0 : equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3); normally, w0 = 10kN/m3
In the calculation of the equivalent wall height Hd', surcharge may be ignored as in the case of resistance moment
calculation discussed in the performance verification of 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded
Sections. The design values in the equations can be calculated using the following equations. Here, the symbol
γrepresents the partial factor for its subscript, and subscripts k and d respectively stand for the characteristic
value and the design value. Refer to Table 2.10.1 for partial factors to be used for the verification.
(2.10.5)

④ When the filling material can be regarded as uniform, the height Hd of the quaywall top above the sea bottom
can be used in place of the equivalent wall height Hd' of equation (2.10.1).
– 791 –
(2) Examination of Sliding of Wall Structure
For examination of sliding, refer to 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections.
(3) Examination of Overturning of Wall
① In the calculations to examine the stability of a cell against overturning, the stability of cell shall be examined
against the external forces acting above the wall bottom, including earth pressure, residual water pressure, and
ground motion.
② For performance verification for overturning, normally equation (2.10.6) can be used. In the equation, the
subscripts k and d indicate the characteristic and design values respectively. For verification of overturning of
cell structures, the structural analysis factor shall be an appropriate value 1.10 or higher, and all other partial
factors can be 1.00.
(2.10.6)
where,
Mrd : resistance moment against overturning of steel cell (kN·m/m)
Md : deformation moment of cell bottom surface (kN·m/m)
③ The resistance moment of cell against overturning can be calculated using equations (2.10.7) and (2.10.8).
(2.10.7)
(2.10.8)
where
Mrd : resistance moment of steel plate cell against overturning (kN·m/m)
H' : equivalent wall height of the cell to obtain the resistance moment against overturning (m)
Rt : overturning resistance coefficient
ν : rate of equivalent wall width to equivalent wall height of the cell, ν＝B/H'
B : equivalent wall width of the cell (m)
δ : wall friction angle of filling material (º); normally, δ = 15°is used.
Ka : coefficient of active earth pressure of filling material
For other symbols, refer to those used in equations (2.10.1) and (2.10.2).
The design values in the equation can be calculated using equations below:
(2.10.9)
④ The equivalent wall height H' used to calculate the resistance moment against overturning can be calculated
(2.10.10)
where
H' : equivalent wall height used to calculate the resistance moment against overturning (m)
Hd : distance from the bottom of the cell to the top of the quaywall (m)
Hw : distance from the bottom of the cell to the residual water level (m)
⑤ In general, the filling of a cell used as a quaywall is not uniform because the major portion of such filling
is under the water and thus subjected to buoyancy. Therefore, the equivalent wall height is used here as in
the calculation of the resistance moment of the cell against deformation. When the filling material can be
considered as uniform, the total wall height of the cell H may be used in the same calculation in place of the
equivalent wall height H' of equation (2.10.7).
Although the actions of the filling against overturning is not uniform,91) since the main part of the filling's
resistance is the hanging effect, the margin of error is minimal and safety is secured even when the ratio of
equivalent wall width to equivalent wall height ν is used as in equation (2.10.8). In this case, surcharge can be
ignored.
⑥ The overturning moment is the moment at the bottom of cell due to the external forces acting above the bottom.
The equivalent wall height of the cell H' used in the calculation of the resistance moment should be a height
above the cell bottom.
– 792 –
(4) Examination of Bearing Capacity on Cell Front Toe
① The maximum subsoil reaction force generated at the front toe of the cell shall be calculated appropriately in
consideration of the effect of the filling material acting on the front wall of the cell.
② The maximum front toe reaction force on the cell front toe may be obtained from equation (2.10.11).
(2.10.11)
where,
Vt : maximum front toe reaction force on the cell front toe (kN/m)
wd : unit weight of filling soil (kN/m3)
H : total wall height of the cell (m)
φ : angle of shearing resistance of filling soil (°)
The design values in the equation may be calculated using the following equation. For calculation of the
maximum front toe reaction force on the cell front toe, all partial factors may be taken to be 1.00.
wd = γwwk，tanφd = γtanφ tanφk (2.10.12)
Equation (2.10.11) is an equation giving the weight of the filling soil weighing down on the front wall, with
the product of the earth pressure coefficient of the filling soil and the wall surface friction coefficient given by
tan2φ. Therefore, when the filling is not uniform, it is necessary to carry out the calculation for the same domain
as the earth pressure calculation.
③ The wall height H should normally be considered as the height of the wall top above the wall bottom. However,
when the superstructure of the cell is supported by foundation piles, it may be considered as the height of the
bottom of the superstructure above the wall bottom.
④ Equation (2.10.11) represents the cell front toe reaction force when the overturning moment is roughly equal
to the overturning resistance moment of equation (2.10.7). Without occurrence of overturning, the reaction
force is smaller than the value obtained from equation (2.10.11). According to a model test, the maximum front
toe reaction force Vt is nearly proportional to the overturning moment.92) Therefore reaction force without
occurrence of overturning should be calculated using equation (2.10.12).
(2.10.13)
where
V : front toe reaction force of the cell corresponding to overturning moment M (kN/m)
M : overturning moment (kN·m/m)
Mr0 : resistance moment against overturning (kN·m/m)
Hence, use of larger cell radius makes the cell safer against overturning by increasing the resistance moment
Mr0, while reducing the front toe reaction force V.
⑤ For the bearing capacity of the ground, refer to the bearing capacity in Chapter 2, 2.2 Bearing Shallow Spread
Foundations.
(5) Examination of Plate Thickness
① Examination of the plate thickness of the cells and arcs may be carried out in accordance with the examination
of plate thickness given in the performance verification in 2.9 Performance Verification of Cellular-bulkhead
Quaywalls with Embedded Sections.
② From the point of view of cell stiffness and corrosion, a minimum cell shell thickness of 6mm is necessary.
(6) Partial Factors
For standard partial factors for use in verification of the permanent situations and variable situations in respect of
Level 1 earthquake ground motion, refer to the values in Table 2.10.1. The partial factors in Table 2.10.1 have
been determined considering the setting of design methods of the past.
– 793 –

High earthquake-resistance facilities,
normal
γ α µ/X k V
Shear deformation γ tanφ Tangent of the angle of shearing resistance 1.00 – – –
γ w, γ wi Unit weight 1.00 – – –
γ w0 Unit weight of filling soil 1.00 – – –
γδ Wall surface friction angle of filling soil 1.00 – – –
*1: α: Sensitivity factor, µ/X k: Deviation of average values, average value / characteristic value, V: Variable factor.
(b) Variable situations of Level 1 earthquake ground motion

High earthquake-resistance facilities,
normal
γ α µ/X k V
Overturning γw Unit weight of filling soil 1.00 – – –
γ tanφ Tangent of the angle of shearing resistance 1.00 – – –
γ Ph Resultant earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γPdw Resultant dynamic water pressure 1.00 – – –
*1: α: Sensitivity factor, µ/X k: Deviation of average values, average value / characteristic value, V: Variable factor.

For the performance verification of the structural members of placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, refer to the
performance verification of the structural members in 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections.
– 794 –
2.11 Upright Wave-absorbing Type Quaywalls

(1) The following is applicable to upright wave-absorbing type quaywalls, but it may also be applied to the performance
verification of seawalls.
(2) The upright wave-absorbing type quaywall shall be structured so as to have the required capability of wave energy
dissipation and shall be located at strategic positions for enhancing the calmness within the harbor.
(3) Waves within a harbor are the result of superposition of the waves entering the harbor through the breakwater
openings, the transmitted waves over the breakwaters, the wind generated waves within the harbor, and the
reflected waves inside the harbor. By using quaywalls of wave-absorbing type, the reflection coefficient can be
reduced to 0.3 to 0.6 from that of 0.7 to 1.0 of solid quaywalls. To improve the harbor calmness, it is important
to design the alignments of breakwaters in a careful manner. The suppression of reflected waves through the
provision of wave energy absorbing structures within the harbor is also an effective means of improving the
calmness.
(4) Determination of Structural Type
① Quaywalls of wave-absorbing block type are constructed by stacking layers of various shape of concrete blocks.
This type is normally used to build relatively small quaywalls. The quaywall width is determined by stability
calculation as a gravity-type quaywall.
② Upright wave-absorbing caisson type quaywalls include slit–wall caisson type and perforated–wall caisson
type. This type is normally used to build large size quaywalls. The wave-absorbing performance can be
enhanced by optimizing the aperture rate of the front slit wall, the water chamber width, and others for the given
wave conditions.
③ The reflection coefficient is preferably determined by means of a hydraulic model test whenever possible, but
it may also be determined in accordance with Chapter 4, 3.5 Gravity-type Breakwater (Upright Wave-
absorbing Block Type Breakwaters) and Chapter 4, 3.6 Gravity-type Breakwater (Wave-absorbing
Caisson Type Breakwaters).
④ It is recommended that the crown elevation of the wave-absorbing section of a wave-absorbing block type
quaywall is set as high as 0.5 times the significant wave height or more above mean monthly-highest water level,
and that the bottom elevation of the wave-absorbing section is set as deep as 2 times the significant wave height
or more below mean monthly lowest water level.
(1) An example of the sequence of the performance verification of upright wave-absorbing type quaywalls is shown
in Fig. 2.11.1.
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of upright
wave-absorbing type quaywalls for the variable situations associated with Level 1 earthquake ground motion
shall be appropriately calculated taking the structural characteristics into consideration. For convenience, the
characteristic value of the seismic coefficient of upright wave-absorbing type quaywalls may be calculated in
accordance with that for gravity– type quaywalls shown in 2.2.2(1) Seismic Coefficient for Verification used in
Verification of Damage due to Sliding and Overturning of Wall Body and Insufficient Bearing Capacity of
the Foundation Ground in Variable Situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion.
– 795 –
Provisional assumption of layout
Analysis of harbor calmness within harbor

*1
*2
Analysis of amount of deformation by dynamic analysis
*3
Level 2 earthquake
ground motion
*1: Evaluation of liquefaction, settlement, etc., are not shown, so it is necessary to consider these separately.
*2: When necessary, an examination of the amount of deformation using dynamic analysis can be carried out for Level 1
For high earthquake-resistance facilities, it is desirable that an examination of the amount of deformation be carried out
using dynamic analysis.
*3: Verification for Level 2 earthquake ground motion is carried out for high earthquake-resistance facilities.
Fig. 2.11.1 Example of the Sequence of Performance Verification of Upright Wave-absorbing Type Quaywalls
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54) KUBO, K., Fujio SAIGUSA and Atsumi SUZUKI: Lateral Resistance of Vertical Anchor Piles, Rept. of PHRI Vol.4 No.2,
1965
55) National Association of Disaster Prevention: Design manual for disaster restoration works, 2005
56) Japan Road Association: Guideline for construction of temporary structures for earth works for roads, pp.107-109,1999
57) AKATSUKA, Y. and Kuniichi ASAOKA: Experimental Studies on High Strength Tie Rod, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 7 No.
3,pp.135-167, 1968
expected total cost considering economic losses, Proceedings of Structural Engineering, JSCE, Vol. 51A, pp. 389-400, 2005
59) Ozaki, R. and T. Nagao: Analysis of behavior of sheet pile wharves during earthquake utilizing the location of coupled-pile
anchorage as a parameter, Proceedings of 60th Annual Conference of JSCE, 2005
60) Katayama, T., T. Nakano, T. Hasumi and K. Yamaguchi: Analysis of the Damage to Harbour Structures by the 1968
TOKACHI-OKI Earthquake, Technical Note of PHRI No,93,pp.89-98,p.136,1969
61) Port and Harbour Bureau, First Port Construction Bureau and PHRI Ministry of Transport: Report of Damages of Ports due
to Niigata Earthquake Part 1, .101,1964
62) MITSUHASHI, I.: Inferring the value of the 2-dimensional k-value, Technical Note of PHRI No.219, 1975
63) Kotsutsumi, O., S. Shiosaki, K. Kazui, S. Iai and H. Mori : Examination of prescision improvement of 2-dimensional effective
stress analysis, Proceedings of Offshore Development, JSCE, Vol. 20,pp.443-448, 2004
64) Iai, S., M. Tatsuta, O. Kotsutsumi, Y. Tame, Y. Yamamoto and H. Mori: Analytical examination of effect of initial stress
conditions of ground on the behavior of sheet pile wharf during earthquake, Proceedings of 26th Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, pp.809-812,2001
65) Okada, T., S. Miwa, K. Ishikura, S. Hiraoka, E. Matsuda and N. Yoshida: Verification of modeling method of initial stress
state for effective stress analysis based on the examples of the damages of steel sheet pile wharves, Proceedings of 26th
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, pp.813-816, 2001
66) Miwa, S., O. Kotsutsumi, T. Ikeda, T. Okada and S. Iai: Evaluation of earthquake damage of steel sheet pile wharves based
on stress analysis considering initial stress states, Proceeding of Structural Engineering, Vol. 49A, pp. 369-380, 2003
67) Shiozaki, S., T. Sugano and E. Kohama : Experiment and analysis on earthquake resistance of sheet pile wharves, Proceedings
of Offshore Development, JSCE, pp.131-136, 2004
68) Japan Port Association: Guideline for construction of steel sheet piles, 1963
69) Ishiguro, K., N. Shiraishi and H. Umiwa: Steel Sheet pile method (Vol. 1). Sanakai-do Publishing, pp,297-328,1982
70) Ooshima, M. M. Sugiyama: Design method of sheet pile walls with batter pile anchorage, Soil and Foundation, Vol. 13, No.
3, pp. 11-18, 1965
71) Ishiwata, T., K. Ishiguro and Y. Higuchi: Sheet pile walls with batter pile anchorage and measurement of their behavior,
Technical Report of Fuji Steel Corporation, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 73-87, 1964
72) Sawaguchi, M.: Lateral Behavior of a Double Sheet Pile Wall Structure, Soils and Foundations, Vol.14 No.1, pp.45-59,1974
73) OHORI, K., Yoshihiro SHOJI, Kunio TAKAHASHI, Hiroshi UEDA, Michihiko HARA, Yutaka KAWAI and Keisuke
SHIOTA: Static Behavior of Double Sheet Pile Wall Structure, Rept. of PHRI Vol.23 No.1,pp.1O3-151, 1984
– 798 –
74) Technical Committee of Shore Protection Facilities: Technical Standards and commentary of coastal protection facilities,
Japan Port Association, 2004
75) Japan Road Association: Guideline for construction of temporary structures for earth works for roads, pp.76-87, 1999
76) G.R. Tschebotarioft, F.R, Ward: Measurements with Wicgmann lnc1inometer on Five Sheet Pile Bulkheads, 4th Intern, Conf.
Soil Mech. And Foundation Eng., Vol.2, 1957
77) Edited by G.A. Leonards: Foundation Engineering, McGrawHill Book Co., PP.514, 1962
78) TAKAHASHI, K., Setsuo NODA, Katsumi KANDA, Satoshi MIURA, Taisaku MIZUTANI and Shigeki TERAZAKI:
Horizontal Loading Tests on Models of Steel Sheet Pile Cellular Bulkheads-Part 2 Dynamic Behavior-
79) TAKAHASHI, K., Setsuo NODA, Katsumi KANDA, Satoshi MIURA, Taisaku MIZUTANI and Shigeki TERAZAKI:
Horizontal loading Tests on Models of Steel Sheet pile cellular Bulkhead-Part 2 Dynamic Behavior-, Technical Note of
PHRI, No.639, 1989
80) KITAJIMA, S., Setsuo NODA and Tanekiyo NAKAYAMA: An Experimental Study on the Static Stability of the Steel Plate
Cellular Bulkheads with embedment, Technical Note of PHRI, No,375,1981
81) NODA, SD., Sosuke KITAZAWA, Takeshi IIDA, Nobuo MORI and Hiroshi TABUCHI: An Experimental Study on the
Earthquake Resistance of Steel Plate Cellular Bulkheads with Embedment, Rept. of PHRI Vol.21 No.2, 1982
82) Yokoyama, Y.: Design and construction of steel piles, Sankai-do Publishing, pp. 95-96, 1963
83) Yoshida, I. and R. Yoshinaka: Engineering characteristics of Akashi and Kobe Layers, Report of Japan Institute of
Construction Engineering, Vol. 129, 1966
84) Yoshida, I. and Y. Adachi: Experimental Study on horizontal bearing capacity of caisson foundation, Report of Japan Institute
of Construction Engineering, Vol. 139, pp,24-25, 1970
85) Nagao, T. and T. Kitamura: Study on the methodology to determine optimum cross section of Cellular type wharves,
86) Sumiya, K. and T. Nagao: A study on the effect of the embedment of cellular bulkheads on the seismic stability, Technical
Note of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.352, 2006
87) NODA, S., Sosuke KITAZAWA, Takeshi IIDA, Nobuo MORI and Hiroshi TABUCHI: An Experimental Study on the
Earthquake Resistance of Steel Plate Cellular Bulkheads with Embedment, Rept. of PHRI Vol.21 No.2, pp.147, 1982
88) Sugano, T., T. Kitamura, T. Morita and Y. Yui: Study on behavior of steel plate cellular bulkhead during earthquake,
Proceedings of 10th Symposium on Earthquake Engineering、pp. 1867-1872, 1998.
89) Nagao, T. and T. Kitamura: Design method of cellular bulkhead against Level-one earthquake, Proceedings of Offshore
Development, JSCE, Vol. 21, pp. 755-760, 2005
90) Saimura, Y., A. Morimoto and Y. Takase: Results of field measurements of soil pressure of filling of embedded steel plate
cellular block, Proceedings of 36th Annual Conference of JSCE, Part 3, pp. 562-563, 1981
91) Itou, Y., O. Iimura, M. Gotou, T. Shiroe and T. Iida: Construction of embedded steel plate cellular block, Sumitomo Metals,
Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 93-105, 1982
92) PHRI, Third Port Construction Bureau and Kawasaki Steel K.K.: Report of tests of Steel plate cellular block, 1966
93) Tokikawa, K.: Experimental study on reflection coefficient of upright wave absorbing sea wall (First Report), Proceedings of
21st Conference on Coastal Engineering, JSCE, pp.409-415,1974
94) TANIMOTO, K., Suketo HARANAKA, Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Kazuhiro KOMATSU, Masahiko TODOROKI and Mutsuo
OSATO: An Experimental Investigation of Wave Reflection, Overtopping and Wave Forces for Several types of Breakwaters
and Sea Walls, Technical Note of PHRI No.246,p.38,1976
95) GODA, Y. and Yasuharu KISHIRA: Experiments on irregular Wave Overtopping Characteristics of Seawalls of Low Crest
Types, Technical Note of PHRINo.242,p.28,1976
– 799 –
3 Mooring Buoys
Performance Requirements for Mooring Buoys
Article 27
1 The performance requirements for mooring buoys shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism shall be
satisfied to enable the safe mooring of ships.
(2) Damage due to variable waves, water flows, traction by ships, or other damage shall not impair the
function of mooring buoys nor affect their continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirement of mooring buoys in
the place where there is a risk of having a serious impact on human lives, property, and/or socioeconomic
activity by the damage to the mooring buoys concerned shall be such that the structural stability of the
mooring buoy is not seriously affected even in cases when the function of the mooring buoys concerned is
impaired by tsunamis, accidental waves, and/or other actions.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Mooring Buoys
Article 53
1 The performance criteria of mooring buoys shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The buoy shall have the necessary freeboard in consideration of the usage conditions.
(2) The buoy shall have the dimensions required for containment of the swinging area of moored ships
within the allowable dimensions.
(3) The following criteria shall be satisfied under the variable action situation in which the dominant
actions are variable waves, water flow, and traction by ships.
(a) The risk of impairing the integrity of the anchoring chains, ground chains, and/or sinker chains of
the floating body shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk of losing the stability of the buoy due to tractive forces acting in mooring anchors shall be
2 In addition to the requirements of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of the mooring
buoys for which there is a risk of serious impact on human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity
by the damage to the facilities concerned shall be such that the degree of damage under the accidental
action situation, in which the dominant action is tsunamis or accidental waves, is equal to or less than the
threshold level.
– 800 –
[Commentary]
(1) Performance criteria of mooring buoys

① Common for mooring buoys
(a) Freeboard (usability)
In setting the freeboard in performance verification of mooring buoys, the conditions of use of the
specified facility shall be properly considered.
(b) In setting the structure and cross-section dimensions for performance verification, the swinging of
the floating body shall be properly considered.
(c) Safety of the facility (serviceability)
1) The setting for performance criteria of mooring buoys and the design situations excluding
accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 42.
Attached Table 42 Setting for Performance Criteria of Mooring Buoys and Design Situations (excluding accidental
situation)

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
dominating
action action
27 1 2 53 1 3a Serviceability Variable Variable Self weight, Yield of chains of Design yield stress
waves water floating bodies, ground
(water flow) pressure, chains, or sinker chains
(traction by water flow
2b ships) Stability of mooring Resistance force of mooring
anchors, etc. anchors, etc. (horizontal,
vertical)
2) Yield of chains of floating bodies, ground chains, or sinker chains

Verification of yield of chains of floating bodies, ground chains, or sinker chains is such that
the risk of the design stress corresponding to each member in chains of floating bodies, ground
chains, or sinker chains to exceed the design yield stress is equal to or less than the limited values.
3) Stability of mooring anchors
Verification of the stability of mooring anchors is such that the risk of the tractive force in the
mooring anchors to exceed the resistance force is equal to or less than the limited values. Mooring
anchor is a general term for the equipment installed on the seabed for retaining a floating body,
including sinkers.
② Mooring buoys of facilities against accidental incident (safety)
(a) The setting for performance criteria of mooring buoys of facilities against accidental incident and the
design situations (only accidental situations) shall be in accordance with Attached Table 43.
Attached Table 43 Setting for Performance Criteria of Mooring Buoys of Facilities against Accidental Incident and
Design Situations only limited to Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article

Item
Item
action action
27 2 – 53 2 – Safety Accidental Tsunami Self weight, Stability of mooring –

Waves of water pressure, system
extremely rare water flow
event
– 801 –
[Technical Note]
(1) The mooring buoy shall secure appropriate stability under the mooring method, the natural conditions at the site,
and the dimensions of the design ships.
(2) Mooring buoys are structurally categorized into three types; sinker type, anchor chain type, and sinker and anchor
chain type. The sinker type mooring buoy comprises a floating body, anchoring chain of floating body, and sinker.
It does not have a mooring anchor, as shown in Fig. 3.1.1 (a). The anchor chain type mooring buoy comprises a
floating body, anchor chain, and mooring anchor. It does not have a sinker, as shown in Fig. 3.1.1(b). Although
the construction cost of this type is lower than the other types, it is not suitable for cases where the area of the
mooring basin is limited, because the radius of ship’s swinging motion is large. The sinker and anchor chain type
mooring buoy comprises a floating body, anchoring chain, ground chain, mooring anchor, and sinker, as shown
in Fig. 3.1.1(c). The sinker and anchor chain type mooring buoys are being used widely in ports and harbors.
This type of buoy could be used even when the area of the mooring basin is limited, because the radius of ship’s
swinging motion could be reduced by increasing the weight of the sinker.
Floating body Floating body Floating body
Anchoring chain Anchoring chain

of floating body of floating body
Anchor chain Ground chain
Mooring Mooring
anchor anchor Sinker chain
Sinker
Sinker
(a) Sinker Type (b) Anchor Chain Type (c) Sinker and Anchor Chain Type
Fig. 3.1.1 Types of Mooring Buoys
(3) The procedure for performance verification of mooring buoys is shown in Fig. 3.1.2.
Variable states in respect of
actions of waves and ships
Verification of stability of mooring system
Verification of stresses in mooring system
Variable states in respect of actions of ships

Verification of stability of floating body
Verification of transitional part
Fig. 3.1.2 Example of Sequence for Performance Verification of Mooring Buoys
– 802 –
(4) Fig. 3.1.3 shows a typical schematic figure of mooring buoy.
Mooring rope A; Harp shackle (mooring ring) or quick release hook 1
A B; Anchor shackle 1
K C; Swivel piece 1
Q D; Joining shackle 1
B
Fender E; Mooring piece 1
C F; Long ring 2
D
G; Joining shackle 2
L
H; Anchor shackle 1
I; Joining shackle 2
Lift chain
J; Anchor shackle 2
G
F K; Chain 1
E
L; Main chain (Anchoring chain of floating body) 1
N
I M; Sinker chain 1
M N; Chain or ground chain 4
H
O; Sinker 1
O P; Anchor or screw 1
P J
Q; Buoy 1
Fig. 3.1.3 Typical Schematic Figure of Mooring Buoy
(5) The provisions in this sector can be applied to the performance verification of sinker and anchor chain type
mooring buoys. Since the sinker type and anchor chain type buoys are simplified structure of the sinker and
anchor chain type buoy, the provisions are applicable to their performance verifications as well.
3.2 Actions
(1) In principle, the tractive force acting on a mooring buoy can be calculated considering structural characteristics
of the mooring buoy in accordance with the provisions in Part II, Chapter 8, 2.4 Actions due to Traction by
Ships. When setting the tractive force, consideration should be given to the effects of winds, tidal currents and
waves. However, it should be noted that these are dynamic loads, and thus there are many uncertainties on their
relationships with the tractive forces of ships.
(2) It is preferable that the tractive force acting on a mooring buoy be determined considering the actions that exert
upon moored ships such as winds, tidal currents, and waves and referring the existing tractive force data on the
buoys of the similar type.
(3) When the motions of buoy due to wave actions are not negligible, their effect of motions needs to be considered in
the calculation of the wave force and the resistance force.
(4) In a dynamic analysis of a floating body, the response characteristics of the floating body vary widely depending
on the wave period. Therefore, if the analysis is made based on monochromatic waves only, the results would be
either underestimated or overestimated. When performing a dynamic analysis of the motions of a floating body,
therefore, it is preferable to employ random waves with spectral characteristics.
(5) Table 3.2.1 shows examples of design conditions and tractive forces on mooring buoys.
– 803 –
Table 3.2.1 Examples of Design Conditions for Mooring Buoys
Design ship Mooring Wind velocity Tidal current Wave height Tractive force
DWT (t) method (m/s) (m/s) (m) (kN)
1,000 Single buoy 50 0.5 2.0 185
3,000 50 0.5 4.0 409
15,000 15 0.51 0.7 245
20,000 20 1.0 — 589
130,000 60 0.67 10.0 1,370
260,000 25 0.51 3.0 1,840
30,000 Dual buoy 15 — — 1,490
100,000 6-points 20 — 1.5 1,470
3.3 Performance Verification of Mooring Buoys
(1) Mooring Anchor

① The sizes and required strengths of each part of a mooring buoy, including the mooring anchor, sinker, sinker
chain, ground chain, main chain, and floating body need to be determined appropriately in accordance with
the relevant provisions in 6 Floating Piers and in consideration of the tractive forces of ships, the structure of
mooring buoy, and the mooring method.
② Normally three mooring anchors are attached to a mooring buoy. In verifying the performance of a mooring
buoy, however, it can generally be assumed that only one of the three anchors resists the horizontal force. It is
preferable for the mooring anchors to be designed in such a way that the buoy will not capsize even when one of
the anchor chains is broken down.
③ It should be assumed that the horizontal force acting on the mooring buoy is resisted only by the mooring
anchors’ resistance. 6 Floating Piers may be referred to in calculating the holding power of the mooring
anchors.
(2) Sinker and Sinker Chain
① Normally a sinker chain of 3 to 4 m in length is used for a mooring buoy. It is preferable not to use an excessively
long sinker chain, because it makes larger range of the upward movement of the sinker and increases the risk of
the tangling of the sinker chain and thus the risk of abrasion and accidental breaking of the chain. The sinker
chain should be of the same diameter as that of the main chain.
② The vertical and horizontal forces acting on the sinker can be calculated based on the chain tension of floating
body and the distance of horizontal movement of the floating body as calculated in accordance with (4)
Anchoring Chain of Floating Body using equation (3.3.1) below.5) In the following equations, symbol γ shall
represent the partial factor for its suffix and suffixes k and d shall respectively represent characteristic values
and design values.
(3.3.1)
where
PV, PH : vertical and horizontal forces acting on the sinker, respectively (kN)
θ1 : angle that main chain makes with the horizontal plane at the sinker attachment point (º)
TA : tension of main chain at the sinker attachment point (kN)
TC : tension of main chain at the floating body attachment point (kN)
w : weight of the main chain per unit length in water (kN/m)
ℓ : length of main chain (m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated using the following equation. The partial factor can be set
at 1.0.
θ1 may be obtained by solving the following equations.
– 804 –
(3.3.2)
where
∆K : distance of horizontal movement of the floating body (m)
θ2 : angle that main chain makes with the horizontal plane at the floating body attachment point (º)
In variable situations in respect of action of ships, the alignment of the floating body chain can be assumed
as a straight line and thus the following approximation can be used:
(3.3.3)
③ The weight of a sinker most commonly used for 5,000 GT ships and 10,000 GT ships are about 50kN and 80kN,
respectively. The sinker weight can be determined using these values as references. The values mentioned
above indicate the weight in water. Sinkers may be of any shape and material as long as they satisfy the weight
requirement, but in Japan disk-shaped cast iron sinkers are used commonly and concrete is seldom used. It is
said that disk-shaped cast iron sinkers with a slightly concaved bottom surface improves the adhesion of the
sinker to the soft sea bottom ground significantly.
④ The role of the sinker is to absorb the impact force acting on the chain and to make the main chain shorter.
When the main chain is to be shortened to reduce the distance of ship movement, therefore, the weight of the
sinker must be increased accordingly.
⑤ In certain cases, buried anchors may be used instead of sinkers.
(3) Ground Chain
① The angle that the chain makes with the sea bottom at the mooring anchor attachment point is desirably smaller
than 3º because the holding power of the mooring anchor decreases sharply as the angle increases beyond 3º In
many cases, the weight of the ground chain is determined in such a way that the ground chain satisfies the above
mentioned condition when the tractive force acts on the buoy. When the tractive force is large, the attachment
angle that the mooring anchor makes with the ground chain may be made smaller using a ground chain longer
than the above-mentioned value. The inclination angle θ1 of the ground chain at the mooring anchor attachment
point can be calculated by equation (6.4.8) described in 6.4. Performance Verification. The symbols in
equation (6.4.8) are redefined as follows (see Fig. 3.3.1):
 : length of the ground chain (g in Fig. 3.3.1) (m)

h : vertical distance between the upper end of the ground chain and the sea bottom, in other words
the sum of the length of the sinker chain, height of the sinker, and allowance (hg in Fig. 3.3.1)
(m)
PH : horizontal component of the tractive force acting on the floating body (kN)
w : weight of the ground chain per unit length in water (kN/m)
θ2 : inclination angle of the ground chain at the upper end of the chain (º)
In this calculation, the value of θ1 is calculated by assuming the values of g, w, and hg; θ1 is desirably kept at
3º or less.
② The maximum tension Tg of the ground chain can be calculated using equation (6.4.5) described in 6.4
Performance Verification. Here PH represents the horizontal component of the tractive force of ship acting on
the buoy, and θ2 represents the inclination angle of the ground chain at the upper end of the chain.
③ The tensile yield strength of chain can be set based on 6 Floating Piers. In the case of mooring buoys, however,
the diameter of chain is usually determined not only on the basis of strength, but on the basis of comprehensive
analysis that elaborating such measures to reduce forces acting on the chain as the use of a heavier chain to
absorb the energy of impact forces, and as known from equation (6.4.8) in 6.4 Performance Verification the
use of a shorter chain to reduce the radius of the vessel’s swinging motion. In general, the chain diameter is
designed in such a way that the maximum tension to be exerted upon the chain is equal to 1/5 to 1/8 of the
maximum strength.
– 805 –
Fig. 3.3.1 Notation for Sinker and Anchor Chain Type Mooring Buoy
(4) Anchoring Chain of Floating Body

① It is preferable to determine the length  f of the anchoring chain of floating body in such a way to lessen the
tension acting on both the anchoring chain of floating body and the mooring hawser as well as to reduce the
radius of the ship’s swinging motion. The ratio of the anchoring chain length to the water depth may affect the
degree of abrasion of the anchoring chain, but their relationship has not been clarified yet.
② It is preferable that the tension acting on the main chain and the displacement of the floating body be derived by
means of a simulation analysis, but the results under similar conditions in the past may also be used to determine
the tension and displacement. Or these may be calculated using the method described below.
③ The weight of the main chain per unit length in water wf (kN/m) can be calculated using equation (6.4.8)
described in 6.4 Performance Verification.
Here,  and h of this equation represent the length of the anchoring chain ( f in Fig. 3.3.1) (m) and the vertical
distance between the upper and lower ends of the anchoring chain (hf in Fig. 3.3.1) (m), respectively. In other
words, h is the vertical distance between the floating body attachment point and the upper end of the sinker
chain with the sinker being lifted up to the point where the bottom of the sinker is completely separated from
the sea bottom surface. The force P represents the horizontal component (kN) of the tractive force acting on the
buoy, and θ2 and θ1 represent the inclination angles (º) of the main chain at the upper and lower ends, respectively
( θ2' and θ1' in Fig. 3.3.1).
The inclination angle θ1' of the anchoring chain at the lower end of the chain can be calculated as shown in
Fig. 3.3.2 from the conditions of balance among the anchoring chain lower end tension Tfv, the ground chain
upper end tension Tg, and the sinker chain upper end tension Tsv, where Tsv is equal to the summation of the
weight of the sinker and sinker chain in water. The tension Tg and its direction are calculated in accordance with
(3) Ground Chain.
④ It is preferable to calculate the tension of the anchoring chain at the upper end using equation (6.4.8)
described in 6.4 Performance Verification. Here the horizontal component of the tractive force can
be used as the horizontal external force. The angle θ2 that the floating body chain makes with the
horizontal plane at the floating body attachment point can be calculated by equation (6.4.8) described
in 6.4 Performance Verification with the previously calculated weight of the anchoring chain per unit
length in water. In general, This tension is used to verify the stress on the anchoring chain.
– 806 –
Fig. 3.3.2 Schematic Chart for Tension of Anchoring Chain
⑤ The horizontal displacement ΔK of the floating body can be calculated by means of equation (6.4.9) described
in 6.4 Performance Verification. Here θ1' and θ2' of the equation are defined below.
θ1 : angle that the anchoring chain makes with the horizontal plane at its lower end
(θ1’ in Fig. 3.3.1) (º)
θ2 : angle that the anchoring chain makes with the horizontal plane at its upper end
(θ2’ in Fig. 3.3.1) (º)
The resultant value of displacement should be examined in comparison with the area of the mooring basin.
If it is found too large, the anchoring chain need to be shortened, the weight of the sinker need to be increased,
or the unit length weight of the anchoring chain need to be increased.
(5) Floating Body
In variable situations in respect of the action of ships, the floating body should be designed in such a way that it
does not submerge. Even when no ship is moored, the floating body should be afloat with a freeboard equal to 1/2
to 1/3 of its height. It must be afloat the water surface under the condition that the anchoring chain, and in some
cases part of the ground chain and sinker chain, are suspended beneath it. It is preferable to set the buoyancy to
meet these two requirements. The floating body buoyancy required to meet the first requirement can be calculated
by equation (3.3.4).
(3.3.4)
where
F : required buoyancy of the floating body (kN)
Va : vertical force acting on the floating body (kN), this is calculated by means of equation (6.4.6)
described in 6.4 Performance Verification.
P : t ractive force (kN)
 c : length of the mooring hawser (m)
d : vertical distance between the ship’s hawser hole and the water surface (m)
However, the total buoyancy that is actually required is the sum of the buoyancy required to resist the tractive
force and the self weight of the floating body.
References
1) Yoneda, K.: Wind tunnel experiment on drifting motion of buoy moored ship, Proceedings of 28th Conference of Japan
Institute of Navigation, (mooring buoy- process for standardization- reference), 1962
2) SUZUKI, Y.: Study on the Design of Single Point Buoy Mooring, Technical Note of PHRI No.829, 1996
3) HIRAISHI, Y. and Yasuhiro TOMITA: Model Test on Countermeasure to Impulsive Tension of Mooring Buoy, Technical
Note of PHRI No.816, p.18,1995
4) JSCE Edition: Commentary of guideline for design of offshore structure (Draft), 1973
5) Dep. Of the Navy Bureau of Yards & Docks: Mooring Guide, Vol.1, p.61, 1954
– 807 –
4 Mooring Piles
Performance Requirements for Mooring Piles
Article 28
The performance requirements for mooring piles shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
satisfied so as to enable the safe mooring of ships.
(2) The damage due to berthing, traction by ships, and/or other actions shall not impair the function of the
mooring piles nor affect their continued use.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Mooring Piles
Article 54
The performance criteria of mooring piles shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The mooring piles shall have the dimensions required for the usage conditions.
(2) The following criteria shall be satisfied under the variable action situation in which the dominant action
is ship berthing or traction by ships:
(a) In the case of mooring piles having a superstructure, the risk of impairing the integrity of the
superstructure members shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) The risk that the axial forces acting on the piles may exceed the resistance capacity due to failure of
the ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(c) The risk that the stress in the piles may exceed the yield stress shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Mooring Piles

① Facility stability (serviceability)
(a) The setting for performance criteria of mooring piles and the design situations excluding accidental
situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 44.
Attached Table 44 Setting for Performance Criteria of Mooring Piles and Design Situations (excluding accidental
situations)
Ministerial Public notice Design situation

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirement Dominating
Item
Item
action action
28 1 2 54 1 2a Serviceability Variable Berthing and Self weight Failure of Design ultimate capacity of
traction by superstructure*1) section (ultimate limit state)
ships
2b Axial forces in piles Resistance capacity based on
failure of the ground (pushing
forces, pulling forces)
2c Yielding of pile Design yield stress
*1) Only for structures with a superstructure.
(b) Failure of the superstructure

Verification of failure of the superstructure is such that the risk that the design cross-sectional forces
in the superstructure will exceed the design cross-sectional resistance is equal to or less than the
limit values.
– 808 –
(c) Axial forces in piles

Verification of axial forces in piles is such that the risk that the axial force on a pile will exceed the
resistance capacity based on the failure of the ground is equal to or less than the limited values.
(d) Yielding of a pile
Verification of pile yielding is such that the risk that the design stress in a pile will exceed the design
yield stress is equal to or less than the limit values.
– 809 –
5 Piled Piers
Performance Requirements for Piled Piers
Article 29
1 The performance requirements for piled piers shall be as specified in the subsequent items in consideration
of the structure types:
satisfied so as to enable the safe and smooth berthing of ships, embarkation and disembarkation of
people, and handling of cargo.
(2) Damage to the piled pier due to self weight, earth pressure, Level 1 earthquake ground motions,
berthing and traction by ships, imposed load and/or other actions shall not impair the functions of the
pier concerned and not adversely affect its continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the previous paragraph, the performance requirements for piled piers
which are classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that the damage due to Level
2 earthquake ground motions and other actions do not affect the restoration of the functions required of
the piers concerned in the aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2 earthquake ground motions. Provided,
however, that as for the performance requirements for the piled pier which requires further improvement
in earthquake-resistant performance due to environmental conditions, social or other conditions to which
the pier concerned is subjected, the damage due to said actions shall not adversely affect the restoration
through minor repair works of the functions of the pier concerned and its continued use.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Piled Piers
Article 55
1 The provisions of Article 48 shall be applied to the performance criteria of piled piers with modification
as necessary.
2 In addition to the requirements of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of piled piers shall be
as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The access bridge of a piled pier shall satisfy the following criteria.
(a) It shall have the dimensions required for enabling the safe and smooth loading, unloading, embarkation
and disembarkation, and others in consideration of the usage conditions.
(b) It shall not transmit the horizontal loads to the superstructure of the piled pier, and it shall not fall
down even when the piled pier and the earth-retaining part are displaced owing to the actions of
earthquakes or similar one.
actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing and traction by ships, and imposed load:
(a) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the superstructure shall be equal to or less than
(b) The risk that the axial forces acting in the piles may exceed the resistance capacity owing to failure
of the ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
threshold level.
is variable waves:
(a) The risk of losing the stability of the access bridge due to uplift acting on the access bridge shall be
(b) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the superstructure shall be equal to or less than
(c) The risk that the axial forces acting in piles may exceed the resistance capacity owing to failure of
– 810 –

(4) In the case of structures having stiffening members, the risk of impairing the integrity of the stiffening
members and their connection points under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions
are variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing and traction by ships, and
imposed load shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
3 The provisions of Article 49 through Article 52 shall be applied with modification as necessary to the
performance criteria of the earth-retaining parts of piled piers in consideration of the structural type.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Piled Piers

① Performance criteria of piled piers
(a) Open-type wharves on vertical piles
1) The setting of the performance criteria of piled piers of earthquake-resistance facilities of open-
type wharves on vertical piles and the design conditions only limited to accidental situation
shall be in accordance with Attached Table 45. The restorability and serviceability of the
performance requirements in Attached Table 45 varies depending on the type of earthquake-
resistance facility.
Attached Table 45 Setting the Performance Criteria of Piled Piers of Earthquake-resistance Facilities and Design
Situations only limited to Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
dominating
action action
29 2 2 55 1 – Restorability Variable L2 Self weight, Deformation of face line Limit value of residual
and earthquake surcharges deformation
Serviceability ground Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional
motion of the superstructure resistance (ultimate limit
condition)
Full plasticity of piles Fully plastic state moment
Axial forces in the piles The resistance capacity due
to failure of the soil (pushing
and pulling)
2) High earthquake-resistance facilities specially designated (emergency supply transport) (serviceability)

• Deformation of face line
The limit value for the deformation of the face line of quays applies to those of gravity-type
mooring quays.
• Cross-sectional failure of the superstructure
Verification of cross-sectional failure of the superstructure is such that the risk that the design
cross-sectional forces in the superstructure will exceed the design cross-sectional resistance is
equal to or less than the limit values.
• Full plasticity of piles
Verification of full plasticity of piles is such that fully plastic state shall not occur at two or more
locations on a pile among the piles comprising the piled pier. Attainment of full plasticity in a
pile means the condition where the flexural moment acting on a pile reaches the moment to cause
fully plastic.
• Axial forces in the piles
Verification of the axial forces acting in the piles is such that the risk that the axial force acting
in a pile will exceed the resistance capacity due to the failure of the soil is equal to or less than
the limited values.
3) High earthquake-resistance facilities specially designated (trunk line cargo transport) (restorability)
The performance criteria of piled piers for high earthquake-resistance facilities (designated (for
– 811 –
transport of main cargo)) of open-type wharves on vertical piles shall satisfy the performance criteria
of high earthquake-resistance facilities (designated (for transport of emergency goods)).
4) High earthquake-resistance facilities (standard (for transport of emergency goods)) (restorability)
• Setting of the performance criteria for the piled piers of high earthquake-resistance facilities
(standard (emergency supply transport)) of open-type wharves on vertical piles and the design
conditions only limited to accidental situation shall comply with setting of the performance
criteria of high earthquake-resistance facilities (designated (emergency supply transport)) and
the design conditions, except for only the verification items for full plasticity of piles.
• Full plasticity of piles
The verification of full plasticity of piles is such that full plasticity does not occur at more than
two points on a pile among the piles comprising the piled pier. The state of reaching the full
plasticity means that the flexural moment acting on a pile reaches the moment to cause fully
plastic state.
(b) Open-type wharves with a coupled raking piles
The performance criteria of piled piers of high earthquake-resistance facilities of open-type wharves
with coupled raking piles shall apply the performance requirements of high earthquake-resistance
facilities of open-type wharves on vertical piles. The performance criteria of raking piles of open-
type wharves with coupled raking piles shall apply the performance criteria of piles in open-type
wharves on vertical piles.
(c) Structures with stiffening members
The performance criteria of piled piers of high earthquake-resistance facilities of structures with
stiffening members shall apply the performance criteria of high earthquake-resistance facilities of
open-type wharves on vertical piles.
② Main structure of piled piers

(a) The variable situation where dominating actions are the Level 1 earthquake ground motion, berthing
and traction by ships and surcharges (serviceability)
1) The setting for the performance criteria of piled piers and design conditions excluding accidental
situations shall be as follows, in accordance with the structure type and the structural members.
2) Open type wharves on vertical piles
i) Performance criteria of the superstructure
・ The performance criteria of the superstructure of open-type wharves on vertical piles and the
design conditions excluding accidental situations shall be as shown in Attached Table 46.
– 812 –
Attached Table 46 Setting of Performance Criteria of Superstructure of Piled Piers and Design Situations (excluding
accidental situations)

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
action action
29 1 2 55 2 2a Serviceability Variable Berthing and Self weight, Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional
traction by surcharges of superstructure resistance (ultimate limit state)
ships
ground motion surcharges
Surcharges Self weight,
(including Wind acting on
surcharges cargo handling
during cargo equipment and
handling) ships
2b Surcharges Self weight, Serviceability of Limit value of bending crack
(including wind acting on superstructure cross- width (serviceability limit
surcharges cargo handling section state)
handling) ships
Repeatedly Self weight Fatigue failure of Design fatigue strength
applied superstructure (Fatigue limit state)
surcharges
3b Variable waves Self weight Cross-sectional failure Design cross-sectional
of superstructure resistance (ultimate limit state)
・ Cross-sectional failure of the superstructure

Verification of cross-sectional failure of the superstructure is such that the risk that the design cross-
sectional forces in the superstructure will exceed the design cross-sectional resistance is equal to or less
than the limit value.
・ Serviceability of the cross-section of the superstructure
Verification of the serviceability of the cross-section of the superstructure is such that the risk
that width of bending cracks in the superstructure will exceed the limit value of crack width is
equal to or less than the limit values.
・ Fatigue failure of the superstructure
Verification of fatigue failure of the superstructure is such that the risk the design variable
cross-sectional forces in the superstructure will exceed the design fatigue strength is equal to
or less than the limit values.
ii) Performance criteria of piles
The setting of the performance criteria of the piles of open-type wharves on vertical piles and
the design conditions excluding accidental situations shall be as shown in Attached Table 47.
– 813 –
Attached Table 47 Setting of Performance Criteria of Piles of Piled Piers and Design Situations (excluding accidental
situations)

Ordinance
Performance Verification
Paragraph
Paragraph
Non- Index of standard limit value
Article
Article
requirements Dominating item
Item
Item
action action
29 1 2 55 2 2b Serviceability Variable Berthing, Self weight, Axial forces Load resistance due to soil failure
traction by surcharges in piles (pushing, pulling)
ships
Surcharges Self weight,
(including wind acting
surcharges oncargo
during cargo handling
handling) equipment and
ships
2c Berthing and Self weight, Yielding of Failure probability of variable
traction by surcharges piles situations of berthing and traction by
ships ships
(seismically high earthquake-resistance
facilities: P = 9.1×10-4)
(facilities other than high earthquake-
resistance facilities: P = 1.9×10-3)
L1 earthquake Self weight, Failure probability of variable situation
ground motion surcharges of level 1 earthquake
(high earthquake-resistance facilities
(specially designated): P = 1.3×10-4)
(high earthquake-resistance facilities
(standard): P = 3.8×10-3)
(facilities other than high earthquake-
resistance facilities: P = 1.4×10-2)
Surcharges Self weight, Complies with failure probability
(including wind acting on of variable situation conditions of
surcharges cargo handling berthing and traction by ships
handling) ships
3c Variable waves Self weight Axial forces Load resistance due to failure of the
acting in piles soil (pushing and pulling)
・ Axial forces acting on piles

Verification of the axial forces acting on a pile is such that the risk that the axial force acting on
a pile will exceed the resistance force due to failure of the soil is equal to or less than the limit
values.
・ Yielding of piles
Verification of yielding in piles is such that the risk that the design stress in a pile will exceed
the design yield stress is equal to or less than the limit values.
iii) Performance criteria of access bridges
・ The setting of the performance criteria of access bridges of open-type wharves on vertical
piles and the design conditions excluding accidental situations shall be as shown in Attached
Table 48.
– 814 –
Attached Table 48 Setting of Performance Criteria of Access Bridges of Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles and
Design Situations (excluding accidental situations)
Ministerial
Public Notice Design situation
Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
Item
Item
action
action
29 1 2 55 2 3a Serviceability Variable Variable waves Self weight Uplift force on access Design cross-sectional
bridge resistance (ultimate limit state)
3) Open-type wharves with coupled raking piles

Performance criteria of open-type wharves with coupled raking piles shall apply the performance
criteria of open-type wharves on vertical piles.
4) Piled piers of structures with stiffening members
i) Performance criteria of piled piers of structures with stiffening members shall be as shown in
Attached Table 49, as well as complying with the performance criteria of open-type wharves on
vertical piles. The items within parentheses in the column of “Design situation” in Attached Table
49 may be applied individually.
Attached Table 49 Setting of Performance Criteria of Piled Piers of Structures with Stiffening Members and Design
Situations (excluding accidental situations)

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements Non-dominating limit value

Item
Item
Situation Dominating action action
29 1 2 55 2 4 Serviceability Variable Berthing and traction Self weight, Yielding of Design yield stress
by ships surcharges stiffening members Design shear force
(Self weight, Failure of resistance
(L1 earthquake ground surcharges) connections at
motion) (Surcharges (Self weight, joints
(including surcharges surcharges, and wind
during cargo handling)) acting on ships) Punching shear Design shear force
failure at joints resistance
Punching shear Design shear force
failure at joints resistance
Repeatedly acting Self weight Fatigue failure of Design fatigue
surcharges joints strength (fatigue
limit state)
Variable waves Self weight Failure of Design shear force
connections at resistance
joints
ii) Yielding of stiffening members

Verification of yielding of the stiffening members is such that the risk that the stress in a stiffening
member will exceed the yield stress is equal to or less than the limit values.
iii) Failure of the connections at joints
Verification of failure of the connections at joints is such that the risk that the design shear force at a
joint will exceed the design shear strength is equal to or less than the limit value.
iv) Push through shear failure of joints
Verification of push through shear failure of joints is such that the risk that the push through shear
force at a joint will exceed the design shear resistance of a joint is equal to or less than the limit value.
v) Fatigue failure of joints
Verification of fatigue failure of joints is such that the risk that the design fluctuating cross-sectional
force at a joint will exceed the design fatigue strength is equal to or less than the limit values.
– 815 –
③ Earth-retaining sections of piled piers

(a) Compliance with the performance criteria of quaywalls
Setting for the performance criteria for each of the structural types of quays in accordance with
Article 49 “performance criteria of gravity-type quaywalls” through Article 52 “performance
criteria of cell type quaywalls” shall comply with the setting for performance criteria of the
earth-retaining sections of piled piers.
– 816 –
[Technical Note]
5.1 Common Items for Piled Piers
(1) The performance verification of piled piers in common may be in accordance with 2.1 Common Items
for Quaywalls.
(2) The structural types of piled piers include open-type wharves on vertical piles, open-type wharves on coupled
raking piles, jacket type piers and strutted frame type pier.
(3) An example of the procedure of the performance verification of piled piers is shown in Fig. 5.1.1.
(4) Access Bridges
In setting the structure and cross-sectional dimensions of access bridges in the performance verification of piled
piers, it is necessary to appropriately consider the conditions of use of the concerned piers, in order that the piled
pier can be safely and efficiently used.
Also, in setting the structure and cross-sectional dimensions of access bridges in the performance verification of
piled piers, it is necessary to appropriately consider the amount of relative deformation between the main structure
of the piled pier and the earth-retaining section, and also the allowable horizontal displacement of the access
bridge.
-Setting of size of 1 block

-Setting cross-section and Setting of design conditions
layout of piles
-Assumption of dimensions Assumption of cross-sectional dimensions
of superstructure *1
-Layout of mooring posts,
fenders Evaluation of actions including setting
-Assumptions regarding seismic coefficient for verification
seabed soils
Permanent states,variable states of
Verification of stability of earth-retaining section
Variable states of the action of ships,surcharges,

and Level 1 earthquake ground motion
Verification of pile stresses
*2
Accidental states of Level 2
Verification of amount of deformation from
dynamic analysis and damage to piled pier
Permanent states
Verification of slope stability
Verification of structural members (verification of superstructure, etc.)
*1: Evaluation of the effect of liquefaction and settlement is not shown on the diagram, so it is necessary to separately into consider.
*2: Verification shall be carried out for high earthquake-resistance facilities against the Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
Fig. 5.1.1 Example of the Sequence of Performance Verification of a Piled Pier
– 817 –
5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles

(1) The following refers to open-type wharves on vertical piles using steel pipe piles or steel sections, but it may also
be applied to similar facilities provided that their dynamic characteristics are taken into account.
(2) For the procedure of performance verification of open-type wharves on vertical piles, it is possible to refer to Fig.
5.1.1 of 5.1 Common Items for Piled Piers. However, evaluation of the effect of liquefaction is not shown in Fig.
5.1.1, so it is necessary to appropriately investigate the potential for liquefaction and measures against it, (refer to
Part II, Chapter 6 Ground Liquefaction).
(3) In the performance verification of open-type wharves on vertical piles, normally the cross-section is set with
respect to actions other than that of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, while the seismic performance is verified
with respect to Level 2 earthquake ground motion. This is because for verification of variable situation in respect
of the action of ships and Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the performance verification is carried out based on
the yield stress for the steel pipe piles, but for seismic performance verification of seismic-resistant with respect
to Level 2 earthquake ground motion, a verification method that takes the extent of damage to the piled pier into
account is used.
(4) For the variable situation in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion, it is possible to carry out verification
by obtaining the natural periods of the piled pier based on a frame analysis, and then calculating the seismic
coefficient for verification using the obtained natural periods and the acceleration response spectrum. However,
for high earthquake-resistance facilities, verification may be carried out using an appropriate dynamic analysis
method, such as nonlinear seismic response analysis taking into account the 3-dimensional dynamic interaction
effect between piles and the ground. For open-type wharves on vertical piles other than high earthquake-resistance
facilities, it is possible to omit the verification of the accidental situation for Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
(5) An example of cross-section of an open type piled pier on vertical piles is shown in Fig. 5.2.1.
(6) When cargo handling equipment, such as container cranes, is to be installed on an open-type wharf on vertical
piles, it is preferable to install it in such a way that all of its feet are positioned on either the pile-supported section
or earth-retaining section. If, for example, one foot of a cargo handling equipment is positioned on the pile-
supported section and another on the earth-retaining section, the equipment becomes susceptible to adverse effects
by uneven settlement and ground motions, due to the difference in the response characteristics of the two sections.
When it is unavoidable to position one foot on the pile-supported section and another on the earth-retaining
section, sufficient foundation work such as foundation piles should be provided to prevent uneven settlement due
to the settlement on the earth-retaining section. In this case, in general, the fixed foot of cargo handling equipment
such as portal crane should not be installed. When installing cargo handling equipment, such as container cranes,
seismic response analysis should be performed, taking into consideration the coupled oscillation of the cargo
handling equipment and the open-type wharf.
Bollard
Access bridge
Fender Superstructure
H.W.L.
L.W.L. Backfilling stones
Mortar lining
Rubble for Earth-retaining section

Design foundation
water depth Steel pipe pile
Steel pipe pile Steel pipe pile
Fig. 5.2.1 Example of Cross-section of an Open Type wharf on Vertical Piles
– 818 –
5.2.2 Setting of Basic Cross-section
(1) The size of a deck block, the distances between piles, and the number of pile rows shall be determined appropriately
in consideration of the following:
① apron width
② location of sheds
③ seabed, especially slope stability
④ existing revetments
⑤ matters related to construction work such as the concrete casting capacity
⑥ surcharges, especially crane specifications
(2) In such a case that large quay cranes for ships of 10,000 ton class are to be installed, piles are usually designed to
be placed by 5m with 3-4 pile rows in the cross-section.
(3) The dimensions of the superstructure of open-type wharf shall be determined appropriately considering the
following
① distances between piles, number of pile rows, and the shape and dimensions of piles
② construction problem of shattering forms and scaffold
③ ground conditions
④ arrangement of mooring posts
⑤ arrangement, shape and dimensions of fenders
(4) Assumptions regarding the Seabed Condition
① Determination of gradient of slope
(a) When an earth-retaining structure is provided behind the slope, the position of the earth-retaining structure
should be appropriately determined considering the stability of the slope.
(b) It is necessary to examine the stability of slope with respect to circular slip failure. When an earth-retaining
structure is installed behind the slope, it is preferable that the structure is not constructed in front of the slope
surface from the toe of the slope at the slant angle indicated by equation (5.2.1) (see Fig. 5.2.2).
(5.2.1)
where,
α : angle between the slope and the horizontal surface (°)
φ : angle of shear resistance of the main material forming the slope (°)
ε = tan-1kh'
kh' : apparent horizontal seismic coefficient
For the seismic coefficient for verification for calculating the apparent horizontal seismic coefficient,
the value calculated in the analysis of the earth-retaining section may be used. Refer to (10)⑥ below for
calculation of the seismic coefficient for verification for the earth-retaining section. In addition, when the
slope is composed of a hard mudstone or rock, equation (5.2.1) may not be applied.
Design gradient of slope
Design water depth α= φ −ε
Fig. 5.2.2 Position of Earth Retaining Structure on the Slope
② Virtual Ground Surface

(a) In calculation of lateral resistance and bearing capacity of piles, a virtual ground surface shall be assumed at
an appropriate elevation for each pile.
(b) When the inclination of the slope is considerably steep, the virtual ground surface for each pile to be used in
the calculation of lateral resistance or bearing capacity may be set at an elevation that corresponds to 1/2 of
the vertical distance between the surface of the slope at the pile axis and the seabed as shown in (Fig. 5.2.3).
– 819 –
Virtual ground surface
Fig. 5.2.3 Virtual Ground Surface
(5) Coefficient of Lateral Subgrade Reaction

① In the calculation of the lateral resistance of piles, it is preferable to obtain the coefficient of lateral subgrade
reaction of the subsoil through lateral loading tests of piles in-situ. In case that no tests are conducted, it may
be estimated by means of appropriate analytical methods derived from lateral resistance tests.
② There are some measured data available on the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction obtained by the tests in
which the lateral loads were applied to piles up to the yield points as observed in the case of piles of open-type
wharves. Although some of these data have been related to the N-value, the coefficient of lateral subgrade
reaction cannot be estimated accurately from the N-value. Thus, it is preferable to estimate the coefficient by
lateral loading tests in-situ.
③ When lateral loading tests of piles are not carried out due to small scale construction works or time constraints,
the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction of the subsoil may unwillingly use the mean value of the minimum
value and central value obtained from lateral resistance tests. When using Chang’s method, equation (5.2.2)
may be utilized and Chapter 2, 2.4.5 [4] Estimation of Pile Behavior using Analytical Methods can be
referenced. However, some in-situ measurement data indicate that the coefficient value of lateral subgrade
reaction of rubble stones is smaller than the estimate by equation (5.2.2) with Chang’s method. In this case it is
recommended to set the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction equal to 3.0-4.0 N/cm2 in Chang’s method.
(5.5.2)
where
kCH : coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction (N/cm3)
N : average N-value of the ground down to a depth of about 1/β
β : refer to (6) Virtual Fixed Point
The coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction shown in equation (5.2.2) is a static coefficient of subgrade reaction,
and may be used when calculating the natural periods of piled piers by frame analysis. There is not much
knowledge regarding the coefficient of subgrade reaction to be considered when carrying out the verification of
seismic response analysis, hence there is a problem in applying equation (5.2.2) to dynamic analysis. Therefore
it is preferable to set the coefficient equal to about double the value obtained from equation (5.2.2).
(6) Virtual Fixed Point
With respect to an open-type wharf on vertical piles, the virtual fixed points of the piles may be considered to be
located at a depth of 1/β below the virtual ground surface. The value of β is calculated by equation (5.2.3).
(5.2.3)
where
kCH : lateral subgrade reaction coefficient (N/cm3) calculated by equation (5.2.2)
D : diameter or width of the pile (cm)
EI : flexural rigidity of the pile (N·cm 2)
– 820 –
5.2.3 Actions
(1) For the calculation of the self weight of reinforced concrete superstructures, each part of the dimensions is
assumed based on the dimensions of the superstructure, and the volume is calculated on them. The self weight
can be obtained by multiplying unit weight obtained from Part II, Chapter 10, 2 Self weight by the volume. In
addition, for the calculation of the self weight of reinforced concrete superstructures, 21kN per 1.0m 2 of deck area
of the superstructure of the piled pier may be assumed.
(2) At the site expected to be subject to waves, the following items should be examined regarding wave uplift on the
super structure of piled pier and the access bridge.
① Stability of the access bridges and pulling resistance of piles against uplift.
② Member strength of the superstructures and access bridges against uplift.
For uplift, refer to Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.4(1) Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plates near the Water Surface.
(3) The static loads may be determined in accordance with Part II, Chapter 10, 3.1 Static Load. The earthquake
inertia forces due to static loads may normally be considered to act on the upper surface of the deck slab. However,
when the center of gravity of the static loads is located at an especially high elevation, it is important to take the
height of the center of gravity as the point of application of the horizontal force.
(4) Live loads should be determined in accordance with Part II, Chapter 10, 3.2 Live Load. The seismic force due to
a rail mounted crane should be calculated by multiplying its self weight by the seismic coefficient for verification,
and the force can be considered to be transmitted from the wheels of the crane to the pile-supported section. It is
also necessary to carry out seismic response analysis considering the coupled oscillations of the cargo handling
equipment and the open-type wharf (refer to Part III, Chapter 7 Cargo Handling Facilities, 2.2 Fundamentals
of Performance Verification). In this case, ground motion shall be applied in the form of a time-series seismic
wave profile. The wind load acting on crane may be determined in accordance with Part II, Chapter 2, 2.3 Wind
Pressure.
(5) The fender reaction force can be calculated in accordance with Part II, Chapter 8, 2.2 Actions Caused by Ship
Berthing and Part II, Chapter 8, 2.3 Actions Caused by Ship Motions and 9.2 Fender Equipment.
(6) The tractive force of vessels can be determined in accordance with Part II, Chapter 8, 2.4 Actions due to
Traction by Ships. In many cases one bollard is installed to one deck block.
(7) When rubber fenders are installed as a damper on an ordinary large wharf with a unit deck block of 20 to 30m
in length, a common practice is to provide two rubber fenders on one block. In many cases, fender intervals of
8 to 13m are used. The berthing behavior of various sizes of ships has been examined by installing 1.5-meter-
long rubber fenders on an ordinary large wharf. The results of examination has revealed that it is appropriate
to calculate the berthing force on the assumption that the ship’s berthing energy is absorbed by one fender.
Therefore, the reaction force may basically be calculated on the assumption that the berthing energy is absorbed
by one fender when using rubber fenders as a damper. However, this does not apply when fenders are installed
continuously along the face line of a wharf.
(8) The berthing energy is also absorbed by the displacement of the main structure of the pier. However, it is a
common practice not to take this into consideration because in many cases the energy absorbed by the main
structure of the pier accounts for less than 10% of the total berthing energy.
(9) Fig. 5.2.4 shows an example of the displacement-energy curve and the displacement-reaction force curve of a
rubber fender. If a single fender absorbs a berthing energy of E1, the corresponding fender deformation δ1 is
obtained. Then, using the other curve, the corresponding reaction force acting on the pier is obtained as H1(δ1
→C→H1). However, if fenders are installed too close to each other and the berthing energy is absorbed by two
fenders, the berthing energy acting on one fender becomes E2 = E1/2 and the corresponding fender deformation
becomes δ2 . As can be obtained from the figure (δ2 →D → H2), the reaction force acting on the pier in the
two fender case is almost the same as that generated in the single fender case because of the characteristics of
rubber fender. Thus the horizontal reaction force acting on the pier becomes 2H2≒2H1, which means that the
horizontal force to be used in the performance verification becomes twofold. When using fenders that have such
characteristics, therefore, it is preferable to give careful consideration to this behavior of reaction force in the
performance verification and the determination of the locating of fenders.
– 821 –
Displacement-reaction force curve
H1 H2 D C
Displacement-absorbed
energy curve
E1 A
Energy or
reaction force
E2
B
δ2 δ1
Displacement
Fig. 5.2.4 Rubber Fender Characteristics Curve
(10) Ground Motion used in Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant

① Ground motion used in performance verification of seismic-resistant is set considering the effect of the surface
strata using a ground seismic response analysis. It is necessary to use a seismic response analysis code capable
of appropriately evaluating the amplification of ground motions in soft ground (refer to ANNEX 4, 1 Seismic
Response Analysis of Local Soil Deposit).
② Using a one-dimensional seismic response analysis as described in ANNEX 4, 1 Seismic Response Analysis of
Local Soil Deposit, the acceleration time history at a position 1/β below the virtual ground surface is calculated
with the acceleration time history of the ground motion set at the seismic bedrock as the input ground motion.
When calculating the acceleration time history, the average depth of the 1/β ground point for each pile may
be taken, as shown in Fig. 5.2.5. From the acceleration response spectrum obtained in this way, the response
accelerations corresponding to the natural periods of the piled pier are calculated, and the value obtained
by dividing this by the gravitational acceleration can be regarded as the characteristic value of the seismic
coefficient for verification. A damping factor of 0.2 may be used when calculating the acceleration response
spectrum. An example of a typical procedure for setting the seismic coefficient for verification is shown in Fig.
5.2.6. When verifying the seismic performance of earth-retaining parts using the seismic coefficient method,
the structural characteristics are different from those of the piled pier, so the seismic coefficient indicated here
may not be used. For the calculation of the seismic coefficient for verification for earth-retaining parts, refer to
⑥ below.
Virtual ground surface
1/ β
Position for calculation of acceleration time history
Fig. 5.2.5 Positions for Calculation of Earthquake Ground Motions
– 822 –
Setting of cross-section for performance verificatio
Setting of soil conditions
Setting of input seismic motion at engineering bedrock
One-dimensional seismic response analysis Calculation of natural periods of piled pier

Frame analysis
Calculation of spring constants of piled pier
Calculation of response acceleration time Calculate natural period
history at 1/β below virtual ground surface
Calculation of acceleration response spectrum
Setting of characteristic value of seismic coefficient for verification
Fig. 5.2.6 Typical Procedure for Setting of Seismic Coefficient for Verification
③ Design value of seismic coefficient for verification

For variable situations under Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the minimum of the design value of seismic
coefficient for verification is 0.05, and the maximum is 0.25. However, when the characteristic value of the
seismic coefficient for verification exceeds 0.25, this value does not apply, and the characteristic value can be
adopted as the design value of seismic coefficient for verification. In summary, the design value of seismic
coefficient for verification is as follows.
(5.2.4)
where,
khd : design value of seismic coefficient for verification
khk : characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification
④ The natural periods of the piled pier may be calculated using a frame analysis. If the relationship between the
displacement and load is obtained from the frame analysis, as shown in Fig. 5.2.7, when minute loads are acting
on the piled pier, the spring constants of the piled pier can be set and the natural periods can be obtained from
equation (5.2.5). The ground spring constants used in the frame analysis may be calculated using equation
(5.2.2).
(5.2.5)
where,
Ts : natural period of piled pier (s)
W : self weight and static load during an earthquake borne by one row of pile group (kN)
K : spring constant of the piled pier (kN/m)
– 823 –
Coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction

can be obtained from equation (5.2.2)
Load P
tan-1K
Displacement δ
Fig. 5.2.7 Relationship between Load and Displacement from Frame Analysis
⑤ The natural period of the piled pier obtained from the spring constants of the piled pier by frame analysis usually
involves some amount of errors. Therefore, if the value in the acceleration response spectrum corresponding
to the natural period is a local minimum, the seismic coefficient for verification could be underestimated, and
this should not be applied as it is. In addition, as indicated in 5.2.5 Performance Verification of Structural
Members, repeated verification for the variable situation under Level 1 earthquake ground motion is needed.
Therefore, it is preferable that the spectral value be determined to calculate the seismic coefficient for verification
with a certain range of natural periods. Thus, the number of repetitions of the performance verification may be
reduced. However, this does not deny the importance of avoiding a local maximum in the acceleration response
spectrum caused by the site effects. In the case that the natural period of the piled pier corresponds to a local
maximum in the acceleration response spectrum, it is very likely that the cross-section will not be optimum
from the viewpoint of seismic resistance performance and cost. It is necessary to pay attention to this point for
setting the cross-section for verification.
Width of the natural frequencies to be considered
α max
Ts T [s]
αmax : Maximum value of acceleration used to determine

the seismic coefficient for verification
Ts : Natural period of the piled pier calculated by frame analysis
Fig. 5.2.8 Consideration of Natural Period in Acceleration Response Spectrum
⑥ Seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of seismic-resistant of earth-retaining

sections
(a) General
performance verification of seismic-resistant of earth-retaining sections can be carried out by directly
evaluating the deformation of the earth-retaining section using a detailed method such as non-linear effective
stress analysis. But simple methods such as the seismic coefficient method can be also used. In this case, it
is necessary to appropriately set the seismic coefficient for verification used in the performance verification
corresponding to the amount of deformation of the facility, considering the effect of the frequency characteristics
of the ground motion and the duration. The normal procedure of calculating the seismic coefficient for
verification is as shown in Fig. 5.2.9. For the calculation of the seismic coefficient for verification of earth-
retaining sections of gravity-type, basically refer to 2.2.2 Actions, prepared for gravity-type quaywalls.
However, setting the filter taking into consideration the frequency characteristics as shown by the thick lines
is different from gravity-type quaywalls, and this point should be carefully reflected in the analysis.
– 824 –
Acceleration time history at engineering bedrock Setting of ground conditions
Setting of filter taking into consideration

frequency characteristics
Evaluation of cohesive soil ground
One-dimensional seismic response analysis

Calculation of initial natural periods of background and
foundations underneath wall structure (see⑥(c)2))
Acceleration time history at ground surface Setting of filter (see⑥ (c)1))
Consideration of frequency dependence using filter processing
Setting of reduction ratio

Maximum value of ground surface acceleration Calculation of square root of sum
time history taking into consideration of squares of time history
frequency dependence αf
Calculation of reduction ratio p
Consideration of the effect of duration of seismic motion with the reduction ratio (αf × p)
Calculation of maximum value of
corrected acceleration αc Setting of allowable amount of deformation Da
Calculation of characteristic value of

seismic coefficient for verification
Fig. 5.2.9 Example of Procedure for Calculating Seismic Coefficient for Verification
(b) For the basic flow and points to be noticed in calculating the seismic coefficient for verification of earth-
retaining sections of gravity-type structures, 2.2.2, Actions for gravity-type quaywalls may be referred to.
However, it is necessary to consider the effect on the deformation of the earth-retaining section influenced
by the slopes at the front of the earth-retaining section and deep rubble mound. And thus setting of the filter
considering the frequency characteristics shall be done by the calculation method described below.
(c) Setting of the filter considering the frequency characteristics
1) Setting of the filter
The filter obtained from equation (2.2.1) of 2.2.2 Actions for gravity-type quaywalls may be used as the
filter in consideration of the frequency characteristics of the ground motion used in verification of the
earth-retaining section of gravity structures. However, as shown in Fig. 5.2.10, the height from the virtual
ground surface to the top of the earth-retaining section may be substituted for the wall height H. The value
of b may be set as the range of values indicated by equation (5.2.6) using the height H from the virtual
ground surface to the top of the earth-retaining section.
(5.2.6)
where,
H : Height from the virtual ground surface to the top of the earth-retaining section (m)
– 825 –
2) Calculation of the natural period of the background soils and soils underneath the wall structure
The method of calculation of the initial natural period Tb of the background soils used in setting the
frequency filter that takes into consideration the ground motion of the earth-retaining section of gravity-
type structures may be the same as the method for gravity-type quaywalls. Also, the initial natural
period Tu of the soils underneath the wall structure may be calculated by evaluating the section from the
virtual ground surface including rubble mound down to the seismic bedrock as a ground, and ignoring the
ground from the virtual ground surface up to the bottom of the wall structure. In the case of gravity-type
quaywalls, the Tu used in setting the filter is evaluated replacing the material properties of the original
ground with the material properties of the rubble mound. However, when calculating the Tu of earth-
retaining section of gravity-type structures, this may not be applied, so it is necessary to be careful about
this. In other words, Tb and Tu should be calculated at the positions shown in Fig. 5.2.10.
Crown of earth-retaining section Ground surface
Backfilling
stones
H
Bottom surface of wall
Ground above virtual ground
surface not considered
Evaluate as rubble mound

without changing material
properties
Rubble stones
Virtual ground
In-situ soils surface Evaluate as in-situ soils
Engineering bedrock Ground for calculating Tu Ground for calculating Tb
Fig. 5.2.10 Ground Calculation of Natural Periods
(1) Items to be considered in the performance verification of open-type wharves on vertical piles
In the performance verification of open-type wharves on vertical piles, the necessary items among the following
items shall be appropriately investigated and set as necessary.
① The cross-sectional forces in the superstructure (Variable situations: action of ships, Level 1 earthquake ground
motion, surcharge and action of waves, accidental situations: Level 2 earthquake ground motion)
② Fatigue failure of the superstructure (Variable situations: repeated actions of surcharge)
③ Stresses in piles (Variable situations: action of ships, Level 1 earthquake ground motion and surcharge,
Accidental situation: Level 2 earthquake ground motion)
④ Bearing capacity of piles (Variable situations: action of ships, Level 1 earthquake ground motion, surcharge and
action of waves, accidental situations: Level 2 earthquake ground motion)
⑤ Deformation (accidental situations: Level 2 earthquake ground motion)
Performance verification under Level 2 earthquake ground motion shall be in accordance with (11) Verification
of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions with a Dynamic Analysis Method. For the cross-sectional forces in
the superstructure and fatigue failure, refer to 5.2.5 Performance Verification of Structural Members.
(2) In the performance verification of the piled pier section of open-type wharves on vertical piles as described below,
no load transmission is considered from the earth-retaining section to the wharves. A piled pier is a very flexible
structure if affected by deformation of the ground, hence, piled pier section shall be structurally independent of
earth-retaining section. However, in the case where the cross-sectional dimensions are such that it is not possible
to eliminate the effect from the earth-retaining section, because of physical restrictions due to ground condition,
it is necessary to carry out the verification using a method considering the interaction between the earth-retaining
section and the piled pier section.7)
(3) In the performance verification for Level 1 earthquake ground motion, the seismic coefficient for verification is
calculated from the acceleration response spectrum values corresponding to the natural periods of the piled pier,
thus, when the dimensions of the piles are not determined, it is not possible to determine the natural periods of the
– 826 –
piled pier either. Therefore, the dimensions of the piles are assumed, and the seismic coefficient for verification
is calculated from the acceleration response spectrum corresponding to the natural periods, then the verification
is carried out. If the performance requirements are not satisfied, the pile dimensions are changed, and the same
calculation needs to be repeated.
(4) Performance verification of the deformation may be carried out by setting an appropriate limiting value taking
into consideration the dynamic deformation of the piled pier. For example, the amount of deformation to ensure
that the access bridge does not fall down may be taken as the limiting value. In that case, it is appropriate to use
the response displacement considering the dynamic action, such as the displacement response spectrum, and not
the displacement considering the static action.
(5) Performance verification for stresses in the piles under design situation for other than accidental situations in
respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion
① Verification of the stresses occurring in the piles of a piled pier may be carried out using equation (5.2.7). In
the following equations, the symbol γ is the partial factor corresponding to the suffix, where the suffixes d and
k indicate the design value and characteristic value respectively.
(a) When the axial forces are tensile
(b) When the axial forces are compressive (5.2.7)
where,
σt,σc : tensile stress due to axial tensile forces acting on the cross-section, and compressive stress due
to axial compressive forces, respectively (N/mm2)
σbt,σbc : maximum tensile stress and maximum compressive stress due to the flexural moment acting on
the cross-section, respectively (N/mm 2)
σty,σcy : tensile yield stress and axial compressive yield stress for the weak axis, respectively (N/mm2)
σby : bending compressive yield stress (N/mm 2)

The design values in the equations may be calculated from equation (5.2.8). The values shown in Table 5.2.2
may be used as the partial factors in the equations.
(5.2.8)
where,
A : cross-sectional area of piles (mm 2)
P : axial force on pile (N)
Z : section modulus of piles (mm3)
M : flexural moment of piles (N·mm)
② For the yield stress of piles, refer to Part II, Chapter 11, 2 Steel. The axial compressive yield stress may be
calculated from the equation in Table 5.2.1.
– 827 –
Table 5.2.1 Axial Compressive Yield Stresses (N/mm2)
SKK400 SKK490
SHK400 SHK490M
SHK400M SKY490
SKY400
a) When 235 a) When 315
b) When b) When
c) When c) When
: Effective buckling length of member (cm), r: Radius of gyration of member gross cross-section (cm)
③ The design values of cross-sectional forces on the piles can be calculated by multiplying the characteristic
values of parameters such as the coefficient of subgrade reaction, the action in the horizontal direction, and other
probabilistic variables by the partial factors.
④ It is preferable to calculate the flexural moments on the piles for the direction both normal and parallel to the
face line of the wharf. As in the example shown in Fig. 5.2.1, if the ground surface under the floor slab of the
piled pier has a sloping surface, it is often the case that the flexural moments in the frontmost row of piles are
maximized when the ground motion acts in the direction parallel to the face line.
⑤ When it is considered necessary to examine the rotation of the piled pier unit when evaluating the actions,
the verification should take this into consideration. In this case the distribution of forces on each pile may be
evaluated as described below.
(a) When the symmetry axis of the piled pier unit is perpendicular to the face line of the wharf and the direction
of action of the horizontal force is parallel to the symmetry axis as shown in Fig. 5.2.11, the horizontal force
may be calculated by equation (5.2.9).
(5.2.9)
where
Hi : horizontal force on pile (kN)
K Hi : horizontal spring constant of pile (kN/m)

hi : vertical distance between the pile head and the virtual ground surface (m)
βi : inverse of the distance between the virtual ground surface and the virtual fixed point of pile
(m-1)
EIi : flexural rigidity of pile (kN·m2)
H : horizontal force acting on the unit (kN)
e : distance between the block’s symmetry axis and the horizontal force (m)
xi : distance between the unit’s symmetry axis and each pile (m)
The subscript i refers to the i-th pile.
– 828 –
hi
1
βi
Face line
Center of gravity
of the pile group
Symmetry ax
e xi
H
xi
i-th pile
Fig. 5.2.11 Distance between the Center of Gravity of the Pile Group and Individual Piles
(b) The row of piles bearing the maximum total horizontally distributed forces is subject to the verification.
(c) When obtaining K Hi, it is necessary to appropriately set the coefficient of subgrade reaction in the lateral
direction of the ground, and calculate β.
⑥ Apart from accidental situations in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, basically the performance
is prescribed by yielding of the edge of the pile head. However, the piled pier is characterized with structural
robustness, which means the capacity of structure may not be fatally damaged by local failure caused by ground
motions, to the extent that the original function of the structure is lost. The reliability index for yielding of the
edge of the pile within the ground is reported about 2.0 – 2.7 larger than that of the pile head.8)
(6) Performance verification of the bearing capacity in piles under design situations other than accidental situations
in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground motion
① Verification of the bearing capacity of piles in piled piers can be carried out appropriately in accordance with
Chapter 2, 2.4.3 Static Maximum Axial Pushing Resistance of Piles Foundations, and Chapter 2, 2.4.4
Static Maximum Pulling Resistance of Piles Foundations, corresponding to the ground characteristics and
an analysis method for pile lateral resistance. In this case, for calculating the bearing capacity of piles on a
sloping surface, the soil strata below the virtual ground surface can be considered as the effective bearing strata.
② Regarding the virtual ground surface, refer to 5.2.2 Setting the Basic Cross-section.
(7) Partial factors under the design situations other than accidental situations in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground
motion
① Regarding partial factors for stresses occurring in the piles of open-type wharves on vertical piles and partial
factors for the bearing capacity of piles, refer to Table 5.2.2. The target reliability indices and target failure
probabilities for stresses in piles shown in 1) and 4) of Table 5.2.2 mean the values for edge yielding of the
pile head of each single pile in the piled pier. In the table, for the variable situations in respect of the action
of ships, the reliability index is 4.1 (failure probability of 2.3×10-5), being based on the average level of safety
in the conventional design methods. When the expected total cost represented by the sum of the initial cost
and the expected value of the restoration cost due to failure is taken into consideration, the reliability index
that minimizes the expected total cost is 3.2 (failure probability of 9.1×10 -4) for high earthquake-resistance
facilities, and 2.9 (failure probability of 1.9×10 -3) for other piled piers.9) If here the level of safety is evaluated
from reliability theory based on minimization of the expected total cost, the partial factors are as shown in
Table 5.2.2 1).9) Concerning the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shown
in the Table 5.5.2 (4), the average level of safety of a piled pier in accordance with the conventional design
methods is evaluated and shown. Besides the above, the partial factors of Table 5.2.2 are defined taking into
consideration the settings based on the conventional design methods.
– 829 –
(1) Variable situations in respect of the action of ships
(ship berthing, traction by ships), Variable situations in respect of surcharge (during operation)
(a) When SKK400 is used
High earthquake-resistance facility
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
γσy Steel yield strength 1.00 0.719 1.260 0.08 Normal
γkCH Coefficient of subgrade reaction 0.60 0.257 1.333 0.76 Log normal
Pile
γP Horizontal forces 1.35 -0.645 0.870 0.25 Normal
stress H
γq Surcharges 1.00 - - - -
γa Structural analysis coefficient 1.00 - - - -
Other than high earthquake-resistance facilities
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Pile
stress H
All open-type wharves on vertical piles
γ α µ/X k V
γc’ Cohesion 1.00 - - -
Bearing γN N-value 1.00 - - -

capacity Structural Pulling piles 0.33 - - -
γa analysis
coefficient Pushing piles 0.40 - - -
※1: α: Sensitivity factor, µ/X k: Deviation of average value (average value / characteristic value), V: coefficient of variation.
※2: Horizontal forces include fender reaction forces (during ship berthing), tractive forces (during traction), and crane horizontal forces
(during operation of the crane).
※3: T he design value of axial forces in piles used in the verification of bearing capacity can be obtained from the verification of stresses in
piles.
– 830 –
(1) Variable situations in respect of the action of ships
(ship berthing, traction by ships), Variable situations in respect of surcharge (during operation)
(b) When SKK490 is used
High earthquake-resistance facility
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Pile γσy Steel yield strength 0.95 0.719 1.196 0.08 Normal
stress
H
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Pile γσy Steel yield strength 0.95 0.719 1.196 0.08 Normal
stress
H
γ α µ/X k V
Bearing γN N-value 1.00 - - -

capacity - - -
Structural analysis Pulling piles 0.33
γa
coefficient Pushing piles 0.40 - - -
※1: α: Sensitivity factor, µ/X k: Deviation of average value (average value / characteristic value), V: .Coefficient of variation.
※2: Horizontal forces include fender reaction forces (during the ship berthing), tractive forces (during traction), and crane horizontal forces
(during operation of the crane).
※3: T he design value of axial forces in piles used in verification of bearing capacity can be obtained from the verification of stresses in piles.
– 831 –
(2) Variable situations in respect of surcharges (during strong winds)
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γσy Steel yield strength 1.00 - - -
γkCH Coefficient of subgrade reaction 1.00 - - -
Pile
γP Horizontal forces 1.00 - - -
stress H
γq Surcharges 1.00 - - -
γa Structural analysis coefficient 1.12 - - -
γN N-value 1.00 - - -
Bearing Pulling piles 0.40 - - -
capacity Structural
Pushing: end bearing
γa analysis 0.66 - - -
piles
coefficient
Pushing: friction piles 0.50 - - -
piles.

(3) Variable situations in respect of the action of waves
All facilities
γ α µ/X k V
γP Axial forces in piles 1.00 - - -
γN N-value 1.00 - - -
Bearing
capacity Pulling piles 0.40 - - -
Structural
Pushing: end bearing
piles
coefficient
Pushing: friction piles 0.50 - - -
– 832 –
(4) Variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion
(a) When SKK400 is used

High earthquake-resistance facility (specially
designated)
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Pile stress γkh Horizontal forces 1.68 -0.885 1.000 0.20 Log normal
High earthquake-resistance facility (standard)
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
γ α µ/X k V
γN N-value 1.00 - - -
Bearing Pulling pile 0.40 - - -
capacity Structural Pushing: end
bearing pile
coefficient
Pushing: friction
0.50 - - -
pile
piles.
– 833 –
(4) Variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion

(b) When SKK490 is used
High earthquake-resistance facility (specially
designated)
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Pile
γkh Horizontal forces 1.77 -0.885 1.000 0.20 Log normal
stress
High earthquake-resistance facility (standard)
Probability
γ α µ/X k V
distribution
Pile
stress
Probability
γ α µ/Xk V
distribution
Pile
stress
γ α µ/X k V
γN N-value 1.00 - - -
Bearing Pulling pile 0.40 - - -
capacity Structural Pushing: end
bearing pile
coefficient
Pushing: friction
0.50 - - -
pile
piles.
– 834 –
(8) Examination of Embedment Length for Lateral Resistance
① The embedment length of each vertical pile may be determined appropriately in accordance with the method of
analysis of the pile lateral resistance.
② The embedment lengths of vertical piles are generally set at 3/β below the virtual ground surface based on the
results of pile lateral resistance analyses. The value of β can be set in accordance with 5.2.2 Setting of Basic
Cross Section.
(9) Examination of Pile Joints
① When a pile joint is needed in a pile, it is preferable to ensure that the pile can keep its stability against the impact
stress generated in the joint during driving.
② The location of pile joint shall be determined carefully in such a manner as to avoid the portion with excessive
stress.
③ For the method for joining piles, refer to Chapter 2, 2.4.6 [4] Joints of Piles.
(10) Change of Plate Thickness or Material of Steel Pipe Pile
① Any change on the plate thickness or material along the same steel pipe pile shall be made in accordance with
Chapter 2,2.4.6 [5] Change of Plate Thickness or Material Type of Steel Pipe Piles.
② The strengths of joints and portion with steel thickness change should be examined carefully because there are
some examples in which piles of open-type wharves buckled at these portions due to ground deformation in a
deep ground where no bending stresses are generated under normal load conditions.
(11) Verification of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion with a Dynamic Analysis Method
① For setting the cross-section for the verification, a nonlinear dynamic analysis of a spring-mass model with
single mass or double masses if there is a container crane installed may be used. The system consists of a spring
equivalent to the modeled load-displacement relationship of the piled pier structure obtained from an elastic-
plastic analysis.
② If container cranes or other cargo handling equipment are installed on a piled pier, the seismic response
characteristics of the piled pier may be greatly altered depending on the ratio of the mass of the cargo handling
equipment to that of the piled pier and the ratio of their natural periods. Therefore, it is necessary to carry
out a seismic response analysis that takes into consideration the coupled oscillations of the cargo handling
equipment and the piled pier. For details, refer to Chapter 7 Cargo Handling Facilities, 2.2 Fundamentals of
Performance Verification.
③ Besides the inertia forces acting on the superstructure of the piled pier, factors that have an adverse effect
on the piles include transmission of the deformation of the ground around the earth-retaining section to the
superstructure through the access bridge, and transmission of forces to the piles when the soil around the piles
moves towards the sea due to the deformation of the soils there. Therefore, a structure of the access bridge
should be such that deformation of the soils around the ground earth-retaining section does not adversely affect
the superstructure of the piled pier.
(12) Performance Verification for the Stability of the Earth-retaining Section

① The examination of the structural stability of the earth-retaining section of open-type wharf on vertical piles
can be made in accordance with the performance criteria prescribed in 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls, 2.3 Sheet
Pile Quaywalls depending on its structural type.
② The superstructure and the earth-retaining section of an open-type wharf should be connected by a simply
supported slab having clearances on its both ends or buffer material provided on the both ends of slab, in
order to prevent the forces acting on the earth-retaining section from being transmitted to the superstructure.
It is also preferable to prepare measures against the relatively uneven settlement between the wharf and the
earth-retaining section. Furthermore, the clearance between the superstructure and the earth-retaining section
should be determined appropriately by considering the dynamic deformation of the superstructure and the
earth-retaining section.
③ The stability of the earth-retaining section of open-type wharf on vertical piles against circular slip failure
should be examined by applying Chapter 2, 3.2.1 Stability Analysis by Circular Slip Failure Surface.
– 835 –
(1) It shall be well confirmed that there will be no loss of the required function caused by deterioration of the concrete
superstructure and the steel pipe pile substructure due to material degradation during the design working life. In
particular there have been many cases where the performance requirements of concrete superstructures have not
been achieved as a result of salt injury, so a detailed maintenance management plan should be prepared and carried
out.
(2) It shall be verified that the flexural moment, axial force, and shear force acting on the connections between the
steel pipe piles and the superstructure do not reach the ultimate limit state.
(3) In the performance verification of piled piers, the analysis is carried out by assuming that rigid connections
between the pile heads and the concrete beams are formed. Then, it is necessary that the pile head flexural moment
can be smoothly distributed to the pile head and the concrete beam. The flexural moment that can be distributed
to the beam Mud may be calculated using the following equation, ignoring the reinforcement connection plates or
vertical ribs which are provided, as necessary.
（5.2.10）
where,
Mud : flexural moment that can be distributed to the part of the pile embedded in the beam (N.mm)
D : diameter of steel pipe pile (mm)
L : embedded length of steel pipe pile (mm)
f 'cd : design value of compressive strength of beam concrete (N/mm 2)
γb : member factor
(4) It is assumed that axial forces are distributed by only the bond between the outer peripheral surface of the piles
and the vertical ribs, which are provided, as necessary, and the concrete. In this case, the axial force that can be
distributed, Pud, can be calculated from the following equation.
（5.2.11）
where,
Pud : axial force that can be distributed to the part of the pile embedded (N)
L : embedded length of steel pipe pile (mm)
φ : outer perimeter of steel pipe pile (mm)
f bod : design value of the bond strength between the pile and the concrete (N/mm 2)
f bod = 0.11 f 'ck2/3 / γc
f 'ck : characteristic value of the compressive strength of the concrete (N/mm 2)
γc : material coefficient of concrete (= 1.3)
Ap : area of vertical ribs bonding with concrete (mm 2)
γb : member factor (may be taken to be 1.0)
(5) It shall be verified that failure due to punching shear forces in the horizontal direction shall not occur in the
beam at the end of which the steel pipe pile is embedded. In this case the punching shear resistance, Vpcd, may be
calculated from the following equation.
（5.2.12）
where,
Vpcd : design value of punching shear resistance in the horizontal direction (N)
f 'cd : design compressive strength of concrete (N/mm 2)
if βd>1.5, βd shall be taken to be 1.5

if βp>1.5, βp shall be taken to be 1.5

d : effective height (m)
pw : ratio of reinforcement to concrete sections
βγ = 1.0
Aτ : shear resistance area (mm 2)
γb : member factor (may be taken to be 1.3)
– 836 –
5.3 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles

(1) The following may be applied to the open-type wharves with a structure in which the horizontal forces acting on
the piled pier are distributed to coupled raking piles.
(2) The performance verification of open-type wharves on coupled raking piles may be carried out in accordance with
5.2.4 Performance Verification for open-type wharves on vertical piles, as well as the following.
(3) The open-type wharf on coupled raking piles is a structure that resists the horizontal force acting on the wharf
such as the seismic actions, fender reaction force, and tractive force of ships with coupled raking piles. Therefore,
this type of wharf must be constructed on the ground that yields sufficient bearing capacity for coupled raking
piles. Because the coupled raking piles are so laid out to resist the horizontal forces in the direction normal to the
face line of the wharf, the horizontal displacement in that direction is smaller than that of open-type wharves on
vertical piles. Coupled raking piles are seldom laid out to resist the horizontal forces in the direction of wharf face
line. Therefore, it is preferable to examine the strength of the wharf against the horizontal force parallel to the face
line in the same manner as the examination for open-type wharves on vertical piles.
(4) In the case of coupled raking piles, the piles come close to adjacent vertical piles and the earth-retaining section,
so it is preferable that the layout of the piles be carefully determined considering the construction conditions and
the conditions of use.
(5) For the procedure for performance verification of open-type wharves on coupled raking piles, refer to Fig. 5.3.1
of 5.2.4 Performance Verification for open-type wharves on vertical piles.
(6) Verification for the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion may be carried out by
obtaining the natural periods of the piled pier with frame analysis and calculating the seismic coefficient for
verification with the acceleration response spectrum corresponding to the natural periods.
(7) An example of the cross-section of the open type wharf on coupled raking piles is shown in Fig. 5.3.1.
Concrete paving Access bridge

Fenders
Water supply pipe

L.W.L Superstructure
Backfilling
stones
Earth-retaining section
Rubble mound
Steel pipe pile Steel pipe pile
Steel pipe pile

Steel pipe pile
Fig. 5.3.1 Example of Cross-section of Open Type Wharf on Coupled Raking Piles
5.3.2 Setting of Basic Cross-section
(1) For setting the basic cross-section of open-type wharves on coupled raking piles, refer to 5.2.2 Setting of Basic
Cross-section.
(2) A large wharf for design ship size of 10,000 DTW class has one or two sets of coupled raking piles behind one
vertical pile in the direction normal to the wharf face line. The distance between piles or between centers of
– 837 –
coupled raking piles is usually set to be 4 to 6 m in consideration of loading conditions and construction work. It is
preferable to use a small raking angle of coupled piles from the viewpoint of securing resistance against horizontal
force, but in many cases an inclination of 1: 0.33 to 1: 0.2 is used because of constraints related to the required
distances from other piles and construction work-related constraints such as the capacity of pile driving equipment
available.
5.3.3 Actions
The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in performance verification of open-type
wharves on coupled raking piles for the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall
be appropriately calculated considering the structural characteristics of the wharf. For calculation of the seismic
coefficient for verification of open-type wharves on coupled raking piles, refer to 5.2.3(10) Ground Motion used in
Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant.
(1) Items for the Performance Verification of Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles
The performance verification of open-type wharves on coupled raking piles shall apply 5.2.4 Performance
Verification and be based on the following.
(2) Performance Verification of Bearing Forces on Piles
① The pushing-in and pulling-out forces of each pair of coupled raking piles shall be calculated appropriately based
on the vertical and horizontal forces defined in consideration of the wharf operation conditions.
② The pushing-in and pulling-out forces on each raking pile are obtained with a frame analysis method, taking
into consideration the effect of the raking angle of the pile as indicated in Chapter 2, 2.4.5 Static Maximum
Lateral Resistance of Piles, calculating the ratio of the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction, and appropriately
correcting the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction.
③ For verification of pushing-in and pulling-out forces in each raking pile, refer to Chapter 2 2.4.3 Static
Maximum Axial Pushing Resistance of Pile Foundations, and 2.4.4 Static Maximum Pulling Resistance
of Pile Foundations.
(3) Verification of Stresses in Piles
The cross-sectional stress in each pile may be calculated by applying 5.2.4 Performance Verification for piles
subject to axial forces or piles subject to axial forces and flexural moments.
(4) Horizontal Forces Distributed to the Pile Head of each Group when Rotation of the Piled Pier Block is
Considered
① When it is necessary to consider rotation of the piled pier block, the horizontal forces distributed to the pile
head of each group of piles in an open type wharf on coupled raking piles may be appropriately calculated in
accordance with the cross-section of each pile and the raking angle and length of the raking piles. In this case, it
may be assumed that all horizontal forces are distributed to the coupled raking piles. Normally the row of piles
having the maximum distributed horizontal force among all the rows of piles is adopted as the row of piles used
in the verification.
② In the case where the cross-section of each pile group and raking angle of the raking piles are different, the
horizontal force distributed to the pile head of each group may be calculated using equation (5.3.1) (see Fig.
5.3.2).
(a) When the piles can be regarded as fully end bearing piles
(5.3.1)
where,
H : horizontal force acting on the block (N/m)

Hi : horizontal force distributed to each pile (N/m)
– 838 –
e : distance between center line of pile group and the acting horizontal force (m)
xi : distance from each pile group to the center line of a pile group (m)
 i : total pile length (m), being substituted the pile length of the friction pile when pulling-out forces
are acting.
Ai : cross-sectional area of each pile (m 2)
Ei : Young’s modulus of each pile (N/m 2)
θi1,θi2 : angle of each pile with the vertical direction (°)
The subscript i refers to the ith pile.

The subscripts 1, 2 refer to each pile in one pile group.
The center line of a pile group may be obtained from ΣCiξi/ΣCi. ξi are the coordinates from an arbitrary
coordinate origin of each pile group in face line direction.
(b) When the piles can be regarded fully as friction piles
1) Sandy soil
Equation (5.3.1) is used, substituting, for  i.
2) Cohesive soil
Equation (5.3.1) is used, substituting, for  i.
where, λi: Pile length of the part over which the peripheral surface resistance force is not effectively
working (m),  i: Total pile length (m).
Pile group center line

H
Horizontal force H e Vertical piles
x1 x2
Coupled piles
x3 x4
Fig. 5.3.2 Pile group Center Line and Distance from each Pile Group
③ When the cross-section, raking angle and length of the raking piles of each pile group are all equal, the horizontal
force distributed to each pile group may be calculated from equation (5.3.2).
(5.3.2)
(5) Partial Factors
Verification may be appropriately carried out using partial factors for verification of bearing capacity of piles and
stresses in the piles of open-type wharves on coupled raking piles substituted with those for open-type wharves on
vertical piles, considering the similarity of performance verification method among these two types of structures.
(6) Analysis in the Face Line Direction
If there are coupled raking piles in the face line direction, the analysis should be carried out using the method
defined in (2) to (5), in the same way as the direction perpendicular to the face line.
(7) Verification of Pile Embedment
For bearing capacity on raking piles, refer to 5.2.4 Performance Verification.
– 839 –
(8) Performance Verification of Earth-retaining Sections
① For the performance verification of earth-retaining sections, refer to 5.2.4 Performance Verification.
② It shall be ensured that the action due to deformation of the earth-retaining section by earthquakes shall not
be transmitted to the superstructure of the piled pier via the access bridge, and that the piles are not adversely
affected by significant deformation of the soil around the piles towards the sea.
– 840 –
5.4 Strutted Frame Type Pier
(1) Performance verification of strutted frame type piers shall apply 5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and
5.3 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles, and also refer to the Strutted Frame Method Technical
Manual.22)
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in the performance verification of
strutted frame type piers against the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall
be appropriately calculated considering the structural characteristics. For calculation of the seismic coefficient
for verification of strutted type piers, refer to 5.2.3(10) Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of
Seismic-resistant.
– 841 –
5.5 Jacket Type Piled Piers

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Piled Piers
Article 55
1 The provisions of Article 48 shall be applied to the performance criteria of piled piers with modification
as necessary.
2 In addition to the requirements of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of piled piers shall be
as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The access bridge of a piled pier shall satisfy the following criteria:
(a) It shall have the dimensions required for enabling the safe and smooth loading, unloading, embarkation
and disembarkation, and others in consideration of the usage conditions.
(b) It shall not transmit the horizontal loads to the superstructure of the piled pier, and it shall not fall
down even when the piled pier and the earth-retaining part are displaced owing to the actions of
earthquakes or similar one.
(b) The risk that the axial forces acting in the piles may exceed the resistance capacity owing to failure
of the ground shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
threshold level.
is variable waves:
(a) The risk of losing the stability of the access bridge due to uplift acting on the access bridge shall be
(b) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the superstructure shall be equal to or less than
(c) The risk that the axial forces acting in piles may exceed the resistance capacity owing to failure of
(4) In the case of structures having stiffening members, the risk of impairing the integrity of the stiffening
members and their connection points under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions
are variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing and traction by ships, and
imposed load shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
performance criteria of the earth-retaining parts of piled piers in consideration of the structural type.
[Technical Note]
(1) The performance verification of jacket type piled piers or piled piers whose structure has stiffening
members shall apply 5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and 5.3 Open-type Wharves on
Coupled Raking Piles, and for details refer to the Jacket Method Technical Manual.23)
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification used in the performance verification
of jacket type piled piers in the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall
be appropriately calculated considering the structural characteristics. For calculation of the seismic
coefficient for the verification of jacket type piled piers, refer to 5.2.3(10) Ground Motions used in
Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant.
(3) Verification of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion with the Dynamic Analysis Method
The performance verification of jacket type piled piers in accidental situations in respect of level 2 earthquake
ground motion shall be appropriately carried out considering the concerned circumstances around the facilities,
– 842 –
importance of the facility, and the accuracy of the method. The performance verification of jacket type piled
piers may comply with that of open-type wharves on vertical piles, but the actions occurring in the members shall
be appropriately set considering the structure of the trusses. The different points in the dynamic characteristics
between jacket type piled piers and open-type wharves on vertical piles are as follows.
(a) The natural periods are short due to the nature of truss structure
(b) Because the structure has panel points, the failure mechanisms are complex
(c) Separate verification of the panel points is necessary
– 843 –
5.6 Dolphins
(1) The following may be applied to the performance verification of such mooring facilities as pile type, steel cell
type, caisson type, and other type dolphin structures. Depending on their function, the types of dolphin include
breasting dolphins, mooring dolphins and loading dolphins.
(2) The guidelines outlined in 5.6.2 Actions, and 5.6.3 Performance Verification may be used in simple verification
methods, thus, this point should be noted when they are adopted.
(3) It is preferable that performance verification of dolphins be carried out considering the following items. For other
items, it is preferable to appropriately carry out the performance verification in accordance with each structural
form.
① The direction of actions on dolphins is not necessarily a constant direction, hence, the verification should be
carried out for several directions, as necessary.
② Conventionally torsion in the case of pile type structures and rotation in the case of caisson type structures have
not been examined very much. However, these factors may affect the stability of structures in certain cases,
thus, it is necessary to be careful about these aspects.
③ It is preferable to appropriately set the crown height of the dolphin in accordance with its function. In this
connection the position of installation of the fenders for breasting dolphins, the level of the deck of the ship
for mooring dolphins, and the working range of the loading arm for loading dolphins should be taken into
consideration. For connecting bridges, it is preferable that the height be sufficient not to be affected by the
action of waves.
(4) An example of the cross-section of a pile type dolphin is shown in Fig. 5.6.1.
Breasting dolphin
Mooring dolphin
Loading piled pier Loading piled pier Mooring dolphin

Mooring post
Mooring post Mooring post Bitt
Bitt
H.W.O.S.T.
L.W.O.S.T.
Seabed surface
Bearing ground
Fig. 5.6.1 Example of Cross-section of Pile Type Dolphin
(5) Layout
① The layout of a dolphin-berth shall be determined appropriately to avoid adverse effects on the navigation and
anchorage of other ships in consideration of the dimensions of the design ships, water depth, wind direction,
wave direction, and tidal currents.
② In the determination of the layout of breasting dolphins, the following items need to be examined:
(a) Dimensions of the design ship
1) The side of design ships is usually composed of curve lines forming the outlines of the bow and stern
parts, each of which accounts for about 1/8 of the length overall (L) of ship, respectively and a straight line
forming the outline of the central part which accounts for about 3/4 of the length overall (L) of ship. . It is
preferable that the breasting dolphins are installed in such a way that the ships can be berthed to them with
the straight line part. Normally the number of breasting dolphins is one each toward the bow and stern,
but for dolphins serving for both large and small ships, two each toward bow and stern are sometimes
provided.
2) When special cargo handling equipment is required for dolphins in such a case as dolphins for oil handling,
– 844 –
a cargo handling platform is installed midway between the breasting dolphins. In this case, it is preferable
to locate the cargo handling platform with its seaside front slightly backward from that of the breasting
dolphins, in order that the ship berthing force does not act directly on the cargo handling platform.
(b) It is preferable to layout dolphins in a way that the longitudinal axis of dolphins becomes parallel to the
prevailing directions of winds, waves, and tidal currents. This helps to ease ship maneuvering during berthing
and unberthing and to reduce external forces acting on the dolphins when the ship is moored.
③ Mooring dolphins are normally set at the positions with the angle of 45º from the rope bitts on ship’s bow and
stern, having a certain setback from the front face of the breasting dolphins.
④ The distance between breasting dolphins is closely related to the length overall (L) of the design ships. Fig.
5.6.2 gives the relationship between the breasting dolphin interval and the water depth derived from the past
construction data for reference.
Pile type
Breasting dolphin interval (m)
Steel sheet pile cell type

Caisson type
Water depth (m)
Fig. 5.6.2 Distance between Breasting Dolphins
5.6.2 Actions
(1) For calculation of the reaction force from the fenders onto the dolphins, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.2 Action
Caused by Ship Berthing, and Chapter 5, 9.2 Fender Equipment.
(2) For calculation of the tractive force of ships, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.4 Action due to Traction by Ships.
(3) For calculation of vertical loads due to self weight and live load, refer to Part II, Chapter 10, Self Weight and
Surcharge, 5.2.3 Actions, as applied for open-type wharves on vertical piles.
(4) For the action due to earthquakes, refer to Part II, Chapter 4, Earthquakes and 5.2.3 Actions, as applied for
open-type wharves on vertical piles.
(5) For calculation of the dynamic water pressure during an earthquake, refer to Part II, Chapter 5, 2.2 Dynamic
Water Pressure.
(6) For calculation of wind pressure forces acting on cargo handling equipment, refer to Part II, Chapter 2, 2.3 Wind
Pressure.
– 845 –

[1] Pile Type Dolphins
(1) For the performance verification of pile type dolphins, refer to 5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and
5.3 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles.
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for the verification used in the performance verification of
pile type dolphins in variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be appropriately
calculated considering the structural characteristics. For calculation of the seismic coefficient for the verification
of pile type dolphins, refer to 5.2.3(10) Ground Motions used in Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant.
(3) In the case of pile type dolphins, the berthing energy may normally be calculated on the assumption that it is
absorbed by the deformations of the fenders and the piles.
(4) Large tankers are usually berthed at a slant angle with the dolphin alignment line. As the characteristics of
fenders vary depending on the berthing angle, it is recommended in such a case to use the characteristics curve
appropriate to the berthing angle. In addition, a slanting berthing entails the risk that some of the fenders attached
to a breasting dolphin may not absorb the berthing energy effectively. Therefore, it is preferable to examine
carefully which fenders will come in contact with the hull of ship in consideration of the berthing angle.
[2] Steel Cell Type Dolphins
(1) For the performance verification of steel cell type dolphins, refer to 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with
Embedded Sections.
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for the verification for the performance verification of steel
cell type dolphins in variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be appropriately
calculated considering the structural characteristics. The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for
verification of steel cell type dolphins may be calculated in accordance with gravity-type quaywall by applying
2.2.2(1) Seismic coefficient for verification used for verification of sliding and overturning of wall body and
insufficient bearing capacity of foundation grounds in variable situations in respect of level 1 earthquake
ground motion when soil pressure is acting, or composite breakwaters by applying Chapter 4, 3.1.4(12) Seismic
Coefficient for Verification of Sliding, Overturning, and Bearing Capacity of Upright Sections for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion, when soil pressure is not acting.
(3) For the foundations of cargo handling equipment and mooring posts, refer to Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile Foundations,
and 9.15 Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment.
(4) In the case of a cylindrical cell type dolphin, the equivalent wall width can be calculated using equation (5.6.1).
(5.6.1)
where
R : radius of cylindrical cell (m)
[3] Caisson Type Dolphins
(1) For the performance verification of caisson type dolphins, refer to 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls.
(2) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification of caisson type dolphins may apply steel cell
type dolphins.
(3) Rotation of a caisson occurs when an eccentric external force acts on a dolphin. Examination of stability against
rotation must be made even when the stability against sliding and overturning as well as against failure of the
foundation ground due to insufficient bearing capacity are found to be satisfactory, because the confirmation of
the stability with respect to these items does not guarantee that the caisson is safe against rotation. In this case,
in calculating the resistance force, attention should be given to the friction force of the caisson bottom which is
proportional to the bottom reaction force as described in Chapter 2, 1.2 Caissons.
(3) For the performance verification of structural members, refer to [1] Pile Type Dolphins. In addition, for the
verification of caisson members, refer to Chapter 2, 1.2 Caissons.
– 846 –
5.7 Detached Piers

(1) The performance verification of the detached piers may be carried out by appropriately selecting items from
5.2 Open-type Wharves on Vertical Piles, 5.3 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles, 2.2 Gravity-
type Quaywalls, and 2.9 Cellular-bulkhead Quaywalls with Embedded Sections, in accordance with the
structure type. Also, the performance verification of the earth-retaining part may be carried out by appropriately
selecting items from performance criteria of 2.2 Gravity-type Quaywalls, 2.3 Sheet Pile Quaywalls, and 2.4
Cantilevered Sheet Pile Quaywalls, and in addition refer to the following.
(2) The following may be applied to the performance verification of the detached piers comprising the detached pier
and the earth-retaining section.
(3) An example of the procedure of performance verification of the detached piers is shown in Fig. 5.7.1.
Setting of basic cross-section

*1
Permanent state
Verification of earth-retaining section
Permanent state, variable states in respect

of action of ships, Level 1 earthquake
ground motion, action of waves, and
surcharges
Verification in accordance with structural type of pile
Variable states in respect of action of ships,

Level 1 earthquake ground motion,
and action of waves
Performance verification of beams, etc.
Performance verification of members of superstructure, access bridge, etc.
*1: The evaluation of the effect of liquefaction is not indicated, therefore it is necessary to consider this separately.
Fig. 5.7.1 Example of Procedure of Performance Verification of Detached Piers
(4) An example of a cross-section of a detached pier is shown in Fig. 5.7.2.
– 847 –
Rail center line on sea side Yard bridge Yard bridge Rail center line on land side
(PC slab bridge) (PC slab bridge)
H.W.L
L.W.L
Caisson
Fig. 5.7.2 Example of Cross-section of Detached Pier
(5) It is necessary to pay adequate attention to the deformation of the earth-retaining section due to the action of
earthquakes.
(6) The performance verification of the detached pier shall be conducted so that it is stable against all the actions on
the piles and girders. In addition, it is preferable for the detached pier to have a structure with due consideration
for the type and dimensions of portal bridge crane, the traveling characteristics, and the settlement of rails after
installation.
(7) Rail mounted cranes are installed on detached piers, therefore it is preferable that the structure shall have a small
deformation.
5.7.2 Actions
(1) For the wheel loads of cargo handling equipment, refer to Part II, Chapter 10, 3.2 Live Load.
(2) For tractive forces of ship, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.4 Action due to Traction by Ships.
(3) For the self weight of superstructures, and self weight of piles, refer to Part II, Chapter 10, 2 Self Weight, and
Chapter 10, 3 Surcharge.
(4) For fender reactions, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.2 Action Caused by Ship Berthing, Part II, Chapter 8, 2.3
Action Caused by Ship Motions.
(5) For wind loads acting on cargo handling equipment and superstructures, refer to Part II, Chapter 2, 2.3 Wind
Pressure.
(6) For the ground motions acting on cargo handling equipment, superstructures, and piles, refer to Part II, Chapter
4, 2 Seismic Action.
(7) The characteristic value of the seismic coefficient for verification for the performance verification of the detached
piers against the variable situations in respect of Level 1 earthquake ground motion shall be appropriately
calculated considering the structural characteristics. For calculation of the seismic coefficient for verification of
the detached piers, refer to 5.2.3(10) Ground Motion used in Performance Verification of Seismic-resistant.
(8) For the performance verification of the detached piers, it is preferable to consider wave forces, uplift pressure, and
wind loads acting on superstructures, when necessary.
(9) For the performance verification of the beams, braking forces on cargo handling equipment shall be considered as
a horizontal force, but for piles shall be considered, as necessary.
(10) For the performance verification of the access bridges and the floor slabs, a live load of 5.0kN/m2 may be assumed.
– 848 –
Performance Verification of Girder
① The performance verification of girders shall be conducted so that they are safe against the vertical as well as
horizontal forces and loads.
② Structural elements with sufficient strength against the designated vertical and horizontal forces shall be used
for the girders of the detached pier, because the crane rails for a crane are directly installed on the girders. In
the examination of vertical loads, the increase in the wheel loads due to the wind load or seismic force acting on
the bridge crane shall be taken into account.
③ When both legs of the bridge crane are fixed ones, the horizontal load acting on each leg is determined by
distributing the total horizontal load to each leg based on the proportion of the wheel load. When the bridge
crane has a fixed leg and a suspended leg, the whole horizontal load shall be borne by the fixed leg for making
the design on the safer side. At the same time, however, the horizontal force being one-half of the force acting
on one fixed leg in the case of the both legs being fixed shall be borne by the suspended leg.
References
1) SUZUKI, A., Koichi KUBO and Yoshio TANAKA: Lateral resistance of vertical piles embedded in sandy layer with sloping
surface, Rept. of PHRI VoL5,No.2, 1966
2) Kikuchi, Y., T. Ogura, M. Ishimaru and T. Kondo: Coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction of rubble ground, Proceedings of
53rd Annual Conference of JSCE, 1998
3) YAMASHITA, I.: Equivalent Rigid Frame to Vertical Pile Structure on the Basis of the PHRI Method, Technical Note of
PHRI No.105,pp.1-12,1970
4) KUBO, K.: A New Method for the Estimation of Lateral Resistance of Piles, Rept. of PHRI VoL2No.3,pp.1-37,1964
5) YAMASHITA, I. and M. ARATA: The Standard Curves for the Built-in Head Standard Pile Partially Embedded in the
C-Type Soil, Technical Note of PHRI No.650pp」3-25,1969
6) YAMASHITA, I., T. INATOMI, K. OGURA and Y. OKUYAMA: New Standard Curves in the PHRI Method, Rept. of PHRI
Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 107-168, 1971
7) Nagao, T. and S. Tashiro: Analytical study on earthquake resistant evaluation method for pile-supported wharves, Jour. JSCE
No.710,1-60,pp、385-398,2002
8) Nagao, T., Y. Kikuchi, M. Fujita, M. Suzuki and T. Sanuki: Reliability design method of pier type mooring wharf against
Level-one earthquake, Proceedings of Structure Engineering, JSCE, Vol. 52A, pp. 201-208, 2006
expected total cost considering economic losses, Proceedings of Structural Engineering, JSCE, Vol. 51A, pp. 389-400, 2005
10) Minami, K., K. Takahashi, H. Yokota, T. Sonoyama, N. Kawabata and K. Sekiguchi: Earthquake damage of Kobe Port T Pier
and static and dynamic analysis, Soil and Foundation, Vol. 25 No.9, pp. 112-119, 1997
11) Kotsutsumi, O., S. Shiozaki, K. Kazui, S. Iai and H. Mori: Examination of analysis precision improvement of 2-dimensional
effective stress analyzing method, Proceeding of Offshore Development, JSCE, Vol. 20, pp. 443-448, 2004
12) FLIP Study Group, Examination of modeling method of pile foundation
13) K, Kitade, Y. Kawamata, K. Ichii and S. Iai: Analysis of laterally loaded pile groups using 2-D FEM, 11th ICSDEE and 3rd
ICEGE, Berkeley, CD-ROM, 2004
14) Kotsutsumi, O., Y. Tame, T. Okayoshi, K. Kazui, S. Iai and Y. Umeki: Modeling of interaction of pile and liquefied ground in
two-dimensional effective stress analysis, Proceedings of 38th Conference on Geotechnical Engineering,, 2003
15) Kotsutsumi, O., Y. Tame, T. Okayoshi, S. Iai and Y. Umeki: Modeling of interaction of pile and liquefied ground in two-
dimensional effective stress analysis, Proceedings of 58th Annual Conference of JSCE, 2003
16) Kawanaka, M., M. Andou, Y. Tame, S. Iai and S. Tagawa: Two-dimensional Finite Element Method analysis of horizontal
loading test of a single pile utilizing interaction spring on formation law of soil,- sandy ground-. Proceedings of 58th Annual
Conference of JSCE, 2003
17) Yoshikawa, S., D. Kyoku, Y. Tame, Y. Tame, S. Iai and Y. Umeki: Two-dimensional Finite Element Method analysis of
horizontal loading test of a single pile utilizing interaction spring on formation law of soil,- Clayey ground-. Proceedings of
58th Annual Conference of JSCE, 2003
18) Kotake, N., Y. Tame, O. Kotsutsumi, S. Iai and S. Tagawa: Two-dimensional Finite Element Method analysis of horizontal
loading test of a single pile utilizing interaction spring on formation law of soil,- Influence of ground surface-,. Proceedings
of 58th Annual Conference of JSCE, 2003
19) Jyuraku, K., K. Kazui, H. Shinozaki, S. Iai and S. Tagawa: Examination of influence of group piles using pile-ground
interaction spring in two-dimensional analysis, Proceedings of 58th Annual Conference of JSCE, 2003
20) Kawamata, Y., K. Kazui, H. Shinozaki, S. Iai and Y. Umeki: Simulation of Stanamic horizontal loading test utilizing two-
dimensional analysis incorporated with pile-ground interaction spring, Proceedings of 58th Annual Conference of JSCE,
2003
21) Okayoshi, T., H. Satou, T. Kawabe, S. Shiozaki, S. Iai and Y. Umeki: Stress of ground about piles- Tow-dimensional Finite
Element Method analysis of pile foundation utilizing interaction spring dependent on the relationship of strains, Proceedings
– 849 –
of 58th Annual Conference of JSCE, 2003
22) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Technical Manual for Grid Strut Method, 2000
23) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Technical Manual for Jacket structures, 2000
24) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Maruzen Publications, 2004
25) Japan Road Association: Technical Standards and commentary of elevated pedestrian crossing facilities, 1979
– 850 –
6 Floating Piers
Performance Requirements for Floating Piers
Article 30
1 The performance requirements for floating piers shall be as specified in the subsequent items in consideration
of its structure type.
satisfied so as to enable the safe and smooth mooring of ships, embarkation and disembarkation of
people, and handling of cargo.
(2) The damage due to self weight, variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, ship berthing and
traction by ships, and/or other actions shall not impair the function of the floating pier nor affect its
continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirement of the floating piers
in the place where there is a risk of having serious impact on human lives, property, and/or socioeconomic
activity by the damage to the mooring buoys concerned shall be such that the structural stability of the
floating pier is not seriously affected even in cases when the function of the mooring buoys concerned is
impaired by tsunamis, accidental waves, and/or other actions.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Floating Piers
Article 56
1 The provisions of paragraph 1 of Article 48 (excluding item ii)) shall be applied to the performance criteria
of floating piers.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of floating piers shall be
as specified in the subsequent items in consideration of the structural type:
(1) The floating pier shall have the dimensions required for containment of their movements and tilting
within the allowable range in consideration of the usage conditions.
(2) The risk of capsizing of the floating body under the variable action situation in which the dominant
action is variable waves shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(3) The floating pier shall have the freeboard required for the dimensions of the design ships and the usage
conditions.
(b) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of the floating mooring facilities and losing the
structural stability shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
3 In addition to the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs, the performance criteria of floating piers for
which there is a risk of serious impact on human lives, property, or socioeconomic activity by the damage
to the facilities concerned shall be such that the degree of damage under the accidental action situation, in
which the dominant actions are tsunamis or accidental waves, is equal to or less than the threshold level.
4 The provisions of Article 64 and Article 91 shall be applied with modification as necessary to the
performance criteria of the access facilities of the floating body by taking account of the utilization
conditions.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Floating Piers

① Common for floating piers
(a) In setting the cross-sectional dimensions for the performance verification of floating piers, it shall be
– 851 –
appropriately verified that the amount of motions of the floating body and the amount of tilting of the
floating body are within the allowable range, in accordance with the envisaged conditions of use, as
necessary.
(b) Freeboard (usability)
For the performance criteria of floating piers, the freeboard of the floating pier shall be appropriately
set considering the dimensions of the design ships and the envisaged conditions of use to allow safe
and efficient embarkation and disembarkation of passengers and safe and efficient handling of cargo.
(c) Structural stability and soundness of members (serviceability)
1) The setting of the performance criteria for the structural stability and soundness of members
of floating piers and the design situations excluding accidental situations shall be in accordance
with Attached Table 50. In the performance verification of floating piers, the performance
criteria for variable situation in respect of variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motion,
berthing and traction by ships, surcharges, for which performance verification is necessary, shall
be appropriately set, in accordance with the structure type of the facility. The items within
parentheses in the column of “Design situation” in Attached Table 50 may be applies individually.
Attached Table 50 Setting of Performance Criteria for Structural Stability and Soundness of Structural Members of
Floating Piers and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations)

Ordinance
Index of
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item standard limit

Article
Article
Item
Item
Situation Non-dominating action value

action
30 1 2 56 2 2 Serviceability Variable Variable waves Self weight, wind, water Capsizing of floating Limit value for
pressure, water flow body capsizing
4a (L1 earthquake (Self weight, wind, water Soundness of –

ground motion) pressure, water flow) members of floating
body
(Berthing and (Self weight, support
4b traction by reactions of connecting Soundness of –
ships) facilities, wind, water members of mooring
pressure, water flow, equipment
surcharges)
Structural stability of –
(Surcharges) (Self weight, wind, water mooring equipment
pressure, water flow)
2) Capsizing of floating bodies

For the performance verification against capsizing of floating bodies, the performance criteria for
capsizing shall be appropriately set considering the conditions of use of the floating body and the
natural conditions.
3) Soundness of the structural members of a floating body
For the performance verification of the structural members of a floating body, the performance
criteria for their soundness shall be appropriately set considering the structural type and material
of the members.
4) Soundness of the structural members of mooring equipment
i) For the performance verification of the structural members of mooring equipment, the
performance criteria for their soundness shall be appropriately set considering the structural
type and material of the members. The setting of the performance criteria for the soundness of
structural members of the mooring equipment in the mooring system and the design conditions
excluding accidental situations shall be in accordance with Attached Table 51. The items
within parentheses in the column of “Design situation” in Attached Table 51 may be applied
individually.
– 852 –
Attached Table 51 Setting of Performance Criteria for soundness of Structural Members of Mooring Equipment with
Mooring Ropes and Design Conditions (excluding accidental situations)
Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article requirements Dominating Non-dominating value

Item
Item
30 1 2 56 2 4b Serviceability Variable Variable Self weight, wind, Yielding of mooring Design yield stress
waves water pressure, ropes
water flow
(Self weight, Stability of mooring Resistance force of

(Berthing and support reactions of anchors, etc. mooring anchors
traction by connecting facilities, (horizontal, vertical)
ships) wind, water
pressure, water flow,
surcharges)
ii) Yielding of the mooring ropes

Verification of yielding of the mooring ropes is to verify that the risk that the design stresses in
the mooring ropes will exceed the design yield stresses is equal to or less than the limit value.
iii) Stability of mooring anchors
Verification of the stability of mooring anchors is to verify that the risk that the tractive forces
acting in the mooring anchors will exceed the resistance force is equal to or less than the limit
value. Mooring anchors is a general term for equipment installed on the bottom of the sea to
retain floating bodies, and this includes sinkers.
5) Structural stability of mooring equipment
For the performance verification of the structure of mooring equipment, the performance criteria
of its stability shall be appropriately set in accordance with the structure type and materials, of
the equipment.
② Floating piers against accidental incident (safety)
(a) The setting of the performance criteria of floating piers against accidental incident and design
situations only limited to accidental situations shall be as shown in Attached Table 52.
Attached Table 52 Setting of Performance Criteria of Floating Piers against Accidental Incident and Design Situations
only limited to Accidental Situations

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Dominating action Non-dominating
Item
Item
Situation action
30 2 – 56 3 – Safety Accidental Tsunamis Self weight, wind, Yielding of Design yield stress
water pressure, mooring ropes
water flow
accidental waves Stability of Resistance force of
mooring anchors mooring anchors
(horizontal, vertical)
(b) Required function of floating piers against accidental incident

The verification of mooring anchors against accidental situations where the dominating actions are
tsunamis and accidental waves shall ensure that floating structures do not drift due to tsunamis and
accidental waves resulting in a major effect on its vicinities.
③ Access facilities
The setting of the performance criteria of access facilities of floating piers shall apply the performance
criteria for vehicle ramp, which is ancillary equipment of mooring facilities defined in the Standard
Public Notice Article 64, and the performance criteria of fixed facilities for embarkation and
disembarkation of passengers defined in Article 91, in accordance with the envisaged conditions of use
of the floating pier. The access facilities of floating piers are those which function between a floating
body and the land or between floating bodies as the passage of passengers or vehicles, such as access
bridges, connecting bridges, and adjustment towers.
– 853 –
[Technical Note]
(1) The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the floating piers with floating bodies (hereinafter referred to as
“pontoons”) that are moored by mooring chains, etc.
(2) The performance verification methods given in this chapter can be applied to the floating piers installed in places
where the actions from waves, tidal currents, and winds are relatively weak.
(3) In setting the cross-sectional dimensions of the floating body of floating piers, it is necessary to appropriately
verify that the amount of motion of the floating bodies and the amount of tilting of the floating bodies are controlled
within the allowable range in accordance with the envisaged conditions of use.
(4) Freeboard
In the performance verification of the floating piers, it is necessary to appropriately set the freeboard of the floating
pier to enable safe and smooth embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, and safe and smooth loading of
cargo, considering the dimensions of the design ships and the envisaged conditions of use of the facility.
(5) Fig. 6.1.1 and Fig. 6.1.2 show the main components of a floating pier and the structure of a pontoon. A floating pier
comprises pontoons, an access bridge that connects the pontoons with land, connecting bridges that interconnect
pontoons, mooring chains that moor pontoons, mooring anchors, and other elements.
W.L.
Mooring anchor Mooring chain Access bridge
Pontoon
Connecting bridge
Fig. 6.1.1 Notation of Respective Parts of Floating Pier
L
C
Chain post Mooring post Fender L

C
Manhole
Fairleader
Chain hole
Protective steel sheet Partition wall Slab

Supporting beam
Outer wall
Partition wall Bottom slab
Fig. 6.1.2 Notation of Respective Parts of Pontoon
(6) When the site conditions are outside the coverage of this chapter, The Technical Manual for Floating Body
Structures1” can be referred to. In addition, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.4 Wave Force acting on Structures near
the Water Surface, Part II, Chapter 2, 4.9 Actions on Floating Body and its Motions, and Chapter 4, 3.10
Floating Breakwaters can be used as references as necessary.
(7) Normally, the floating piers are not used in locations where the waves or currents are large, but are frequently used
– 854 –
in locations where the wave height is 1m or less, and the current is 0.5m/s or less.
(8) An example of the procedure of performance verification of floating piers is shown in Fig. 6.1.3.
Setting of layout of floating pier
Assumption of cross-sectional dimensions including draft and freeboard
Variable states in respect of waves

Verification against capsizing
Performance verification of mooring ropes and anchors
Verification of each part of the pontoon

(deck, bottom, outer side, bulkheads,
support beams, support columns, etc.)
Verification of fixing anchors,

mooring lines, connecting parts
Verification of access bridges, etc.
Variable states in respect of action of ships

Performance verification of mooring ropes, anchors, etc.
Verification of each part of the pontoon

(deck, bottom, outer side, bulkheads,
support beams, support columns, etc.)
Verification of fixing anchors,

mooring lines, connecting part
Variable states in respect of

Verification of joints, connection parts
Fig. 6.1.3 Example of Sequence of Performance Verification of Floating Piers
– 855 –
6.2 Setting the Basic Cross-section
(1) A pontoon shall have a surface area and freeboard appropriate for its purpose of utilization. Dimensions of a
pontoon shall be appropriate to make it stable against the external actions on it.
(2) The freeboard of a pontoon shall be set to an appropriate height to provide good conditions for cargo handling and
passenger use when it is fully loaded and lightly loaded with cargo and passengers. Normally the height is set to
about 1.0m. Generally the freeboard may be calculated using equation (6.2.1).
(6.2.1)
where,
h' : freeboard (m)
d : pontoon height (m)
W1 : pontoon weight (kN)
γW : unit weight of seawater (kN/m3)
A : horizontal cross-sectional area of pontoon (m 2)
(3) In the case of a reinforced concrete pontoon, it is preferable that the dimensions are determined considering the
imperviousness of the concrete.
(4) Regarding the type of mooring, normally a chain type or a wire type are used for fairly deep water depths, and for
shallow water depths, an intermediate wire type, an intermediate buoy type, or a dolphin-fender type are mainly
used.1) It is preferable that the type of mooring be selected based on a comparison of the function and safety of the
floating pier and the characteristics of the mooring facilities.
– 856 –
6.3 Actions
(1) The fender reaction force, wave force and current force need not be considered unless required to do so. However,
when there is an anticipated risk that the pontoon may be subjected to wave actions, it is necessary to consider
the following forces: the wave forces exerted upon the stationary pontoon that are assumed to be rigidly fixed in
position and the fluid forces due to the oscillations of the pontoon 5) (refer to Part II, Chapter 2, 4.9 Actions on
Floating Body and its Motions). In this case, the mooring force is to be calculated by considering the oscillations
of the pontoon.
(2) A live load of 5.0 kN/m2 for passengers is commonly used for floating piers, which are mainly used for passenger
of ships.
(3) The fender reaction forces used in the performance verification of mooring chains may be calculated by reference
to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.2 Actions Caused by Ship Berthing, and Part II, Chapter 8, 2.3 Actions Caused by
Ship Motions. Also, for the tractive force of ship, refer to Part II, Chapter 8, 2.4 Actions Caused by Traction
by Ships.
(4) The wave forces used in the performance verification of mooring chains may be calculated by an appropriate
method by reference to Part II, Chapter 2, 4.7.4 Wave Forces acting on Structures near Water Surface, Part
II, Chapter 2, 4.9 Actions on Floating Body and its Motions. The drag coefficient for cubes may be used. The
area over which the drag force acts may be taken to be that below the still water surface. The above mentioned
wave forces are those that act on a stationary pontoon, but if the natural period of the oscillations of the pontoon
is close to the natural period of the waves, resonance may occur, causing a large force in the chain. This point
should be carefully considered. In particular, for floating piers located in places where it is envisaged that swells
and other long period waves penetrate, it is preferable that an motion analysis of the moored floating bodies be
carried out using a numerical simulation method.7)
– 857 –
(1) Items to be considered in the Verification of the Stability of Floating Piers

Normally the following items are examined for the floating piers.
① pontoon stability
② stability of each part of the pontoon
③ stability of the mooring system (mooring chains, mooring anchors)
④ stability of access bridges and connecting bridges
(2) Performance Verification of the Stability of Pontoons

① Structural stability levels required for the pontoons should be secured appropriately in accordance with the
conditions of use.
② In the examination of the stability of a pontoon, the following requirements should be satisfied:
(a) The pontoon must satisfy the stability condition of a floating body with the required freeboard against actions
of the reaction force from the access bridge supporting point, full surcharge on the deck and even against the
presence of some water inside the pontoon owing to leakage of the pontoon.
(b) Even when the full surcharge is placed on only one side of the deck divided by the longitudinal symmetrical
axis of the pontoon and the reaction force from an access bridge supporting point acts on this side, if the
bridge is attached there, the pontoon must satisfy the stability condition of a floating body and the inclination
of the deck should be equal to or less than 1:10 with the smallest freeboard of 0 or more.
③ The height of the water accumulated inside the pontoon by leakage is usually assumed at 10% of the height of
pontoon in the examination of pontoon stability. The freeboard to be maintained in this case is mostly about 0.5
m.
④ When being subjected to a uniformly distributed load, the pontoon may be regarded as stable, if equation (6.4.1)
is satisfied.
(6.4.1)
where
I : geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area at the still water level with respect to
the longitudinal axis (m4)
W : weight of pontoon and uniformly distributed load (kN)
γ w : unit weight of seawater (kN/m3)
C : center of buoyancy of pontoon
G : center of gravity of pontoon
When the pontoon is partially filled with water by leakage, the pontoon may be regarded as stable when
equation (6.4.2) is satisfied. The symbols W, I, C, and G of the equation refer to those at the state with water inside.
(6.4.2)
where
i : geometrical moment of inertia of the water surface inside each chamber with respect to its
central axis parallel to the rotation axis of the pontoon (m4)

When being subjected to an eccentric load, the pontoon may be regarded as stable if the value of tanα
obtained by solving equation (6.4.3) satisfies equation (6.4.4) (see Fig. 6.4.1).
(6.4.3)
(6.4.4)
where
– 858 –
W1 : weight of pontoon (kN)
P : total force of eccentric load (kN)
b : width of pontoon (m)
h : height of pontoon (m)
d : d raft of pontoon when P is applied to the center of pontoon (m)
c : height of the center of gravity of the pontoon measured from the bottom (m)
a : deviation of P from the center axis of pontoon (m)
α : inclination angle of pontoon (º)
b
a P
α
F
d G : Center
c of gravity C : Center of buoyancy
W1 h
Fig. 6.4.1 Stability of Pontoon subjected to Eccentric Load
(3) Performance Verification of Each Part of a Pontoon

① Stresses generated in the structural parts of the pontoon shall be examined by using an appropriate method
selected considering the use conditions of the pontoon, external actions on the respective parts, and their
structural characteristics.
② A floor slab can normally be verified for performance as a two-way slab fixed on four sides with supporting
beams and side walls against the actions that yield the largest stress out of the following combinations of actions:
(a) When only static load acts on a pontoon
(Static load) + (Self weight)
(b) When live load acts on a pontoon
(live load) + (Self weight)
(c) When the supporting point of an access bridge is set on a pontoon without adjustment tower
(Supporting point reaction force of an access bridge) + (Self weight)
③ A outer wall can normally be verified for performance as a two-way slab fixed on four sides with a floor slab,
a bottom slab, and outer walls or supporting beams, against hydrostatic pressure acting when the pontoon
submerges by 0.5 m above the deck.
④ A bottom slab can normally be verified for performance as a two-way slab fixed on four sides with outer walls
or supporting beams, against hydrostatic pressure acting when the pontoon submerges by 0.5 m above the deck.
⑤ A partition wall can normally be verified for performance as a slab fixed on four sides when one compartment
has become fully waterlogged and is exerting hydrostatic pressure .
⑥ The supporting beams of the floor slab, bottom slab and outer walls and the center support can normally be
calculated as a rigid frame box under the condition that the maximum action is on the floor slab of the pontoon
and the hydrostatic pressure for the draft of the pontoon being equal to its height is applied.
⑦ When the wave actions are to be considered, calculations of section forces are made using Muller’s equation,
11) the method of Prestressed Concrete Barge, or Veritus Rule. When it is necessary to consider effects of the
oscillations of the floating body, wave parameters, and water depth, the method with cross-sectional division by
Ueda et al. 5), 12), 13) may be used.
(4) Performance Verification of Mooring Chain
① The structure of mooring chains should be examined by using an appropriate method in such a way that the
chains can hold securely a pontoon in position under the action of whichever force is the largest among the
– 859 –
fender reaction force generated during berthing, the tractive force of ship and the wave force, with the addition
of the tidal current force to each of aforementioned forces.
② Normally, the length of a mooring chain is 5 times the water depth plus the tidal range. When a chain is
stretched, it is necessary to pay attention to the following points:
(a) During high tide, the chain should not be over stretched causing an excessive tension force in it.
(b) During high tide there should be no interference with ship berthing.
(c) Sufficient anchor holding power should be ensured for mooring anchors during high tide.
(d) The amount of horizontal movement of the pontoon during low tide should be small.
③ It is said that the anchor holding power of steel mooring anchors is significantly reduced when the angle between
the chain at the connection part and the horizontal surface is 3° or higher.
④ The maximum tension acting on each chain is ideally determined through dynamic analysis of the chain and
the pontoon, but as this is very difficult, static analysis may be used as the second-best method. A chain can
normally be verified for performance on the condition that only one chain is assumed to resist against all the
external forces as shown in Fig. 6.4.2.
Assuming that the chain forms a catenary line, the maximum tension acting on the chain is given by equation
(6.4.5). In the equations below, the symbol γ represents the partial factor of its suffix and suffixes k and d stand
for the characteristic value and the design value, respectively.
(6.4.5)
The horizontal force acting on the mooring anchor is the same as the horizontal force acting on the pontoon,
and the vertical force acting on the anchor is given by equation (6.4.6).
(6.4.6)
The vertical force acting on the joint between the chain and the pontoon is given by equation (6.4.7).
(6.4.7)
The angles θ1 and θ2 are calculated by equation (6.4.8) with an assumed chain length l and an assumed chain
weight w per unit length of the chain.
(6.4.8)
Fig. 6.4.2 Performance Verification of Mooring Chain
The horizontal distance between a mooring anchor and the pontoon when a horizontal force is acting on the
pontoon is given by equation (6.4.9), and thus the amount of horizontal shift of the pontoon from its stationary
position under no horizontal force can be evaluated.
(6.4.9)
Because the catenary line of the chain of normal diameter can be approximately represented with a straight
– 860 –
line, it can be assumed in equations (6.4.5) to (6.4.9) that θ2= θ1=sin-1(h/l) and .
where
T
: maximum tension acting on the chain (kN)
P
: horizontal external force (kN)
Va
: vertical force acting on the mooring anchor (kN)
V b
: vertical force acting on the joint between the chain and pontoon (kN)
θ1
: angle that the chain makes with the horizontal plane at the joint between the mooring anchor
and chain (º)
θ2 : angle that the chain makes with the horizontal plane at the joint between the mooring chain and
pontoon (º)
l : length of the chain (m)
w : weight per unit length of the chain in water (kN/m)
h : water depth under the bottom of pontoon (m)
Kh : horizontal distance between the mooring anchor and the joint between the pontoon and chain
(m)
The design values in the equations can be calculated by the following equation. The partial factor can be set
at 1.0.
⑤ In the determination of the diameter of the chain, careful consideration should be given to the abrasion,
corrosion, and biofouling of chain. In addition, appropriate maintenance work needs to be carried out on the
chain, including periodical checks on the chain and its replacement, as necessary.
⑥ When determining the chain diameter with numerical ship motion simulation, the characteristics of displacement
-restoration force relationship of the mooring system need to be determined using an appropriate method such
as the catenary theory.14)
(5) Performance Verification of Mooring Anchor
① A mooring anchor shall be capable of providing the resistance forces required to keep the pontoon stable against
the maximum tension acting on the mooring chain and shall have an appropriate stability.
② For the verification of the stability of mooring anchors, equation (6.4.10) may be used. In the following, the
subscripts k and d indicate the characteristic values and design values respectively. Also, the structural analysis
factor may be taken to be an appropriate value equal to or greater than 1.2.
(6.4.10)
where,
Rh : horizontal resistance force of mooring anchor (kN)
Rv : vertical resistance force of mooring anchor (kN)
P : horizontal force acting on mooring anchor (kN)
Va : vertical force acting on mooring anchor (kN)
In calculating the design values in the equation, the following equations may be used. Here, Va, P, and θ1 in
the equations are as shown in Fig. 6.4.2. For the characteristic value of the maximum tension force acting in the
mooring chain Pk , the value obtained in (4) Performance Verification of Mooring Chains, may be used. The
value 1.0 may be used for the partial factors.
Vad = γ P Pk tanθ1,Pd = γP Pk ,Rhd = γRh Rhk ,Rvd = γRv Rvk
③ Normally the following forces are considered as the resistance forces of a mooring anchor, but it is preferable
that in-situ stability tests be made for a mooring anchor:
(a) In the case of concrete block:
1) For clay ground:
Horizontal resistance force Rh : Cohesion of the surfaces of bottom and sides, difference between
the passive and active earth pressures
Vertical resistance force Rv : Weight in water, effective overburden weight in water
2) For sand ground:
– 861 –
Horizontal resistance force Rh : Bottom friction force, difference between the passive and
active earth pressures
Vertical resistance force Rv : Weight in water, effective overburden weight in water
The vertical force employed in the calculation of the bottom friction force is the difference between the
weight of the block in water and the vertical component of the chain tension acting on the block.
(b) In the case of steel mooring anchor:
Horizontal resistance force Rh : Holding power
Vertical resistance force Rv : Weight in water
The holding power of a steel mooring anchor is calculated by equation (6.4.11).
on soft mud: TA = 17 WAd2/3

on hard mud: TA = 10 WAd2/3 (6.4.11)
on sand : TA = 3 WAd
on flat rock: TA = 0.4 WAd
where
TA : holding power of the mooring anchor (kN)
WA : weight of the mooring anchor in water (kN)
The design values in the equations can be calculated from the following equation. Also, the partial factor may
be taken to be 1.0.
④ When a rectangular solid anchor block is deeply embedded in a cohesive soil, Hansen obtained equation (6.4.12)
for the horizontal resistance force by assuming the slip surface around the block.
P = 11.4ch (6.4.12)
Also, Mackenzie experimentally obtained equation (6.4.13) for blocks embedded to a depth of 12 times or
more the height of the block.15)
P = 8.5ch (6.4.13)
where,
P : resistance force of the block per unit width (kN/m)
c : cohesion of the cohesive soil (kN/m 2)
h : block height (m)
References
1) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Technical Manual for floating structure, 1991
2) Yonekawa, M.: Design and calculation examples of port facilities (Enlarged and revised edition)Kazama Publishing, 1983
3) JSCE: Standard Specifications for concrete, 2002
4) Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NK): Steel barge, 1997
5) UEDA, S., S. SHIRAISHI and K. KAI: Calculation Method of Shear Force and Bending Moment Induced on Pontoon Type
Floating Structures in Random Sea, Technical Note of PHRI No.505, 1984
2002
7) Ueda, S. : Analysis Method of Ship Motions Moored to Quay Walls and the Applications, Technical Note of PHRI
No.504,1984
8) Oogushi, M.: Theoretical naval architect, Kaibun-do Publishing, 2004
9) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Part II Steel Bridge, Maruzen Publications,
2004
10) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Part III Concrete Bridge, Maruzen
Publications, 2004
11) Jean Muller: Structural Consideration Configurations II, University of California Extension Berkeley, Seminar on Concrete
and Vessels Sedt., 1965
12) UEDA, S., S. SHIRAISHI and T. ISHISAKI: Calculation Method of Forces and Moments Induced on Pontoon Type Floating
Structures in Waves, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 31 No.2, 1992
13) UEDA, S. S. SHIRAISHI and T. ISHISAKI: Example of Calculation of Forces and Moments Induced on Pontoon Type
Floating Structures and Figures and Tables of Radiation Forces, Technical Note of PHRI. No.731,1992
– 862 –
14) UEDA, S and S. SHIRAISHI: Determination of Optimum Mooring Chain and Design Charts Using Catenary Theory,
Technical Note of PHRI No.379, 1981
15) Edited by G.A. Leonards: Foundation Engineering, McGrawHill Book Co., p.467, 1962
16) Japan Road Association: Technical Standard and Commentary of grade separation facilities for pedestrians, 1979
– 863 –
7 Shallow Draft Wharves

Performance Requirements for Shallow Draft Wharves
Article 31
The provisions of Article 26 or Article 29 shall be applied correspondingly to the performance requirements
for shallow draft wharves.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Shallow Draft Wharves
Article 57
The provisions of Article 48 through Article 52, or Article 55 shall be applied with modification as necessary
to the performance criteria of shallow draft wharves in consideration of the structural type.
[Technical Note]
(1) Performance Requirements

① Common for shallow draft wharves
The performance requirements of shallow draft wharves shall ensure the necessary usability to enable
safe and efficient mooring of ships, safe and efficient boarding and embarkation and disembarkation of
passengers, and safe and efficient loading and unloading of cargo. In addition, it is necessary that the
performance verification shall ensure serviceability in respect of the necessary design situations, from
among the permanent situations in respect of self weight and earth pressure, and variable situations
in respect of variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motion, berthing and traction by ships and
surcharges in accordance with the structural type of the facilities.
– 864 –
8 Boat Lift Yards and Landing Facilities for Air Cushion Craft
Performance Requirements for Boat Lift Yards
Article 32
The performance requirements for boat lift yards shall be as specified in the subsequent items in consideration
of its structure type:
satisfied so as to enable the safe and smooth lifting and launching of boats.
(2) Damage due to self weight, earth pressure, water pressure, variable waves, berthing and traction of
boats, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, imposed loads, and/or other actions shall not impair the
function of the boat lift yards nor affect their continued use.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Boat Lift Yard
Article 58
1 The performance criteria of boat lift yards shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The boat lift yard shall have the necessary water depth and length corresponding to the dimensions of
the design ships.
(2) The boat lift yard shall have the necessary ground elevation in consideration of the tidal range, the
dimensions of the design ships, and the usage conditions.
(3) The boat lift yard shall have the necessary ancillary equipment in consideration of the usage conditions.
performance criteria of the front wall portion of the boat lift yard in consideration of the structural type.
3 The performance criteria of the pavement of the boat lift yard shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The pavement of the boat lift yard shall have the dimensions required for enabling the safe and smooth
handling of boats.
(2) The risk of impairing the integrity of the pavement under the variable action situation, in which the
dominant action is imposed load, shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(3) The risk of impairing the integrity of the pavement under the variable action situation, in which the
dominant actions are water pressure and variable waves, shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
[Technical Note]
8.1 Boat Lift Yards
(1) A boat lift yard is a facility used to retrieve ships to the land and launch to the sea for such purposes as repair,
refuge from storm waves and storm surges, and land storage of ships during winter.
(2) In many cases, rails or cradles are employed in the retrieving and launching of ships of 30 tons or larger in gross
tonnage, but the provisions in this section can be applied to the performance verifications of the facilities used to
lift and launch ships smaller than 30 tons in gross tonnage directly over the slope of slipway.
(3) Fig. 8.1.1 Notations of Various Parts of boat lift yard.
– 865 –
Concrete block covering Ship storage yard

Slope
M.S.L Foundation
Height of front wall Concrete pavement
Armouring Intermediate
Front wall of Landing part retaining wall Foundation Retaining wall
Sea bottom in front of the slipway
Fig. 8.1.1 Boat Lift Yard
8.1.2 Location Selection of Boat Lift Yard

Location of boat lift yards needs to be determined in such a way that the following requirements are satisfied:
① The front water area is calm.
② The front water area is free from siltation or scouring.
③ Navigation and anchorage of other ships are not hindered.
④ There is an adequate space in the background for the work for ship lifting and launching as well as for ship
storage.
8.1.3 Dimensions of Each Part

[1] Requirements for Usability
① Water depth and length

(a) Length
In setting the length of slipways for the performance verification, the dimensions of the design ships shall be
appropriately considered.
(b) Water depth
In setting the water depth of slipways for the performance verification of boat lift yards, the dimensions of the
design ships and the envisaged conditions of use of the facility shall be appropriately considered.
② Crown height
In setting the crownt height of slipways for the performance verification of boat lift yards, the dimensions of the
design ships and the envisaged conditions of use of the facility shall be appropriately considered to enable the
slipway to be safely and efficiently used.
③ Slope angle of the slipway
In the performance verification of boat lift yards having slipways, the slope angle of the slipway shall be
appropriately set considering the dimensions and shape of the design ships, the ground conditions, the tidal
range, and the envisaged conditions of the use of the facility in order to enable smooth retrieving and launching
of ships.
[2] Height of Each Part
(1) It is preferable that the crown height of the front wall of the slipway section be located at a level lower than the
mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL) by the draft of the design ships. This requirement indicates that it is
necessary lift ships even at the low water of neaps. The draft of the ship should be the light draft for the case of
repair, refuge, and wintertime storage, and should be the full-load draft for the case of lifting small fishing boats
filled with catches. For boat lift yards that are to be constructed in the areas where tidal ranges are small or for the
boat lift yards that are to be used even at the low water springs during high waves, it is possible to lower the crest
height of the front wall further.
(2) The ground elevation of the ship storage yard can be determined by applying 2.1.1 Dimensions of Quaywalls.
However, when the ship storage area is located adjacent to a quaywall, the crown height of the ship storage area
can be set equal to the crown height of the quaywall to facilitate ease of use. In cases where waves are high in the
water area in front of the boat lift yard, consideration of the wave runup height is preferable.
(3) It is preferable not to change the gradient of the slipways considering the convenience of retrieving and launching
of ships.
– 866 –
(4) If providing a point at which the gradient changes on the slipways is unavoidable, due to the deep depth of water
or constraint of available ground area, it is preferable that the position of the point of gradient change be set
considering the heights of the following:
① When the slipway consists of two different surfaces
Near M.S.L. - H.W.L.
② When the slipway consists of three different surfaces
First point Near L.W.L.
Second point Near H.W.L.
[3] Front Water Depth

The depth of water in front of the slipway may be determined referring to the sum of the draft of the design ship and
a margin of 0.5 m.
[4] Gradient of Slipway
(1) The gradient of slipway shall be determined appropriately in consideration of the shape of the design ships, the
characteristics of foundation, and the tidal range, so that the lifting and launching of ships can be performed
smoothly.
(2) When the slipway is to be utilized by small ships, it is preferable to have a slope with a single-gradient. Single-
gradient slopes are frequently used in slipways for human power-based ship lifting in shallow waters. For this
type of slipways, a slope inclination of 1:6 to 1:12 may be used as a reference.
(3) When the water in front of the slipway is deep or the area of the construction site is limited, the slipway may be
built with two or more gradients. When this is the case, a two-gradient slipway may be adopted when the crown
elevation of the front wall is about-2.0 m, and a three-gradient slipway may be adopted when the crest height of
the front wall is lower than-2.0 m. The following values may be used as reference gradients:
① When the slipway consists of two different surfaces:
Front slope: 1:6 to 1:8
Rear slope: 1:8 to 1:12
② When the slipway consists of three different surfaces:
Front slope: an inclination steeper than 1:6
Central slope: 1:6 to 1:8
Rear slope: 1:8 to 1:12
[5] Area of Front Basin
(1) The basin in front of a boat lift yard shall have an appropriate area that allows for efficient operation of ship
retrieving and launching without damage to the ships, and safe and efficient navigation of nearby ships.
(2) When the ship is launched to the sea by sliding over the slipway, the ship runs over a certain distance after touching
the water with the speed gained during the launch. This distance is more than about five times of the ship’s length
overall, although it varies depending on the gradient of slope, slipway friction, and launching distance. However,
because the ship attains its maneuverability after moving a distance about 4 to 6 times of its length, it is sufficient
to secure a distance about five times of the ship’s length overall from the waterfront line of the slipway to the other
end of the basin. When strong tidal currents exist, it is preferable to add an appropriate margin.
(3) When the ship is launched to the sea gently by wire ropes, a distance of about three times of the ship’s length
overall will suffice to secure the required width of water area.
8.2 Landing Facilities for Air Cushion Craft

(1) Air cushion craft landing facilities shall be located at an appropriate location and have an appropriate structure for
the safe boarding of passengers and safe and smooth landing of the craft.
(2) Air cushion craft landing facilities are normally constructed on the shore. These facilities usually use slopes
similar to those of slipways as described in 8.1 Boat Lift Yards to land and glide down air cushion crafts.
(3) Fig. 8.2.1 illustrates an air cushion craft.
– 867 –
Fan for floating
Propeller
Antenna Air rudder
Propeller
Steering seat
Flexible skirt Leg Submarine (Placed in water

and used as rudder)
Fig. 8.2.1 Example of Air Cushion Craft
(4) An example of the main dimensions of air cushion craft is shown in Table 8.2.1.
Table 8.2.1 Example of Dimensions of Air Cushion Craft
Total length Total width Total height Skirt depth Boarding Total mass Maximum
(m) (m) (m) (m) capacity (t) speed
(persons) (kt)
a 18.2 8.6 4.4 1.2 75 14 45
b 24.7 12.7 7.9 1.6 115 50 65
c 23.1 11.0 6.5 1.2 105 51
50
d 14.8 7.0 4.6 1.2 38 9.1
60
8.2.2 Selection of Location
(1) In determining the location, the following requirements shall be considered:

① The water basin in front of the facility shall be calm.
② The effects of strong winds and beam winds on the craft shall be minimum.
③ Operation of the crafts shall not hinder navigation and mooring of other ships.
④ Influences of noise and water spray from the operation of crafts upon other navigation ships and neighboring
area shall be minimum.
(2) Air cushion crafts are excellent for stability in high-speed operation, but they are susceptible to influences of winds
during low-speed operation such as approaching and leaving to/from a landing facility. In the determination of
the location of air cushion craft facilities, therefore, it is preferable to give careful consideration to the level of
calmness of the basin in front of the facilities and the direction of the prevailing wind.
(3) As noises from an air cushion craft may be as high as 100 dB at a distance of 50 m from the craft, it is preferable
to locate air cushion craft landing facilities far enough away from hospitals, schools and housing areas, or to shut
off the noises by surrounding the facilities with sound-proof walls.
8.2.3 Dimensions of Each Part

The air cushion landing facilities shall be provided with a slipway, apron, and passenger boarding facilities. In
– 868 –
addition, lighting facilities, hangers, sound-proof walls, oil supply facilities and repair facilities and others shall be
provided as necessary.
[1] Slipway
(1) The structure of the slipway can be determined by referring to the slipway structure described in 8.1.3
Dimensions of Each Part.
(2) The width of the slipway should be determined considering of the lateral movement of the air cushion craft
during the landing or gliding-down operation due to beam winds. Usually a width of about three times the
width of the craft is adopted.
(3) The gradient of the slipway needs to be determined considering its psychological effect on passengers,
performance of the air cushion craft, and use of land. Usually a gradient of 1:10 or gentler is adopted.
[2] Apron
In many cases the apron width is the same as that of the slipway and the apron length is about two times the length of
the air cushion craft. In cases where two or more air cushion crafts use the landing facility simultaneously, a parking
space should be provided alongside the apron.
[3] Hangar
When a hangar is to be constructed, it is preferable to locate it adjacent to the apron to facilitate the servicing and
maintenance of air cushion craft and to provide the refuge space of air cushion craft in rough weather. The dimensions
of the hangar are preferably as follows:
Width: .5 times the width of the air cushion craft (per one craft)
Length: 1.2 times the length of the air cushion craft (per one craft)
Height: There should be a clearance of about 0.5 m from the ceiling to the top of the air cushion craft when
the craft is lifted afloat.
References
1) Kimura., K.: Design method of plastering blocks for slipway, Journal of Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Hokkaido
Regional Development Bureau, No. 369、1984
– 869 –
9 Ancillary of Mooring Facilities

Performance Requirements for Ancillary Facilities of Mooring Facilities
Article 33
1 The performance requirements for ancillary facilities of mooring facilities shall be as specified in the
subsequent items in consideration of the type of facilities:
satisfied so as to facilitate the safe and smooth use of mooring facilities.
(2) The damage due to self weight, earth pressures, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, berthing and
traction of ship, imposed loads, collision with vehicles, and/or other damage shall not impair the
function of the ancillary facilities nor affect their continued use.
2 In addition to the provisions of the previous paragraph, the performance requirements for the ancillary
facilities for mooring facilities which are classified as high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be
such that the damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions and other actions do not affect the
restoration through minor repair works of the functions required of the piers concerned in the aftermath
of the occurrence of Level 2 earthquake ground motions. Provided, however, that as for the performance
requirements for the ancillary facilities of the mooring facilities which require further improvement in
earthquake-resistant performance due to the environmental conditions, social or other conditions to which
the pier concerned is subjected, the damage due to said actions shall not adversely affect the restoration
through minor repair works of the functions of the facilities concerned and their continued use.
9.1 Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings
Article 59
The performance criteria of mooring posts and mooring rings shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Mooring posts and mooring rings shall be appropriately placed so as to enable the safe and smooth
mooring of ships and cargo handling works by taking into account the positions of the mooring lines
for the ships using the mooring facilities concerned.
(2) The risk of impairing the integrity of the members of mooring posts and mooring rings and losing their
structural safety shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation in
which the dominant action is the traction by ships.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings

① Stability of Facilities (serviceability)
(a) Attached Table 54 shows the setting on the performance criteria and design situations, except
accidental situations, of mooring posts and mooring rings.
– 870 –
Attached Table 54 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations)
of Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
actions actions
33 1 2 59 1 2 Serviceability Variable Traction by Soundness of mooring –

ships post and mooring ring
components
Traction by Self weight Stability of mooring Limit value on sliding
ships post and mooring ring
structures (sliding of
superstructures)
Stability of mooring Limit value on overturning
post and mooring ring
structures (overturning
of superstructures)
(b) Soundness of Structural Members (serviceability)

For the performance verification of mooring posts and mooring rings, the performance criteria for
the soundness shall be set properly according to the kind of materials.
(c) Stability of Structures (serviceability)
The verification of structural stability shall verify the sliding and overturning of superstructures
under the variable situations where dominating action is the traction by ships
[Technical Note]
9.1.1 Position of Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings
(1) The performance verification of mooring posts and mooring rings shall require their proper layout to allow the
safe and smooth mooring of ships and cargo handling, considering the positions of the mooring lines of the ships
using the mooring facilities concerned.
(2) In general, mooring posts are installed at around both ends of the berth and away from waterlines as far as possible
for the mooring of ships in a storm, whereas bollards are installed close to the berth faceline for the mooring or the
berthing and leaving of ships in ordinary conditions.
(3) The positioning and names of the mooring lines of ships during berthing may refer to 2.1.1 (2) Length, Water
Depth and Layout of Berths.
(4) The distance intervals between bollards and their minimum number of installation per berth may refer to the
values given in Table 9.1.1.
Table 9.1.1 Placement of Bollards
Maximum interval Minimum number of

Gross tonnage of design ship (t) between bollards (m) installation per berth (unit)
Less than 2,000 10-15 4

2,000 or more and less than 5,000 20 6
(5) In the cases where mooring lines are not pulled upward at such mooring facilities for small ships mooring posts
at intervals of 10 - 20 m are installed without bollards. Instead of bollards, small ship mooring facilities may be
installed with mooring rings or similar with equivalent strengths to bollards at intervals of 5 - 10 m.
(6) For some small ship mooring facilities, mooring rings or equivalents may be installed to moor small ships.
Mooring rings or similar shall be installed at a proper height taking tide levels into consideration. Small ships are
– 871 –
often tied to mooring rings with the mooring lines from their bows and sterns, and hence mooring rings or similar
may be placed at intervals of 5 - 10 m.
(7) Mooring posts are installed according to use conditions by ships. They are often installed in such manner that
angles between ship axes and mooring lines would be set closely to a right angle as much as possible so that they
could react effectively against the forces perpendicular to the ship axes. In many cases, one mooring post is
installed at each end of a berth.
The angles of bow lines and stern lines with respect to their ship axes are set to be small to control the
movement of ships in the ship axes direction. It is preferable to install bollards so that these angels are kept larger
than 25 - 30°. Fig. 9.1.1 shows the typical installment examples of mooring posts.
(8) There are cases where the mooring lines stretched from two adjacently moored ships are tied to one mooring post
installed at the junction of two berths. Since the lines are stretched from different directions and their resultant
force is not larger than the tractive force from either of the ships, there is no need to install larger-size mooring
posts at the junctions of two berths. However, in some cases, it would take time to release mooring lines for
unberthing, resulting in accidents. Two bollards shall be hence installed at an interval of several meters in the
junction. In the case of large mooring facilities, sometimes four or more lines are tied from each of bow and stern
of the both sides of ships. In such a case, it is preferable to install two bollards at an interval of several meters at
the places to tie these lines.
Stern line Bow line
25 – 30° 25 – 30° Bollard

90° 90° Moorig post
(a) The case of right angle
Bollard
45° 45°
45° 45°
(b) The case of 45°
Fig. 9.1.1 Typical Arrangements of Mooring Posts and Bollards
9.1.2 Actions
(1) Tractive Force of Design Ship

① The tractive forces by ships shall be calculated appropriately considering the berthing and mooring conditions
of ships.
② The tractive forces by ships can be calculated in accordance with Part II, Section 8, 2.4 Actions due to Traction
by Ships.
(2) The verification of the sliding and overturning of superstructures shall be performed on tractive forces from
the most dangerous traction angles. The traction angles of the most dangerous tractive forces can be calculated
from equations (9.1.1) and (9.1.2). The expected ranges of traction angles depending on conditions such as the
dimensions of design ships and tide levels shall be considered.
① The case of sliding (See Fig. 9.1.2 (a))
(9.1.1)
where
θ : traction angle (rad)
T : tractive force (kN/m)
Pv : resultant vertical earth pressure acting on superstructure (kN/m)
Ph : resultant horizontal earth pressure action on superstructure (kN/m)
W : weight of superstructure (kN/m)
– 872 –
② The case of overturning (See Fig. 9.1.2 (b))
(9.1.2)
where
θ : traction angle (rad)
x2 : distance from faceline of quaywall to tractive force acting point (m)
h1 : distance from bottom of superstructure to tractive force acting point (m)
T T
Tsinθ Tsinθ
θ θ
Tcosθ Tcosθ
Pv Pv
x2
h1 Ph
Ph h2
W W
x1
x3
(a) Sliding (b) Overturing
Fig. 9.1.2 Actions caused by Tractive Forces
(1) Examination on the Stability of the Superstructures on which Mooring Posts and Mooring Rings are Installed
① Examination on sliding
The following equation may be used for examining the stability of the superstructures on which mooring posts
and mooring rings are installed. The subscript d indicates design value.
(9.1.3)
where
f : f riction coefficient
θ : t raction angle (rad) (see 9.1.2 Actions)
T : t ractive force (kN/m)
Pv : resultant vertical earth pressure acting on superstructure (kN/m)
Ph : resultant horizontal earth pressure acting on superstructure (kN/m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated from the following equation, where the symbol γ is the
partial factor corresponding to its subscript, where suffix k and d indicate the characteristic values and design
values, respectively.
(it can be shown as by using horizontal components) (9.1.4)

where
δ : wall friction force
ψ : angle between wall and vertical line (°)
② The following equation may be used for examining the stability of the superstructures on which mooring
posts and mooring rings are installed. The subscript d indicates design value.
(9.1.5)
where
– 873 –
θ : t raction angle (rad) (see 9.1.2 Actions)
T : t ractive force (kN/m)
Pv : resultant vertical earth pressure acting on super structure (kN/m)
Ph : resultant horizontal earth pressure action on super structure (kN/m)
x1 : distance from the faceline of quaywall to superstructure weight acting point (m)
x2 : distance from faceline of quaywall to tractive force acting point (m)
x3 : distance from faceline of quaywall to acting point of resultant vertical earth pressure (m)
h1 : distance from bottom of superstructure to tractive force acting point (m)
h2 : distance from bottom of superstructure to acting point of resultant horizontal earth pressure (m)
The design values in the equation can be calculated from equation (9.1.4).
③ Partial Factors
In examining the stability of the sliding and overturning of the superstructures on which mooring posts and
mooring rings are installed, the values shown in Table 9.1.2 may be used as standard partial factors. These
partial factors are determined taking account of the setting used in previous design methods.
Table 9.1.2 Partial Factors used in the Performance Verification of the Stability of Superstructures
γ α μ/X k V
γP v Resultant vertical earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γPh Resultant horizontal earth pressure 1.00 – –
Sliding
γW Weight of superstructure 1.00 – – –

γT Tractive force 1.00 – – –
γθ Traction angle 1.00 – – –
γP v Resultant vertical earth pressure 1.00 – – –
γPh Resultant horizontal earth pressure 1.00 – –
Overturning
γW Weight of superstructure 1.00 – – –

γT Tractive force 1.00 – – –
γθ Traction angle 1.00 – – –
α: sensitivity coefficient, μ/X k: deviation of average (average value/characteristic value), V: coefficient of variation
– 874 –
9.2 Fender Equipment

Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Fender System
Article 60
The performance criteria for fender system shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The fender system shall be properly installed and provided with the function satisfying the necessary
specifications so as to enable the safe and smooth berthing and mooring in consideration of the
environmental conditions to which the system concerned are subjected, the berthing and mooring
conditions of ships, and the structure type of mooring facilities.
(2) The risk that the berthing energy of ships may exceed the absorption energy of the fender system under
the variable action situation, in which the dominant actions is ship berthing, shall be equal to or less
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Fender Equipment

① Stability of Facilities (Usability)
(a) Attached Table 55 shows the setting on the performance criteria and design situations except
accidental situations, of fender equipment.
Attached Table 55 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations)
of Fender Equipment

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
33 1 2 60 1 2 Serviceability Variable Variable – Berthing energy of Absorption energy

Ship fender equipment
berthing
(b) Variable Situations where Dominating Actions are Ship Berthing (Serviceability)
The verification of ship berthing is such that the risk of the berthing energy of ships exceeding the absorption
energy of fender equipment shall be equal to or less than the limit value when ships are berthing.
[Technical Note]
9.2.1 Fundamentals of the Performance Verification of Fender Equipment
(1) When a ship is berthed to a wharf or when a moored ship moves owing to wind and wave forces, berthing force
and friction force are generated between the ship and the mooring facility. To prevent damages to the ship’s hull
and mooring facility due to these forces, fender equipment are installed on the mooring facility. However, in
case that ships are provided with fender equipment such as ship fenders or tires for small ships or certain types of
ferries and the maneuvering of such a ship is done very carefully considering the energy absorption capacity of the
fender equipment, the mooring facility does not necessarily have to be equipped with fender equipment, because
the berthing force to the mooring facility is relatively low.
(2) For fender systems used as fender equipment, rubber and pneumatic fenders are commonly selected. Other types
such as foam types, water pressure types, oil pressure types, suspended weight types, pile types, and timber types
are also used.2)
(3) The performance verification procedure of rubber fenders, pneumatic fenders, and pile type fenders is as shown
in Fig. 9.2.1.
(4) The performance of fenders has significant effects on the construction costs of mooring facilities, the maintenance
costs after construction, and berthing efficiency. It is preferable for the section of fenders to consider not only
their construction costs but also comprehensive costs of all aforementioned factors. In the cases of piled piers
and dolphins, the effects of the reaction forces of fender systems are normally relevant, and hence in some cases
– 875 –
selection of high-performance fender systems, even if they are expensive, results in reducing the construction
costs of quaywalls as a whole. In the cases of gravity-type quaywalls and sheet pile quaywalls on which the
reaction forces of fender systems have no effects on the structural dimensions, the performance of fender system
does not affect the construction costs of quaywalls. In some cases, however, selection of easy maintenance type
fender system, even if they are expensive, results in cost saving in the long run, due to their maintenance costs
after completion. There are also cases in which high-performance fender systems are selected to reduce the delay
of ship berthing due to oceanographic and meteorological phenomena. Because this results in improving cargo
handling efficiency.
Determination of design ships
Layout of fenders
For berthing ships For moored ships
Determination of ship displacements, Determination of the placement

berthing velocities, virtual mass factors, and characteristics of mooring ropes
and eccentricity factors
Determination of the conditions

Calculation of berthing energy of ships such as waves, winds, water flows, etc.
Assumption of the types Assumption of the types

and forms of fenders and forms of fenders
Calculation of the absorption energy, Calculation of the motions of ships,

reaction forces, and deformations of fenders and the deformations
and reaction forces of fenders
Determination of fenders
Fig. 9.2.1 Example of Performance Verification Procedures of Fenders
9.2.2 Actions
(1) Berthing Energy of Ships

① For calculating the berthing energy of ships in the performance verification of fenders, refer to Part II, Chapter
8, 2.2 Actions Caused by Ship Berthing.
② The partial factors used for calculating the berthing energy of ships in the performance verification of fenders
shall be set at 1.0 for all the parameters.
(2) The calculation of berthing force is performed in general by obtaining the load-absorption energy curve of
mooring facility and then preparing the load-absorption energy curve of a whole fender system at a certain point.
As shown in Fig. 9.2.2, the berthing force P for a given berthing energy Ef can be obtained based on the load-
absorption energy curve prepared by adding the absorption energy Ef1 caused by fender deformation and the
absorption energy Ef2 caused by quaywall deformation.
– 876 –
Absorption energy
(Quaywall) + (Fender)
Fender
Ef1
Ef
Quaywall
Ef2
P
Reaction force
Fig. 9.2.2 Calculation of Berthing Force
(3) In case of mooring facilities that are exposed to wave actions, ships move in both the horizontal and vertical
directions. The ship’s motions may cause excessive shear deformation in fenders in addition to the normal
compressive deformation, which sometimes leads to breakage of fenders. If the shearing force is assumed to be
the friction force, the force is estimated at about 30% to 40% of the reaction force of the fender.
(4) Contact panels and similar means shall be installed on fender equipment as necessary to reduce surface pressure
and thus to prevent berthing forces from acting on ships as a concentrated load. Synthetic resin plates or other
materials are sometimes fixed in front of contact panels to reduce the shearing forces acting on fender systems.
9.2.3 Layout of Fenders 2), 7)
(1) The layout and specification setting in the performance verification of fender equipment need to be appropriately
performed to allow the safe and smooth berthing and mooring of ships, considering the natural conditions where
the facilities concerned are placed, the berthing and mooring conditions of ships, and the structure type of mooring
facilities.
(2) Fender equipment need to be appropriately placed so that ships have no direct contact with mooring facilities
before the fender equipment absorb the berthing energy of design ships.
(3) Rubber fenders are normally placed at intervals of 5 to 20m. When a ship berths, a part near the bow or stern
contacts the quaywall at first. It should be noted that since the ship has a curved surface at aforementioned contact
parts, excessively wide fender intervals cause the ship to directly contact the quaywall, to which fenders are not
placed, before the fenders sufficiently absorb the berthing energy. The intervals of about 5m normally cause no
problem, but in the case that the intervals are 10m or more and thus, the part of the ship might directly contact the
part of the quaywall to which fenders are not placed, it is preferable to construct the coping of fender placing parts
projected out 0.2 to 0.5m from other parts. Another method is to hang a wood block in front of a rubber fender to
make the block projected from other parts.
(4) In the cases of large quaywalls where fenders are placed at wide intervals and the fenders for small ships are
placed in between them, it is preferable to adjust the front surfaces of the fenders for small ships backward of
those for large ships to some extent. If the front surfaces of the fenders for small ships are inadequately adjusted,
large ships may contact the fenders with a small energy absorption capacity before the fenders for large ships
sufficiently absorb the berthing energy of the ships, causing the serious increase in the reaction forces of the
fenders for small ships.

[1] General
(1) It is preferable to appropriately select the types of fenders taking account of the following:
① Structural characteristics of mooring facilities and ships using them
② For mooring facilities subject to the effect of waves, the motions of moored ships and ship berthing conditions
such as berthing angles.
③ Effects of the reaction forces of fender systems generated during ship berthing on the structures of mooring
facilities
④ Variation ranges of the physical characteristics of fenders due to manufacturing errors, dynamic characteristics
and thermal characteristics.
– 877 –
[2] Performance Verification
(1) The energy absorption due to the deformation of mooring facility is as follows:
① It can be generally assumed that there is no energy absorption due to the deformation of the main bodies of such
rigid mooring facilities as gravity-type quaywalls, sheet pile quaywalls, quaywalls with relieving platform, and
cellular-bulkhead type quaywalls.
② Detached piers, dolphins, piled piers, open-type wharves are classified into two types: one is the type with a
rigid structure and the other with a flexible structure. There is no energy absorption due to the deformation of
the former type facilities. On the other hand, there is energy absorption due to the deformation of the latter type
facilities because of their flexibility, and the energy absorption is generally given by equation (9.2.1).
(9.2.1)
where
E1 : absorption energy due to the deformation of main body of mooring facility (Nm)
Y1 : maximum displacement of main body of mooring facility (m)
g(y1) : characteristics of reaction force caused by the deformation of main body of mooring facility
(N)
Flexible facilities are normally made of steel materials. Since their performance required for the actions
caused by the berthing forces of ships is serviceability and the responses are within an elastic limit, the
relationship between the deflection and reaction forces of such mooring facilities is linear. When a mooring
facility and its fender systems completely absorb the berthing energy of a ship, the absorption energy of the
mooring facility is expressed by equation (9.2.2), where C denotes the spring constant of the quaywall.
(9.2.2)
The same shall apply to the absorption energy of pile type fenders.
③ The single pile structure (SPS) is a type of structure that absorbs the berthing energy by the deformation of
piles made of high tensile strength steel. In the performance verification of berthing dolphins that use SPS, it
is preferable to evaluate the amount of energy absorption considering the residual deformation of the piles due
to repeated berthing. As shown in Fig. 9.2.3, the amount of energy absorbed by piles is calculated from the
displacement obtained by subtracting the residual displacement from the loading point displacement.8)
The loading point displacement with the residual displacement is calculated from equation (9.2.3).
(9.2.3)
where
ytop : displacement of the pile at loading point, considering residual displacement (m)
y0 : pile displacement at sea bottom at the time of initial loading (m)
i0 : pile deflection angle at sea bottom at the time of initial loading (rad)
P : horizontal load (N)
h : height of loading point (m)
EI : flexual rigidity of pile (Nm 2)
A1, A2 : influence coefficients due to repeated loading
The time of initial loading indicates the situation where the largest load is initially applied among the past
loadings.
– 878 –
Load
Load
Absorption energy Absorption energy
Loading point displacement Loading point displacement

Residual displacement
(a) Absorption energy at the time of initial loading (b) Absorption energy at the time of ship berthing
Fig. 9.2.3 Absorption Energy by Deformation of Piles
The values of influence coefficients due to repeated loading based on the result of an in situ full-scale
loading experiment 9) and a model test 10) are proposed in Table 9.2.1.
Table 9.2.1 Values of Influence Coefficients due to Repeated Loading 8)
For obtaining the maximum For obtaining the energy absorbed For obtaining the residual
displacement by the deformation of piles displacement
A1 1.4 0.4 0.8
A2 1.2 0.6 0.5
(2) Calculation of the Absorption Energy by Fenders

In the cases of rigid structures where there is no energy absorption due to the deformation of the main bodies of
mooring facilities, the absorption energy by fenders may be calculated from the following equation, where the
subscript d indicates design value:
(9.2.4)
where
E s : absorption energy by fender (kNm)
φ : manufacturing error of fender (tolerance)
Ecat : specified value of the absorption energy by fender (kNm)
Ef : berthing energy of ship (kNm)
The characteristic value of the berthing energy of a ship Efk can be expressed by equation (2.2.1) in Part II,
Chapter 8, 2.2 Actions Caused by Ship Berthing. Since the partial factors used for calculating the berthing
energy of a ship are set at 1.0 for all parameters, the design value of the berthing energy of the ship Efd is equal to
its characteristic value Efk.
(3) Energy Absorption by Fenders
There are various types of rubber fenders such as V-shaped, circular hollow, and rectangular hollow. Each of
these types differs from others in terms of the relationship between the reaction force and deformation as well as
the energy absorption rate. Manufacturers’ catalogs show diagrams of the amount of energy absorption versus
the deformation, and those of the reaction force versus the deformation for each type of fenders. It is convenient
to use these diagrams.
Constant-reaction force type fenders such as V-shaped fenders are characterized with low reaction forces and
high energy absorption rates. It should be borne in mind, however, that the total reaction force to the mooring
facility may become large when a ship comes in contact with two to three fenders simultaneously. This is because
of the fact that the reaction force level rises nearly to the maximum value when the energy absorption rate reaches
to 1/3 of the design capacity on each fender.
(4) Consideration of Variation in Characteristics of Rubber Fenders
Factors that cause variations in characteristics of fenders include the product deviations from the standards,
– 879 –
aging in quality, dynamic characteristics i.e. velocity-dependent characteristics, creep characteristics, repetition
characteristics i.e. compression frequency-dependent characteristics, oblique compression characteristics, and
thermal characteristics. In the fenders for floating structures, these factors are important in the evaluation of the
safety of the mooring equipment. In the fenders for mooring facilities, it is necessary to verify the performance of
the fenders in consideration of the product deviations, dynamic characteristics, oblique compression characteristics
and thermal characteristics. For example, when the product deviation (tolerance) of the fender is ±10%, it is
preferable to employ the energy absorption characteristics lowered by 10% from the catalog value and to use the
reaction force characteristics raised by 10% from the catalog value in the performance verification of the fenders
and the mooring facility. With regard to dynamic characteristics, it is preferable to confirm that the reaction force
of the fender at the time of ship berthing shall not exceed the standard value shown in the catalog in consideration
of the berthing velocity of ships. It should also be borne in mind that the fender reaction force becomes higher in
a low-temperature environment than in the standard temperature environment.
It has been recommended by a working group of the International Navigation Association (PIANC) to
perform correction on the absorption energy and reaction force by applying correction coefficients of velocity and
temperature in the selection of fender, in order to reflect changes in characteristics due to the environment in which
the fender is used such as the ship’s berthing velocity and the temperature 11). The guideline 12) for the selection of
fenders by using these correction coefficients is published. Actual values of these correction coefficients should
be checked with the manufacturer, as they vary depending on the berthing velocity, temperature, and kind of
rubber used for the fender. It should also be borne in mind that the reaction force exerts on the quaywall may
become larger when a small ship is berthing at a high berthing velocity than when a large ship is berthing at a low
berthing velocity.
(5) The berthing forces of ships may cause a permanent deformation of ship hull, and hence the type of fender systems
should be carefully selected.13), 14) It is preferable to fix contact panels in front of fenders as necessary to reduce
loads on ship hull.
Since damage to ship hull is affected by not only the magnitude of berthing force but also structural strength of
the ship hull, it is preferable to widen the contact area of each fender system so that the fender contacts two ribs of
the ship hull at the same time. Nagasawa 15) assumed that actions at the maximum berthing forces distributed over
a sufficiently wide area are uniform over more than the rib space. He proposed to calculate the critical berthing
forces causing plastic hinges to form at both ends of ship hull plate between ribs assumed as fixed condition. The
report 16) of PIANC’s Fender Committee includes the results of analyzing the effects of fender reaction forces on
the strengths of ship hull structures. Kawakami et al.13) performed the stress analysis of the ship hull structures
on which the reaction forces of fender systems were acted. The results indicate that when a fender system contacts
two or more ribs at the same time, the stresses exerted on the ship hull and the ribs are not greater than the yield
points if the surface pressure is 290 kN/m 2 or less.
(6) A fender system should also be safe against the shearing force due to the friction between the fender and the ship
hull generated by oblique berthing of ships. This force can be normally calculated by the equation suggested by
Vasco Costa 17). When a ship is berthing to the quaywall at an angle of 6 to 14º with the face line of the berth, this
force becomes 10% to 25% of the berthing force of the ship.
– 880 –
9.3 Lighting Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Lighting Facilities
Article 61
The performance criterion of lighting facilities shall be such that appropriate lighting facilities are installed
so as to enable the safe and smooth utilization of the mooring facilities where cargo handling works, berthing
and unberthing of ships, and going-in and going-out of people are taking place in consideration of the
utilization conditions of the mooring facilities concerned.
[Technical Note]
(1) Appropriate lighting facilities shall be provided at the wharves and related areas where cargo handling works such
as loading, unloading and transfer, berthing / leaving of ships, and use by passengers and others are carried out at
night, in consideration of the use conditions of the concerned mooring facilities.
(2) The description here may be applied to the installation, improvement, and maintenance of the lighting facilities at
the wharves where cargo handling, berthing and leaving, passenger use, etc. are performed at night.
(3) Many lighting facilities are designed these days to highlight the night views of structures, parks, watersides, etc. in
urban fringes and tourist sites in particular to meet social needs for the lighting and other facilities in port facilities.
In these cases, not only illumination but also light colors and color rendering properties are needed to give people
pleasure, familiarity, and peace of mind. On the other hand, as lighting facilities have come into wide use, it has
become essential to consider at the adverse effects of lighting of lighting on the surroundings and energy saving.
The performance verification of lighting facilities should fully take account of these demands. It is preferable
for the places where people interact such as amenity-oriented revetments, marinas, parks, promenades, etc. to
properly examine lighting functions and individually take necessary measures suited to individual facilities.
9.3.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination

[1] General
(1) Standard intensity of illumination is an average horizontal-plane illumination and defined as the minimum value
to safely and effectively use the facilities concerned. The objective generally used in designing lighting facilities
is illumination. The horizontal illumination means the illumination of a floor surface or a ground surface. The
average horizontal illumination is the average value.
(2) The illumination of lighting facilities shall be properly determined to enable the safe and smooth use of the
facilities concerned, depending on the varieties and systems of work.
(3) The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) has been examining the criteria of illumination and published
the Lighting Guide for outdoor work areas. The criteria include the recommendations for the regulation values of
the uniformity ratios of illumination and glare as well as average illumination.
[2] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Outdoor Lighting

The values shown in Table 9.3.1 may be used for the standard intensity of illumination of each type of outdoor
facilities.
– 881 –
Table 9.3.1 Standard Intensity of Illumination for Outdoor Lighting
Standard intensity
Facility of illumination (lx)
Passenger facilities, vehicle facilities, mooring facilities 50
for pleasure boats, general cargo berths, container berths
Apron Slipways for pleasure boats, aprons for handling 30
dangerous goods using pipelines
Simple work aprons using pipelines and belt conveyors 20
Container storage spaces, general cargo storage spaces,
Yard 20
Wharf cargo handling yards, cargo transfer yards
Passenger gates, vehicle gates 75
Path Passenger paths, vehicle paths 50
Other paths 20
Security All facilities 1–5
Main roads 20
Road
Other roads 10
Road and Park For ferries 20

Parking lot
Others 10
Park Garden paths 3
Green space
[3] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Indoor Lighting

The values shown in Table 9.3.2 can be used for the standard intensity of illumination of each type of indoor
facilities.
Table 9.3.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination of Indoor Lighting
Standard intensity
Facility of illumination (lx)
Waiting rooms 300
Passenger terminal
Passenger boarding paths and gates 100
Cargo handling spaces for fishing boat berths 200
Shed and Container freight stations, sheds exclusive use of cars 100
Warehouse Rough work sheds and warehouses 70
Other sheds and warehouses 50
9.3.3 Selection of Light Sources
(1) Light source for wharf lighting is preferably selected considering the following requirements:
① The light source shall be of a high efficiency and long service life.
② The light source shall be stable against the variations of ambient temperature.
③ The light source shall provide a good light color and good color rendering performance.
④ The time of the stabilization of the light after turning-on shall be short.
(2) Any light source other than a light bulb shall be used together with an appropriate stabilizer.
– 882 –
9.3.4 Selection of Apparatuses

[1] Outdoor Lighting
It is preferable to select lighting for outdoor illumination in consideration of the following requirements:
① Lighting equipment shall be rainproof. When a large amount of flammable dangerous goods is to be handled in
the proximity of the lighting equipment, lighting equipment shall be explosion-proof.
② Materials for the lamp, reflector surface, and illumination cover shall be of good quality and have high durability
and good resistance against deterioration and corrosion.
③ Sockets shall be of appropriate type for the respective light source.
④ Stabilizers and the internal wiring shall be capable of withstanding the expected increase in the temperature of
the equipment.
⑤ Lighting equipment shall be of high-efficiency type.
⑥ Luminous intensity distribution shall be controlled appropriately in consideration of the use of the equipment.
[2] Indoor Lighting

Lighting for indoor illumination shall be selected in consideration of the following requirements:
① Luminous intensity distribution shall be controlled appropriately in consideration of the use of the equipment.
② Sockets shall be of appropriate type for the respective light source.
③ Stabilizers and the internal wiring shall be capable of withstanding the expected increase in the temperature of
the equipment.
④ Lighting equipment shall be of high-efficiency type.

In the designing of lighting, the layout of lighting facilities shall be determined considering the items listed below for
the lighting method, light source, and equipment selected, in consideration of the characteristics of the area where the
equipment is to be installed. Those equipment whose influence area extends to the sea shall be deployed in such a way
that they do not hinder the navigation of nearby ships.
① Standard intensity of illumination
② Distribution of intensity of illumination
③ Glare
④ Adverse effects of light and energy conservation considerations
⑤ Light color and color rendering performance
9.3.6 Maintenance
[1] Inspection
(1) Inspection shall be periodically performed on the following:

① Lighting status
② Stain and damage to apparatuses
③ Flaking of paint
(2) Illumination intensity should be measured at several selected points in the typical places of each facility.
– 883 –
9.4 Lifesaving Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criterion of Lifesaving Equipment
Article 62
The performance criteria of lifesaving equipment shall be such that appropriate lifesaving equipment is
provided and readily available as necessary so as to secure the safety of human beings on the mooring
facilities to serve for passenger ships with the gross tonnage being equal to or larger than 500 tons.
9.5 Curbings
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Curbing
Article 63
The performance criteria of curbing shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Curbing shall be installed at appropriate locations and provided with the dimensions necessary for
ensuring the safe utilization of the mooring facilities while not hindering ship mooring and cargo
handling in consideration of the structure types and the utilization conditions of the mooring facilities
concerned.
(2) The risk of impairing the integrity of curbing shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the
variable action situation in which the dominant action is collision of vehicles.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Curbings

① Stability of Facilities (serviceability)
Attached Table 56 shows the setting on the performance criteria and design situations except
accidental situations of curbings.
Attached Table 56 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of
Curbings

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
33 1 2 63 1 2 Serviceability Variable Car crash – Soundness of curbing –
[Technical Note]
The structure, shape, layout, and materials of curbing shall be set properly in such a way that the safety of users is
ensured and cargo handling work is not hindered, in consideration of the structural characteristics and the conditions
of use of the mooring facilities.

The distance intervals between curbings need to be shorter than the wheel treads of the cargo handling equipment and
vehicles. They may be set at about 30cm in general to drain rainwater from the aprons. It is preferable, however, to set
the intervals of curbings, which are installed at both side of mooring posts, at 1.5 - 2.5m. In the cases where vehicles
are not expected to pass because fences or other barriers are set up to prohibit the passage of vehicles, there is no need
to install curbings.
– 884 –
9.6 Vehicle Loading Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Vehicle Ramps
Article 64
The performance criteria of vehicle ramps shall be such that they satisfy the necessary specifications
corresponding to the dimensions and characteristics of vehicles which use the ramps.
[Technical Note]
(1) A proper value not less than those given in Table 9.6.1 may be used as the widths of vehicle loading facilities.
Regarding movable bridges, it is preferable, however, to properly take account of the characteristics of their
structures. Small facilities means loading facilities exclusively used for small and light vehicles.
(2) A proper value not more than those given in Table 9.6.1 may be used as the slopes of vehicle loading facilities.
Regarding extension lengths of the horizontal parts, 7m and 4m are used for general type facility and small
facility, respectively. It is preferable to properly set the slopes of the facilities frequently used for loading large
container cars, taking account of the safety and conditions of use of large container car loading.
(3) The radii of the center lanes of curved sections may refer to the Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures.
A proper radius of 15m or more may be generally used for the curve radii.24)
(4) The range of vertical movement distance of the movable part of small and general facilities is frequently determined
by adding 1m to tidal range.
(5) It is preferable to properly install signs and marks depending on the characteristics and use conditions of the
structures of the facilities concerned.
Table 9.6.1 Widths and Gradient of Vehicle Loading Facilities
Number of Width Gradient (%)

Type of facility lanes (m) Fixed part Movable part
Facility exclusively used for loading vehicles with a 1 3.00

12 17
width of not more than 1.7m (small facility) 2 5.00
Facility exclusively used for loading 1 3.75
10 12
Vehicles with a width of not more than 2.5m 2 6.50
1 4.00
Facility frequently used for loading large container cars – –
2 7.00
– 885 –
9.7 Water Supply Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Water Supply Facilities
Article 65
The provisions in Article 89 shall be applied to the performance criteria of water supply facilities with
modification as necessary.
9.8 Drainage Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Drainage Facilities
Article 66
The performance criteria of the drainage facilities shall be such that they are installed at appropriate
locations and provided with the necessary functions and dimensions in consideration of the quality of water
to be drained at and the structural characteristics of the mooring facilities as well as and their utilization
conditions.
[Technical Note]
Mooring facilities shall be provided with drainage facilities such as drains and drainage holes, as necessary, taking
account of the drainage quality and the structural characteristics and conditions of use of the mooring facilities
concerned.
9.9 Fueling Facilities and Electric Power Supply Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Fueling Facilities and Electric Power Supply Facilities
Article 67
The performance criteria of fueling facilities and electric power supply facilities shall be as specified in the
subsequent items:
(1) The fueling facilities and electric power supply facilities shall be installed at appropriate locations and
provided with the required fueling capacity or electric power supply capacity so as to enable the safe
and smooth fueling and electric power supply to ships and others in consideration of the structural
characteristics and the utilization conditions the mooring facilities concerned.
(2) In the cases where oil pipes are laid under pavements, the risk of impairing the integrity of oil pipes
shall be equal to or less than a threshold level under the variable action situation in which the dominant
action is imposed load.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Fueling Pipes

① Stability of Fueling Pipes (serviceability)
Attached Table 57 shows the setting on the performance criteria and design situations (except
accidental situations) of fueling pipes.
Attached Table 57 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of
Fueling Pipes

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
actions actions
33 1 2 67 1 2 Serviceability Variable Surcharge – Soundness of fueling –

pipes
– 886 –
[Technical Note]
(1) A mooring facility shall be provided, as necessary, with fueling and/or electric power supply facilities that allow
safe and efficient fueling and power feeding, in consideration of the size of ships to moor at the facility, situation
of the cargo handling, and structural characteristics of the mooring facility.
(2) Fueling and electric power supply facilities shall safely and efficiently supply a required quantity within the
mooring time of ships without disturbing cargo handling work, considering the scales of the ships at berth.
9.10 Passenger Boarding Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Passenger Boarding Facilities
Article 68
The provisions in Articles 91 or 92 shall be applied to the performance criteria of passenger boarding
facilities with modification as necessary.
9.11 Fences, Doors, Ropes, etc.

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Fences, Doors, and Ropes
Article 69
The performance criteria of fences, doors, ropes, and others shall be such that they are installed at appropriate
locations as necessary and provided with the necessary dimensions so as to secure the safety of passengers,
to reserve the space for passenger paths, to prevent the intrusion of vehicles, and others in the mooring
facilities and the related facilities.
9.12 Monitoring Equipment

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Monitoring Equipment
Article 70
The performance criteria of monitoring equipment shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The monitoring equipment shall be installed at appropriate locations as necessary and satisfy the
necessary specifications so as to secure the safety of passengers, to maintain the public security, to
prevent the intrusion of vehicles, and others in the mooring facilities and the related facilities.
(2) The monitoring equipment shall be provided with the functions necessary for preserving the monitoring
records.
[Technical Note]
[1] Fundamentals of Performance Verification
(1) International port facilities such as quaywalls and basins used by international ships shall provide and maintain
equipment to ensure security in compliance with the Law on Ensuring the Security of International Ships and
Port Facilities (Law No. 31 of 2004). International ships mean the passenger ships engaged in international
voyage, i.e. voyage from a port in a country to a port in another country, and the cargo ships with a gross tonnage
of 500 tons or more.
(2) Monitoring equipment needs to be installed to enable monitoring in restricted areas considering the conditions of
use of the mooring facilities concerned and natural conditions in its vicinities.
(3) Monitoring equipment means monitoring cameras and related equipment.
– 887 –
9.13 Signs
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Signs
Article 71
The performance criteria of signs shall be such that they are installed at appropriate locations as necessary
and satisfy the specifications required for indicating the locations of various facilities, guiding users, and
warning possible dangers, and others with the objectives of securing the safety and convenience of users and
preventing accidents and disasters.
[Technical Note]
9.13.1 Placement of Signs and Marks
(1) In order to ensure the safety of port users and convenient use of ports, it is preferable to place signs and marks in
the following cases:
① When it is necessary to ensure that port users could arrive at their destinations smoothly and safely and to
provide guideboards for the location of port facilities.
② When it is necessary to warn port users about dangers associated with the use of facilities and cargo handling
works.
③ When it is necessary to provide instructions to port users about methods to use facilities and guide them to
ensure safe and smooth use of facilities.
④ When it is necessary to regulate the behavior of port users to ensure their safety and smooth activities, to prevent
disasters such as fire and falling accident, and to prevent environmental pollution by littering.
9.13.2 Forms and Installation Sites of Signs

The forms of signs shall be such that those used for ordinary roads. It is preferable to properly determine the sizes,
colors, and character sizes so that port users can easily recognize them.
– 888 –
9.14 Aprons
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Aprons
Article 72
The performance criteria of aprons shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Aprons shall be provided with the necessary dimensions for enabling the safe and smooth cargo
handling works.
(2) The surface of aprons shall be provided with the gradient necessary for draining rainwater and other
surface water.
(3) Aprons shall be paved with appropriate materials in consideration of imposed load and the usage
conditions of the mooring facilities.
(4) The risk of incurring damage to the pavement to the extent of affecting cargo handling works shall be
equal to or less than a threshold level under the variable action situation in which the dominant action
is imposed load.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Aprons

① Width (usability)
Apron widths shall be properly set to allow safe and smooth cargo handling.
② Gradient (usability)
Gradient of apron shall be properly set to drain water and other surface waters.
③ Pavement Materials (usability)
Aprons shall be paved with proper materials taking account of the surcharges and the conditions of
use of mooring facilities.
④ Pavements (serviceability)
Attached Table 58 shows the setting on the performance criteria and design situations (except
accidental situations) of apron pavements.
Attached Table 58 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of Apron
Pavements

Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
action action
33 1 2 72 1 4 Serviceability Variable Surcharge – Soundness of pavement –
[Technical Note]
9.14.1 Specifications of Aprons
[1] Apron Widths
(1) The apron widths of ordinary mooring facilities may generally refer to the values shown in Table 9.14.1.
Table 9.14.1 Apron Widths
Berth water depth (m) Apron width (m)

Less than 4.5 10
4.5 or more and less than 7.5 15
7.5 or more 20
– 889 –
(2) The determination of apron widths of general cargo wharves shall normally take account of the spaces for cranes,
temporary storage, cargo handling, and traffic paths. It is preferable to set the widths at not less than 15 - 20m
when sheds are installed at the back and fork lifts are used, and not less than 10 - 15m when roads are at the back
and open storage yards are in the immediate vicinity and trucks are allowed to drive into the aprons for cargo
handling operations.
[2] Gradient of Apron
(1) Aprons are where cargo handling is performed and closely related to the conditions of cargo handling operation at
the backyards, and hence cross slopes need to be properly determined taking these conditions into consideration.
(2) Aprons normally have a down slope of 1 - 2% toward the sea. Shallow draft wharves have steep slopes. Aprons
in snowy places often have relatively steep slopes. In some cases, reverse slopes are used depending on the
conditions of use of aprons and environmental consideration.
(3) Since the settlement of backfilling may cause slopes to be reversed, construction should be carefully performed.
[3] Countermeasures for Apron Settlement
(1) For aprons, appropriate countermeasures need to be taken to prevent excessive settlement due to sand washing-
out or consolidation of the lower landfill material that would hinder cargo handling operation and the traffic of
vehicles.
(2) In general, the material below the subgrade of apron pavement is subject to settlement due to consolidation. There
is also a risk of settlement due to washing-out of the landfill material used as part of the layers below the subgrade
through joint sections of quaywall, or compression of the backfilling material behind the quaywall. There are
many cases of the failure of pavement that are thought to be attributable mainly to these types of settlement.
Therefore, it is preferable to consider measures for preventing these types of settlement such as the provision of
countermeasure against sand washing-out and the compaction of the backfilling material behind the quaywall.
[1] General
The types of apron pavements shall be properly selected in a comprehensive judgment taking account of the soil
properties below the subgrade, constructability, surrounding pavement conditions, cargo handling methods, economic
efficiencies, and maintenance.
[2] Fundamentals of Performance Verification
(1) The performance verification of apron pavements shall be such that pavement structures are stable under the
surcharges by cargo handling vehicles and related equipment.
(2) Fig. 9.14.1 shows an example of the performance verification procedures of apron pavements.
Assumption of pavement section
Variable states on surcharges

Verification of pavement stability
Determination of pavement section
Fig. 9.14.1 Example of Procedures for the Performance Verification of Apron Pavements
[3] Actions
– 890 –
(1) Actions to be considered in the performance verification of apron pavements are generally the surcharges by
trucks, truck cranes, rough terrain cranes, all terrain cranes, fork lift trucks, straddle carriers, etc., depending on
the types of cargoes and cargo handling methods. Here, truck cranes, rough terrain cranes, and all terrain cranes
are denoted as the movable cranes. The performance verification of apron pavements normally takes account of
the ground contact areas on which surcharges are applied, setting the maximum surcharges and the ground contact
pressures to make the pavement thickness become maximum.
(2) The characteristic values of the surcharges used for the verification of apron pavements may refer to Table 9.14.2.27)
Outriggers are applied to the cases of movable cranes, where a wheel means a single wheel or dual wheels i.e. two
wheels are laterally connected. In the cases where the loads of actually used cargo handling equipment can be
precisely set, this table may not be used.
– 891 –
Table 9.14.2 Characteristic Values of the Actions considered in the Performance Verification of Apron Pavements
Maximum load of an Ground contact area

Type of action Ground contact
outrigger or a wheel of an outrigger or a
(cargo handling equipment load) pressure (N/cm 2)
(kN) wheel (cm 2)
Movable crane Type 20 220 1,250 176
truck crane, Type 25 260 1,300 200
rough terrain crane, Type 30 310 1,400 221
all terrain crane Type 40 390 1,650 236
Type 50 470 1,900 247
Type 80 690 2,550 271
Type 100 830 3,000 277
Type 120 970 3,350 290
Type 150 1170 3,900 300
Truck 25 ton class 100 1,000 100
Tractor trailer for 20ft 50 1,000 50
for 40ft 50 1,000 50
Fork lift truck 2t 25 350 71
3.5t 45 600 75
6t 75 1,000 75
10t 125 1,550 81
15t 185 2,250 82
20t 245 2,950 83
25t 305 3,600 85
35t 425 4,950 86
Straddle carrier 125 1,550 81
[4] Performance Verification for Concrete Pavements
(1) Procedures of Performance Verification

① Fig. 9.14.2 shows an example of the procedures of the performance verification for concrete pavements.
② It is preferable to perform the verification of concrete pavements both on base course thickness, and concrete
slab thickness considering, cyclic numbers of actions, conditions of the bearing capacities of roadbeds.
– 892 –
Verification of base course thickness
Assumption of concrete slab thickness
Verification of concrete slab thickness
Consideration of structural details
Fig. 9.14.2 Example of the Procedures of Performance Verification for Concrete Pavements
(2) Design Conditions

① The design conditions considering the performance verification are generally as follows:
(a) Design working life
(b) Conditions of Action
(c) Cyclic numbers of actions
(d) Subgrade bearing capacity
(e) Materials used
② Design working life
The design working life of concrete pavements shall be properly set considering the conditions of use and other
related conditions of mooring facilities. The design working life of concrete pavements used for the aprons of
quaywalls and other facilities may be generally set at 20 years.
③ Action conditions
The design action conditions are those requiring the maximum concrete slab thickness among the types of
actions to be considered. The characteristic values of actions may be set referring to Table 9.14.3. The partial
factors used for calculating design values may be set at 1.0. The “Action classification” in Table 9.14.3 is the
classification needed when using (3) ② (d) Empirical method of setting concrete slab thickness.
– 893 –
Table 9.14.3 Reference Values for the Action Conditions of Concrete Pavements used for the Aprons of Quaywalls and
Other Facilities
Ground contact
Action classification Type of action Action (kN) radius (cm)
Fork lift truck 2t 25 10.6
CP1 Tractor trailer for 20ft, 40ft 50 17.8
Fork lift truck 3.5t 45 13.8
CP2 Fork lift truck 6t 75 17.8
Truck 25 ton class 100 17.8
CP3
Straddle carrier 125 22.2
Mobile crane
(truck crane, rough terrain Type 20 220 19.9
crane, all terrain crane)
CP4 Fork lift truck 20t 245 30.7
Mobile crane
(truck crane, rough terrain Type 25 260 20.3
crane, all terrain crane)
④ Roadbed bearing capacity

The performance verification of concrete pavements may set the subgrade bearing capacity using the design
bearing capacity coefficient K30.
(a) The design bearing capacity coefficient K30 of the subgrade can be obtained from the results of the plate
loading test specified. The design bearing capacity coefficient K30 is generally set as the value corresponding
to a settlement of 0.125cm. It is preferable to perform plate loading tests at one or two locations per 50m in
the faceline directions of quaywalls.
(b) When setting the design bearing capacity coefficientK30 in an area of subgrade made of the same materials, it
is preferable to calculate the values of K30 from equation (9.14.1) using the measured values of three or more
points excluding extreme values.
(Bearing capacity coefficient K30 of subgrade)=

(Average of bearing capacity coefficients of multiple points)
(9.14.1)
where
C : coefficient used for calculating bearing capacity coefficients. The values in Table 9.14.4 may
be used.
Table 9.14.4 Reference Values for the Coefficient C
Number of test 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 or more

points (n)
C 1.91 2.24 2.48 2.67 2.83 2.96 3.08 3.18
(c) When the subgrade has already been constructed, the bearing capacity coefficient should be obtained by
performing a plate load test on the subgrade at the condition of maximum moisture content. When it is not
possible to conduct a plate loading test in such condition, the bearing capacity coefficient should be obtained by
correcting the value using equation (9.14.2). The CBR values in equation should be obtained from undisturbed
soil samples.
– 894 –
Bearing capacity coefficient of subgrade (corrected value)
=Bearing capacity coefficient calculated from measured value
(9.14.2)
⑤ Calculation of the cyclic numbers of actions

The following methods are used for calculating the cyclic numbers of loading during design working life:
(a) To estimate the cyclic numbers from the past records of similar-scale ports
(b) To estimate the cyclic numbers from the cargo handling volumes of the ports concerned
The method 27) (b) to estimate the cyclic numbers from the cargo handling volumes of the ports may refer to the
cyclic number calculation method 30) to verify the performance of the fatigue limit states of the superstructures
of piled piers proposed by Nagao et al.
① Verification of base course thickness
(a) It is preferable to prepare a test base course and set base course thickness at value which makes the bearing
capacity coefficient equal to 200N/cm3. In the cases where the preparation of a test base course is difficult, the
base course thickness may be directly set using the design curves shown in Fig. 9.14.3. The minimum base
course thickness is generally set at 15cm.
60
Base course thickness (cm)
Crusher run etc.

40
Graded grain crushed stone
20
Cement stabilized treatment
0
6
Bearing capacity coefficient of base course K1
=
Bearing capacity coefficient of subgrade K
K1 is the bearing capacity coefficient of base course K30 (200N/cm3).

K2 is the bearing capacity coefficient of subgrade K30
Fig. 9.14.3 Design Curves of Base Course Thickness 28)
(b) The base course thickness of concrete pavements may be set referring to Table 9.14.5 prepared based on the
past records.
– 895 –
Table 9.14.5 Reference Values for Base Course Thickness of Concrete Pavements
Design condition Base course thickness

Design bearing Upper subbase course Lower subbase course
capacity Total base course
coefficient of base Cement stabilized Graded grain Graded grain thickness
course K 30 Crusher run etc.
base material material
(N/cm3)
– 40 – 20 60
50 or more and 20 – 20 – 40
less than 70 25 – – 30 55
– 20 15 – 35
70 or more and – 20 – 20 40
less than 100 15 – 15 – 30
15 – – 15 30
– 20 – – 20
100 or more 15 – – – 15
② Verification of concrete slab thickness

(a) Bending strengths of concrete slabs
The bending strengths of concrete slabs may be set at 450N/cm2 for 28 days test piece.
(b) Fig. 9.14.4 shows the relation between concrete slab thickness and bending stress. The bending stresses
are calculated using an equation called Arlington formula. The symbols CP1 - CP4 in Fig. 9.14.4 are the
classification names needed for using (d) Empirical method of setting concrete slab thickness.
4.5
Tr
Tr
Tr
uc
Tr
uc
Fo
Tr
uc
Fo
k
kc
uc
Fo
rkl
cr
4.0
Fo
uc
k c ck
kc
rkl
ran
rk
an
ift
kc
lif
rkl
ran 25t
ran
e
ift
e
Bending stress of concrete (N/mm2)
tru
tt
50
ran
ift
40
tru
e2
ru
Ty
Ty
Str ift tru
Tru
ck
pe
e2
tru
30
For
5T
ck
pe
P=
Ty
add
4
35
yp
ck
0T
70
ck
P=
kl
20
pe
t
e P 5kN
kN
yp
P=
3
t
15t
le c k 10t
90
P=
For
25t
P
e
4
=
3.5 a=
=3
kN
25
26
31
24
積級
kN
0
arr
0k =33
0k
.6
a=
klif
P=
cm
N
N
P=
c
a=
22
P=
ier
22
a=
39
a= 8cm
.9
1
a
24
t tru
85
cm
0k
.7
21
20
5k
kN
P=
cm
N
P
.1
.3c
.
N
=1
cm
10
a=
ck
m
a=
a=
25
1
0k
26
9.9
30
kN
P=
N
6t
.8c
.7c
cm
3.0
12
a=
m
a=
For
m
5k
17
22
N
P=
Tra
.8c
.2c
klif
a=
m
m
5k
cto
22
t tru ler 20
.2c
r-tr
a=
m
ck 3
17
ai
.8c
2.5
.
m
5t
ft,4
P=
0ft
5k 4
N
P=
a=
50
13
2.0
kN
.8c
Fo
m
a=
rkl
P=
17
25
ift
.8c
k
m
N
tru
a=
ck
10
.6c
2 t
1.5
m
15 20 CP1 25 CP2 30 CP3 35 CP4 40 45 50 55
Thickness of concrete (cm)
Fig. 9.14.4 Relation between Concrete Slab Thickness and Bending Stress
(c) Setting of concrete slab thickness

The method of setting the thickness of concrete slabs in compliance with the concept of Pavement Design and
Construction Guide 28) has been proposed.27) In this method, the fatigue characteristics of concrete slabs
are calculated based on the wheel load stresses imposed on concrete slabs and their cyclic numbers during
design working life. And the relation between the above mentioned characteristics and the degree of fatigue
as a failure criterion is proposed to set the thickness of concrete slabs.27) The following outlines the method:
1) Allowable cyclic numbers of wheel load stresses are calculated from the fatigue equation (9.14.3).
– 896 –
(9.14.3)
where
Ni : allowable cyclic number of wheel load stress imposed on concrete slab
SL : wheel load stress/design reference bending strength (= 450N/cm2).
2) Calculation of the Degree of Fatigue
The degree of fatigue of a concrete slab is calculated from equation (9.14.4).
(9.14.4)
where
FD : degree of fatigue
ni : cyclic number of wheel load i
Ni : allowable cyclic number of wheel load stress imposed on concrete slab
3) Setting of Concrete Slab Thickness

Using the degree of fatigue as the failure criterion of a concrete slab, concrete slab thickness is set so that
the degree of fatigue FD is equal to 1.0 or less.
(d) Empirical method of setting concrete slab thickness
1) The concrete slab thickness set referring to the empirical values given in Table 9.14.5 may be considered
to have the same performance as the one set using the method of (c) Setting Concrete Slab Thickness.
Table 9.14.6 Reference Values for Concrete Slab Thickness
Action classification Concrete slab thickness (cm)

CP1 20
CP2 25
CP3 30
CP4 35
Applied to piled pier slab 10
2) The “Action classification” in Table 9.14.6 corresponds to the one given in Table 9.14.3. It should be
noted in classifying actions that there are cases where the maximum loads are not equivalent to the value
shown in Table 9.14.2. In such cases, the classification with the closest and larger value is used. For
example, if the maximum load per outrigger of a truck crane is 120kN, it is regarded as a type 20 truck
crane; if the maximum load per wheel of a fork lift truck is 64kN, it is regarded as a 6 ton fork lift truck.
3) In Fig.9.14.4, it is preferable to verify the concrete slab thickness by separately, for the load plotted at the
right side of a curve of type 25 truck crane.
4) Regarding the setting of concrete slab thickness based on the values given in Table 9.14.6, it is preferable
to take account of PC pavement and continuously reinforced concrete pavement for the design load
exceeding CP4, because non-reinforced concrete pavement needs a very thick slab. Since cranes such as
truck cranes have larger ground contact pressures than other cargo handling equipment, it is preferable to
lay iron plates or the like under the outriggers to reduce pressure when using them on aprons.
(4) Structural Details
① Layer preventing frost penetration
In the design of pavement in the cold regions where the pavement is subject to freezing and thawing, layer
preventing frost penetration should be provided.
– 897 –
② Iron mesh
(a) It is effective to bury iron mesh in a concrete slab structure to prevent cracking.
(b) It is preferable to overlap the junctions of reinforcing bars. The overlap length and the depth of the reinforcing
bars from the surface need to be properly set considering the thickness of the concrete slab.
③ Joints
It is preferable to place joints on concrete pavements to allow the concrete slabs to expand, shrink, and warp
freely to some extent, reducing stresses.
(a) Joints of the concrete pavement of apron shall be arranged appropriately, considering the size of apron,
structure of mooring facilities, the type of joint and load condition. In addition, joints shall have a structure
that is appropriate for the type of joint.
(b) Longitudinal joint
1) Longitudinal construction joints shall generally be press-type structured and made of tie bars. Tie
bars are, however, not used for piled pier slabs. It is preferable for the longitudinal joints adjoining the
superstructures of quaywalls and sheds to have a structure using both joint sealing compounds and joint
fillers. It is preferable to set longitudinal joints at proper intervals depending on paving machines used,
total pavement widths, and traveling crane beds. It is preferable to place longitudinal joints on the shoulder
of backfill, the joints of quaywalls, and the position of sheet-pile anchorages to reduce the effects of change
in bearing capacity of and below base courses and the joints of quaywalls.
2) Tie-bars are provided to prevent adjoining slabs from separating, and sinking / rising of either slab at
joints. Tiebars also serve as a reinforcement to transfer the sectional force. Because the apron pavement
has a relatively small width and is physically constrained by the main structure of the quaywall or sheds,
separation of apron concrete slabs at joints rarely occurs. However, it is necessary to provide tie-bars
at longitudinal construction joints to prevent sinking / rising of either slab at joints due to differential
settlement of layers below the base course, and to accommodate a wide variety in the directions of traffic
load that is not observed on ordinary roads.
(c) Transverse joints
1) Transverse shrinkage joints
Transverse shrinkage joints shall generally be dummy-type structured and made of dowel bars. On piled
pier slabs, however, dowel bars are not used. It is preferable for shrinkage joints to be placed on the joints
of quaywalls.
2) Transverse construction joints
Transverse construction joints shall generally be press-type and made of dowel bars. On piled pier slabs,
however, dowel bars are not used. Transverse construction joints are placed at the end of daily work
or inevitably placed due to rain during construction or the failures of construction machines or other
equipment. It is preferable for transverse construction joints to fit position with transverse shrinkage
joints.
3) Transverse expansion joints
It is preferable for transverse expansion joints to generally have a structure using both joint sealing
compounds and joint fillers in upper and lower parts and use dowel bars. On piled pier slabs, however,
dowel bars are not used. It is preferable to set transverse expansion joints at proper intervals depending
on construction conditions. Expansion joints are the weakest points of pavements, hence, consideration is
needed for reducing the number of their placement points as much as possible.
4) Dowel bars
Dowel bars have a function to transfer loads and prevent the unevenness of adjoining slabs. In either case
of transverse shrinkage joints, transfer construction joints, or transfer expansion joints, dowels bars are
placed to fully transfer loads.
– 898 –
(d) Joint structures
Fig. 9.14.5 - 9.14.8 show standard joint structures.
6 – 10mm
6 – 10mm
(1/4 – 1/6)h (1/4 – 1/6)h
h/2 Joint sealing h/2 Joint sealing
compound Tie bar compound
h h
/2 /2 /2 /2
Chair Chair Dowel bar

Wood stand
Dowel bar
(This side is coated with paint and grease, or with two layers of bitumen.)
Fig. 9.14.5 Longitudinal Construction Joint Fig. 9.14.6 Transverse Shrinkage Joint
6 – 10mm 20 – 30mm
(1/4 – 1/6)h 40 – 50mm
h/2 Joint sealing h/2 Joint sealing 25 – 35mm
compound compound
h h
/2 /2 /2 /2
Cap
Chair Dowel bar Chair Joint filler Dowel bar

(This side is coated with paint (This side is coated with paint
and grease, or with two layers of bitumen.) and grease, or with two layers of bitumen.)
Fig. 9.14.7 Transverse Construction Joint Fig. 9.14.8 Transverse Expansion Joint
④ Tie bars and dowel bars

(a) Tie bars and dowel bars shall be properly selected considering the traveling loads imposed on apron pavements
in all directions.
(b) The specifications and placement intervals of tie bars and dowel bars may refer to the values shown in Table
9.14.7.
Table 9.14.7 Reference Values for the Specifications and Placement Intervals of Tie Bars and Dowel Bars
Slab Tie bar Dowel bar

Action thickness Diameter Length Diameter Length
classification Interval (cm) Interval (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
CP1 20 25 80 45 25 50 45
CP2 25 25 100 45 25 50 45
CP3 30 32 100 40 32 60 40
CP4 35 32 100 40 32 60 40
Note: The values of tie bars and dowel bars are those of SD295A (deformed steel bar) specified in JIS G 3112
and of SS400 (round steel bar) specified in JIS G 3101, respectively.
⑤ End protection
An end protection work along the landward side of pavement shall be provided at a location where there is a risk
of destruction of the base course due to infiltration of rain water or destruction of the concrete slab and base
course due to heavy loading.
[5] Performance Verification of Asphalt Pavements
(1) Procedures of Performance Verification

Fig. 9.14.9 shows an example of the procedures of the performance verification for asphalt pavements.
– 899 –
(2) Design Conditions
① The design conditions considered in the performance verification are generally as follows:
(a) Design working life
(b) Action conditions
(c) Cyclic numbers of actions
(d) Bearing capacity of subgrade
(e) Materials used
② Design working life
The design working life of asphalt pavements shall be properly set considering the usage conditions of mooring
facilities. The design working life of asphalt pavements used for the aprons of quaywalls and may be generally
set at 10 years.
③ Conditions of action
Among the kinds of subject actions, the conditions of action shall be those requiring the maximum asphalt
pavement thickness.
④ Calculation of the cyclic numbers of actions
For calculating of the cyclic numbers of actions, refer to 9.14. [4] (2) ⑤ Calculation of the cyclic numbers of
actions.
Verification of subgrade
Assumption of the section structure of asphalt concrete
Verification of the section structure of asphalt concrete
Examination of structural details
Fig. 9.14.9 Example of Procedures of Performance Verification for Asphalt Pavements
⑤ Subgrade bearing capacity

The design CBR of the subgrade in the pavement area subject to the performance verification is determined by
tamping down subgrade soil containing natural moisture and immersing it in water for four days to obtain the
CBR.
(9.14.5)
Design CBR can be obtained from equation (9.14.6) using the above-defined CBR excluding extreme values.
(9.14.6)
where C is given in Table 9.14.4.
– 900 –
① Verification of asphalt concrete pavement structure
(a) Setting of pavement sections
Pavement structure is determined so that the equivalent conversion asphalt concrete sections of the assumed
pavement sections are not less than required equivalent conversion sections.
(b) Required equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness
Required equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness TA is calculated from equation (9.14.7).
The variables subscripted with d mean design values.
(9.14.7)
where
TA : required equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness (cm)
N : the value of cyclic number of action during design working life ni converted to 49kN wheel load.
It is calculated from the following equation. The partial factors can be set at 1.0.
(9.14.8)
where
Pi : wheel load (kN)
ni : cyclic number of wheel load Pi
m : setting number of loaded state
(c) Equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness of assumed section
The equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness TA of the assumed section can be calculated
(9.14.9)
where
TA : equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness of assumed section (cm)
hi : thickness of layer i (cm)
ai : equivalent conversion factor of material and work method used for pavement layer i. It may be
referred to Table 9.14.8.
n : number of layers
Table 9.14.8 Equivalent Conversion Factor of Asphalt Concrete
Equivalent
Construction method /
Layer Requirements conversion Remark
material factor
Surface and Hot asphalt mixture for – 1.00 AC I – AC IV
binder courses surface and binder courses
Marshall stability level 0.80 A-treated material II
3.43kN or greater
Bituminous stabilization
Marshall stability level 2.45
Base course 0.55 A-treated material I
to 3.43kN
Corrected CBR 80 or Grading adjusted
Grading adjustment 0.35
greater material
Corrected CBR 30 or
Subbase Crusher-run, slag, sand, 0.25
greater
course etc.
Corrected CBR 20 to 30 0.20 Grain material
② Example of empirical verification of asphalt concrete pavement composition

Table 9.14.10 shows an example of empirical verification of asphalt concrete pavement composition. The table
is prepared referring to the action conditions shown in Table 9.14.9. The symbols H and TA’ in Table 9.14.10
express total pavement thickness and the equivalent conversion asphalt concrete pavement thickness of the
assumed section, respectively. If the design CBR of a subgrade is 2 or more and less than 3, it is preferable to
– 901 –
replace it with one using good quality materials or to add a water sealing layer. If it is less than 2, it is preferable
to replace it with good quality materials and set the pavement thickness once again.
Table 9.14.9 Reference Values for Action Conditions of Action for Asphalt Pavements on Aprons of Quaywalls
Action classification Cargo handling machine

AP1 Tractor trailer 20ft, 40ft
AP2 Fork lift truck 2t
Fork lift truck 3.5t
Fork lift truck 6t
AP3 Fork lift truck 10t
Fork lift truck 15t
Truck 25 ton class
Straddle carrier
Mobile crane (truck crane, rough terrain crane, all terrain crane) Type 20
AP4 Mobile crane (truck crane, rough terrain crane, all terrain crane) Type 25
③ The type and material quality of asphalt concrete can be set as listed in Table 9.14.11
Table 9.14.11 Type and Material Quality of Asphalt Concrete
Type AC I AC II AC III AC IV
Use For surface course For binder course
Number of blows for Marshall stability test 50times 75times 50times 75times
Marshall stability (kN) 4.9 or greater 8.8 or greater 4.9 or greater 8.8 or greater
Flow value (1/100cm) 20–40 20–40 15–40 15–40
Porosity (%) 3–5 2–5 3–6 3–6
Degree of saturation (%) 75–85 75–85 65–80 65–85
Note: The columns of “number of blows 75 times” apply to cases where the ground contact pressure of tire with the design load is 70 N/cm 2
or greater, or where the traffic of large vehicles is heavy and rutting is expected.
(5) Structural Details

The placement of frost-heaving suppression bed is needed in cold regions where freezing and thawing, may occur
if pavement thickness is less than freezing depth.
– 902 –
Table 9.14.10 Examples of Composition of Asphalt Pavement
Condition of actions Composition of pavement

Classification Design CBR of Surface course Binder course Base course Subbase Total thickness
of actions subgrade (%) course
Type h1 (cm) Type h2 (cm) Type h3 (cm) h4 (cm) H (cm) T 'A (cm)
AP1 Equal to or above 3 AC I 5 AC III 5 Grading adjusted 25 35 70 25.8
and less than 5 material
AC I 5 – – A-treated material I 25 35 65 25.8
Equal to or above 5 AC I 5 AC III 5 Grading adjusted 20 25 55 22.0
Equal to or above 8 AC I 5 AC III 5 Grading adjusted 15 20 45 19.3
Equal to or above AC I 5 AC III 5 Grading adjusted 15 15 40 18.3
12 and less than 20 material
Equal to or above AC I 5 AC III 5 Grading adjusted 15 15 40 18.3
20 material
On the deck slab of AC I 5 AC III 4 or 9 or –
– – –
open-type wharf greater greater
AP2 Equal to or above 3 AC II 5 AC IV 5 Grading adjusted 25 35 70 25.8
AC II 5 – – A-treated material I 25 35 65 25.8
Equal to or above 5 AC II 5 AC IV 5 Grading adjusted 20 25 55 22.0
Equal to or above AC II 5 AC IV 5 Grading adjusted 15 15 40 18.3
20 material
On the deck slab of AC II 5 AC IV 4 or 9 or –
– – –
AC II 5 AC IV 10 A-treated material II 20 45 80 40.0
20 material
– – –
20 material
– – –
Note: In case of the deck slab of piled pier, the boxes of the binder course in Table 9.14.10 refer to the value for the total of filling material and binder course. This
does not necessarily have to be asphalt concrete.
– 903 –
9.15 Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment
Article 73
1 The performance criteria of the foundations for cargo handling equipment shall be as specified in the
subsequent items in consideration of the types of cargo handling equipment and the structural type of
foundations:
(1) The foundations shall have the dimensions necessary for enabling the safe and smooth operations of
cargo handling works, traveling of cargo handling equipment, and others.
(2) The foundations shall satisfy the following criteria under the variable action situation in which the
dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions and imposed load:
(a) In the case of pile-type structures, the risk that the axial force acting on a pile may exceed the
resistance stress caused by ground failure shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(b) In the case of pile-type structures, the risk that the stress in a pile may exceed the yield stress shall
be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(c) The risk of impairing the integrity of beam components shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
(d) In the cases of pile-less structures, the risk of beam sliding shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level.
(3) The amount of beam deflection shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable
action situation in which the dominant actions is imposed load.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria for the foundations of
cargo handling equipment to be installed on the high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that
the degree of damage owing to the action of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, which is the dominant
action of the accidental action situation, is equal to or less than the threshold level corresponding to the
performance requirement.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of the Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment

① The specifications of the foundations for cargo handling equipment shall be properly set according
to the types of cargo handling equipment and the structural types of foundations to allow safe and
smooth cargo handling operations and the safe and smooth traveling and other operations of cargo
handling equipment.
② Piles and Beams (Serviceability)
(a) Attached Table 59 shows the setting on the performance criteria and design situations (except
accidental situations) of the foundations for cargo handling equipment.
– 904 –
Attached Table 59 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) of the
Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment
Ordinance
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Article
Article requirements
Item
Item
action action
33 1 2 73 1 2a Serviceability Variable L1 Self weight, Axial force acting on Resistance force against
earthquake earth pressure pile*1) ground failure (push in, pull
ground out)
motion
2b (Surcharge*3)) Yield of pile*1) Design yield strength
2c Section failure of beam Design section resistance

(ultimate limit state)
2d Sliding of beam*2) Limit value on sliding
3 (Surcharge*3)) Self weight, Deflection of beam Limit value of deflection

earth pressure
*1) Limited to the structures where foundation piles are used for the foundations for cargo handling equipment
*2) Limited to the structures where foundation piles are not used for the foundations for cargo handling equipment
*3) It is an action applied from a cargo handling machine to its foundation and is properly set according to design situations.
(b) Axial Forces Acting on Piles in the Cases of Pile-type Structures

The verification of axial forces acting on piles in the cases of pile-type structures shall be such that
the risk of the axial forces acting on piles being greater than the resistance forces against ground
failure is not more than a limit value.
(c) Yield of Piles in the Cases of Pile-type Structures
The yield verification of piles in the cases of pile-type structures shall be such that the risk of the
stress generated in a pile being greater than the yield is not more than the limit value.
(d) Section Failure of Beams
The section failure verification of beams shall be such that the risk of the design section force
generated in a beam component being greater than the design section resistance is not more than the
limit value.
(e) Beam Sliding in the Cases of Pile-less Structures
The verification of beam sliding in the cases of pile-less structures shall be such that the risk of beam
sliding is not more than the limit value.
(f) Beam Deflection
The verification of beam deflection shall be such that the amount of deflection generated in a beam
being greater than the limit value of deflection is not more than the limit value under the variable
situations where dominating action is surcharge.
③ Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment Installed in High Earthquake-Resistance facilities
(Restorability)
Restorability shall be ensured under the accidental situations in respect of Level 2 earthquake ground
motions.
– 905 –
Attached Table 60 Setting on the Performance Criteria and Design Situations limited to Accidental Situations of the
Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment in High Earthquake-resistance Facilities

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements Dominating Non-dominating value
Item
Item
33 1 2 73 2 – Restorability Accidental L2 Self weight, Damage –

earthquake surcharge, earth
ground pressure
motion
[Technical Note]
(1) The specifications of the foundations for cargo handling equipment shall be properly set according to the types
of cargo handling equipment and the structural types of foundations to allow safe and smooth cargo handling
operations and the safe and smooth traveling of cargo handling equipment.
(2) The foundation for rail-type traveling cargo handling equipment needs to be designed appropriately in consideration
of the external forces that act on the foundation, allowable displacement for the foundation, degree of difficulty of
maintenance, effects on the wharf structure, and construction and maintenance costs.
(3) Fig. 9.15.1 shows an example of the procedures for the performance verification of the foundations for cargo
handling equipment.
– 906 –
Setting of foundation type

*1
Evaluation of actions including the setting of seismic coefficient
Concrete beam type Concrete beam type
on pile foundation on rubble foundation
Variable states on General purpose type
surcharges and for main body of
Level 1 earthquake mooring facility and
ground motions Examination of effects other facilities
on mooring facility
Examination on stresses Variable states on surcharges
generated in piles and and Level 1 earthquake ground motions
axial forces acting on piles
Examination on section
forces generated in concrete
Examination on section beams and other components
forces generated in concrete
beams and other components Examination on
concrete beam sliding
Variable states in
respect of surcharges Variable states in respect of
surcharges
Examination on deflection
amounts of concrete beams Examination on deflection
amounts of concrete beams
Examination on overall
structures and components
according to structural types
*2
Accidental states in respect of
Level 2 earthquake ground motions
Verification of deformation amounts by dynamic analysis
Determination of rail types and mounting methods
*1 Since the evaluation of the effects of liquefaction is not included in this chart, it should be considered separately.
*2 The foundations for cargo handling equipment installed in high earthquake-resistance facilities are verified on Level 2 earthquake ground
motions.
Fig. 9.15.1 Example of Procedures of the Performance Verification for the Foundations for Cargo Handling Equipment
(4) Types of Foundations for Rail Traveling Equipment

① Foundation type that connects piles by reinforced concrete beams on pile foundations
This type is used for soft ground where uneven settlement is expected. It is also used for the foundations for
large cargo handling equipment on good quality sand ground.
② Foundation type that uses other facilities such as the main bodies of mooring facilities
This type uses the reinforced concrete beams of piled piers, the main bodies of mooring facilities, such as the
superstructures of caisson-type quaywalls or the wall anchorages of sheet-pile quaywalls as the foundation
for the cargo handling equipment. The performance verification of facilities shall be conducted in advance
considering the actions caused by cargo handling equipment. In such cases, overall construction costs are
– 907 –
often reduced. When one leg is on the main body of a mooring facility and the other leg is on an independent
foundation, caution is needed to avoid uneven settlement. It should be noted that ground motions may cause the
displacement of crane foundations, resulting in the displacement or derailing of crane legs. Rigid legs of gantry
cranes are normally not placed on piled piers. Since the tip of jetty-type piled piers are weak to the actions
caused by ship berthing or tractive forces or earthquakes, special reinforcement is needed.
③ Foundation type that places concrete beams on rubble foundations
This type is used for relatively good quality ground with a small possibility of settlement.
(5) Limit Value of Displacement of Rails
The displacement of rails is small at the time of completion of construction, but it increases with the lapse of time.
Therefore, it is general practice to make construction errors as small as possible. Tolerance of the displacement
differs somewhat among manufacturers of equipment. Table 9.15.1 31) indicates the installation and maintenance
standards that are commonly employed.
Table 9.15.1 Examples of Technical Standards of Rail Truck Laying and Maintenance
Maintenance requirements
Item Installation standards (upper limits for operation)
±10 mm or less for the entire rail ±15 mm or less for the entire rail
Rail span length length
Lateral and vertical warps of rail 5 mm or less per 10 m of rails 15 mm or less per 10m of rails
Elevation difference between 1/1000 of rail span or less 1/500 of rail span
seaward and landward rails
Gradient in the travelling direction 1/500 or less 1/250 or less
±50 mm or less for the entire rail ±80 mm or less for the entire rail
Straightness length length
Vertical and lateral differences: 0.5 Vertical and lateral differences: 1mm
Rail joints mm or less or less
Gap: 5 mm or less Gap: 5 mm or less
Wear of the head of rail – 10% or less of the original dimension
9.15.2 Actions
(1) Forces that act on the foundation for cargo handling equipment shall be determined appropriately in due
consideration of the type, and operation conditions.
(2) The forces are assumed to act on the entire length of rails during operation or earthquakes. At the time of storms,
the forces assumed to act on the section where the crane is stationed.
(3) For the wheel loads that act on the rails when the crane is operational, a traveling load that is equal to 120% of the
maximum static wheel load can be considered. However, this can be considered to be 110% of the maximum static
wheel pressure of the crane when the traveling speed is less than 60 m/min.34)
9.15.3 Performance Verification of Pile-type Foundations

[1] Concrete Beams
(1) The performance verification of concrete beams placed on pile foundations may be conducted assuming that they
are continuous beams supported by pile heads. The effects of beams contacting the ground are ignored.
(2) Concrete beams constructed on pile foundation need to be stable against the contact pressure between the rail and
concrete, and against the stress transmitted from the rail.
(3) The rail stress is usually calculated by assuming that the rail is an infinite continuous beam supported by elastic
foundation. This method is often used for the cases where the wheel loads are spread over the beam by inserting
an elastic material such as rubber pads between the rail and the concrete beam to prevent crushing of concrete.
(4) Solving Method of the Infinite Continuous Beam Supported by Elastic Foundation
The rail stress and the contact pressure between the rail and concrete can be calculated using the method described
in 9.15.4 [2]Concrete Beams. In this case, the symbols Ec, Ic, and K in equation (9.15.4) should be replaced as
follows:s
Ec : modulus of elasticity of the rail
– 908 –
Ic : moment of inertia of the rail

K : modulus of elasticity of the material placed under the rail, when tie pads are used, use the
modulus of elasticity of the tie pad
When the bearing stress is too high, it should be reduced by inserting elastic plates under the rail.
(7) The fastening force between the rail and the foundation can be calculated by using the beam theory on elastic
foundation,36) but it is necessary to have a sufficient allowance to avoid the effect of impact. For calculation of the
fastening force for the cases where the double elastic fastening method is employed, refer to Minemura’s study.37)
In many cases, bolts with a diameter of about 22 mm are used at intervals of about 50 cm.
[2] Maximum Static Resistance Forces of Piles
(1) Piles shall be stable against the actions caused by cargo handling equipment and foundations.
(2) The action that exerts on the piles should be the reaction force at each supporting point calculated in accordance
with [1] Concrete Beams.
(3) The maximum static resistance forces of piles may be calculated referring to Part III, Chapter 2, 2.4 Pile
Foundations.
(4) In the cases where piles are affected by the surfaces of rupture of active earth pressures, the performance
verification of bearing piles described in 2.8 Quaywalls with Relieving Platforms may be referred to.
(5) When piles are under the influence of the active earth pressure failure plane, the required embedment length
differs between the seaward piles and landward piles. However, it is common practice to use foundation piles of
the same length for both the seaward and landward, to avoid a differential settlement of the foundation. When the
piles are driven into the bearing stratum, there is no need to use the same embedded length.
9.15.4 Performance Verification in the Cases of Pile-less Foundation

[1] Analysis of Effect on Quaywall 38)
(1) When no pile is used to support the foundation for cargo handling equipment, the effect of the actions of the cargo
handling equipment and its foundation on the main structure of mooring facilities shall be examined.
(2) Application of surcharge on the area behind a gravity-type structure increases the earth pressure and may cause
forward sliding of the quaywall. The influence of a concentrated load on the earth pressure is large in the zone at
the levels immediately below the loading point. But the influence becomes smaller as the depth increases. When
the quaywall height is small and the quaywall lengthis short, care should be given because of strong influence
of concentrated load. When the load is applied directly on a quaywall, the subsoil reaction force increases.
In particular, when the load is applied on the quaywall at its front end, the subsoil reaction force at the front
toe becomes significantly large. In a quaywall of small width and short length, this tendency of reaction force
increase is amplified and thus care should be given.
(3) In ordinary sheet pile quaywalls, the maximum stress occurs between the tie member installation point and the
sea bottom. However, when a concentrated load is expected to act on the area behind the sheet pile wall, the
maximum stress may occur at the level near the tie member installation point. The concentrated load, however,
rarely causes an adverse effect on the embedded part of the sheet pile. It is preferable to provide a sufficient causes
earth covering thickness for the tie members to avoid adverse effects on the tie members.
[2] Concrete Beams
(1) The reinforced concrete beams placed on the rubble foundations laid on the ground shall ensure stability against
flexural moments, shear forces and deflection, and their amounts of settlement shall be less than a limit value of
settlement.
(2) The characteristic values of the flexural moments, shear forces and deflection of the reinforced concrete beams
placed on rubble foundations can be obtained from equations (9.15.1) - (9.15.6). The variables subscripted with k
denote characteristic values.
① In the cases where loads act near the middle of beam
(9.15.1)
– 909 –
(9.15.2)

(9.15.3)
② In the cases where loads act on beams ends or junctions
(9.15.4)
(9.15.5)
(9.15.6)
where
M : flexural moment at subject section (N‐mm)
S : shear force at subject section (N)
y : amount of deflection at subject section (mm)

Ec : modulus of elasticity of concrete (N/mm 2)
Wi : wheel load (N)
lc : inertia moment of concrete foundation (mm4)
K : modulus of elasticity of ground K = Cb
C : pressure needed to settle a unit area of ground by unit depth (N/mm3)
b : bottom width of concrete beam (mm)
xi : distance from wheel load point to subject section (mm)
(3) The reinforced concrete beams placed on rubble foundations are assumed to be supported by continuous elastic
foundations of a uniform section over the entire length. In other words, it is assumed that the reaction forces of
loaded beams are continuously distributed and their strengths are directly proportional to the amount of deflection
at each point. Assuming the moment generated at a point of a distance X from the traveling wheel as M and the
deflection as y, M and y are expressed by equations (9.15.7) and (9.15.8), respectively, by an elastic theory.39), 49)
(9.15.7)
(9.15.8)
When two or more wheels are close to each other, the flexural moment directly under an arbitrary wheel is
obtained from equation (9.15.9).
(9.15.9)
Expressing the distance between another wheel as x2 and φ1 for βx2 as φ12, the flexural moment is calculated
(9.15.10)
The resultant moment directly under the first wheel can be determined from M = M1 + M2. Equation (9.15.1)
can be derived from this expression. Deflection can be obtained in the same way. The values given by the
following expression may be used for the values of C.39), 41)
C = 5.0×10 -2~0.15（N/mm2）
– 910 –
References
1) Inagaki, M., K. Yamaguchi and T. Katayama: Standard design of mooring post (Draft),, Technical Note of PHRI No.102,
1970
2) UEDA, S. and E. OOI: On the Design of Fending Systems for Mooring Facilities in a Port, Technical Note of PHRI No596,1987
3) Ueda, S., T. Umemura, S. Shiraishi, S. Yamamoto, Y. Akakura and H. Yamase
4) Ueda, S., Hirano, T., Shiraishi, S., Yamamoto, S. and Yamase, S.: Reliability Design Method of Fender for Berthing Ship,
Proc. Int’l Navig. Congr. (PIANC), Sydney, pp.692-707, 2002
5) Nagao, T., T. Okada, N. Iwata, H. Matsumoto, M. Ishida and Y. Sato: A study on the performance-based design of quay walls
under berthing condition, Technical Note of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.63, 2003
6) YONEYAMA, H., Hironao TAKAHASHI and Ayako GOTO: Proposition of Partial Factors on Reliability-Based Design
Method for Fenders, Technical Note of PARI No.1115,2006
7) Kitajima, S., Hiroshi SAKAMOTO, Shohei KISHI, Takuji NAKANO and Syusaku KAKIZAKI: On Some Problems Being
Concerned with Preparation for the Design Standards on `Port and Harbour Structures, Technical Note of PHRI No,30,
1967
8) Coastal Development Institute of Technology : Guideline for design of SPS (Single pile structure), 1992
9) Kiuchi, S., M. Matsushita, M. Takahashi, M. Kakee, S. Isozaki and M. Suzuki
10) KIKUCHI, Y., K. TAKAHASHI and M. SUZUKI: Lateral Resistance of Single Piles under Large Repeated Loads, Rept. of
PHRI Vol. 31 No.4, PP. 33-60, 1992
11) PIANC: Report of PIANC Working Group No.33 “Guidelines for the Design of Fenders”, Supplement to Bulletin, 2000
12) Permanent International Association of Navigation Congress: Guideline of Fender system 2002Version, Sea Port Committee,
33rd Report of Working Group, p,133, 2005
13) Kawakami, M., H. Shinkawa, K. Tanaka and J. Kurasawa: Relation between structural strength of hull and fender, Report of
School of Engineering, Hiroshima Univ., Vol. 24, Part I, p,133, 2005
14) Tukayama, A.: Strength of ships for docking, Journal of Nippon Kaiji Kyokai,No.151,1975
15) Nagasawa, J.: Berthing force and strength of outer plate of ship, Ships, Vol.40 No,3, pp.46-50, 1967
16) PIANC: Report of the International Commission for Improving the Design of Fender Systems, Supplement to Bulletin,
No.45, 1984
17) Vasco Costa: The berthing ship, The Dock & Harbour Authority, Vol.XLV, May-July, 1964
18) Japan Port Association, Examples of design calculation of port structures (Vol. 1), pp.112-153, pp.257-300, 1992
19) UEDA, S. and S. SHIRAISHI: On the Design of Fenders Based on the Ship Oscillations Moored to Quay Walls, Technical
Note of PHRI No.729, 1992
20) Japan Road Association: Standard and Commentary of Highway Lighting Facilities, Maruzen Publishing, 1996
21) Japan Lighting Committee: Guide for lighting of outdoor work place, JICA Translation Publications No. 9, Maruzen
Publishing, 1989
22) The illumination Engineering Institute of Japan: Maintenance rate for lighting design and maintenance planning, Technical
Guideline of The illumination Engineering Institute of Japan,, JIEG-001, Maruzen, 1987
23) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Design Manual of Buffer Stop, 1994
24) Japan Road Association: Commentary of enforcement regulations for road structures and application, Maruzen Publishing,
execution, pp.309-316,2004
25) Japan Road Association: Road earth works- Guideline of drainage works, pp.9-75,1994
26) SATO, K., H. MORIGUCHI, T. ASAJIMA and H. SHIBUYA: Control of shrinkage Cracking of Concrete Pavements on Pier
Slabs, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 111-138, 1975
27) Ozawa, K. and S. Kitazawa: Setup method of deciding number of loads by cargo handling machine, in designing of pavement
wharf apron, Technical Note of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.285, 2006
28) Japan Road Association: Design and Construction Guideline for Pavement, Maruzen Publishing, 2002
29) JSCE: Standard Specifications for concrete, （Pavement), 2002
30) NAGAO,T., Hiroshi YOKOTA,Koichiro TAKECHI,Susumu KAWASAKI and Noboru OKUBO: Fatigue Limit State Design
Method for Superstructures of Open Type Wharves in view of Cargo Handling Machine Loads, Rept. of PHRI Vol.37 No.2,
pp.177-220, 1998
31) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Survey report on standardization of related facilities, (6ht Report),
1998
32) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Survey report on standardization of related facilities, (5th Report),
1997
33) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Report of Survey and Study Committee of Container cargo-
handling facilities, 1993
34) Architectural Institute of Japan: Design standards for steel structure, p.4, 1994
35) Yokoyama, Y.: Design and construction of steel piles, Sankai-do Publishing, pp.99-11l, 1963
36) Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers: Mechanical Engineering Lectures Cargo handling equipment, p.239,1959
37) Minemura, Y.: Lecture note for rail connection and maintenance course, Japan Railway Maintenance Association, p,4,1958
38) KITAJIMA, S. and O. HORII: The Influence of Mobile cranes on Quaywalls, Technical Note of PHRI No.29, pp4-62, 1967
– 911 –
39) Kuniyuki, I.: Handbook of Cargo-handling Mechanical Engineering, Corona Publishing, ,p526,1961
40) Kitabatake, T., K. Katayama:Timoshenko’s Material Mechanics of material (Vol. 2), Corona Publishing, p.9,1955
41) Yasojima, Y: Railway track, Giho-do Publishing, p.302,1967
42) KATAYAMA, T. Muneaki SEGAWA, Ken-ichi FURUHATA and Yumiko MOMOSE: A Collection of Detail Design of
Connected and Corner Part of Quay Wall, Technical Note of PHRI No.114, 1971
– 912 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 6 PORT TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Chapter 6 Port Transportation Facilities
1 General
General Provisions
Article 35
1 The performance requirements for port transportation facilities shall be such that the port transportation
facilities satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
so as to enable the safe and smooth usage of vehicles and ships in consideration of its facility type in
light of geotechnical characteristics, meteorological characteristics, sea states and/or other environmental
conditions, as well as the traffic conditions in the port and its hinterland.
2 The performance requirements for port transportation facilities shall be such that port transportation
facilities have structural stability against self weight, earth pressure, water pressure, waves, water currents,
earthquake ground motions, imposed loads, winds, flames and heat from fires, collision with ships and/or
other actions.
Necessary Items concerning Port Transportation Facilities
Article 40
The items necessary for the performance requirements of port transportation facilities as specified in this
chapter by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other requirements shall be
provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Port Transportation Facilities
Article 74
the performance requirements of port transportation facilities shall be provided in the subsequent article
through Article 79.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria Common to Port Transportation Facilities
Article 75
The performance criteria common to port transportation facilities shall be such that port transportation
facilities are appropriately located and have the required dimensions in consideration of the trip generation,
the projected traffic volume, the environmental conditions to which they are subjected, smooth connection
with other traffic facilities, the utilization of other traffic facilities, and others so as to secure the safe and
smooth traffic in the port.
– 913 –
2 Roads
Performance Requirements for Roads
Article 36
1 The performance requirements for roads shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Roads shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Tourism so as to ensure the safe and smooth flow of traffic within the port and between the port and the
hinterland in consideration of the traffic characteristics in the port.
(2) Damage due to imposed loads shall not adversely affect the continued use of the relevant roads without
impairing their functions.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for roads having
tunnel sections shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Damage due to self weight, earth pressure, water pressure, and Level 1 earthquake ground motions,
and/or other actions shall not adversely affect the continued use of the relevant roads and not impair
their functions.
(2) Damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions, flames and heat from fires, and/or other actions
shall not affect restoration through minor repair works of the functions required for the roads concerned.
[Technical Note]
Tunnels
Stability of facility
It is necessary to ensure the restorability in an accidental situation regarding Level 2 earthquake ground
motion and flames and heat from a fire. This is specified considering the facts that when a tunnel is
heavily damaged as a result of the effect of the accidental situation, there are serious consequences on
human lives, properties and/or social and economic activities and it is difficult to perform large-scale
restoration work in the tunnel.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Roads
Article 76
The performance criteria of roads shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) In the case of a road which is used by many tractor-semitrailers and others, the tractor -semitrailers may
be set as the design vehicle.
(2) The pavement structure shall be appropriately specified in consideration of the traffic volume of special
vehicles such as tractor-semitrailers and mobile cranes.
(3) The lanes and others shall satisfy the following criteria so as not to cause traffic congestion in the port
area:
(a) The number of lanes shall be appropriately set in consideration of the projected traffic volume,
which is determined by taking account of the utilization conditions of the port situated near the road
concerned, and the design standard traffic volume, which is the maximum allowable vehicle traffic
volume per hour on the road.
(b) The lane width shall be 3.25m or 3.5m in principle. Provided, however, that the lane width of 3.5
m shall be the standard in the case where the traffic of large vehicles is heavy, and the lane width
may be reduced to 3m under unavoidable circumstances such as the constraints of topographical
conditions and others.
(c) A stopping lane shall be provided in the leftmost part of the road as necessary so that it may not
hinder the safe and smooth passage of vehicles.
(4) Roads that are exclusively used for pedestrians and bicycles shall have appropriate structure in
consideration of the utilization conditions of the facilities of the port situated near the road concerned.
(5) In case of the roads on which special vehicles such as tractor-semitrailers carrying tall containers,
– 914 –
mobile cranes and others are expected to travel, the clearance limits of the road shall be appropriately
set so as to secure the safe passage of these vehicles.
(6) Roads that are connected to the high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be appropriately routed so
as to secure the functions required for the facilities concerned in the aftermath of the action of Level 2
(7) With regard to the structure, place and facilities of roads, the matters which are not prescribed in the
preceding items shall be pursuant to the provisions of the Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures
(Cabinet Order No. 320 of 1970) in consideration of the characteristics of the traffic generated in the
port.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Roads

Lanes
(a) Number of lanes
1) When verifying the performance of a road, the number of lanes may be set based on the values
of the design standard traffic volume according to the type of the road shown in Attached Table
61.
Attached Table 61 Design Standard Traffic Volume

Type of Road Design standard traffic volume
(vehicles per hour)
Roads that connect a port and a national highway 650
Other roads 500
2) Setting of the number of lanes

The number of lanes of a road for which the design hourly traffic volume (to and from) is less than
the design standard traffic volume shall be two (one lane for each direction excluding climbing
lanes, turning lanes and gear change lanes; hereinafter the same), and the number of lanes of a
road for which the design hourly traffic volume exceeds the design standard traffic volume shall
be a multiple of two which is 4 (two lanes for each direction) or more. The number of lanes of a
road for which the design hourly traffic volume exceeds the design standard traffic volume may be
determined based on the value which is calculated by dividing “the design hourly traffic volume
for each direction” obtained by multiplying the design hourly traffic volume by the heavier-traffic
directional factor representing directional characteristics by “the per-lane design standard traffic
volume” shown in Attached Table 62.
Attached Table 62 Per-lane Design Standard Traffic Volume

Type of Road Per-lane Design Standard Traffic Volume
(vehicles per hour)
Roads that connect a port and a national 600
highway etc.
Other roads 350
[Technical Note]
When setting the design traffic volumes for the performance verification of a road, the originating and terminating
traffic volume may be generally estimated according to the characteristics of the relevant port, by categorizing the
traffic volumes into the traffic volume associated with physical distribution in and around the port and the traffic
volume associated with the industries located in and around the port, the traffic volume associated with such facilities
as green areas and marinas.
– 915 –
2.2 Carriageway and Lanes
(1) In general, it is preferable to set the numbers of lanes according to the sequence shown in Fig. 2.2.1. 1)
Estimation of the originating and terminating traffic volume

↓
Estimation of the design daily traffic volume
↓
Estimation of the design hourly traffic volume
↓
Setting of the number of lanes by comparing the design hourly traffic
volume with the design standard traffic volume
Fig. 2.2.1 Example of Procedure for Setting Number of Lanes
(2) Estimation of the Originating and Terminating Traffic Volume of a Road in a Port
① Basic principles for estimation
It is preferable that the trip generation and attraction, which is the base for calculating the design traffic volume,
be estimated according to the characteristics of the target port. In addition, the originating and terminating
traffic volume may be estimated by categorizing the traffic volumes into the traffic volume associated with
physical distribution, the traffic volume associated with the industries located in and around the port, and the
traffic volume associated with such facilities as green areas and marinas.
② Estimation method for the traffic volume associated with physical distribution
(a) The traffic volume associated with physical distribution may be estimated using the basic units which are
obtained from the past records or forecasts of the cargo handling volume in the port (FT unit), and the number
of containers handled in the port (TEU unit). It is preferable to determine the basic units based on the past
records of the cargo handling volume and container handling volume in the ports of which characteristics
are similar to that of the target port and the actual records of the traffic volume obtained from the actual
condition survey data, and road traffic censuses. However, when it is difficult to estimate these basic units,
the following estimation methods may be used as a reference.
The concept of setting the coefficient here may also apply to the setting of other coefficients in the
performance verification of roads.
(b) Estimation method based on the cargoes handling volume in the port (FT/year) for the case of cargo other than
containers
1) Estimation method using the total cargo handling volume in the port
The trip generation and attraction per year may be estimated using equation (2.2.1) based on the total
cargo handling volume in the port (FT/year) at the target year.
Trip generation and attraction per year (vehicles/year)

= Total quantity of cargoes handled in the port � a0bc (2.2.1)
where,
a0 : coefficient for conversion into the number of loaded large vehicles which carries cargoes, which
cover all commodity items
a coefficient for conversion into the number of loaded large vehicles which carries cargoes
(vehicles/FT), which is the reciprocal value of the capacity tonnage per a large vehicle which
carries cargoes (FT/vehicle), on the assumption that most of the cargoes handled in ports are
transported by large vehicles.
b : coefficient for conversion into the number of all large vehicles
the ratio of the number of all large vehicles including empties to the number of large vehicles
which carry cargoes.
c : coefficient for conversion into the number of all vehicles
the ratio of the number of all vehicles including small and medium vehicles to the number of all
large vehicles. The reciprocal of c represents the share of large vehicles.
– 916 –
2) Estimation method using the item-specific cargo handling volume in the port
In cases where the volume of certain cargo items are especially large, the annual trip generation and
attraction per year may be estimated using equation (2.2.2) based on the item-specific cargo handling
volume in the port (FT/year) at the target year.
={ (cargo handling volume by item in the port ai)}bc (2.2.2)
where,
ai : coefficient for conversion into the number of large vehicles which carry cargoes by item
a coefficient for conversion into the number of large vehicles which carries cargoes (vehicles/
FT), which is the reciprocal value of the capacity tonnage per a large vehicle which carries item-
specific cargoes (FT/vehicle), on the assumption that most of the cargoes handled in ports are
transported by large vehicles.
(c) Estimation method based on the number of containers handled in the port (TEU/year)
(for the case of container cargoes)
The trip generation and attraction per year may be estimated using equation (2.2.3) based on the number
of containers handled in the port (TEU/year) at the target year.

= Number of containers handled in the port • (2.2.3)
where,
Tr : Transshipment ratio
A coefficient to subtract the number of containers transshipped at the terminals from the number
of containers handled in the port (TEU/year) by the subtraction (1-Tr).
Fc : Full container ratio
The ratio of the number of full containers to the number of non- transshipped containers, which
is used to calculate the number of containers transported from the terminals to the hinterland.
Bc : Extension coefficient to include the flow of empty containers
The transport of a full container into or out of the port is always accompanied by the transport
of an empty container. For this reason, Bc is used to convert the number of transports of full
containers into the number of transports of both full and empty containers. The maximum
value of 2.0 is generally set for Bc, but a smaller value may be used in cases where it is expected
that the container van transport becomes more efficient. For domestic trade containers, a value
between 1.0 and 1.5 may be used for Bc because empty containers are less transported.
αc : Coefficient for conversion into the actual number of vehicles which carry containers
In a port, 20-feet containers and 40-feet containers are handled together. Normally, the transport
of a 20-feet container requires one vehicle, while the transport of a 40-feet container also
requires one vehicle. For this reason, αc is used to convert the number of containers expressed
in the TEU unit (i.e. twenty-foot equivalent unit) to the actual number of containers.
βc : Coefficient for conversion into the number of all container-related vehicles
A coefficient to convert the number of vehicles which carry containers into the number of all
container-related vehicles including the head vehicles and chassis tractors which do not carry
containers.
γci : Coefficient for conversion into the number of all large vehicles
A coefficient to convert the number of all container-related vehicles into the number of all large
vehicles including ordinary large cargo vehicles. The coefficient γci has the following two
coefficients according to the conditions of the target area.
γc0 : For cases where it is assumed that an integrated physical distribution center is not constructed
γc1 : For cases where it is assumed that an integrated physical distribution center is constructed
δc : Coefficient for conversion into the number of all vehicles
The ratio of the number of all vehicles including small and medium vehicles to the number of
all large vehicles. The reciprocal of δc represents the occupancy ratio of large vehicle.
③ Estimation method of the traffic volume associated with the industries located in and around the port
(a) The traffic volume associated with the industries located in and around the port may be estimated using the
basic units which are obtained from the past records or forecasts, based on the lot area, total floor space,
and number of employees of the industries. It is preferable to determine the basic units based on the actual
– 917 –
conditions of the industries in the ports which are similar to the examined target port such as the lot area, total
floor space, number of employees and the past results of traffic volume which are obtained from the actual
condition survey data, and road traffic censuses. However, when it is difficult to estimate these basic units,
the following estimation methods may be used as a reference.
(b) Estimation method using the basic units presented in the National Survey on the Net Movement of Cargoes
(Physical Distribution Census) 3)
The traffic volume associated with the industries located in and around the port may be generally estimated
using the staged estimation method shown in Fig. 2.2.2.
Assumption of the lot area and number of employees of the industry by type of business
Estimation of the incoming and outgoing cargo volume (MT unit) using the basic units for the incoming and
outgoing cargo volume per lot area (m2) by type of business
Estimation of the incoming and outgoing cargo volume (MT unit) using the basic unitsfor the incoming and
outgoing cargo volume per one employee by type of business
Setting of the incoming and outgoing cargo volume (MT unit) through comparative examination of
the estimation results of both the lot areas and the numbers of employees
Estimation of the annual incoming and outgoing cargo volume by type of business (MT unit) carried by
automobile using the automobile transport share by type of business and the following formula:
Annual incoming and outgoing cargo volume by type of business (automobile) =
Annual incoming and outgoing cargo volume by type of business ×automobile transport share
Estimation of the annual incoming and outgoing cargo volume from the annual incoming and outgoing cargo
volume carried by automobile (MT unit) using equation (2.2.4) or (2.2.5)
Fig. 2.2.2 Estimation Method of the Traffic Volume associated with the Industries Located in and around the Port based
on the “National Survey on the Net Movement of Cargoes”
1) In the case of an estimation intended for the total value of all items:
={ (annual incoming and outgoing cargo volume by type of business
(transported by automobile transport))} • aMT0 bc (2.2.4)
2) In the case of estimation intended for the values by type of business (by item):
= { (annual incoming and outgoing cargo volume by type of business
(transported by automobile) aMTi}bc (2.2.5)
where,
aMT 0 : coefficient for conversion into the number of loaded large vehicles which carry cargoes (intended
for all items)
A coefficient for conversion into the number of loaded large vehicles which carry cargoes
(vehicles/MT), which is the reciprocal value of the capacity tonnage per a large vehicle which
carry cargoes (MT/vehicle), on the assumption that most of the incoming and outgoing cargoes
are transported by large vehicles.
– 918 –
aMTi : coefficient for conversion into the number of loaded large vehicles which carry cargoes (intended
for the values by item)
A coefficient for conversion into the number of loaded large vehicles which carry cargoes
(vehicles/MT), which is the reciprocal value of the capacity tonnage per a large vehicle which
carry cargoes by item (MT/vehicle), on the assumption that most of the incoming and outgoing
cargoes are transported by large vehicles.
④ Estimation method of the traffic volume associated with green areas, marinas and other facilities
(a) The traffic volume associated with green areas, marinas and other facilities may be estimated using various
basic units obtained from past results and forecasts. It is preferable to determine the basic units based on the
size and capacity of the existing facilities which are similar to those of the target facilities, and the past results
of the traffic volume obtained from the field survey data, road traffic censuses and other sources. However,
when it is difficult to estimate these basic units, the following estimation methods may be used as a reference.
(b) Estimation method of the traffic volume associated with green areas
The traffic volume associated with green areas may be estimated in terms of the peak daily traffic volume,
usually using equation (2.2.6) and equation (2.2.7).
Peak traffic volume per day (vehicles/day)

= Number of peak users per day・Pa・Pb・
Round trip traffic volume conversion coefficient (2.2.6)
Number of peak users per day (persons/day)

= Total area of the green areas (m 2)・
・Turnover number (2.2.7)
Return trip traffic volume conversion coefficient = 2
where,
Pa : Utilization rate of automobiles to visit green areas
Pb : Passenger vehicle conversion coefficient(=1 / average number of boarding persons)
(c) Estimation method of the traffic volume associated with marinas
The traffic volume associated with marinas may be estimated in terms of the daily traffic volume, usually
Peak traffic volume per day (vehicles/day)

= Round trip traffic volume conversion coefficient・Number of stored ships･
Peak daily utilization rate･Number of vehicles used per ship (2.2.8)
(d) Traffic volume associated with ferries
With regard to the traffic volume associated with a ferry, it is necessary to estimate the peak hourly traffic
volume intended for the maximum number of vehicles that disembark from the ferry. The peak hourly traffic
volume may usually be obtained using equation (2.2.9). The term “maximum number of disembarking
vehicles in the operation cycle” stands for, for example, in cases where ferries operate several times a day,
“the largest number of vehicles that disembark from a ferry during the day” or in cases where ferries operate
several times a week, “the largest number of that during the week”.
Peak traffic volume per hour (vehicles/hour)

= Maximum number of disembarking vehicles
in the operation cycle (vehicles/hour) (2.2.9)

(e) Traffic volumes associated with other facilities
It is also necessary to set the traffic volumes associated with facilities other than those described above
according to the characteristics of the target port.
(4) Estimation of the Design Daily Traffic Volumes for Roads in a Port
① Outline of the 4-stage estimation method
– 919 –
(a) In general, when estimating the design daily traffic volumes, it is preferable to use the 4-stage estimation
method based on the incoming and outgoing traffic volume, which is a technique for traffic planning. The
4-stage estimation method is the technique to estimate traffic volumes in 4 stages as shown in Fig. 2.2.3. 6)
Estimation of the incoming and outgoing traffic volume
Estimation of the distributed traffic volume
Estimation of the traffic volume shared by each transportation mode
Estimation of the assigned traffic volume
Fig. 2.2.3 4-stage Estimation Method
(b) Estimation of the trip generation and attraction

In the trip generation and attraction estimation stage, the total trip number in the target area is firstly
predicted, and then the trip generation and attraction (Ti,Tj) values for the individual zones in the target area
are estimated. The trip generation and attraction in each zone are predicted using the basic unit method and
the regression models. For the road in a port, the method presented in (2) may be applied.
(c) Estimation of the distributed traffic volume
In the distributed traffic volume estimation stage, the traffic volume between zone i and zone j (Tij) is estimated
by associating the incoming traffic volume for zone i (Ti) with the outgoing traffic volume for zone j (Tj),
which were estimated in the incoming and outgoing traffic volume estimation stage. Models to estimate
the distributed traffic volume are generally classified into the current pattern method and the gravity model
method.
(d) Estimation of the traffic volume shared by each transportation mode
The third stage of the 4-stage estimation method is to predict the shares of each transportation mode such
as automobiles and railway. However, in cases where only automobile transportation is premised from the
beginning, this stage is omitted.
(e) Estimation of the assigned traffic volumes
In the assigned traffic volume estimation stage, the routes on which the previously estimated inter-zone traffic
volumes occur are predicted. In this assigned traffic volume estimation process, it is necessary to set the
network, the costs required for each route and the route selection criteria. The assigned traffic volumes by
each route basically represent the design daily traffic volumes for the target road
② Considerations in estimation of design daily traffic volume in surrounding area as whole

First, in cases where the passing traffic volume which does not have a point of origin or terminus in the port is
assumed to be large, it was considered necessary to estimate the design daily traffic volume based on a 4-stage
estimation method, based on an integrated with the city plan or road plan of the hinterland city. When estimating
the design daily traffic volume based on this type of integrated road network, it is necessary to consider the
following points.
(a) Compatibility of assumed object day
It is the general practice to use the annual average of daily traffic volume as the daily traffic volume in city
plans and road plans. In this case, the trip generation and attraction related to the port is converted to a daily
unit by the method presented previously, and added to the daily traffic volume in the city plan or road plan.
However, there are cases in which it is preferable to estimate for the peak month or peak day of the week
rather than the annual average of daily traffic volume. In this case, the values are converted using equation
(2.2.10) or (2.2.11), respectively, and added to the traffic volume.
Daily traffic volume (vehicles/day) in peak month

= Trip generation and attraction per year ・m (2.2.10)
– 920 –
Daily traffic volume (vehicles/day) on peak day of week
= Trip generation and attraction per year ・w (2.2.11)
where,
m = monthly peak ratio
w = day-of-week peak ratio
(b) Adjustment of the share of large vehicles
In general, the share of large vehicles in the port-related traffic volumes is larger than that in the traffic
volumes for which the city planning or the road planning is intended. Therefore, adding of traffic volumes
based on the actual number of vehicles under the condition where both shares of large vehicles differ leads to
underestimation of the port-related traffic volumes. As a result, it gives the inordinate burden in excess of the
actual condition to the hinterland.
Therefore, when the ratio of large vehicles to all vehicles derived in the process of estimating the incoming
and outgoing traffic volume associated with ports is different from that assumed in city planning or road
planning, it is necessary to correct the share of large vehicles to adjust the incoming and outgoing traffic
volume associated with ports to the hinterland using equation (2.2.12). In equation (2.2.12), coefficient for
conversion of a large vehicle into passenger vehicles is 2.0.
Traffic volume corrected by the share of large vehicles (vehicles/day)

= [Daily traffic volume converted from the annual incoming
and outgoing traffic volume (vehicles/day)]・ (2.2.12)
where,
T-port : Share of large vehicles assumed for roads in the port(%)
T-town : Share of large vehicles assumed for roads at the periphery of the port
(5) Estimation of the Design Hourly Traffic Volume of Roads in a Port
① Calculation method of the design hourly traffic volume
The design hourly traffic volume in both directions which is required for determining the number of lanes
may be calculated from the estimated design daily traffic volume using equation (2.2.13).Design hourly traffic
volume (vehicles/hour)
= Design traffic volume (vehicles/day) (2.2.13)
where,
K : Ratio of the design hourly traffic volume (usually the 30th hourly traffic volume) to the design
daily traffic volume (annual average daily traffic volume) (%)
It is preferable to determine the value of K corresponding to the 30th per hour traffic volume (hereinafter
referred to as “the K30 value”) based on the characteristics of each port. There are several methods to estimate
the K30 value: the estimation using a model which includes the design daily traffic volume. The following shows
the concrete techniques of each method.
② Estimation method based on measured values of similar roads or surrounding roads

In general traffic volume studies, because few 24 hour measurements and annual continuous measurements are
performed, Traffic Volume of Roads7) provides equation (2.2.14) for estimation of the K30 value from ordinary
observation study data. Accordingly, the value calculated from ordinary observation data of similar roads using
equation (2.2.14) can be used as the K30 value.
K30 = 100{(aQp + b) / Q12} (2.2.14)

where,
K30 : percentage (%) of 30th hourly traffic volume relative to design traffic volume (annual average of
daily traffic volume). Provided, however, that K30 is 18% or less.
Qp : peak hourly traffic volume (total of inbound and outbound) (vehicles/hour)
Q12 : daytime 12-hour hourly traffic volume (total of inbound and outbound) (vehicles/hour)
a, b : coefficients for calculating 30th hourly traffic volume from peak hourly traffic volume; values
are shown in Table 2.2.1.
– 921 –
Table 2.2.1 Coefficients for Calculating 30th Hourly Traffic Volume from Peak Hourly Traffic Volume
Roadside condition a b
City 1.12 20.4
Flatland area 1.06 167.5
Mountainous area 1.01 377.6
③ Estimation method using model formula

The K30 value may be estimated from the annual average daily traffic volume for the road in the target port using
equation (2.2.15). The rationale for this calculation is described in Reference 1).
(2.2.15)
where,
A ADT : A nnual average of daily traffic volume (vehicles/day)
20
18
16
14
K30 value (%)
12
10
8
6
y = 248.9x-0.3283
4
R2 = 0.7435
2
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Annual average daily traffic volume (AADT): vehicles/day
Fig. 2.2.4 Relationship between Annual Average of Daily Traffic Volume and K30 Value
and its Model Formula
(6) Determination of the Number of Lanes of Roads in a Port

① Basic principles for determining the number of lanes of roads a port
When determining the number of lanes of roads in a port, it shall be primarily judged whether 2 lanes for both
directions is sufficient to accommodate the traffic volumes, comparing the design hourly traffic volume for
both directions with the design standard traffic volume. That is, if the design hourly traffic volume for both
directions for the road in the target port is equal to or less than the design standard traffic volume value for 2
lanes, the number of lanes for both directions shall be 2.
If the design hourly traffic volume for both directions of the road in the target port is larger than the design
standard traffic volume value for 2 lanes, the road shall have two or more lanes in each direction. In this case,
the number of lanes for one direction shall be set based on comparison of the design hourly traffic volume for the
heavier-traffic direction and the design standard traffic volumes for multiple lanes. The total number of lanes
of a port road shall in principle be set so that the total number of lanes may be two times the number of lanes
for one direction set based on the heavier-traffic direction traffic volume, because the total number of lanes is
usually an even number.
② Criteria for setting 2 lanes for both directions
When setting the number of lanes, the number of lanes in the following cases shall be 2.
(a) Roads that connect a port with a national highway etc.:
Design hourly traffic volume (for both directions) (vehicles/hour)
<650 (vehicles/hour) (2.2.16)
– 922 –
(b) Others roads:
<500 (vehicles/hour) (2.2.17)
③ Determination method of the number of lanes for multi-lane roads (2 or more lanes in one side)
(a) Judgment as to whether multiple lanes are required
When setting the number of lanes, the number of lanes in the following cases shall be multilane, ie. 2 or
more lanes in one direction. In this case, the number of lanes in one direction may be set according to the
procedures described in (b) and (c).
1) Roads that connect a port with a national highway etc.:
>650 (vehicles/hour) (2.2.18)
2) Other roads:
>500 (vehicles/hour) (2.2.19)
(b) Estimation of the design direction-specific hourly traffic volumes
The design hourly traffic volume for the heavier-traffic direction may be calculated from the design daily
traffic volume using equation (2.2.20).
Design hourly traffic volume for the heavier-traffic direction (vehicles/hour)

= Design daily traffic volume (for both directions) (vehicles/hour) (2.2.20)
where,
D : Ratio of the traffic volume in the heavier-traffic direction to the design hourly traffic volume (%)
If the traffic volumes are analyzed on an hour-by-hour basis, it can be seen that the peak-hour traffic
volumes in both directions differ significantly. If the numbers of lanes are set based on the total value of the
design hourly traffic volumes in both directions, the serviceability of the road during the peak hour is low.
Therefore, it is preferable to estimate the design hourly traffic volume for the heavier-traffic direction using
the D value.
In addition, it is preferable to set the D value according to the characteristics of the target ports.
(c) Determination of the number of lanes of one side
The number of lanes of one side in the case of a multi-lane road may be set comparing the design hourly traffic
volume for the heavier-traffic direction with the design standard traffic volume for multi-lane roads which
have 2 or more lanes in each direction described above. In principle, the integer obtained by rounding up the
result of the calculation with equation (2.2.21) or equation (2.2.22) shall be used as the required number of
lanes in the heavier-traffic direction.
1) Roads that connect a port with a national highway etc.:

Number of lanes in the heavier-traffic direction (lanes)
=Design hourly traffic volume for the heavier-traffic direction (vehicles/hour)
/ 600(vehicles/hour/lane) (2.2.21)
2) Other roads:
Number of lanes in the heavier-traffic direction (lanes)
=Design per hour traffic volume for the heavier-traffic direction (vehicles/hour)
/ 350(vehicles/hour/lane) (2.2.22)
The total number of lanes of a road may be set by doubling the number of lanes obtained according to
the above procedures, because the number of lanes of the road should be an even number except for special
cases.
④ Estimation of the D value
Procedures to estimate the D value in concrete way are as follows ; the estimation from results of continuous
traffic volume observations and the estimation from actual measurements taken on the routes with similar
characteristics and traffic conditions. Actual procedures are shown below.
(a) Estimation method based on the actual measurements taken on the similar roads or on the neighboring roads
Traffic Capacities of Roads 9) presents equation (2.2.23), which uses heavier-traffic direction coefficients for
– 923 –
the peak hour of the survey day to accurately calculate the difference between the traffic volumes in the two
opposite directions, thinking of the fact that the D value is almost constant during the heavy traffic hours. In
equation (2.2.23), the passenger vehicle equivalent number of vehicles (pcu/hour) for the 2 opposite directions
is used.
(2.2.23)
where,
D : Ratio of the traffic volume in the heavier-traffic direction to the design hourly traffic volume (%)
Pu : Traffic volume in the inbound direction during the peak hour (pcu/hour)
Pd : Traffic volume in the outbound direction during the peak hour (pcu/hour)
2.3 Clearance Limits

In the case of the port road through which it is expected that special vehicles and semi-trailer trucks carrying high
cube containers that are international ship containers with a height of 9 feet and 6 inches pass, the clearance limits
shall be set appropriately rather than merely conforming to the Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures, because
it is possible that to apply in the same clearance limits for ordinary roads to the port road would compromise safety.
2.4 Widening of the Curved Sections of Roads

In the case of the port road through which a number of large vehicles pass, the curved sections should be widened
appropriately according to the design vehicles.
2.5 Longitudinal Slopes

In the case of the port road through which a number of large vehicles pass, the longitudinal slopes should be appropriately
set according to the design vehicles, in careful consideration of the fact that the traveling speeds of vehicles tend to
decrease as the gradient increases and this may significantly reduce the traffic capacity of the road.
2.6 Level Crossings

In the case of the port road through which a number of large vehicles pass, level crossings should be designed giving
due consideration to the behavior of large vehicles which have low driving performance such as the accelerating
performance at start.
2.7 Performance Verification of Pavements
(1) Basic Fundamentals for Performance Verification

Cement concrete or asphalt pavement is generally used as the pavement of a port road. It is generally preferable
to verify the performance of cement concrete and asphalt pavements in accordance with the procedures shown in
Fig. 2.2.5 and Fig. 2.2.6, respectively.
Determination of the design conditions (Design traffic volume for the unit section, with
or without such vehicles as mobile cranes and
tractor-semitrailers, and weather conditions)
Evaluation of the actions on the pavement Estimation of the distributions of the wheel
loads of moving vehicles
Examination of the stability against the surcharges
Examination of the depth of frost penetration depth
Determination of the total thickness of the pavement
Determination of the design of the joints
Fig. 2.2.5 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Cement Concrete Pavements
– 924 –
Determination of the design conditions (Design traffic volume for the unit section, with
or without such vehicles as mobile cranes and
tractor-semitrailers)
Evaluation of the actions Determination of the cumulative 5 ton equivalent
number of wheels
Examination of the stability against the surcharges
Examination of the depth of frost penetration depth
Determination of the total thickness of the pavement
Determination of the thickness of each part of the pavement
Determination of the composition of the pavement
Fig. 2.2.6 Example of Performance Verification Procedure for Asphalt Concrete Pavements

① The Guidelines for Designing and Constructing Pavements 10) present, as the method of determining the
traffic volumes for structural design of pavements, (a) the method based on the large vehicle traffic volume and
(b) the method based on the wheel loads of moving vehicles.
(a) Method based on large vehicle traffic volume
The method based on the large vehicle traffic volume is that based on the average traffic volume of large
vehicles (number of vehicles・day・direction) during the design working life and is popularly used for ordinary
road pavements. The Asphalt Paving Guidelines present the following classification of design traffic volumes
according to the large vehicle traffic volume:
L Traffic : the large vehicle traffic volume is less than 100 vehicles
A Traffic : the large vehicle traffic volume is less than 250 vehicles and not less than 100 vehicles
B Traffic : the large vehicle traffic volume is less than 1000 vehicles and not less than 250 vehicles
C Traffic : the large vehicle traffic volume is less than 3000 vehicles and not less than 1000 vehicles
D Traffic : the large vehicle traffic volume is 3000 vehicles or more
In the Guidelines, the term “large vehicles” stands for ordinary freight vehicles, buses and special
vehicles.
(b) The method based on the wheel loads of moving vehicles
The method based on the wheel loads of moving vehicles is the method to estimate the size distribution
of moving vehicles. The cumulative 5-ton-equivalent number of wheels during the design working life is
calculated from the numbers of moving vehicles for each wheel load range, taking into account the rates of
traffic volume increase. When converting the traffic volume (Ni) for the given wheel load (Pi) into the traffic
volume (Ni5) for the 5-ton wheel load, the so-called “fourth power method” shown in equation (2.2.24) is used.
(2.2.24)
where,
Ni5 : traffic volume for the 5-ton wheel load (vehicles/day)
Pi : wheel load（kN）
Ni : traffic volume (vehicles/day)
② The method described in (a) above is simpler than the method described in (b). However, in cases where
circumstances require, such as where it is expected that heavy vehicles such as semi-trailer trucks and mobile
cranes go through, it is preferable to apply (b) in which the properties of the traffic can be considered.
– 925 –
References
1) Takahashi, H.: Study of designing roads in the port area A standard for designing roads in the port area : A proposal-,
Research Report of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.21,2005
2) Information Management Department, policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport: Port Statistics (
2002),, 2004
3) Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT): Survey Report of National Cargo Net Flow, MLIT, 2002
4) Traffic survey division, Urban transport Bureau, Ministry of Construction: Manual for planning of transport related to large
scale development zones, Gyosei, 1999
5) Japan Port Association, Manual for development of port green belt, Japan Port Association, 1976
6) JSCE Edition: Transport Planning, New Series Civil Engineering 60, Giho-do Publishing, 1993
7) Japan Road Association: Traffic capacity of roads, Japan Roads Association, 1984
8) OKUDA, K., MURATA, T. and OKANO, H.: An Analysis on Characteristics of the Road Traffic in Port Area Based on the
Yearly Traffic Observation, Technical Note of PHRI No.876, 1997
9) JSCE: Concrete Standard Specifications, Specifications for concrete （Pavement), 2002
10) Japan Rosa Association: Guideline for design and construction of pavement, 2001
– 926 –
3 Tunnels Constructed by the Immersed Tunnel Method

Performance Requirements for Roads
Article 36
1 The performance requirements for roads shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Roads shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
hinterland in consideration of the traffic characteristics in the port.
(2) Damage due to imposed loads shall not adversely affect the continued use of the relevant roads without
impairing their functions.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for roads having
tunnel sections shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Damage due to self weight, earth pressure, water pressure, and Level 1 earthquake ground motions,
and/or other actions shall not adversely affect the continued use of the relevant roads and not impair
their functions.
(2) Damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions, flames and heat from fires, and/or other actions
shall not affect restoration through minor repair works of the functions required for the roads concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criterion of Underwater Tunnels
Article 77
1 The performance criteria of underwater tunnels shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Underwater tunnels shall be covered with an appropriate material of the required thickness so as to
secure the integrity of the structural members and the stability of their structures against dropping and
dragging of ship anchors, scouring of seabed by waves and/or currents, and others.
(2) Underwater tunnels shall be equipped with the control facilities necessary for their safe and smooth
use.
(3) The degree of damage owing to the actions of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, and fires and heat by
fires, which are the dominant actions in the accidental action situations, shall be less than the threshold
level.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of underwater tunnels
shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The risk of failure due to insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation ground under the permanent
action situation, in which the dominant action is self weight, shall be less than the threshold level.
(2) The risk of impairing the integrity of structural members under the permanent action situation, in
which the dominant action is earth pressures, shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(3) The risk of floating-up of the immersed tunnel elements, ventilation facilities and shafts under the
variable action situation, in which the dominant action is water pressures, shall be equal to or less than
(4) The risk of impairing the integrity of structural members and losing the stability of immersed tunnel
elements, ventilation facilities, shafts, joint sections and others under the variable action situation, in
which the dominant action is Level 1 earthquake ground motions, shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Underwater Tunnels

① Common items for all underwater tunnels
(a) Covering (usability)
– 927 –
When determining the covering material and covering thickness in the performance verification of
an underwater tunnel, appropriate consideration should be given to the stability of the underwater
tunnel against uplifting, the effects of the penetration of anchors caused by casting and dragging
from ships navigating over the underwater tunnel and the scouring of the covering sections due to
water flows and waves.
(b) Accidental situations (restorability)
1) The settings of the performance criteria common to underwater tunnels and the design situations
limiting to accidental situations are shown in Attached Table 63. [The reason why setting
“damages” as the verification item in the Attached Table 63 is that it aims to describe in a
comprehensive manner considering that the verification items vary depending on the structure
and structural type of the facility].
Attached Table 63 Settings relating to the Design Situations limiting to Accidental Situations and Performance Criteria
Common to All Underwater Tunnels
Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements limit value

Item
Situation Dominating action dominating

action
35 2 − 77 1 3 Restorability Accidental Flames and heat due to − Damages −

fires
36 2 2 L2 earthquake ground Self weight,

motion earth pressures,
water pressures,
surcharges
2) Flames and heat due to fires

When verifying the performance of an underwater tunnel in the accidental situations of flames and
heat due to fires, the action of flames and heat due to fires should be appropriately set according to
the types of vehicles which are expected to go through the underwater tunnel, and the members
of the underwater tunnel should be covered with refractory material as necessary.
② Immersed tunnels (serviceability)
(a) The performance criteria of immersed tunnels shall be pursuant to the performance criteria common
to underwater tunnels. The settings of the performance criteria for immersed tunnels and the design
situations (excluding accidental situations) are shown in Attached Table-64.
Attached Table 64 Settings relating to the Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) and Performance Criteria
of Immersed Tunnels
Ordinance
Index of
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements Non-dominating
Item
Situation Dominating action value

action
35 2 − 77 2 1 Serviceability Permanent Self weight Water pressures, earth Bearing capacity of the Bearing capacity
pressures, surcharges foundation ground limit value
36 2 1 2 Earth pressures Self weight, water Soundness of members −
pressures, surcharges
3 Variable Water pressures Self weight, earth Uplifting of immersed −
pressures, surcharges tunnel elements,
ventilation facilities and
shafts
4 L1 earthquake Self weight, earth Stability of immersed −
ground motion pressures, water tunnel elements,
pressures, surcharges ventilation facilities and
shafts
Soundness of members −
Stability of joint sections −
– 928 –
(b) Soundness of members

When verifying the performance of members of an immersed tunnel, the performance criteria of
their soundness should be appropriately set according to the structure of the immersed tunnel and
the materials of the members.
(c) Stability of immersed tunnel elements, ventilation facilities and shafts
When verifying the performance of immersed tunnel elements, ventilation facilities and shafts of an
immersed tunnel, the performance criteria of their stability should be appropriately set according to
the structure of the immersed tunnel.
(d) Stability of joint sections
When verifying the performance of joint sections of an immersed tunnel, the performance criteria of
their stability should be appropriately set according to the structure of the immersed tunnel and the
materials and structures of the joint sections. The stability of joint sections shall include securing of
waterproof property of joint sections.
[Technical Note]
3.1 General
(1) The explanations in this section may be used for the performance verifications of tunnels constructed of roads in
a port by the immersed tunnel method (hereinafter referred to as immersed tunnels). For tunnels of other use or
other type, it is necessary to apply other relevant standards.
(2) In the performance verifications of immersed tunnels for port roads, The Technical Manual for Immersed
Tunnels 1) may be used as a reference. When making a general study on the design, fabrication and construction
of the immersed tunnel method, Reference 2) may serve as a reference. In addition, when examining the seismic-
resistant performance, it is preferable to use Reference 3) as a reference.
Ventilation tower Ventilation tower
Immersed tunnel element

Open-cut Land tunnel Land tunnel Open-cut
section section Immersed tunnel section section section
Access road Access road

Immersed tunnel
Fig. 3.1.1 Definitions of Immersed Tunnel-related Terms
(1) The location, alignment, and cross-sectional profile of an immersed tunnel shall be appropriately set according to
the use condition, the natural conditions of water area where the tunnel is constructed.
(2) When determining the cross section of an immersed tunnel, the traffic volume of vehicles, the ratio of large
vehicles in all vehicles, the need for a sidewalk, the need for a bicycle track, the types of cables and pipes in utility
ducts, transport of hazardous materials, the existence or nonexistence of a toll gate, and the connections with other
roads should be examined in advance.
Sufficient consideration should also be given to the future development plans of other related facilities
including those concerning the possibility of deepening waterways above the immersed tunnel. In addition, it
is also preferable to study adequately the future utilization plan, because it is difficult for an immersed tunnel to
enhance its functions such as widening of its width once it has been completed.
(3) If pedestrian and bicycle tracks are to be installed, due consideration should be given to use by the elderly and the
physically handicapped persons.
– 929 –
(4) Main body of an immersed tunnel shall be a fireproof structure, and safety facilities and equipment, and evacuation
passages for use under fire shall be provided. In addition, evacuation passages and emergency telephones for use
in the event of an accident or a disaster should be provided as necessary.
(5) The longitudinal slope of an immersed tunnel may be made as steep as possible within the restriction of design
speed for the road to enable reduction of construction cost in general. However, consideration should be given to
the fact that smoke and dust concentration in the exhaust gas of vehicles increases rapidly as the slope becomes
steeper, thus raising the cost of ventilation equipment.
(6) Immersed Tunnel Elements
① The structural types of immersed tunnel elements are classified into steel shell type, reinforced concrete or
prestressed concrete type, and composite or hybrid type. The most appropriate structure should be selected in
light of their individual characteristics.
② A steel shell type immersed tunnel element is constructed by building the steel shell first and then filling the
inside space of the shell with concrete. The loads that act on a completed steel shell type immersed tunnel
element are basically borne by the reinforced concrete in the steel shell. Concrete type immersed tunnel
elements also have a covering made of thin steel sheet for protection and waterproofing. Therefore, there is no
clear essential difference between these two types. It is considered that in a composite type, concrete and steel
sheet are integrated with shear connectors and that not only the concrete but also the steel sheet bears the loads.
③ Steel shell type immersed tunnel elements require a large amount of steel, but do not always require a dry dock
because they can be constructed in a shipway. On the other hand, concrete type immersed tunnel elements do
not require a large amount of steel, but do require a deep dry dock. When selecting the type of an immersed
tunnel element in a specific case, consideration should be given to the fabrication yard, economical efficiency,
and constructability.
④ Composite type elements, particularly that of steel-concrete combined structure, may be designed and constructed
according to the references 4) and 5).
(7) Management Facilities and Equipment
Management facilities and equipment include the facilities and equipment for ventilation, emergency, lighting,
electric-power, security and measurement, monitoring and control, and drainage. In cases where a ventilation
tower is constructed as a ventilation facility, it is necessary to allocate functionally the ventilation equipment,
electrical equipment, control equipment and other ancillary equipment. It is also necessary to install connection
ducts that connect the ventilation tower with the main body of the tunnel, inlet ports and exhaust ports so that
efficient ventilation may be achieved.
3.3 Determination of the Basic Cross Section
(1) Immersed Tunnel Elements

① The top surface of immersed tunnel elements shall be covered with appropriate material of the required thickness
so that the structural safety of the elements may be ensured taking into consideration the penetration depth of
anchor caused by casting and dragging of ship’s anchor, the frequencies of anchoring and dragging of anchor,
the buoyancy of the tunnel, and the scouring due to waves and water flows. In principle, it is preferable that the
thickness of the cover layer, which includes the thickness of the concrete layers to protect the upper slab, is 1.5m
or greater
② The depth of immersion shall be set appropriately in consideration of any future plan of deepening of the water
in and around the tunnel.
③ The structural type and the length of an immersed tunnel element shall be determined in consideration of the
sectional forces, the joint structure, the size of the fabrication yard, the tunnel element installation and joint
construction methods, and the economical efficiency of the immersed tunnel structure including joints. In
general, an immersed tunnel element length of around 100m is employed.
④ In accordance with the structure of an immersed tunnel element, fireproof material may be required. In such
cases, the thickness of fireproof material shall be considered in determining the dimensions of inner cross
section of the tunnel.
(2) Ventilation Towers
① The structures of the ventilation towers for an immersed tunnel need to be studied with an appropriate method
corresponding to the characteristics of the facilities and grounds.
② Ventilation machines, electrical facilities and equipment, and control facilities and equipment should be installed
– 930 –
functionally in a ventilation tower. Its structure should be equipped with inlet and outlet ports for efficient
ventilation as well as with connecting ducts to the immersed tunnel itself.
③ Sufficient space should be provided inside a ventilation tower so that monitoring, inspection, and minor repair of
the installed equipment can be performed smooth. In particular, large components such as ventilation machines
should be so designed that their transport into and out of the tower is easily executed.
④ The location and structure of inlet ports should be such that the intake of exhaust gas from the outlet or from the
entrance of the tunnel is kept as little as possible.
⑤ The location of outlet ports should ensure that concentration of exhaust gas at the ground level remains under a
tolerable level.
⑥ A shaft generally doubles as a ventilation tower, but they can be separated.
⑦ A ventilation tower has the ventilation function and it is preferable that sufficient consideration is given to the
design of the ventilation tower in harmony with the surrounding landscapes.
(3) Access Roads
① The structure of access roads shall be designed with due consideration to the traffic under planning, natural
conditions, social conditions, construction methods and construction cost.
② The road surface elevations of the entry and exit sections of an access road should be determined taking into
consideration the connection with other roads, the elevation of the neighboring grounds, the infiltration of
seawater or river water during storm surges, and the longitudinal gradient of an immersed tunnel.
(1) Examination of the Stability of the Immersed Tunnel Section

① It shall be standard to examine the structural stability of the immersed tunnel section in both the longitudinal
and transverse directions of the tunnel.
② When examining the stability in the transverse direction of the immersed tunnel, its main body may be generally
regarded as a rigid frame structure. In the longitudinal direction of the immersed tunnel, its main body may be
regarded as a beam supported on elastic springs of the ground.
③ Whether the foundation has the sufficient capacity to support the weight of the immersed tunnel including the
soil on its top should be examined. Due consideration should also be given to the settlement of foundation.
④ Ground motion can be transmitted to the immersed tunnel from every direction. However, in the performance
verification, the tunnel is usually examined for two directions; the transverse direction, in which the tunnel is
subjected to the maximum flexural moment and shearing force, and the longitudinal direction, in which the
tunnel is subjected to the maximum axial force.
⑤ An immersed tunnel can be constructed in a soft ground. In such a case, it is necessary to confirm that no
sliding will occur in the surrounding ground when subjected to ground motion. In addition, it is necessary to
perform analyses and evaluations to ensure stability against liquefaction.
⑥ Appropriate materials should be selected for filling considering the safety against settlement and surfacing,
liquefaction due to earthquake, and maintenance dredging to keep the depth of navigation channel.
⑦ An immersed tunnel is a structure under the seabed and is often constructed in soft ground. Sufficient
examination should be made so that its functions should not be lost due to water seepage from cracks or joints.
(2) Examination of the Stability of Immersed Tunnel Elements
① Immersed tunnel elements shall have safe structure in consideration of the following factors as necessary.
(a) watertight capability
(b) cracking of the concrete
(c) uplifting of the element body due to buoyancy after installation
(d) ventilation and disaster prevention functions
(e) other functions attached in the immersed tunnel elements
② It is preferable to apply waterproof coating on the circumference of the elements to make assurance double sure
on watertightness.
– 931 –
(3) Examination of Joints
① Joints of an immersed tunnel shall have safe structure against the stresses generated by the action of ground
motion.
② The location and structure of joints of immersed tunnel elements are normally determined in consideration of
the size of fabrication yard, shifting of waterways, capacity of construction machines, uneven settlement of
the foundation after completion, and influence of temperature variation. However, the location and structure
of joints are also important factors in assessing the earthquake resistance of an immersed tunnel. Thus, the
earthquake resistance needs to be adequately examined when determining the joint location and structure.
③ A joint between an immersed tunnel element and a ventilation tower should also be analyzed and evaluated
adequately in the same manner as in the case of joints between immersed tunnel elements.
④ Immersed tunnel joints are generally classified into two structural types: “continuous structure” which has
the same stiffness and strength as those of the cross sections of the immersed tunnel elements so as to endure
deformation, strain during the permanent actions, earthquake and other actions; and “flexible structure” which
has the sufficient flexibility to absorb the deformations during the permanent actions, earthquake and other
actions
⑤ The water pressure connection method and the underwater concrete casting method are popular as the connection
method for connecting immersed tunnel elements together underwater and making the primary water sealing.
In recent years, the water pressure connection method has been used more than the underwater concrete casting
method.
⑥ For joints of the last part of an immersed tunnel, the dry work method, the waterproof panel method, the
V-block method, and the key element method have been proposed. It is preferable to determine the method in
consideration of the location, structure, construction method, and workability.
3.5 Structural Specifications
(1) Immersed tunnels shall be equipped with the following facilities as necessary:
(1) ventilation facilities
(2) emergency facilities
(3) lighting equipment
(4) electric power facilities
(5) security and instrumentation equipment
(6) monitoring and control facilities
(7) drainage facilities
(2) Ventilation is essential for preventing the adverse effect of exhaust gas from motor vehicles on the air inside
tunnels. Although natural ventilation may be sufficient for short tunnels, ventilation facilities shall be installed
for immersed tunnels of roads in a port.
References
1) Coastal Development Institute of Technology : Technical Manual for immersed tunnel (Revised Edition), 2002
2) Kiyomiya, T., K. Sonoda, M. Takahashi: Design and construction of immersed tunnels, Gihi-do Publishing, 2002
3) Earthquake Engineering Committee, Sub-committee on Earthquake-resistant performance of tunnel,: Earthquake-resistant
design of tunnel and problems, 1998
4) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Design of steel-concrete sandwich structure type immersed tunnels and
construction of high-fluidity concrete, 1996
5) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Manual for the construction of high-fluidity filling concrete that is constructed
with simultaneous use of vibrator and that is designed for the use for steel-concrete sandwich structure type immersed
tunnels, 2004
– 932 –
4 Parking Lots
Performance Requirements for Parking Lots
Article 37
The performance requirements for parking lots shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Parking lots shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism for the safe parking of vehicles without hindering port utilization and the safe and smooth
flow of traffic.
(2) Damage due to imposed load shall not adversely affect the function and continued use of parking lots.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Parking Lots
Article 78
1 The provisions in items (1) and (5) of Article 76 shall be applied to the performance criteria of parking lots
with modification as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of parking lots shall be
such that the size, location and layout of parking lots are appropriately set in consideration of the utilization
conditions of the facilities concerned and the surrounding area, and others.
[Technical Note]
4.1 Examination of Size and Location of Parking Lots
(1) The size and location of a parking lot shall be determined so as not to pose any obstacle to the use of port facilities
and the smooth road traffic, in consideration of the traffic generated in a port and the condition of roads in the
vicinity.
(2) A parking lot shall not be located on a road. If topographical conditions or other reasons necessitate a parking lot
to be located on a roads the size and location of a parking lot shall satisfy the following requirements:
① It shall not be located on a road connecting a port and a major inland highway.
② It shall not be located at a place which may hinder vehicles from going in and out the cargo handling area or
sheds.
③ It shall not be located at a place adjacent to a dangerous cargo handling area, unless there are unavoidable
reasons including topographical conditions.
(3) The width of roadways in the parking lot, the size of parking stalls, and the width of roadways for going in reverse
and turning into parking stalls shall be determined appropriately according to the type of cars using the parking
lot, the parking angle, and the parking method.
(1) Design Vehicle

When setting the design vehicle in the performance verification, not only special vehicles including tractor-
semitrailers and new standard vehicles but also vehicles carried on ferries, RORO vessels, PCC ships may be
selected as the design vehicle.
(2) Size and Location
① When verifying the performance of a parking lot, it is necessary to determine its size and location so that the
originating and terminating traffic from the objective parking lot may not hinder the smooth traffic in a port,
giving proper consideration to the parking demand generated accompanying the anticipated port activities and
the utilization circumstances of the surrounding roads.
② Location
In principle, parking lots shall not be located on roads taking into consideration the characteristics of the
traffic in a port. Provided, however, that in cases where a parking lot has to be located on a road because
of unavoidable reasons including topographical constraint, the objective parking lot shall set the following
– 933 –
requirements regarding disposition as necessary:
・ The parking lot shall not be located on arterial roads that connect the port with an inland area.
・ The parking lot shall not be located at a place which may hinder vehicles from going in and out the cargo
handling area or sheds.
・ The parking lot shall not be located at a place adjacent to a dangerous cargo handling area.
(3) Parking Lots for Mooring Facilities for Ferries
① A parking lot for mooring facilities for ferries should have sufficient space taking into consideration the number
of vehicles carried on the relevant ferries, the utilization rate and the concentration rate so as not to make the
neighboring traffic conditions worse.
② When determining the area of a parking lot, it is preferable to consider the following factors:
(a) the number of berths
(b) the number of vehicles carried on a ferry (both the number of passenger cars and trucks)
(c) the arrival and departure intervals of ferries and the loading and unloading time
(d) the arrival patterns of vehicles (patterns of both passenger cars and trucks)
(e) the operation system of a parking lot
③ The area of a parking lot on a ferry wharf is sometimes determined by multiplying the area of 50m2 required to
park an 8-ton vehicle by the maximum number of 8-ton- equivalent vehicles carried on the ferry which uses the
wharf. In addition, it is also necessary to take into account the ratio of the vehicles which are transported on the
ferries without a driver and the ratio of trailers.
References
1) Japan Association of car park engineers: Car Park Manual, 1981, (additional Material)1990
2) Japan Road Association: Guideline and commentary for Design and construction of car park, 1992
3) Japan Road Association: Commentary of enforcement regulations for road structures and application, Maruzen Publishing,
execution, pp.623-631, 2004
– 934 –
5 Bridges
Performance Requirements for Bridges
Article 38
1 The performance requirements for bridges shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Bridges shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
hinterland in consideration of the characteristics of traffic in the port.
(2) Damage due to self weight, variable waves, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, imposed load, winds,
and ship collisions, and/or other actions shall not adversely affect the continued use of said bridge
without impairing its function.
(3) Even in cases that the functions of bridges are impaired by damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground
motions, such damage shall not have a serious effect on the structural safety of the bridges. Provided,
however, that as for the performance requirements for bridges which requires further improvement
in earthquake-resistant performance due to environmental, social conditions and/or other conditions
to which the bridges concerned are subjected, the damage shall not adversely affect the restoration
through minor repair works of the functions of the bridges concerned.
2 In addition to the requirements provided in the preceding paragraphs (1) and (2), the performance
requirements for the bridge constituting a part of a road which is connected to high earthquake-resistance
facilities shall be such that the damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions and other actions do
not affect restoration through minor repair works of the functions required of the bridge concerned in
the aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2 earthquake ground motions. Provided, however, that as for
the performance requirements for the bridge which requires further improvement in earthquake-resistant
performance due to environmental, social conditions and/or other conditions to which the bridge concerned
is subjected, damage due to said actions shall not affect the restoration through minor repair works of the
functions of the bridge concerned and its continued use.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Bridges
Article 79
The performance criteria of bridges shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) In the case of a bridge which overpasses the facilities to which the Technical Standards apply or
equivalent facilities, the piers, girders, and others of the bridge shall be installed in such a way that they
do not adversely affect the safe and smooth use of respective facilities.
(2) Fenders shall be provided as necessary to prevent the damage to piers that may be caused by the
collision of ships.
(3) The degree of damage owing to the action by collision of a ship, which is the dominant action in the
accidental action situation, shall be less than the threshold level.
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Bridges

① Bridges associated with a road that connects to a high earthquake-resistance facility (restorability,
serviceability)
Performance criteria shall be set to secure restorability against accidental situations associated with
Level 2 earthquake ground motion. In addition, it shall also be set for the bridge which is required
to have enhanced seismic resistance according to the natural and social conditions surrounding the
objective bridge to ensure serviceability. Provided, however, that serviceability is a performance
requirement regarding the functions which are required of the bridge after it is subjected to the action
of Level 2 earthquake ground motion, and is not the performance requirement regarding the original
functions required of the bridge in ordinary conditions.
② Accidental situations where the dominating action is the collision of ships against the bridge
(serviceability)
– 935 –
The settings relating to the performance criteria and design situations limiting to accidental situations
for bridges are shown in Attached Table 65. Damages are set as the verification item in Attached
Table 65, because verification items vary depending on the structure and structural type of the relevant
bridge.
Attached Table 65 Settings relating to the Performance Criteria and Design Situations Common to All Bridges

Ordinance
Index of
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Paragraph

Article
Article
requirements Non-dominating
Item
Situation Dominating action value

action
38 1 3 79 1 3 Serviceability Accidental Collision of ships Self weight, earth Damages −

against the bridge pressures, water
pressures, surcharges
[Technical Note]
(1) A bridge crossing over the space above any waterway or basin shall meet the following requirements:
① The bridge girders shall be constructed at an appropriate elevation above the highest high water level to ensure
safe navigation of ships.
② The bridge piers shall neither be located near the waterway nor obstruct the navigation of ships, unless the safety
of navigation is ensured otherwise.
③ Indicators or signs shall be posted as necessary to prevent ships from colliding with the bridge girders or piers.
(2) A bridge crossing over the space above any mooring equipment or cargo handling facilities shall meet the following
requirements:
① The location of piers and the elevation of girders shall be set appropriately so that they may not obstruct the safe
and smooth use of the mooring or cargo handling facilities.
② Indicators or signs shall be posted as necessary to prevent cargo handling equipment and vehicles from colliding
with the bridge piers or girders.
(3) The base level for indicating the bridge height above the water surface shall be the nearly highest high water
level. The nearly highest high water level as the reference water level was adopted in response to the decision
by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) saying that “when graphing the height of a bridge over a
navigable waterway, it must be indicated the minimum vertical clearance height.”
(4) The design of a bridge should take into consideration the future situation of the activities in the area when there is
any areal development plan.
(5) When determining the clearance for the case where a bridge is constructed overpassing a ship navigating waterway,
the following factors should be taken into consideration:
① Height between the water surface and the highest point of the navigating ship
② Tides
③ Trims of ships
④ Wave heights
⑤ Psychological effects on ship crew
The clearance from the nearly highest high water level should be determined by adding an allowance which is
set taking into consideration the above-mentioned factors and other relevant factors to the height between the
water surface and the highest point of a navigating ship. In the case of a bridge located in a river mouth area, it
is preferable to pay full attention to the design river high-water level as well.
The height between the water surface and the highest point of a navigating ship should be determined
appropriately on the studies regarding actual conditions and future trends of the ships entering the port, because
it varies widely depending on the ship type, and ship size. A study case on the ship height by Takahashi et al.10)
may be used as a reference.
– 936 –
When determining the clearance for a bridge crossing over the space above high-voltage power transmission
lines, more sufficient allowance should be required to prevent the electric discharge.
When planning a bridge near an airport, full attention should also be paid to the restricted surfaces laid down
by the Aviation Law
(6) As for the scenery of a bridge, sufficient consideration should be given to the topographic features of the relevant
port and the characteristics of the landscape consisting of major facilities in and around the port.
(7) Bridge piers and girders
When examining bridge piers and girders in the performance verification of a bridge, the height of the girders
should be set at an appropriate height from the nearly highest high water level to ensure the safety of ships which
navigate under the relevant bridge and that indicators and signs should be installed as necessary to prevent the
collision of ships that navigate under the relevant bridge, cargo handling equipment, and vehicles against the piers
and girders.
5.2 Ensuring of Durability
(1) Examination of bridge structure and selection of structural materials shall be made appropriately in consideration
of the natural conditions surrounding the bridge.
(2) Painting or other measures should be adopted for steel bridges to prevent or reduce the corrosion of the steel
members as necessary.
(3) When verifying the performance of a concrete bridge, it is necessary to appropriately evaluate timewise changes in
the performance due to the deterioration of the superstructure and substructure caused by salt injury. Performance
verifications of concrete bridges may follow Chapter 2, 1.1 General.
(4) Salt content usually comes flying through sea breeze and sea water splashes and adheres to the bridges in waterfront
areas. Therefore it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the steel members of the steel bridges in waterfront
areas are more corrosion-prone than those of steel bridges located in inland areas.
5.3 Performance Verification of Fenders
(1) Consideration should be given to protection of the bridge pier and reduction of damage as a result of impact by
installing fenders on bridge piers as necessary which absorb the impact force at the time of collision.
(2) It is preferable to maintain fenders in good location.
(3) When verifying the performance of a fender for a bridge pier, it should be ensured that the fender has sufficient
functions at the time of collision of a ship taking into consideration the following collision conditions and fender
performance, and that it also has sufficient functions against the actions of waves, water flows.
① Design ship to be considered: type and size
② Collision speed: navigation speed or drift speed
③ Mode of collision: bow collision or hull collision
④ Allowable displacement for the ship and the fender
With regard to the type and size of the design ship, it is preferable to determine the maximum ship size by ship
type based on the investigation on navigating ships in the sea area where the bridge is to be constructed and to
determine the ship size taking into consideration the damage of the ship at the time of collision of small ships as
necessary. The collision speed is usually determined based on the ship traffic conditions and the flow conditions
of the waterway. The mode of collision of ships is usually determined based on the navigating conditions
around the pier for each ship type and each ship size.
(4) The performance of fenders may usually be verified assuming the absorption of the ship collision energy for bow
collisions and hull collisions as follows:
① In the case of a bow collision, the collision energy is absorbed by the sum of the displacement of the fender and
the crush displacement of the bow.
② In the case of a hull collision, the collision energy is absorbed by the displacement of the fender.
(a) With regard to the kinetic energy of the collided ship, Part II, Chapter 8, 2.2 Actions Caused by Ship
Berthing may be used as a reference. Provided, however, that for bow collisions, the eccentricity factor Ce
and virtual mass factor Cm may usually be set at 1.0 and 1.1, respectively, and the ship flexibility factor Cs and
bridge pier shape factor Cc may usually be set at 1.0.
– 937 –
(b) The energy absorbed by the displacement of the fender may usually be obtained based on the following
concept:
1) The energy absorbed by a rubber fender may be obtained based on the displacement restoration
characteristics of the rubber fender.
2) The energy absorbed by a wire rope type fender may be obtained from the relationship between the
elongation and tensile strength of the wire rope.
3) The energy absorbed by the crush displacement of the bow in a bow collision may be obtained from the
relationship between the bow load and displacement.
(c) In cases where consideration should be made so that the hull of a small vessel may not break at the time of
collision, it is preferable that the reactive force of a fender at the time of collision is smaller than the bow
strength for the bow collision and smaller than the hull strength for the hull collision. If it is assumed that the
maximum collision force is distributed across a sufficiently wide area of the exterior plate of the ship side hull,
that it uniformly works on spreading to the distance between the rib centers and above, and that both ends of
the exterior plate are fixed and plastic hinges come into existence at both ends of the exterior plate, the design
ship hull strength of a steel ship may usually be calculated using the following equation.17)
(5.4.1)
where,
PM : ship hull strength (N)
σ y : yield stress for steel members (N/m 2)
t : thickness of the exterior plate (m)
S : distance between rib centers (m)
ν : Poisson's ratio
A : contact area(m2)
The strength of a steel fender may be obtained from the strengths of the members that comprise the steel
fender. The design value used in the equation may be calculated using the following equation:
(5.4.2)
References
1) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, General, Maruzen Publications, 2002
2) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Steel Bridges, Maruzen Publications, 2002
3) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Concrete Bridges, Maruzen Publications,
2002
4) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Substructures, Maruzen Publications, 2002
5) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Seismic Design, Maruzen Publications,
2002
6) Railway Technical Research Institute: Standard and commentary of design of railway structures- Earth structures, Maruzen
Publishing, 2000
7) Railway Technical Research Institute: Standard and commentary of design of railway structures- Concrete structure,
Maruzen Publishing, 2004
8) Railway Technical Research Institute: Standard and commentary of design of railway structures- Composite structure,
Maruzen Publishing, 2000
9) Railway Technical Research Institute: Standard and commentary of design of railway structures- earth pressure resistant
structures, Maruzen Publishing, 2000
10) Takahashi, H. and F. Goto; Study on Ship Height by Statistical Analysis-Standard of Height of Design Ship (Draft)-, Research
Report of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management No.33, 2007
11) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, General, Maruzen Publications, pp.10-20,
2002
12) Sato, H., R. Inamuro and K. Iwata:Wind-resistant performance of the three clear span continuous steel slab double box girder
bridge (Tomari-Ohashi), Proceedings of 39th Annual Conference of JSCE, 1984
13) Nagai, K., M. Oyadomari and R. Inamuro: Wind-resistant performance of the three clear span continuous steel slab double
box girder bridge (Tomari-Ohashi)(Second report), Proceedings of 40th Annual Conference of JSCE, 1985
14) Japan Road Association Bridge Committee: Handbook of painting and corrosion protection of bridges, Japan Road
– 938 –
Association, 2006
15) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Manual for corrosion protection and maintenance work for Port steel facilities
(revised Edition), pp.23-24,pp.34-36, pp.105-108,pp.356-357,1997
16) Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Expressway Compact Ltd.: Design manual for multi-chamber expansion adjusting girder
(Draft)1980
17) Nagasawa, J.: Berthing force and strength of outer plate of ship, Ships, Vol.40 No,3, pp.46-50, 1967
– 939 –
6 Canals
Performance Requirements for Canals
[Commentary]
Article 39
The performance requirements for canals shall be such that the requirements specified by the Minister
of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied for the sake of securing the safe and smooth
navigation of ships in harbors by taking into consideration the traffic characteristics in the port including
navigating ships and others.
[Technical Note]
When verifying the performance of a canal, it is preferable to observe the following items:
(1) When determining the dimensions and alignment of a canal, consideration should be given to the dimensions
of the ships using the canal, the traffic volume, the navigational safety of ships and other relevant factors. In
particular, attention should be paid to the reduction of current speed and keeping the water depth of a certain level
and below.
(2) When determining the crown height height of a bulkhead or dike for a canal, the wave overtopping due to the
ministry generated by navigating ships should be studied. In addition, in cases where a canal connects with a
river, swollen water level during a flood should be examined and in cases where the canal connects to the ocean,
tide levels and incoming wave height should be analyzed.
(3) Consideration should be given to the environment protection for canals, because the slow flow in a canal often leads
to stagnant water and it is possible that substances which cause contamination such as nitrogen and phosphorus
may flow into the canal from neighboring rivers.
– 940 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 7 CARGO HANDLING FACILITIES
Chapter 7 Cargo Sorting Facilities
1 General
General Provisions
Article 41
1 The performance requirement for cargo sorting facilities shall be such that the requirements specified
by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied in light of geotechnical
characteristics, meteorological characteristics, sea states and/or other environmental conditions, as well as
the conditions of cargo handling.
2 The performance requirement for cargo sorting facilities shall be such that the facilities have stability
against self weight, waves, earthquake ground motions, imposed load, winds, and/or other actions.
Necessary Items Concerning Cargo Sorting Facilities
Article 44
The items necessary for the performance requirements of cargo sorting areas as specified in this Chapter by
the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other requirements shall be provided by
the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Cargo Sorting Facilities
Article 80
with the performance requirements for cargo sorting facilities shall be as provided in the subsequent article
through Article 83.
[Technical Note]
1.1 General
(1) This chapter may be used for performance verifications of cargo sorting facilities.
References
1) Fujino, S. and Y. Kawasaki: Port Planning, New Series Civil Engineering 81, Giho-do Publishing, pp.135-138, 1981
2) Nakayama, S.: Port Engineering, Sankai-do Publishing, pp.36-37, 1985
3) Civil Engineering Handbook, Part 37, Port and harbours, Giho-do Publishing, pp.1620-1621, 1989
– 941 –
2 Stationary Cargo Handling Equipment and Rail-mounted Cargo Handling Equipment

Performance Requirements for Cargo Handling Equipment
Article 42
1 The performance requirements for stationary cargo handling equipment and rail-mounted cargo handling
equipment (hereinafter referred to as "cargo handling equipment") shall be such that the requirements
specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied so as to ensure the
safe and smooth sorting of cargo and to keep them from interfering with the mooring of ships or berthing
and unberthing of ships.
2 In addition to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements of the cargo
handling equipment cited in the following shall be as specified in the respective items:
(1) The performance requirements for oil handling equipment shall be such that the damage due to self
weight, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, winds, oil weight and pressure, and other actions do not
adversely affect the continued use of the oil handling equipment concerned without impairing its
function.
(2) The performance requirements for cargo handling equipment installed at high earthquake-resistance
facilities shall be such that the damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions and other actions do
not affect restoration through minor repair works of the functions of the equipment concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criterion of Cargo Handling Equipment
Article 81
1 The performance criteria of cargo handling equipment shall be as specified in the subsequent items in
consideration of the type of cargo handling equipment:
(1) Cargo handling equipment shall be arranged appropriately and provided with the necessary dimensions
in consideration of the design ship, the type and volume of cargo, the structure of the mooring facilities,
and the condition of cargo handling.
(2) In order to protect the environment surrounding the facilities concerned, cargo handling equipment
shall be provided with the functions appropriate for prevention of dust, noise, and the like as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions specified in the preceding paragraphs, the performance criteria for petroleum
cargo handling equipment shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is self weight, the risk of impairing
the integrity of structural members shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(2) Under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground
motions, winds, and the weight and pressure of oil cargoes, the risk of impairing the integrity of
structural members and losing the structural stability shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
3 In addition to the provision in the first paragraph, the performance criterion for cargo handling equipment
to be installed on the high earthquake-resistance facilities shall be such that the degree of damage owing to
the action of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, which is the dominant action under the accidental action
situation, is equal to or less than the threshold level.
– 942 –
[Commentary]
(1) Performance Criteria of Cargo Handling Equipment

① Petroleum cargo handling equipment
(a) The settings relating to the design situations, other than accidental situations, and performance
criteria for petroleum cargo handling equipment limited to loading arm type only are as shown in
Attached Table 66.
Attached Table 66 Settings for the Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) and Performance Criteria for
Petroleum Cargo Handling Equipment

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Situation Dominating action Non-dominating
Item
Item
action
42 2 1 81 2 1 Serviceability Variable Self weight Winds, earth Soundness of members –

pressures,
surcharges
2 L1 earthquake Self weight, Soundness of members, –
ground motion earth pressures, stability of the structure
(winds) (weights surcharges
and pressures of
petroleum)
(b) Soundness of members and the stability of the structure (serviceability)

When verifying the performance of members, the performance criteria regarding their soundness
should be appropriately provided. When verifying the performance of petroleum cargo handling
equipment with regard to their structures, the performance criteria regarding their stability should
be appropriately set according to the structural type.
Cargo handling equipment installed in a high earthquake-resistance facility (restorability)
The settings relating to the design situations, limited to accidental situations only, and performance
criteria for cargo handling equipment installed in a high earthquake-resistance facility are as shown
in Attached Table 67. The reason for indicating “damages” in the “Verification item” column
of Attached Table 67 is that it is necessary to use a comprehensive term taking account that the
verification items vary depending on the type, structure and structural type of the facilities.
Attached Table 67 Settings relating for Design Situations, limited to Accidental Situations, and Performance Criteria for
Cargo Handling Equipment

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Item
Item
Situation action
42 2 1 81 3 – Restorability Accidental L2 earthquake Self weight, Damages –

ground motion earth pressures
– 943 –
[Technical Note]
2.1 General
(1) The purpose of introducing cargo handling equipment in ports is to reduce labor works, to speed up cargo handling
activities, and to ensure safety. The selection of the type, structure and capacity of cargo handling equipment is
preferably made by sufficiently considering the design ships, the type, shape, volume, and particular of cargoes,
as well as the relations with yard facilities behind, and the mode of secondary transportation.
(2) Cargo handling equipment installed in cargo handling facilities or mooring facilities shall have the required
structure and capacity, and location. The equipment shall be structurally sound, be provided with anti-pollution
systems against dust and noise, and ensure smooth and safe operation in cargo handling activities.
(3) Sufficient space should be secured around cargo handling equipment for its various operations by clearing the
space of obstacles such as buildings and power lines. Cargo handling equipment should be designed and located
so that it does not come into contact with ships at berthing and leaving or during mooring.
(4) Countermeasures against noise and dust are required for bulk cargoes handling equipment because their handling
is likely to produce noise and dust. In particular, inflammable dust shall require countermeasures against blast.
(1) Behavior of the cargo handling equipment and mooring facilities during earthquakes and setting of the seismic-
resistant performance of the cargo handling equipment
It is necessary to verify the seismic-resistance of the cargo handling equipment and the mooring facilities to
ensure that the mooring facilities in which the cargo handling equipment is installed satisfies the requirements
regarding its performance during earthquakes. Hence, the seismic-resistant performance of the cargo handling
equipment should be defined taking into consideration the fact that deformations, rail span expansions, correspond
to the defined performance requirements will occur in the mooring facilities.
(2) Verification Procedure

Verifications of the seismic-resistant performance of cargo handling equipment should take into consideration their
interactions with the mooring facilities involved and be performed in accordance with the following procedure:
① Determination of the assumed Level 1 and Level 2 earthquake ground motion on the seismic bedrock
② Calculation of the changes over time in Level 1 and Level 2 earthquake ground motion at the site where the crane
rails are located
• In case it is necessary to take into consideration the dynamic interactions between the cargo handling
equipment and mooring facility, on a pier type quaywall the changes over time in the horizontal accelerations
at the rail site are calculated taking into consideration the dynamic interactions between the crane and the pier.
In the case where the installation of an earthquake-resistance crane is expected, a combination of rigidity and
damping that reproduces the natural period of the earthquake-resistance container crane shall be given, (see
Fig. 2.2.1).
• In the case of a type other than a pier type, the changes over time in the ground surface acceleration shall
be calculated through a seismic response analysis of the ground and the data obtained is used as the ground
motion at the crane rail site.
③ Examination regarding whether the container crane will derail
• The value obtained by dividing the maximum response acceleration of the container crane by the gravitational
acceleration is adopted as the design value of the seismic coefficient, the rail span and the location of the
center of gravity of the crane are to be modeled, and examination with respect to overturning is performed
using the seismic coefficient method (i.e. examination regarding whether the container crane will derail).
• If the results of the examination described above indicate that the crane will overturn, recalculations will be
repeated with the dimensions of the earthquake-proofing mechanism section varied until such conditions that
prevent overturning or derailing are achieved.
④ Examination of the stroke of the earthquake-proofing mechanism
• After the confirmation that the crane will not overturn, the changes over time in the displacement response are
calculated and examination is made as to whether the stroke of the earthquake-proofing mechanism remains
within the allowable range of displacement of the earthquake proofing mechanism assumed.
– 944 –
• If the displacements that would occur are out of the allowable ranges, the dimensions of the earthquake-
proofing mechanism section will be changed and step ③ will be performed again.
⑤ In the case where the container crane is installed on a pier:
• If there is a difference from the dimensions of the earthquake-resistance cranes assumed that were used in
step ② above, the final confirmation will be made by performing step ② again.
⑥ Evaluation of the rail span displacement in relation to the displacement of the crane leg section
• The maximum rail span displacement is calculated from results of seismic response analyses of the mooring
facility. Then, an evaluation is made to determine whether the maximum rail span displacement is within the
sum of the elastic deformation range of the crane leg section and the displacement of the half-amplitude stroke
of the earthquake-proofing mechanism, see Fig. 2.2.2.
(3) In the case where it is necessary to take into consideration the dynamic interactions between the cargo handling
equipment and mooring facility under the action of ground motion:
In the case of cargo handling equipment installed on top of a mooring facility, the response accelerations of
the cargo handling equipment during an earthquake may be amplified and the oscillation characteristic under
the action of ground motion may affect the mooring facility when the scale is large, and these must be taken into
consideration regardless of whether the state is a variable situation associated with Level 1 earthquake ground
motion or an accidental situation associated with Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
The oscillation characteristic such as the natural period in the sea-land direction of cargo handling equipment
such as cranes varies depending on the scale and type of the cargo handling equipment, but it usually falls within
the range of 0.5 to 3 seconds. Container cranes equipped with an earthquake-proofing mechanism often have
a long natural period of around 4 seconds. In the case where such cranes are installed on piers with a natural
period of 0.5 to 2.0 seconds, it is necessary to be cautious about the possibility that coupling behaviors, dynamic
interactions, may occur in the performance verification of the pier with respect to ground motion. In the case
where, regardless of the structural type of the mooring facility, the predominant period of the ground motion at
the location where the cargo handling equipment is installed is about 1.5 seconds or longer, it is expected that
response accelerations of the cargo handling equipment will become high and thus it may become necessary to
conduct a dynamic analysis-based evaluation in the performance verification of the cargo handling equipment. In
either case, it is preferable to reduce the response accelerations of the cargo handling equipment through the use of
an earthquake-proofing mechanism or a damping mechanism, to prevent derailing and ensure that the soundness
of the members will be secured. For details of the performance verifications, explanations about performance
verifications of facilities in this Part as well as the Guide to Earthquake-resistance Design of Container Cranes
3) may be referenced.
(4) Modeling of Cranes Installed on Piers

In the case where a crane is installed on a pier, performance verification of seismic-resistant should in principle be
through dual lumped mass system analyses that use the equivalent rigidity of the piles for one block of the pier (k),
the mass of the superstructure (m), the damping factor (c), the equivalent rigidity of the crane (kc), the mass of the
crane (mc) and the damping factor for the crane (cc). With regard to the oscillation characteristic of the crane, the
natural period should be similar to that of the actual crane. With regard to the damping factor, a value between
1% and 3% should be used unless the damping factor value is specified by the crane manufacturer. The equivalent
rigidity values for the pier and the crane are the values for the number of piles per block of the pier and the number
of crane leg, respectively, and are represented by the mass system springs shown in Fig. 2.2.1. The equivalent
rigidity (k) in the mass system model of the pier part is modeled on the assumption that the nonlinear stress-strain
relationship used in the design of the pier applies.
(5) Modeling of Cranes Installed on Mooring Facilities other than Piers
In the case of mooring facilities other than piers, the effects of the dynamic interactions are small because the
mass of the mooring facilities are large in relation to the mass of cargo handling equipment, which means that it
suffices to evaluate, through dynamic analyses, the responses of the cranes themselves during earthquakes. That
is, the ground surface ground motion at the location in question is entered in the single mass system that represents
the crane part only as shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
– 945 –
mc
kc
cc
m
k
c
Fig. 2.2.1 Modeling of Pier and Crane
(6) Considerations on the Rail Span Displacements

In principle, the container crane leg section must not uplift during earthquakes. Therefore, it is necessary to provide
a mechanism that prevents damages to the crane structure when the rail span widens during an earthquake. For
example, in the case of a container crane whose span is 30.5m as shown in Fig. 2.2.2, the elastic deformation range
of the crane leg section accommodates widening of the span up to around 700mm, that is a reference value and
the actual value varies among cranes. By adding this amount of deformation, namely elastic deformation range of
the crane leg section, to the displacement of half-amplitude stroke of about 300mm, that is also a reference value
and the actual value varies among cranes, of the earthquake-resistance mechanism section, the allowable amount
of displacement of about 1,000mm in the maximum for the crane span is obtained. Therefore, the earthquake-
resistance mechanism needs to be so designed, as necessary, that it is appropriate for the amount of rail span
displacement calculated from results of seismic response analyses of the mooring facility.
Stroke of the
earthquake-proofing
mechanism 300 30, 500
700
Elastic deformation range

of the crane leg section
1, 000 When it is assumed

that the land side rail is fixed
Fig. 2.2.2 Relationship between Deformations of the Crane Leg Section and Rail Span Displacements
– 946 –
2.3 Loading Arms (Stationary Cargo Handling Equipment)

(1) Loading arms shall be of a structure ensuring safety against the stress caused by the weight and pressure of oil
within them, their self weight, and the wind pressure and the seismic force.
(2) The distance between loading arms and the face line of the mooring facilities is desired to determine appropriately
in light of the length of the arms and the height of fenders so that they may cause no obstacles to oil handling.
References
1) Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers: Guideline of crane manufacturing, 1975
2) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Handbook of port cargo-handling machinery system, 1996,
3) Nakazono, Y. Guideline for earthquake-resistant design of container cranes, Port Cargo Handling, Vol. 43 No. 6, pp.635-640,
1998
4) Japan Road Association: Technical Standard for petroleum pipe line (Draft), pp.46-47,1974
5) Spangier M.G.: Underground Condition- An Appraisal of Modern Research, Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 113, 1948
6) NAKAYAMA, S., Osamu KIYOMIYA and Takao FUJISAWA:, Rept. of PHRI Vol.15,No,3,PP,99-145,1976
7) American Petroleum Institute: Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe, and Line Pipe Properties,
API BULLETIN 5C3 SIXTH EDITION, 1994
8) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Maintenance manual for quay cranes, 1979
9) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Maintenance manual for container crane, 1980
10) Japan Association of Cargo-handling Machinery System: Maintenance manual for container crane, 1983
– 947 –
3 Cargo Sorting Areas

Performance Requirements for Cargo Sorting Areas
Article 43
1 The performance requirements for cargo sorting areas for the safe and smooth sorting of cargo shall be as
specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Cargo sorting areas shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism so as to ensure the safe and smooth sorting of cargo.
(2) Damage due to imposed load and other actions shall not adversely affect the continued use of the cargo
sorting areas and not impair their functions.
2 In addition to the requirements specified in the preceding paragraph, the performance requirements for
cargo sorting areas which need to function in an integrated manner with high earthquake-resistance facilities
during disasters shall be such that the damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions and other actions
do not affect restoration through minor repair works of the functions required of the areas concerned in
the aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2 earthquake ground motions. Provided, however, that as for the
performance requirements for cargo sorting areas which require further improvement in earthquake-resistant
performance due to environmental, social and/or other conditions to which the cargo sorting areas concerned
are subjected, the damage due to said actions shall not affect the restoration through minor repair works of
the functions of the cargo sorting areas concerned and their continued use.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Cargo Sorting Areas
Article 82
1 The performance criteria of cargo sorting areas are as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Cargo sorting areas shall have the appropriate shape and sizes in consideration of the types and amounts
of cargoes and the way cargoes are handled.
(2) The passageways in a cargo sorting area shall have the appropriate widths and alignments so as to
ensure the safe and smooth traffic of cargo handling equipment, vehicles, and/or others.
(3) Cargo sorting areas shall be equipped with the appropriate lighting facilities so as to enable the safe and
smooth utilization of the cargo sorting areas in consideration of the utilization conditions of the areas
concerned.
(4) In the case of cargo sorting areas that are dangerous for people to enter, the cargo sorting areas shall be
provided with appropriate means to keep people off the areas.
(5) Cargo sorting areas shall have appropriate drainage facilities to prevent retention of water in the areas.
(6) The risk that a pavement in a cargo sorting area is damaged to the extent which may adversely affect
cargo handling works under the variable action situation, in which the dominant action is imposed load,
shall be equal to or less than the threshold level.
(7) Cargo sorting areas which deal with cargoes that may be scattered by winds shall be provided with
appropriate means to prevent scattering of cargoes.
(8) In the case of a cargo sorting area that is used to handle lumber, the following requirements shall be
satisfied:
(a) Appropriate facilities and equipment to dispose of bark shall be provided as necessary.
(b) Appropriate means to prevent lumber from drifting away shall be provided for the cargo sorting area
on the water.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of the cargo sorting area
that shall function in combination with the high earthquake-resistance facilities during disasters shall be
such that the degree of damage owing to the action of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, which is the
dominant action in the accidental action situation, is equal to less than the threshold level corresponding
to the performance requirements.
– 948 –
[Commentary]
(1)Performance Criteria of Cargo Sorting Areas

① Pavements in cargo sorting areas (serviceability)
The settings relating to the design situations, except accidental situations, and performance criteria
for pavements in cargo sorting areas are as shown in Attached Table 68. The reason for indicating
“damages” in the “Verification item” column of Attached Table 68 is that it is necessary to use a
comprehensive term taking account that the verification items vary depending on the type, structure
and structural type of the facilities.
Attached Table 68 Settings for to the Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) and Performance Criteria for
Pavements in Cargo Sorting Areas

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Item
Item
Situation action
43 1 2 82 1 6 Restorability Accidental L2 earthquake Self weight, Damages

ground motion earth pressures
② Cargo sorting areas that need to function in combination with a high earthquake-resistance facility
during disasters
The settings relating to the design situations, limited to accidental situations only, and performance
criteria for cargo sorting areas that need to function in combination with a high earthquake-resistance
facility during disasters are as shown in Attached Table 69. The reason for indicating “damages” in
the “Verification item” column of Attached Table 69 is that it is necessary to use a comprehensive
term taking account that the verification items vary depending on the structure and structural type of
the facilities.
Attached Table69 Settings for to the Design Situations, limited to Accidental Situations only, and Performance Criteria
for Cargo Sorting Areas

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Item
Item
Situation action
43 2 – 82 2 – Restorability Accidental L2 earthquake Self weight, Damages

– 949 –
[Technical Note]
3.1 General
(1) Cargo sorting areas shall be paved appropriately in respect of their purposes and the ways they are used.
With regard to the structures of pavements, Part III, Chapter 5, 9.14 Aprons may be referenced.
(2) The widths and curves of passageways shall allow safe and smooth operation of vehicles and cargo handling
equipment.
(3) With regard to lighting facilities of cargo sorting areas that are operated at night, the provisions of Chapter 5, 9.3
Lighting Facilities may be referenced.
(4) A cargo sorting area that is dangerous for the public is necessary to take appropriate measures to prohibit the
entrance of public with provisions of signs, boards, and fences.
3.2 Timber Sorting Areas for Timber Sorting
(1) The appropriate location and size of the land or water surface shall be secured for a timber sorting area to enable
safe and smooth timber sorting.
(2) In timber sorting areas for timber, it is preferable to take measures allowing incineration as necessary, including
the installation of special plants for bark incineration, and measures providing appropriate safety means to prevent
lumber from drifting away or settling down, and appropriate environmental protection means to prevent from
scattering bark.
(3) Timber sorting ponds should be located in calm water areas.
(4) It is preferable for timber sorting ponds to be equipped with facilities preventing the drifting of timbers.
(5) It is preferable for timber sorting water area to be so located that the waterway connecting the basin for timber
rafts and the sorting pond or timber yard will not obstruct the navigation of by crossing major waterways or basins.
(6) In respect of a breakwater for the timber sorting ponds, Chapter 4, 7 Breakwaters for Timber Sorting Facilities
can be used as a reference
3.3 Cargo Sorting Facilities for Marine Products
(1) Cargo sorting facilities for marine products shall be designed to ensure synergistic relations among their
functions.
(2) Marine product handling facilities consist of marine product sorting areas and related ancillary facilities. Marine
product sorting areas deal with all activities ranging from the water-washing to carrying-out of the catch, and are
covered with roofs for the preservation of freshness, the prevention of pollution, and the preservation of working
conditions. Ancillary facilities include loading area, icehouse, bidding room, and the other facilities, wastewater
treatment facilities and freezer facilities which contribute to enhancement of the functions of marine product
sorting areas.
3.4 Cargo Sorting Facilities for Hazardous Cargoes

In the case where the cargoes sorted are not hazardous cargoes but are subject to fumigation requirements, it is
preferable to provide signs and/or notice boards around the cargo sorting area in which the fumigation is performed
and the associated shed indicate that they are dangerous and prohibiting unauthorized entry.
3.5 Container Terminal Areas

3.5.1 General
The scales and types of container terminals vary depending on such factors as the port to be developed, the shipping
company that uses the port, the shipping routes, the volume and types of cargoes and the modes of transportation used
to haul cargoes into the port behind. Terminals in which containers are handled can be classified into 2 types; wharfs
in which only container cargoes are handled, specialized wharfs, and wharfs in which container cargoes as well as
other types of cargoes are handled, namely multi-purpose wharfs. In principle, the explanations in this section cover
specialized wharfs only.
– 950 –
(1) Basic principles for performance verifications of container terminal areas

Fig. 3.5.1 8) shows a typical performance verification procedure for container terminal areas with respect to their
scales.
(2) When calculating or determining the scale of a container terminal area, the basic principles described in (3) to (8)
below, which are proposed by Takahashi, 8) may be adopted.
Target route Amount of cargoes handled in the port (V0)
Frequency of visits of ships
Largest target ship

Annual turnover (e)
Ship Ship Full load Peak coefficient ( f )

length breadth draft
(L0) (B0) (d0) Design cargo handling amount (V1 = f ּ (V0/e))
Keel clearance rate (β1) Coefficient for the maximum number of stacks (g1)
Intersecting Draft rate for arrival at
angle coefficient and departure from port (β2) Effectiveness factor (g2)
(α)
Number of ground slots (V2) = V1/g1 ּ g2)　
Berth length (La) Required berth water depth
La = L0 + α・B0 (Da =β1・β2・d0)　 Reefer container ground slot ratio (h)
Dry container ground slot ratio Number of ground slots for reefer containers
(V3 = V2 (1－h)) (V4 = V2 ּ h)
1TEU unit area (i1) 1 TEU unit area (i2)

(Dry containers) (Reefer containers)
Area of the back yard

Rail-normal line distance (a1) Area of the ground slots (Gy = V3ּ i1+V4ּ i2) facilities (By)
Crane span width (a2)
Width of the road for vehicles Marshaling area Back yard area
located behind the crane (a3) coefficient ( j ) coefficient (k)
Area of the marshaling area Area of the back yard area
(B = Gy・j) (C = By ּ k)
Apron area width Marshaling area width Back yard area width
(Lb1 = a1 + a2 + a3) (Lb2 = B /La) (Lb3 = C /La)
Terminal area width (Lb)

(Lb = Lb1 + Lb2 + Lb3)
Fig. 3.5.1 Size Estimation Model for Typical Container Berth Terminal Area 25)
(3) Elements of Container Terminals

The main elements of a container terminal are berth, apron area, marshaling area and back yard area. Fig. 3.5.2
8) shows a plan view of a typical container terminal area.
① Berths
A berth is an area used to berth and moor container ships in order to handle their cargoes at the container
terminal. The size of a berth is set by the berth length La and the water depth Da.
② Apron areas
(a) An apron area is an area in which container cranes and vehicles for cargo handling travel and containers hatch
covers of container ships are temporarily stored. The Lb1 in Fig. 3.5.2 8) represents the apron area width.
– 951 –
(b) The apron area width Lb1 may usually be determined from the rail-normal line distance, the rail span of gantry
crane and the width of the strip for the vehicle traveling.
③ Marshaling areas
(a) A marshaling area is an area in which containers to be loaded onto and containers unloaded from container
ships are arranged. The Lb2 in Fig. 3.5.2 8) represents the marshaling area width.
(b) With regard to the width of the marshaling, a width of Lb2 that is appropriate in relation to the berth length may
usually be adopted according to the required marshaling area size.
La
Lb1 A: Apron area
Lb2
B: Marshaling area
Lb
Power reception and

transformer facility
Reefer Reefer
Fueling station C: Back yard area

Maintenance shop
Transtainer
maintenance Gatehouse
Lb3 area CFS
Power reception
station
Administration building
Cleaning facility
Fig. 3.5.2 Typical Container Terminal 8)
④ Back yard areas

(a) A back yard area is an area that has container freight stations, maintenance shops, an administration buildings,
and gates. The Lb3 in Fig. 3.5.2 8) represents the back yard area width. Brief explanations about typical
facilities of a back yard area are given below. The term “back yard area” is not a commonly used term; in
many cases, the term “container terminal” is used to refer collectively to the marshaling area and the back yard
area. However, this section treats the back yard area separately in order to allow quantitative performance
verifications of container terminal areas with respect to their sizes.
1) Container freight stations
A container freight station is a building where small-lot consignment cargoes, which individually do not
fully occupy a container, are received, stored and delivered and cargoes are packed into and taken out of
containers.
2) Maintenance shops
A maintenance shop is a building where inspections of containers and repairs of damaged containers and
cleaning of containers before and after use are performed.
– 952 –
3) Administration buildings
An administration building is a building used to centrally direct and control all operations performed in the
yard by, for example, planning operations to be performed in the yard, issuing directions and supervising
the implementation of the container arrangement plans.
4) Gates
A gate is a place where containers and container cargoes are received and delivered.
(b) With regard to the width of the back yard area, a width of Lb3 that is appropriate in relation to the berth length
may usually be adopted according to the required back yard area size.
(4) Berths
① Berth length
With regard to the berth length of a container terminal, Chapter 5, 2.1 Common Items for Wharves may be
referenced.
② Berth water depth
With regard to the berth water depth of a container terminal, Chapter 5, 2.1 Common Items for Wharves may
be referenced.
(5) Apron Areas
① The apron area width Lb1 may be calculated by equation (3.5.1).
(3.5.1)
here,
w
a1 : rail-quaywall faceline distance
a2 : rail span width
a3 : width of the strip for the vehicle traveling behind the crane
② Rail-quaywall faceline distance (a1)
The determination of the distance between the sea side rail and the faceline of the quaywall should preferably
take into consideration the locations of the mooring posts, cable grooves for containers, cable winders and
stairways that serve as an access to moored container ships, as well as the characteristics of the container
terminal in question. When determining the distance between the sea side rail and the faceline of the quaywall,
a value of a1=3m may be used as a reference value.9)
③ Rail span width (a2)
The rail span width should preferably be a width equal to or larger than the total width of the lanes required
to accommodate for the cranes used container handling plus one additional crane. In addition, it is preferable
to add 5 to 10m for the passage of personnel and miscellaneous operation vehicles. When determining the
required width per lane beneath crane, a value of 5.0m/lane or 5.5m/lane may be used as a reference value for
tractor-trailers or straddle carriers, respectively 9).
Under the above-mentioned guidelines, it may be considered that the rail span width a2 for the case where 3
cranes are used per ship and straddle carriers are used can be calculated as follows:
a2 = (3+1) lanes×5.5m/lane+8m (allowance) = 30m
If the rail span determined based on the structural dimensions of the crane is larger than the required lane width
mentioned above, it is necessary to use the former value.
④ Determination of the width of the strip for the vehicle traveling behind the crane (a3)
The width of the strip for the vehicle traveling behind the crane should preferably be determined appropriately
with consideration given to the dimensions of the cranes, and the allowance width.
In the case where tractor-trailers are used, the width of the strip for the vehicle traveling behind the crane
may be calculated by adding an allowance width of 3m to the sum of the total width of the temporary storage
areas for hatch covers (4 rows:11m; 5 rows:13.5m) 9) and the minimum lane width of 3.5m.9) For example, if the
number of rows of hatch cover storage areas is 5, a strip width of 20m is obtained. In the case where straddle
carriers are used, a strip width of 37m which is calculated by adding an allowance width of 15m to the width of
22m 9) for the turning of carriers may be used.
⑤ Standard values for the apron area width Lb1
The standard value range for the apron area width is Lb1=50 to 80m.
In the case where 3 cranes are used per ship and straddle carriers are used, it may be considered that Lb1 can be
calculated as follows:
Lb1 = a1+a2+a3 = 3m+30m+37m = 70m
– 953 –
(6) Marshaling Areas
① The area of a marshaling area may usually be calculated using the procedure shown in Fig. 3.5.4 based on the
design handling volume (V0 (TEU)).
Calculation of the number of containers handled for marshaling area design (V1):equation (3.5.2)
Calculation of the number of ground slots (V2):equation (3.5.3)
Calculation of the number of dry container ground slots (V3):equation (3.5.4)
Calculation of the number of reefer container ground slots (V4):equation (3.5.5)
Calculation of the ground slot area (Gy):equation (3.5.6)
Calculation of the area of the marshaling area (B):equation (3.5.7)
Fig. 3.5.4 Example of a Procedure for Performance Verifications with respect to the Area of the Marshaling Area
The area of a marshaling area may usually be calculated using equations (3.5.2) through (3.5.7):
(3.5.2)
(3.5.3)
(3.5.4)
(3.5.5)
(3.5.6)
(3.5.7)
where,
V0 : design handling volume (TEU)
V1 : number of containers handled for marshaling area design (TEU)
e : annual turnover (number of times / year)
(3.5.8)
Dy : annual number of operation days (days)
Dt : average period of storage in the yard (days)
f : peak coefficient
V2 : number of ground slots (TEU)
g1 : coefficient for the maximum number of stacks
g 2 : effectiveness factor
V3 : number of dry container ground slots (TEU)
h : reefer container ground slot ratio
V4 : number of reefer container ground slots (TEU)
Gy : ground slot area (m 2)
i1 : floor area per one TEU of dry container (m 2)
i2 : floor area per one TEU of reefer container (m 2)
B : area of the marshaling area (m2)
j : marshaling area coefficient
– 954 –
The marshaling area width Lb2 may be calculated by equation (3.5.9) from the area of the marshaling area.
(3.5.9)
where,
B : area of the marshaling area (m2)
La : berth length (m)
② The specific settings of the individual coefficients may be referenced in References 8) and 9).
Dt = 2 to 7 days 9)
Dt = 3 to 9 days 9)
f = 1.2 to 1.3 8)
g1 = transfer crane = 4 to 5 piles 9)
straddle carrier = 3 to 4 piles 9)
g2 = 0.7 to 0.8 9)
h = 0.05 to 0.15 8)
i1 = (8 feet × 20 feet) = 14.9 m2 8)
i2 = 19.5 m2 (set based on actual records in Japanese ports)
j = 2.0 to 3.0 (for berth water depth less than 15 m)
j = 2.5 to 3.5 (for berth water depth 15 m or more)Dt =2 to 7 days 9)
Dt = 3 to 9 days 9)
f = 1.2 to 1.3 8)
g1 = transfer crane = 4 to 5 piles 9)
straddle carrier = 3 to 4 piles 9)
g2 = 0.7 to 0.8 9)
h = 0.05 to 0.15 8)
i1 = (8 feet × 20 feet) = 14.9 m2 8)
i2 = 19.5 m2 (set based on actual records in Japanese ports)
j = 2.0 to 3.0 (for berth water depth less than 15 m)
j = 2.5 to 3.5 (for berth water depth 15 m or more)
③ Reference values in respect to setting of coefficient
In general, since settings of individual e, f, g1, g2 are difficult, f/(eg1g2) can be set as a coefficient by integrating
them.
In reference 8), f/(eg1g2) = 0.05 to 0.020 is indicated.
④ Reference values in respect to marshaling areas
Number of ground slots (V2)
In reference 8), the following values are indicated as numbers of ground slots.
V2 = 1,500 to 2,000TEU (for berth water depth less than 15 m)
V2 = 1,500 to 2,500TEU (for berth water depth 15 m or more)
Area of marshaling area (B)
In reference 8), the following values are indicated as area of marshaling area..
B = 40,000 to 90,000 m2 (for berth water depth less than 15 m)
B = 70,000 to 110,000 m 2 (for berth water depth 15 m or more)
⑤ Standard value of marshaling area width
In reference 8), the following values are indicated as standard value of marshaling area width.
Lb2 = 150 to 250 m (for berth water depth less than 13 m)
Lb2 = 200 to 300 m (for berth water depth 13 m or more but less than 15.5 m)
Lb2 = 250 to 330 m (for berth water depth 15.5 m or more)
(7) Back Yard Area (C)
① The area of a back yard area may usually be calculated by equation (3.5.10).
(3.5.10)
where,
By : total area of the back yard area facilities (i.e. total floor area of the container freight stations,
maintenance shops, administration buildings, gates, constructed in the back yard area) (m 2)
k : back yard area coefficient
The back yard area widthLb3 may be calculated by equation (3.5.11) from the area of the back yard area.
(3.5.11)
– 955 –
where,
C : area of the back yard area (m 2)
La : berth length
② With regard to the specific settings of the individual coefficients, Reference 8) may be referenced.
1) Total area of the back yard area facilities (By)
By = 7,500 m2 (for area of marshaling area: less than 90,000 m 2)
By = 9,000 m2 (for area of marshaling area: 90,000 m 2 or more)
2) Back yard area coefficient (k)
k = 4.0 to5.0 8)
③ Standard value of back yard area width Lb3
In reference 8), Lb3 =90 to130 m is indicated as standard value of back yard area width.
(8) Container Terminal Area Width
① The container terminal area width Lb may be calculated by equation (3.5.12).
(3.5.12)
where,
Lb1 : apron area width
Lb2 : marshaling area width
Lb3 : back yard area width
② Standard values for the container terminal area width Lb

When determining the container terminal area width Lb, Reference 8) may be referenced. The following
standard value ranges for the container terminal area width which are based on the berth water depth are
specified:
Lb = 300 to 400m (when the berth water depth is less than 15m)
Lb = 350 to 600m (when the berth water depth is 15m or more)
References
1) Fujino, S. and Y. Kawasaki: New Series Civil Engineering 81, Giho-do Publishing, pp 184-189, 1981
2) JSCE: Civil Engineering Handbook: Part 37, Ports and Harbours, Giho-do Publishing,, pp. 1605, 1989
3) Japan Fishing Port Association: Handbook for fish port planning (1992), pp.109-135,1992
4) Sato, T: .Utilization planning (4)of land area for fish port facilities, Fish Port, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp 51, 1971
5) Sato, T: .Utilization planning (5)of land area for fish port facilities, Fish Port, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp 42, 1972
6) Sato, T: .Utilization planning (11)of land area for fish port facilities, Fish Port, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp.28-33, 1972
7) Fujino, S. and Y. Kawasaki : Port Planning, New Series Civil Engineering 81, Giho-do Publishing, pp.191-193, 1981
8) Takahasi, H.: A model for estimation scales of container terminal areas at the stage of port and harbour planning- A standard
for designing principal size in container terminals : A proposal-, Research Report of National Institute for Land and
Infrastructure Management No,10,2003
9) Port and Harbour Bureau Ministry of Transport and Over seas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan: Report of
container terminal facility plans, 1993
– 956 –
4 Sheds
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Sheds
Article 83
1 The provisions of the first paragraph of the previous article (Items (1) through (4) only) shall also be used
as performance criteria for sheds.
2 For sheds, the following performance criteria shall be used in addition to the performance criteria specified
in the previous paragraph.
(1) Sheds in which dusts are generated as a result of the handling of cargoes shall have appropriate
ventilation facilities and equipment.
(2) Sheds into which water may enter as a result of storm surges shall be provided with appropriate facilities
and equipment to prevent ingress of water as necessary.
4.1 General
(1) Sheds shall meet the following requirements to ensure smooth cargo handling before the entrance and after the
departure of ships.
(a) The size of a shed shall be determined appropriately by considering the kinds and quantities of cargoes and their
handling conditions.
(b) The widths and curves of passageways in a shed shall be determined to allow safe and smooth operation of cargo
handling equipment.
(2) With regard to lighting facilities of sheds in which cargoes are handled at night, the provisions of Chapter 5, 9.4
Lighting Facilities may be referenced.
Sheds shall be equipped with the provisions of appropriate signs and broads to ensure safe and smooth use as
necessary.
– 957 –
Chapter 8 Storage Facilities
1 General
Performance Requirements for Storage Facilities
Article 45
The performance requirements for storage facilities shall be such that the storage facilities satisfy the
requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to enable
the safe and appropriate storage of cargo in consideration of geotechnical characteristics, meteorological
characteristics, sea states and/or other environmental conditions, as well as the conditions of cargo handling.
Necessary Items concerning Storage Facilities
Article 46
The items necessary for the performance requirements of storage facilities as specified in this Chapter by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and others shall be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Storage Facilities
Article 84
the performance requirements for storage facilities shall be as provided in the subsequent article through
Article 87.

2 Warehouses
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Warehouses
Article 86
The provisions in Article 83 shall be applied to the performance criteria of warehouses with modification as
necessary.
[Technical Note]
The structure and location of warehouses shall be set appropriately in accordance with the requirements
specified in Chapter 7, 3 Cargo Sorting Areas and 4 Sheds and Article 3 of the Enforcement Rules for
the Warehousing Business Law (Ministerial Ordinance of the Ministry of Transport No.59 of 1956) as a
reference.
3 Open Storage Yards

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Open Storage Yards, Timber Storage Yards and Ponds and Coal Storage Yards
Article 85
The provisions in item i) of Article 82 shall be applied to the performance criteria for open storage yards,
timber storage yards and ponds, and coal storage yards with modification as necessary.
[Technical Note]
Open storage yards are subject to the requirements specified in Chapter 7, 3 Cargo Sorting Areas. With
regard to calculations of the areas of open storage yards, Reference 1) may be used as a reference.
– 958 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 8 STORAGE FACILITIES
4 Timber Storage Yards and Ponds

Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Open Storage Yards, Timber Storage Yards and Ponds and Coal Storage Yards
Article 85
The provisions in paragraph 1 of Article 82 shall be applied to the performance criteria for open storage
yards, timber storage yards and ponds and coal storage yards with modification as necessary.
[Technical Note]
The requirements specified in Chapter 7, 3 Cargo Sorting Areas shall be applied to the timber storage
yards and ponds.
5 Coal Storage Yards

Public Notice
Performance Criteria for Open Storage Yards, Timber Storage Yards and Ponds, and Coal Storage Yards
Article 85
The provisions in paragraph 1 of Article 82 shall be applied to the performance criteria for open storage
yards, timber storage yards and ponds and coal storage yards with modification as necessary.
[Technical Note]
The requirements specified in Chapter 7, 3 Cargo Sorting Areas shall be applied to the coal storage yards.
6 Hazardous Materials Storage Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Hazardous Materials Storage Facilities and Oil Storage Facilities
Article 87
1 The provisions in Article 83 or paragraph 1 of Article 82 shall be applied to the performance criteria of
hazardous materials storage facilities and oil storage facilities with modification as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of hazardous materials
storage facilities and oil storage facilities shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Hazardous materials storage facilities and oil storage facilities shall be located in such a way that they
are not scattered over an area. However, noncompliance with this requirement may be permitted in the
case where compliance is impossible because of the topography or other reasons.
(2) Hazardous materials storage facilities shall be surrounded by a band of vacant land having an appropriate
width in consideration of the types of the hazardous cargoes, the structures of the facilities and other
relevant conditions.
7 Oil Storage Facilities

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Hazardous Materials Storage Facilities and Oil Storage Facilities
Article 87
1 The provisions in Article 83 or paragraph 1 of Article 82 shall be applied to the performance criteria of
hazardous materials storage facilities and oil storage facilities with modification as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of hazardous materials
storage facilities and oil storage facilities shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Hazardous materials storage facilities and oil storage facilities shall be located in such a way that they
are not scattered over an area. However, noncompliance with this requirement may be permitted in the
case where compliance is impossible because of the topography or other reasons.
(2) Hazardous materials storage facilities shall be surrounded by a band of vacant land having an appropriate
width in consideration of the types of the hazardous cargoes, the structures of the facilities and other
– 959 –
relevant conditions.
References
1) JSCE: Civil Engineering Handbook, Part 11, Port and harbours, Giho-do Publishing, pp.1606, 1989
– 960 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 9 FACILITIES FOR SHIP SERVICE
Chapter 9 Facilities for Ship Service
1 General
Performance Requirements for Facilities for Ship Service
Article 47
1 The performance requirements for ship service facilities shall be such that the requirements specified by
the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied for the provision of safe and
smooth services to ships in light of geotechnical characteristics, meteorological characteristics, sea states
and/or other environmental conditions, as well as the conditions of ship entry.
2 The performance requirements of water supply facilities for ships shall be such that the requirements
specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied for the sanitary
supply of water to ships.
3 The performance requirements for ship storage facilities shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied
so as to enable the safe bringing-in and bringing-out of ships.
(2) The requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied
so as to enable the proper fixing of ships.
Necessary Items concerning Facilities for Ship Service
Article 48
The items necessary for enforcement of the performance requirements for ship service facilities as specified
in this Chapter by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other requirements shall
be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Facilities for Ship Service
Article 88
The items to be specified by the Public Notice under Article 48 of the Ministerial Ordinance concerning the
performance requirements of ship service facilities shall be as specified in the subsequent article.
2 Water Supply Facilities to Ships

Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Water Supply Facilities for Ships
Article 89
The performance criteria of water supply facilities for ships shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) The facilities shall be installed at appropriate locations, corresponding to the condition of use by
ships.
(2) The facilities shall have an appropriate capacity of water supply corresponding to the dimensions of the
design ship.
(3) The facilities shall have a structure which is capable of preventing water pollution, and the water
hydrants shall be maintained in a sanitary condition.
[Technical Note]
(1) The layout and capacity of hydrants shall be determined appropriately according to the type of vessels.
(2) Water supply facilities shall meet the following sanitation requirements:
– 961 –
① The hydrants of water supply facilities shall be of a construction that can prevent contamination of water.
② Periodic and ad-hoc water quality tests shall be conducted and the hygiene of the hydrants of the water supply
facilities shall be appropriately maintained.
(3) Intakes of hydrants should be so located that intake hoses can be easily attached and shall be so constructed that
contamination of water can be prevented. In addition, means to drain water shall be provided in the case where
they are buried beneath the apron floor. Intakes need to be equipped with caps.
(4) Water Supply Volume
With regard to the water supply volume to ships, the values shown in Table 2.1 may be used as reference values.
In the case of large ships, the capacities of water tanks are in many cases around 800m3 because such ships have
their own fresh water production equipment.
Table 2.1 Hydrants and Water Supply Volume
Time required Water supply

Required water Number of hydrants
Tonnage of ship to supply Hydrant spacing capacity of each
supply volume per berth (number
(gross tonnage) water (m) hydrant
(m3) of points)
(h) (m3/h)
500 40 5 30 2 4
1,000 80 5 30–40 2 8
3,000 250–300 5 40–50 3–4 16
5,000 500 5 40–50 4 18
10,000 800 5 40–50 4 28
– 962 –
PART III FACILITIES, CHAPTER 10 OTHER PORT FACILITIES
Chapter 10 Other Port Facilities
Necessary Items concerning Other Port Facilities
Article 53
The items necessary for the performance requirements for fixed and movable passenger boarding facilities,
waste disposal seawalls, beaches, and plazas and green space as specified in this chapter by the Minister of
Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other requirements shall be provided by the Public Notice.
Public Notice
Other Port Facilities
Article 90
the performance requirements for fixed and movable passenger boarding facilities, waste disposal seawalls,
beach and plaza, and green spaces shall be as provided in the subsequent article through Article 95.
– 963 –
1 Fixed and Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities

1.1 Fixed Passenger Boarding Facilities
Performance Requirements for Fixed and Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities
Article 49
The performance requirement of the fixed and movable passenger boarding facilities shall be as specified in
the subsequent items for the safe and smooth embarkation and disembarkation of passengers in consideration
satisfied so as to enable the safe and smooth embarkation and disembarkation of passengers.
(2) Damage due to self weight, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, imposed load, winds, and/or other
actions shall not adversely affect the continued use of the fixed or movable passenger boarding facilities
and not impair their functions.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Fixed Passenger Boarding Facilities
Article 91
The performance criteria of fixed passenger boarding facilities shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Passageways of fixed passenger boarding facilities shall satisfy the following requirements so that they
allow passengers to embark and disembark in the safe and smooth manner:
(a) The passageway shall have an appropriate width and gradient.
(b) The passageway shall be provided with the means for preventing slipping or constructed with
materials that are not prone to slipping.
(c) The passageway shall have side walls, railing, or the like on both sides.
(2) The facilities shall not have a staircase. However, in the case where it is unavoidable to provide a
staircase, consideration shall be given to the safety of passengers in setting the rises of its steps and
provision of landings as necessary.
(3) The facilities shall not be used for dual services for both passengers and vehicles. However, this
requirement does not apply in the case where their structures allow the traffic of passengers and the
traffic of vehicles to be separated from each other.
(4) The allowable range of vertical movement of the tip section of a movable bridge of the passenger
boarding facilities shall be appropriately set by taking into consideration the tide levels, the changes in
ship draft and the ship movements.
(5) The risk of impairing the integrity of structural members shall be equal to or less than the threshold
level under the permanent action situation in which the dominant action is self weight.
(6) The risk of impairing the integrity of structural members and the risk of losing the stability of the
foundation section shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation
in which the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions, imposed load, and winds.
[Commentary]
(1)Performance Criteria of Fixed Passenger Boarding Facilities

① Stability of facility
(a) The settings relating to the design situations excluding accidental situations and performance criteria
of fixed passenger boarding facilities are as shown in Attached Table-70.
– 964 –
Attached Table 70 Settings for the Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) and Performance Criteria for
Fixed Passenger Boarding Facilities

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Item
Item
Situation action
49 1 2 91 1 5 Safety Permanent Self weight Surcharges, Structural soundness –

earth pressures, of the members,
water pressures stability of the
foundation section
6 Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, Structural soundness –
ground motion surcharges, earth of the members,
pressures, water stability of the
(Surcharges) pressures foundation section
(Winds) (Self weight,

earth pressures,
water pressures)
(Self weight,
surcharges, earth
pressures, water
pressures)
[Technical Note]
(1) The provisions in this section can be applied to the performance verification of fixed and movable passenger
boarding facilities (hereinafter referred to as “passenger boarding facilities”).
(2) Passenger boarding facilities should have functions allowing passengers to embark/disembark safely and smoothly.
In principle, they should be separated from boarding facilities for vehicles.
(3) Passenger boarding facilities should not cause passengers to feel danger. They should also have a stable structure
against ship oscillations and winds.
(4) Structural Types
① The structure of passenger boarding facilities shall meet the following requirements.
(a) The passages of the passenger boarding facility shall be an appropriate width of about 75cm or more.
Considering the fact that such passages are used by senior citizens and physically handicapped people as well,
it is preferable to have a width of 1.2m or more.
(b) A passageway shall have ancillary provisions such as the side wall and hand rail on both sides, and a skid proof
agent shall be applied or a non-slippery material shall be used on the surface of passageway.
(c) The rises of the steps of the staircases of fixed passenger boarding facilities shall be set giving out consideration
to the safety of passengers. In addition, landings shall be provided as necessary. The rise of each step may
usually be set at around 16cm, and the step width may usually be set at 30cm or more. In the case where
the height of such a staircase exceeds 3m, it is preferable to provide, for every 3m (or less) of height of the
staircase, a landing with width of 1.2m or more.
(d) The boarding facility shall not be used both for passengers and vehicles. If passengers can be separated from
vehicles, however, the facility may be used for both passengers and vehicles.
(e) The inclinations of passages of the passenger boarding facilities shall be ones that are appropriate in terms
of the safety of passengers. The inclinations of passages of the passenger boarding facilities shall normally
be 12% or less. However, considering the fact that such passages are used by senior citizens, and physically
handicapped people as well, it is preferable to use slopes between 5% and 8%.
② The allowable range of vertical movement of the tip section of a movable bridge of the passenger boarding
facility shall be set taking into consideration the tide range, the changes in ship draft and the ship oscillations.
The range of vertical movement of the tip section of a movable bridge may be calculated by adding 1.0m to the
mean monthly tide range.
③ When designing the passenger boarding facilities that are to be used for public traffic, the fact shall be taken into
consideration that they will be used by senior citizens and physically handicapped people as well and sufficient
consideration shall be given to ensuring that they allow people in wheelchairs to move safely on them.
– 965 –
1.2 Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities

Performance Requirements for Fixed and Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities
Article 49
The performance requirement of the fixed and movable passenger boarding facilities shall be as specified in
the subsequent items for the safe and smooth embarkation and disembarkation of passengers in consideration
satisfied so as to enable the safe and smooth embarkation and disembarkation of passengers.
(2) Damage due to self weight, Level 1 earthquake ground motions, imposed load, winds, and/or other
actions shall not adversely affect the continued use of the fixed or movable passenger boarding facilities
and not impair their functions.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities
Article 92
1 The provisions in the preceding article except those in item (6) shall be applied to the performance criteria
of movable passenger boarding facilities with modifications as necessary, in consideration of the type of
the facilities.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criterion of movable passenger
boarding facilities shall be such that the risk of losing the stability of the facilities due to uplifting of the leg
section of the facilities shall be equal to or less than the threshold level under the variable action situation
in which the dominant actions are Level 1 earthquake ground motions, imposed load, and winds.
[Commentary]
(1)Performance Criteria of Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities

① Stability of facilities
(a) Stability of the leg section (serviceability)
The settings relating to the design situations except accidental situations and performance criteria
of movable passenger boarding facilities are as shown in Attached Table 71. When verifying the
performance of a movable passenger boarding facility with respect to the risk of uplifting of the leg
section, appropriate performance criteria regarding its stability shall be established.
– 966 –
Attached Table 71 Settings relating to the Design Situations (excluding accidental situations) and Performance Criteria
of Movable Passenger Boarding Facilities

Ordinance
Index of
Performance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item standard
Article
Article
requirements
Item
Item
Situation Dominating action Non-dominating action limit value
49 1 2 91 1 5 Serviceability Permanent Self weight Surcharges, earth Structural soundness –

pressures, water pressures of the members,
stability of the
foundation section
6 Variable L1 earthquake Self weight, surcharges, Structural soundness –
ground motion earth pressures, water of the members,
pressures stability of the
(Surcharges) foundation section
(Self weight, earth
(Winds) pressures, water pressures)
(Self weight, surcharges,

earth pressures, water
pressures)
92 2 L1 earthquake Self weight, surcharges, Uplifting of the leg –
ground motion earth pressures, water section
pressures
(Surcharges)
(Self weight, earth
(winds) pressures, water pressures)
(Self weight, surcharges,

earth pressures, water
pressures)
References
1) Transport Ecology and mobility Foundation: Guideline of the facilities for elderly and handicapped people in public transport
terminals, 2001
2) Japan Road Association: Specifications and Commentary for Highway Bridges, Maruzen Publications, 2002
3) Japan Road Association: Technical Standards and commentary of grade separation facilities for pedestrians, 1979
– 967 –
2 Waste Disposal Sites

Performance Requirements for Waste Disposal Sites
Article 50
1 The performance requirements of waste disposal sites shall be such that the requirements specified by the
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism are satisfied so as to appropriately dispose waste
materials and protect disposal sites.
2 The provisions of Article 16 shall be applied correspondingly to the performance requirements for waste
disposal sites.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Waste Disposal Sites
Article 93
1 The provisions in Article 39 shall be as applied to the performance criteria of waste disposal sites with
modifications as necessary.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the performance criteria of waste disposal sites
shall be such that waste disposal sites are appropriately located with the necessary dimensions so as to
prevent washing out of the wasted materials by waves, storm surges, tsunamis, and others by taking into
consideration the environmental conditions to which the facilities concerned are subjected.
[Technical Note]
2.1 General
(1) Wastes disposal sites are classified, according to what types of wastes are disposed of, into three types: (a) inert type
wastes disposal sites where inert type industrial wastes, dredged material and excavated soil from construction
site are dumped, (b) controlled type disposal sites where municipal solid wastes and controlled industrial wastes
are disposed of, (c) strictly controlled type wastes disposal sites in which harmful specially controlled industrial
wastes are sealed.
(2) The purposes of constructing wastes disposal seawalls are to ensure the availability of wastes disposal and
to utilize completed disposal sites. The area and location of the wastes disposal sites shall be determined in
consideration of the demands of the land use and the constraint to be imposed under the Wastes Management and
Public Cleaning Law when it is applicable.
(3) No wastes disposal sites has been constructed in areas other than sea areas and it is expected that most of the
wastes disposal sites that will be constructed in the future will also be located in sea areas. Therefore, the term
“wastes disposal sites” here refers only to be sites constructed in seas. The characteristics of the wastes disposal
sites are; ① to take into consideration the actions of waves and seismic motion, ② in the case of a site for
controlled disposal area, to ensure the stability of the seawall and seepage control work by controlling the water
levels of the retained water.
2.2 Purposes of Wastes Disposal Seawalls
(1) The purposes of wastes disposal seawalls are to develop a wastes disposal sites and to protect the disposal site and
the area behind it from storm surges, tsunamis and waves and to utilize reclaimed land after wastes disposal is
completed.
(2) To ensure the environmental safety and suitability of the wastes disposal sites, it is essential not only to ensure that
it meets the performance requirements but also to ensure that the dumping of wastes is appropriately controlled.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that appropriate coordination is achieved, with regard to the adequate
inspection and control of the receiving of wastes, in cooperation with the organizations responsible for controlling
the disposal of wastes.
2.2.1 Inert-type Wastes Disposal Sites

Inert type wastes disposal sites are facilities to create a reclaimed land by using inert type industrial wastes excavated
soil from construction seawalls and dredged material.
– 968 –
2.2.2 Controlled-type Wastes Disposal Sites

As in the case of inert type wastes disposal sites, controlled type wastes disposal sites need to have functions to
prevent the wastes from being washed out. In addition, they need to have the required seepage controlling capability
so that the retained water in the site will not leak out.
2.2.3 Strictly Controlled-type Wastes Disposal Sites

Because the wastes to be disposed of is harmful substances, strictly controlled type wastes disposal sites need to have
a structure that completely isolates the site from the outside.
2.3 Fundamentals of the Performance Verification
(1) Unlike in the case of revetments of protective facilities for harbors, the purpose of wastes disposal seawalls is to
dump wastes and such sites usually have a long reclamation period and often remain in a structurally unstable
state for a long period of time. Therefore, it is necessary to pay particular attention to ensuring the structural
safety during the construction period. One effective approach is to give priority to the wastes dumping behind the
seawalls of the sites so that sufficient structural stability is achieved early.
(2) If wastes are dumped at a rapid rate near a seawall, a circular slip failure may occur in the cohesive soil ground
and this may impair functions of the wastes disposal sites. Therefore, when determining the areas where wastes
to be dumped and the rates of dumping, attention should be paid to the changes in the strength of the ground due
to consolidation settlement.
(3) The wastes disposal sites are desired to ensure that wastes will not be washed out offshore when the site is
subjected to variable or permanent actions. In addition, it is desirable to ensure that the site has a structure, for
example seawalls of the site or seepage control work, that can prevent wastes from being washed out offshore
when the site is subjected to actions of Level 2 earthquake ground motion.
(1) When verifying the performance of a site of a controlled type wastes disposal site, the seawall may be considered
as a kind of revetment and Chapter 4, 12.1.3 Performance Verification may be referenced. In addition, the
following may be applied.
(2) The requirements for seepage control work specified in the Ministerial Ordinance Determining Engineering
Standards Pertaining to Final Disposal Site for Municipal Solid Wastes and Final Disposal Site for Industrial
Wastes which apply to seawalls for controlled type coastal disposal sites are as follows:
① The case where no seepage control work is required;
If a landfill site has continuous layer whose thickness is 5m or more and whose coefficient of permeability is k
=1×10 -5cm/s or less (an impermeable layer) at the bottom and at the sides of the site, it is not necessary to provide
any seepage control work.
② The case where there is no impermeable layer that covers the entire bottom of the landfill site;
It is regulated that, if there is no impermeable layer, seepage control work that satisfies the requirements
given below (this is called surface seepage control work) or seepage control work having the equivalent or
better seepage control capability be provided. In addition, wastes disposal seawalls located in areas where
deteriorations of impervious sheets due to sunlight may occur are subject to the surface seepage control work
protection requirements including spreading of the light-blocking nonwoven fabric.
(a) The impervious sheet is laid on the surface of a layer of clay or other material having a thickness of 50cm or
more and a coefficient of permeability of k =1×10 -6cm/s or less.
(b) The impervious sheet is laid on the surface of a layer of asphalt concrete of a thickness of 5cm or more and a
coefficient of permeability of k =1×10 -7cm/s or less.
(c) Double impervious sheets are laid on the surface of a non-woven fabric or any other material. A non-woven
fabric or any other material which has a sufficient thickness and strength for preventing simultaneous damage
of both impervious sheets is provided between the impervious sheets.
③ The case where there is a impermeable layer that covers the entire bottom of the landfill site;
It is regulated that, if there is a impermeable layer, seepage control work that satisfies the requirements given
below or seepage control work having the equivalent or better seepage control capability be provided. It is also
required that such seepage control work reach the impermeable layer.
– 969 –
(a) The ground around the landfill site is solidified to impermeable layer to a Lugeon value of 1 or less by grouting
of chemicals.
(b) There is provided a wall of a thickness of 50cm or more and a coefficient of permeability of k =1×10 -6cm/s or
less around the landfill site to the impermeable layer.
(c) There are provided steel sheet piles (limited to those which have measures taken to prevent leaching of retained
water or the like from the part of joint with the other sheet piles) around the landfill site to the impermeable
layer.
(d) Seepage control work that satisfies the requirements specified in (a) to (c) of ② above.
(3) In the case of inland wastes disposal sites, it is often the case that impervious sheets are used to ensure that
sufficient seepage control performance of the bottom is achieved. On the other hand, in the case of wastes disposal
sites located in areas in seas, it is often the case that cohesive soil below the bottom is used to ensure that sufficient
seepage control performance of the bottom is achieved. In such a case, it is necessary to confirm whether a layer
of cohesive soil which is equivalent to an impermeable layer exists at the bottoms of the disposal sites located in
seas and to confirm that the strata of cohesive soils have a impermeability equivalent to that of an impermeable
layer specified in the Ministerial Ordinance Determining Engineering Standards Pertaining to Final Disposal Site
for Municipal Solid Wastes and Final Disposal Site for Industrial Wastes.
It can be considered that a stratum having a seepage control capability equivalent to that of an impermeable
layer is evaluated by the permeation time. The permeation time can usually be calculated by equation (2.4.1).
(2.4.1)
where,
t : permeation time (s)
L : permeation distance (thickness of layer) (cm)
k : coefficient of permeation (cm/s)
h : water level difference in the layer, see Fig. 2.4.1 (cm)
L
Layer of cohesive soil
Fig. 2.4.1 Permeation Distance and Water Levels
Calculations of the thicknesses of layers which are equivalent in terms of the permeation time to a impermeable
layer whose thickness is 5m or more and coefficient of permeability is k =1×10 -5cm/s or less using equation (2.4.1)
result in a layer thickness of 1.6m or more in the case of a layer of a cohesive soil whose coefficient of permeability
is k =1×10 -6cm/s. The layer thickness and continuity of an impermeable layer shall be confirmed through a boring
survey. When determining the layer thickness, it is desirable to add an allowance taking into consideration the
non-uniformity of the soil layer.
(4) To prevent leaching of the retained water from the inside of a costal wastes disposal site, it is preferable to maintain
the water level of the retained water low.
(5) Controlled type wastes disposal sites retain their seepage control capability after the wastes disposal areas cease
to be used, and it is possible that the structural stability of seawalls for controlled type wastes disposal site may
be impaired when the level of the retained water exceeds the control water level as a result of rain etc. Therefore,
it is necessary to confirm during the performance verification the stability of the seawalls of which the level of the
retained water reaches the expected highest level after the disuse of the wastes disposal site.
– 970 –
References
1) Port and harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport: Manual for design, construction and maintenance of revetment of controlled
disposal (Under preparation for publishing)
– 971 –
3 Beaches
Performance Requirements for Beaches
Article 51
1 The performance requirements for the beaches shall be as specified in the subsequent items to facilitate the
maintenance of the port and harbor environment:
(1) Beaches shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Tourism so that they will contribute to the development of the port and harbor environments.
(2) Beaches shall be capable of maintaining a stable state over a long term against variable waves and water
flows.
2 In addition to the requirements specified in the preceding paragraph, the beaches which are utilized by
an unspecified large number of people shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so as to ensure the safety of the users of the beaches concerned.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Beaches
Article 94
1 The performance criteria of beaches shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Beaches shall be appropriately located with the necessary dimensions so as to ensure the safe and
comfortable use by people and to contribute to the enhancement of good port environments.
(2) The risk of losing the stability of the beach profiles and plan shape shall be equal to or less than the
threshold level under the variable action situation in which the dominant actions are variable waves and
water flows.
2 In addition to the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the beaches which are utilized by an unspecified
large number of people shall be provided with the dimensions required for securing the safety of the users
by taking into consideration the environmental conditions to which the facilities concerned are subjected
and the utilization conditions.
[Commentary]
(1)Performance Criteria of Beaches

① Stability of facility (serviceability)
The settings relating to the beach performance criteria and the design situations excluding accidental
situations are as shown in Attached Table-72. When verifying the performance of a beach with
respect to its shape, appropriate performance criteria regarding its stability shall be set.
Attached Table-72 Settings relating to the Performance Criteria of Beaches and the Design Situations (excluding
accidental situations)

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Item
Item
Situation action
51 1 2 94 1 2 Serviceability Variable Variable waves, – Stability of the beach –

water flows in terms of its shape
– 972 –
[Technical Note]
3.1 General
(1) Beaches can be classified into two types according to the grain size distribution of the sediment; beaches of
that consist of mud, sand, and gravel and beaches that consist of base rock and rocky reefs . Each beach can be
zoned into the backshore, foreshore, tidal flat and shoal zones, which are defined based on their relative height
to intertidal zone. Each beach can also be zoned into seagrass meadows and coral reefs based on the types of
ecosystems of floras and faunas. Fig. 3.1.1 shows a cross section of a typical sandy beach.
Backshore Foreshore Inshore Offshore
Backshore Foreshore Inshore width

width width
Revetment
Backshore zone
height H.W.L.
Slope of L.W.L.
the foreshore
Slope of the inshore

Fig 3.1.1 Cross Section of a Typical Beach
(2) Tidal flats are muddy sand beaches that are exposed during low tide.1) Tidal flats often form complex and valuable
natural environments because a variety of dominant forces and actions occur concurrently in and around tidal
flats, including the cycle of ebb and flow, changes in salinity due to river discharges and changes in topograph
caused by waves and water flows. Seagrass meadows are shallow sea areas in which macrophytes and seagrass
grow densely to form their colonies. Such colonies are formed at water depths between several tens of centimeter
and ten meters plus several meters. Coral reefs are topographic features that are formed by hermatypic organisms
such as corals.
(3) Beach nourishment defined as supplying sand along shores to help development of beaches. Constructed beaches
should be appropriately designed in terms of the grain size and the slope. In the case of a beach without continuous
supply of sediment, jetties and detached breakwaters should be placed to maintain a stable state of the beach under
such conditions.
(4) Beaches usually refers not only to constructed beaches, but also to naturally developed beaches. Here, the beaches
refers to constructed beach and natural beaches to be maintained and restored.
3.2 Purposes of Beaches
(1) Beaches as a kind of shore protection facilities are developed for the purposes of protecting shores from being
damaged by tsunamis, storm surges, waves, and other phenomena relating to fluctuations of sea water or grounds
and facilitating appropriate development, as well as to conserve shore environments and to provide proper uses of
shores by the general public. The main purpose of such beaches is shore protection. On the other hand, beaches
which are facilities for enhancement of port environments are developed mainly for the purpose of maintaining
comfortable living spaces having intimacy with water. Such beaches serve the purpose of ensuring safe and
comfortable use of shore and conserving natural environments in addition to protecting shores.
(2) The functions of intimacy with water include; (a) recreational areas for such activities as shellfish gathering,
swimming and fishing, (b) recreational areas for playing beach volleyball etc., (c) space for agriculture or fishery
activities and (d) spaces for environmental education.
(3) Natural environment conservation functions of beaches include the function of (a) habitats creation for a variety of
organisms by forming good biological environments for organisms to live and grow, (b) the function of purifying
sea water through physical and biological actions of beaches and (c) the function of producing organisms which is
supported by primary production.
(4) In addition to the intimacy with water, beaches have the function of reducing wave overtopping rates by damping
the energy of the incident waves through wave breaking and the function of preventing the scouring of toe sections
of dikes.
– 973 –
(1) Each beach has one or more of the functions such as intimacy with water, habitat development function, sea
water purification function, organism production function. Because these functions may be complementary to
each other or conflict with each other, it is necessary, when examining the construction of beaches, to establish
appropriate objectives first. When establishing such objectives, it is important to identify the past and existing
relationships between the natural environments and the ways the area in question is used by the local residents.
This information is useful in consulting among the parties concerned and deciding on plans based on the sharing
of feelings regarding the roles of the nature in relation to humans. All analyses and evaluations should take into
consideration the fact that these functions are affected by the stability and level of maturity of each ecosystem and
environmental changes.
3.4 Landscape of Beaches
(1) With regard to long-term changes in beach, morphology it can be said that a constructed beach is stable in the
long term if the beach is stable against the prevailing waves immediately after its completion. Short-term changes
in landscape is affected mainly by the littoral drift in the shore-offshore direction. Therefore it is necessary
to examine appropriate measures such as; (a) examine stabilization measures by means of jetty and detached
breakwaters, (b) select sand grain sizes for the beach which are appropriate in relation to the characteristics of the
waves, and (c) replenish the beach with sand so that the loss of sand is canceled out.
(2) Materials to be used for beach nourishment need to be selected carefully because such materials constitute an
important factor that affects, together with the beach morphology, the performance and stability of the beach.
When performing analyses and evaluations relating to a beach nourishment-based beach management, it is
necessary to take into consideration the fact that the grain size distribution of a nourished beach affects not only
the stability and cross section of the beach but also the degrees of satisfaction of beach users and the levels of
quality of habitats of organisms in and around the beach nourishment site. In addition, it is necessary, when
selecting materials to be used for beach nourishment, to exercise due care, because, if sediments are washed away
by waves, waters adjacent to the beach nourishment site may be adversely affected.
(3) When developing a plan to provide a structure or facility made of a stone in a tidal flat or rocky shore, it is
necessary to give sufficient consideration to locating it appropriately so that the safety of users and the stability of
the facilities are ensured.
(4) Jetty and detached breakwaters should preferably be so located that the stability of the beach in terms of its shape
is ensured and sea water can circulate without becoming excessively stagnant so that deterioration of the sea water
quality will be mitigated.
(5) With regard to landscape of beaches, verifications regarding the dimensions of each beach including width, height
and length and the grain size are necessary. In addition, when determining the structural dimensions, the methods
described below may be used as a guide.
① Crest height and crest width of the backshore
The crest height of the backshore should be determined based on measurements taken at the site or at a similar
coast located near the site or using the proposed estimation formulas.1), 4), 5) The crest width of the backshore
should be determined taking into consideration the amount of short-term regression of the shoreline during high
wave periods that is estimated by using numerical calculations or the historical data.
② Slope of the foreshore
The slope of the foreshore, which is one of the essential dimensions of a beach, should be determined by using
the proposed estimation formulas 1), 4), 5) or based on measurements taken at the site or at a similar coast located
near the site taking into consideration the changes in grain size and the wave conditions. The sea bottom slope
of a tidal flat is often not gentler than that of a beach. (See Fig. 3.4.1.)
③ Sediment grain size
The sediment grain size affects not only the stability and cross sectional slope of the beach 1), 4), 5) but also the
degrees of satisfaction of beach users about their uses of the beach, the distribution of habitats of organisms, the
environment purification functions and the permeability or water retention characteristic.1), 5) The grain size
distribution of the sediment should be appropriately determined taking into consideration these factors.
– 974 –
0.5
tan β
0.04≧H0 / L0＞0.02 R
0.02≧H0 / L0＞0.01
0.01≧H0 / L0＞0.005 1/5
M ：Miyazaki Coast S NN N K
S M K
N ：Niigata Coast K K N K
S MH M S
0.1 K ：Kanazawa Coast
M 1/10
S ：Sakata Coast N S
tan β
S S S
：Umi-no-koen Park,
N N 1/15
Yokohama City N
：Itsukaichi Artificial
N 1/20
Tidal Flat
1/30
1/60
0.01 1/100
10-5 10-4 10-3
d50/H0
Fig. 3.4.1 Relationship between Sea Bottom Slope and Sediment Grain Size 4)
(tanβ, d 50 and H 0 denote the sea bottom slope, median grain size and deepwater wave height, respectively.)
(6) In a verification of stability, it is necessary to predict the short- and long-term changes of the shoreline or the
changes in water depth and the sediment transport amount by using appropriate numerical calculations and
estimation formulas taking into consideration the effects of the facilities for wave control and sediment movement
control facilities.2), 4) The initial shoreline configuration shall remain similar to the shape of the shoreline of the
landscape of the beach after stabilization that is determined based on the actions of waves and the locations of
jetties and detached breakwaters.
(7) When examining a project to constructing or restoring a tidal flat, it is necessary to; (a) give consideration to
ensuring that the landscape of the tidal flat will remain stable and the functional requirements established during
the planning phase will be satisfied, and (b) devise measures to allow organisms desirable for the area to live in
the area. In other words, it is necessary to examine the basic facilities to maintain the landscape of the tidal flat
and measures to allow desirable organisms to live in the tidal flat area, and to facilitate the succession of such
organisms. With regard to this, the following basic principles may be used as a source of reference:
① In principle, the crest height of the backshore should be the H.W.L. or higher.
② The crest height of the backshore of a tidal flat and the inclination of the foreshore of the tidal flat is determined
based on the actions of waves.
③ The foreshore and backshore of a tidal flat should be located in such a way that they will not be frequently
subjected to high waves, so that the stability of the landscape of the beach will be ensured.
④ It is difficult to fix the landscape of the inshore of a tidal flat by waves because the inclinations of the inshore of
tidal flats are very gentle.
⑤ In the case of a river mouth tidal flat, the stability of the sediment against the water flow is sometimes taken into
consideration. There is sometimes the case that changes in salinity affect habitats and activities of organisms.
⑥ In the case of a foreshore tidal flat, consideration should be given to ensuring the stability of the basic facilities
by, for example, making the beach as flat as possible and so designing the foreshore section that its length is
sufficient. The numbers of organisms that live in the area are sometimes affected by whether the silty clay
contents of the tidal flat and beach are appropriate and whether the water retention capability is appropriate.
⑦ The landscape of the foreshore of a foreshore tidal flat sometimes consists of both flat sections and multi-step
bar trough sections. There is sometimes the case that many benthoses such as shellfish and sand lugworms live
in the water depth below the M.W.L.
(8) In a lagoon tidal flat where the surrounding environment becomes important, the sea water circulation and the sea
water quality maintenance will be an important point for the performance verification. The height and slope of
the ground and the settings relating to vegetation are determined based on such considerations. In such a case, the
following basic principles may be used as a source of reference:
– 975 –
① With regard to introduction of sea water, it should be ensured that connection with the surrounding waters is
maintained by channels or training jetties.
② Introduction of sea water to exchanged is an essential measures of controlling the water levels, salinity,
nutrients and dissolved oxygen. Sluice gates are sometimes used to control these conditions. In such a case,
examinations regarding the water balance are performed that take into consideration the freshwater inflows, sea
water exchanges, sea water circulation, vaporization, precipitation, overflows and underseepage.
③ Sea water circulations are essential also from the perspective of ensuring that larvae of transport and recruitment
to and from rivers and the open sea.
④ To avoid the formation of hypoxic water masses near the bottom of a lagoon, it is advisable to be set the ground
height that the water depth will not exceed 1m during lowest tide periods.
⑤ When making the landscape by soil dumping, the height of the land shall be determined taking into consideration
of the settlement of the land.
⑥ Certain kinds of birds have preferences in respect of the water depths of tidal flats and the slope of beaches.
Snipes and plovers prefer water depths of 0.4m or less, and ducks prefer water depths of 0.5m or more.
(9) There are two methods to maintain beaches. One is the sand bypass method which makes the sediment accumulated
on the upstream side of a coast structure flow continuously to the downstream side. The other one is the sand back
pass method which moves the sediment to eroded areas located upstream of the coast structure.
3.5 Amenity
(1) Beaches should be appropriately evaluated in relation to the requirements of the amenity function with the
frequencies of their use for swimming, shellfish gathering and other purposes taken into consideration.
(2) Beaches should be appropriately provided with resting areas and planted vegetation according to their purposes.
When examining the plant vegetation, it is necessary to perform sufficient analyses taking into consideration the
fact that coastal areas are subjected to special environmental conditions such as strong winds, salt water splashes
and saline soils.
(3) It is necessary to take into consideration the fact that the main purpose of beaches is human use and give sufficient
consideration to ensuring the safety of the users so that accidents due to beach deformations should be avoided.
Once a newly constructed or restored beach is opened for public use, it is necessary to conduct periodic patrols
and inspections to confirm that the safety measures are functioning properly. In particular, it is important to take
measures to prevent sand outflows from nourished beaches, which may cause collapses or create cavities that
cannot be recognized from the surface of the ground, and to continuously check for and monitor phenomena that
may affect the safety of the users by conducting periodic patrols and inspections after the beach is opened for
public use.
(4) Beaches provide spaces where people can relax and enjoy recreational activities. However, the safety of beach
users is occasionally threatened by tidal waves, storm surges and tsunamis. Therefore, beaches should be provided
as necessary with emergency communication equipment such as alarm equipment and telephones that is necessary
to allow the beach users to evaluate whether their safety is being secured.
3.6 Conservation of Natural Environments
(1) Beaches have natural environment conservation functions such as the function of developing habitats for
organisms, the function of purifying sea water and the function of producing organisms.
(2) Beaches can be broken down into such constituents as seaweed colony areas, tidal flats and coral reefs based on
the types of ecosystems of floras and faunas.
References
1) Port and Harbour Bureau, Ministry of Transport Edition, Working Group for regeneration of marine nature: Handbook of
Marine Natural reclamation Vol. 2, Tide land, p.138, 2003
2) Working Group for marine natural reclamation: Handbook of Marine Natural reclamation, Gyosei, 2003
3) Bureau of Ports and Harbours, Ministry of Transport (Edition)and Japan Port Association: Planning and design manual for
zonal protective complex, ,p.209,1991
4) JSCE, Coastal Engineering Committee: Handbook of design of coast protection facilities 2000, JSCE, p.582,2000
5) Bureau of Port and Harbours, Ministry of Transport (Edition)and Japan Marina and beach Association: Manual for Planning
– 976 –
and design of beach, p.229,2005
6) Bureau of Port and Harbours, Ministry of Transport (Edition)and Waterfront Vitalization and Environment Research Center:
Design and construction of manual for the arrangement of garden plants on port green belt, 1999
7) Parks & Open Space Association of Japan: Standard commentary of urban park engineering, 2004
Marine Natural reclamation Vol. 1, Introduction, p.107, 2003
Marine Natural reclamation Vol. 3, Sea grass meadow, p.110, 2003
Marine Natural reclamation Vol. 3, coral reef, p.103, 2003
Bureau, 2005.
– 977 –
4 Plazas and Green Spaces

Performance Requirements for Plazas and Green Spaces
Article 52
The performance requirements for the plazas and green spaces shall be as specified in the subsequent items
to facilitate development of port environments as well as the restoration and reconstruction of the port and
its surrounding areas:
(1) The plazas and green spaces shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so that they contribute to the development of good port
environments and to ensure the safety of the users of the plazas and green spaces.
(2) The plazas and green spaces shall satisfy the requirements specified by the Minister of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism so that they can be utilized as a base for the restoration and
reconstruction of the port and its surrounding areas in the aftermath of the occurrence of Level 2
(3) The damage due to Level 2 earthquake ground motions and other actions shall not affect restoration
through minor repair works of the functions required of plazas and green spaces in the aftermath of the
occurrence of Level 2 earthquake ground motions.
Public Notice
Performance Criteria of Plazas and Green Spaces
Article 95
The performance criteria of plazas and green spaces shall be as specified in the subsequent items:
(1) Plazas and green spaces shall be appropriately located with the necessary dimensions so as to ensure the
safe and comfortable use by people and to contribute to the enhancement of good port environments.
(2) Plazas and green spaces shall be capable of being utilized as the bases for restoration and reconstruction
of ports and their surrounding areas after they are subjected to Level 2 earthquake ground motions, and
shall be provided with the dimensions necessary for ensuring smooth transport of goods and materials
and providing the areas for refuges.
(3) The degrees of damage by the action of Level 2 earthquake ground motions, which are the dominant
action in the accidental action situation, shall be equal to or less than the threshold limit.
[Commentary]
(1)Performance Criteria of Plazas and Green Spaces

① Stability of facility (restorability)
The settings relating to the design situations limited to the accidental situations only and the
performance criteria of plazas and green spaces are as shown in Attached Table-73. The reason for
indicating “damages” in the “Verification item” column of Attached Table-73 is that it is necessary
to use a comprehensive term taking account that the verification items vary depending on the type,
structure and structural type of the facilities.
– 978 –
Attached Table 73 Settings for the Design Situations limited to the Variable Situations only and Performance Criteria of
Plazas and Green Spaces

Ordinance
Paragraph
Paragraph
Verification item
Article
Article
requirements value
Item
Item
Situation action
52 1 3 95 1 3 Restorability Accidental L2 earthquake Self weight, Damages

[Technical Note]
(1) Development of Good Port Environments

Plazas and green spaces should preferably be appropriately provided with rest areas and planted vegetation
according to their purposes.
References
1) Bureau of Port and Harbours, Ministry of Transport (Edition) and Waterfront Vitalization and Environment Research Center:
Design and construction of manual for the arrangement of garden plants on port green belt, 1999
2) Parks & Open Space Association of Japan: Standard commentary of urban park engineering, 2004
Bureau, 2005.
– 979 –
– 980 –
INDEX
INDEX 484, 486, 487, 491, 522, 523, 524, 525, 536, 545, 546, 547,
600, 602, 604, 605, 613, 623, 624, 627, 631, 634, 649, 706,
707, 777, 778, 779, 785, 786, 788, 791, 819
A angular spreading method 92
annual average of daily traffic volume 920, 921
acceleration response spectrum 246, 720, 818, 822, 824, 826,
anode 333, 334, 335, 336
827, 837
API 947
acceleration time history 245, 609, 610, 611, 693, 694, 696, 697,
apparent cohesion 223, 224, 430, 431, 432, 484, 486, 487, 600,
698, 720, 722, 723, 822
602, 703, 704
access bridge 150, 810, 814, 815, 817, 821, 827, 835, 840, 841,
apparent seismic coefficient 274, 275, 277, 278, 546, 763
842, 849, 854, 858, 859
apron 312, 314, 315, 338, 339, 343, 865, 869,
accidental action 4, 9, 10, 11, 42, 84, 365, 402, 403, 586, 612,
882, 884, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 897, 898, 899, 900,
649, 654, 655, 682, 849, 851, 904, 927, 935, 942, 948, 978
911, 951, 952, 953, 956, 962
accidental situation 13, 14, 79, 314, 373, 374, 375, 376,
apron pavement 338, 339, 890, 891, 897, 898, 899
378, 392, 398, 403, 404, 407, 411, 500, 586, 587, 592, 593,
apron width 865, 869, 889, 890
594, 595, 598, 612, 624, 635, 636, 641, 642, 648, 649, 655,
arc welding 326
656, 678, 680, 681, 682, 683, 685, 686, 691, 698, 709, 711,
armoring work 603, 605, 624
712, 713, 714, 715, 723, 742, 759, 801, 808, 811, 812, 813,
armor stones 128, 129, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418,
814, 815, 818, 826, 827, 829, 842, 843, 852, 853, 871, 875,
420, 424, 614, 690
884, 886, 887, 889, 904, 905, 906, 914, 928, 935, 936, 943,
array observation 204, 256
945, 949, 964, 965, 966, 967, 972, 978
asperity 176, 237, 241, 242, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 269
accidental waves 10, 14, 79, 364, 365, 585, 586, 587, 613, 654,
asphalt concrete pavement 901
655, 659, 660, 800, 849, 851, 853
asphalt mats 342, 343, 344, 410, 617
active earth pressure
asphalt pavement 344, 347, 900, 924
273, 277, 399, 434, 503, 507, 508, 510, 515, 516, 523, 526,
Asphalt Paving Guidelines 343, 925
527, 545, 546, 700, 717, 724, 725, 731, 732, 738, 739, 742,
asphalt stabilization 342
746, 763, 764, 773, 776, 777, 785, 791, 792, 862, 909
assessed value of failure probability 28
adaptive management method 49, 50
assigned traffic volume 920
additional rate 520, 776
astronomical tide 68, 69, 70, 172
adjustment tower 854, 859
attenuation distance 81, 86
administration building 952, 953, 955
autocorrelation 24, 33
admixture 43, 339, 340
average degree of consolidation 220, 221, 476, 536
AE 220, 339
average strength of skin friction 444
aggregate 338, 339, 342, 343, 344, 350, 351, 355, 416
axial spring constant of pile 469
air-cooled blast-furnace slag 350
air cushion craft 676, 868, 869 B
air cushion craft landing facilities 676, 868
algorithm 28 backfilling materials 122, 280, 345
allowable axial bearing capacity of pile 451 backfilling stones 539, 540, 694, 696
allowable deformation 8, 424, 504, 537, 593, 679, 681, 694, 697, back scattering method 215
698, 712, 713, 774 backshore 181, 973, 974, 975
allowable displacement 518, 906 back yard area 951, 952, 953, 955, 956
allowable limit for horizontal displacement 757 bank
allowable pulling resistance 455 6, 75, 212, 224, 225, 226, 353, 356, 482, 485, 490, 492, 493,
allowable safety factor method 19, 24 503, 540, 547, 561, 568, 569, 570, 571, 628, 650, 669, 797
allowable settlement 454, 492 Bascom 198
allowable stress 19, 23, 24 base course material 346, 350, 351
allowable stress design method 19 basic ship maneuvering width 554
Allsop 151, 169 basin 6,
all terrain crane 891, 892, 894, 902 7, 122, 175, 178, 179, 194, 196, 200, 250, 251, 363, 552, 554,
aluminum alloy anodes 334 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 588, 590, 651, 662, 674, 802,
amenity 50, 109, 114, 583, 586, 646, 664, 666, 669, 881, 976 807, 863, 867, 868, 887, 936, 950
amenity-oriented breakwater 586, 646 beach deformation 180, 183, 193, 194, 199, 976
amenity-oriented function 50 beach erosion 194, 583, 652
amenity-oriented revetment 114, 664, 666, 669, 881 beach nourishment 974
American Petroleum Institute 947 beach slope 195
anchorage work 16, 25, 491, 684, 685, 712, 715, 717, 723, 737, bearing capacity 15, 16,
738, 739, 743 17, 25, 207, 225, 245, 346, 358, 390, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430,
anchor chain type 802, 803 431, 432, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 441, 443, 444, 446, 448,
anchor chain type mooring buoy 802, 803 449, 450, 451, 453, 454, 455, 458, 466, 467, 469, 470, 471,
anchor holding power 860 472, 479, 480, 481, 482, 484, 488, 489, 504, 506, 510, 511,
anchoring 17, 122, 160, 578, 579, 580, 800, 802, 806, 807, 930 529, 536, 537, 544, 587, 592, 593, 594, 600, 607, 612, 620,
anchoring chain of floating body 17, 802, 806 626, 630, 633, 643, 648, 649, 691, 693, 699, 701, 702, 703,
ancillary facilities 10, 16, 17, 18, 586, 669, 870, 950 704, 738, 750, 757, 767, 768, 785, 789, 793, 799, 819, 829,
angle of internal friction 272, 275 830, 831, 832, 834, 835, 837, 839, 840, 844, 846, 893, 894,
angle of repose 484, 700, 701 895, 896, 898, 900, 927
angle of shear resistance bearing capacity coefficient 443, 444, 511, 894, 895, 896
211, 213, 223, 225, 228, 230, 257, 345, 350, 351, 394, 430, bearing pile 207, 208, 440, 441, 451, 741, 832, 833, 834, 839,
– 981 –
909 bulk cargo 312, 314, 702, 944
bearing stress 909 buried anchor 805
bedload 181, 182, 183, 196 buttress wall 392, 395, 396, 397
bedrock 5, 7, 230, 235,
236, 238, 248, 250, 251, 253, 258, 262, 263, 264, 265, 358, C
441, 608, 609, 610, 614, 615, 693, 694, 696, 822, 826, 944 caisson 20, 77,
bending compressive stress 373, 375, 760, 769 78, 116, 122, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 167,
bending failure 347, 470 215, 244, 259, 280, 351, 354, 358, 367, 371, 372, 373, 374,
benthos 975 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 388,
berm 129, 134, 135, 137, 182, 412, 418, 597, 598, 617 389, 390, 391, 392, 401, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409,
berth 298, 304, 308, 678, 680, 683, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 844, 410, 416, 420, 423, 434, 485, 491, 498, 519, 539, 540, 590,
871, 872, 880, 887, 942, 944, 951, 952, 953, 955, 956, 962 591, 592, 593, 594, 597, 598, 599, 600, 606, 609, 610, 611,
berth configuration factor 289, 297, 298, 304 612, 614, 622, 628, 629, 630, 632, 633, 643, 644, 649, 691,
berthing energy 289, 297, 298, 304, 821, 844, 846, 875, 876, 704, 706, 707, 795, 797, 798, 799, 844, 846, 847, 907
877, 878, 879 caisson breakwater 140, 141, 167, 416, 485, 590, 591, 594, 628,
berthing velocity 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 880 632, 633, 644
bilge keels 689 caisson type composite breakwater 592, 593
Bio 495 caisson type dolphin 20, 846
Bishop's method 489 caisson type quaywall 244, 691, 795
bituminous material 19, 343, 358 calculation method for refraction analysis 93
blast furnace slag 338, 350, 351, 352, 521, 550 calculation method of wave height distribution around an island
block coefficient 302, 303, 304, 305, 556, 564 94
block load 140 cantilevered sheet pile quay 485, 685, 714, 745, 746
block type improvement 498 canvas sheet 618
boarding facility 965, 966 capacitance type wave gauge 203
boat lift yard 865, 866, 867 carbonation 368, 369
bollard 308, 309, 723, 733, 734, 742, 821, 871, 872 cargo handling area 4, 686, 933, 934
bore type tsunami 174 cargo handling efficiency 120, 876
Borgman 147, 169 cargo handling equipment 4, 50,
bottom friction 73, 87, 174, 176, 179, 862 61, 312, 314, 317, 322, 323, 367, 678, 679, 681, 683, 702, 719,
bottom reaction 387, 388, 389, 390, 396, 407, 409, 699, 846 813, 814, 818, 821, 835, 843, 845, 846, 848, 890, 891, 892,
bottom seated 517 897, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 936, 937, 942, 943, 944,
bottom slab 280, 373, 374, 377, 378, 379, 945, 948, 950, 957
382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 392, 394, 395, 396, cargo handling equipment load 312, 314, 317, 892
397, 399, 406, 409, 410, 423, 469, 640, 707, 708, 859 cargo handling facilities 6, 43, 314, 363, 376, 936, 944
boundary element method 305 cargo ship 124, 290, 294, 298, 299, 300, 301, 552, 687, 887
Boussinesq's solution 475 cargo sorting area 941, 948, 949, 950
bow and stern side docking type quaywall 689 casing pipe 533
bow collision 937, 938 cast-in-place concrete pile 340, 341
bow line 872 cast steel 328
box shape platform 761 catenary line 860, 861
Brampton 195 catenary mooring 156
breaker 77, 99, 103, 117, 136, 139, 143, 144, 165, 167, 182, 183, catenary theory 861
186, 195, 202, 203, 412, 413, 652, 653, 658 cathodic protection method 13, 333, 335, 336, 367
breaker index curve 103 CD 86, 144, 145, 196, 223, 224, 225, 228
breaker index diagram 143 CDL 68
breaker line 165, 652, 653 ceiling slab 141, 142, 404, 405
breaking wave 86, 87, 88, cell bottom 775, 776, 778, 780, 781, 785, 792, 793
90, 103, 104, 117, 119, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, cellular block 20, 339, 358, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 597, 614,
138, 139, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 166, 167, 181, 195, 412, 417, 615, 699, 707, 708, 799
420, 589, 597, 622, 628, 632 cellular concrete block 691, 708
breaking wave height 103, 104, 119, 143, 144, 195 cellular concrete block type quaywall 691
breaking wave pressure 136, 137, 139, 147, 589, 632 cement-based hardener 547
breakwater alignment 139, 142, 143, 415, 416, 614, 615, 644 cement-based stabilizer 523
breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks 36, 415, 416, center of buoyancy 377, 858
590, 594, 632 center of gravity 302, 303, 377, 486, 538, 558, 565, 821, 855,
breakwater head 81, 190, 191, 412, 416, 417, 418, 420, 614, 616 858, 859, 944
breakwater opening width ratio 91 Chakrabarti 146, 168
breakwater shape influence factor 421 Chang's method 458, 464, 820
breakwaters with wide footing 640, 645 characteristic value 4,
breakwater trunk 412, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 613, 616 5, 7, 9, 11, 20, 21, 22, 129, 150, 180, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215,
breasting dolphin 844, 845, 846 277, 280, 298, 304, 305, 306, 307, 312, 314, 317, 323, 328,
breast line 309 329, 330, 335, 338, 339, 340, 345, 347, 348, 349, 358, 368,
Brebner 418, 424 369, 370, 378, 382, 383, 388, 400, 401, 411, 418, 421, 427,
Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum 80 429, 434, 435, 436, 437, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 450,
Broms 481, 724 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 486, 487, 488, 500,
buckling 347, 407, 473, 474, 482, 786, 828 502, 503, 504, 505, 508, 510, 511, 512, 519, 520, 525, 526,
– 982 –
INDEX
527, 537, 538, 599, 600, 601, 602, 604, 605, 606, 609, 611, compressive strength of concrete 366, 836
612, 613, 621, 623, 624, 627, 631, 634, 648, 649, 694, 697, concave corner 96, 97, 589, 614
701, 702, 703, 704, 706, 707, 708, 722, 725, 728, 731, 736, concentrated corrosion 331, 332, 333, 334, 336
738, 741, 742, 746, 747, 750, 753, 757, 763, 764, 773, 774, concentrated load 315, 317, 384, 475, 908, 909
785, 786, 788, 789, 791, 794, 795, 822, 823, 827, 828, 830, concrete aggregate 350
831, 832, 833, 834, 836, 838, 840, 841, 842, 846, 848, 860, concrete block type upright breakwater 625
861, 874, 879, 890, 891, 893, 909, 910 concrete lid 339, 387, 388, 390, 410, 597, 614
chart datum level 68 concrete pavement 347, 892, 893, 894, 895, 897, 898, 901
chemical grouting method 357, 544 concrete pile 340, 341, 473
chloride ion 338, 369, 370, 423 concrete slab 409, 892, 893, 894, 896, 897, 898, 899
Christensen 416, 424 concrete slab thickness 892, 893, 894, 896, 897
circular slip failure concrete wall anchorage 16, 20, 684, 685, 722, 737, 738
24, 34, 312, 429, 430, 431, 484, 486, 487, 488, 490, 491, 493, confining pressure 225, 259, 260, 269, 432, 444, 511, 519, 523,
516, 523, 525, 528, 533, 537, 538, 544, 551, 592, 600, 601, 533, 709
603, 605, 620, 623, 624, 626, 630, 633, 665, 703, 704, 705, consistency 216, 261, 338, 339
706, 714, 734, 736, 766, 767, 769, 785, 819, 836, 969 consolidated drained condition 223
Civil Engineering Handbook 67, 356, 587, 941, 956, 960 consolidated undrained condition 223
clearance limits 686, 915, 924 consolidation characteristics 207, 218
cliff 137, 173, 180, 198 consolidation rate 493, 540, 541
closed ended pile 474 consolidation settlement 222, 288, 441, 452, 475, 476, 477, 491,
closing dike 424 494, 503, 516, 517, 969
coal ash 19, 350, 352, 545 consolidation test 218, 219, 221, 222, 226, 475, 477, 478, 496
coal storage yard 7, 958, 959 consolidation theory 221, 222, 476, 477
coarse sand 521 consolidation yield stress 210, 213, 219, 221, 222, 227, 477, 520
coating material 19, 333, 335 constant coefficient method 161
coating method 13, 333, 336, 367 constructability 9, 10, 40, 49, 325, 342, 490, 588, 637, 890, 930
coefficient of active earth pressure 434, 526, 527, 724, 792 construction joints 340, 614, 898
coefficient of consolidation 211, 213, 220, 477, 495, 496, 541 construction method 40, 41, 49, 55, 441, 443, 447, 529, 551, 619,
coefficient of curvature 521 690, 718, 723, 930, 931, 932
coefficient of earth pressure 226, 272, 273, 275, 385, 394, 400, construction works 41, 180, 224, 345, 350, 384, 431, 446, 447,
456, 511, 527, 530, 724, 773, 778 449, 518, 588, 633, 796, 820
coefficient of earth pressure at rest 272, 273, 385, 456, 530, 724 container crane 322, 818, 835, 944, 945, 946, 947, 951
coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction 436, 437, 820 container freight station 952, 955
coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction 458, 464, 468, 820, 838 container ship 124, 294, 295, 296, 300, 309, 951, 952, 953
coefficient of passive earth pressure 740 container terminal 950, 951, 952, 953, 956
coefficient of secondary compression 478 container terminal area 951, 952, 956
coefficient of stress distribution 493, 540 continuous slab 395, 396, 740
coefficient of variation 22, 28, 34, continuous underground wall 340, 434
36, 211, 212, 213, 232, 502, 603, 604, 605, 613, 621, 623, 624, controlled industrial wastes 968
627, 631, 634, 649, 706, 707, 736, 830, 832, 833, 834, 874 converged embedded length 724, 728
coefficient of vertical subgrade reaction 437 coping 197, 723, 733, 734, 743, 877
coefficient of volume compressibility 213, 219, 476, 540 coral reef 973, 976, 977
coefficient of wave transmission 116, 117, 632, 638 Coriolis force 176
cohesive material 547 corrected acceleration 503, 504, 537
cohesive resistance 435 corrosion control 43, 331, 333, 410, 473
Collins 168 corrosion rate 331, 332, 333, 334
collision energy 937 Coulomb's equation 470
collision force 938 coupled oscillations 821, 835
color rendering performance 882, 883 coupled-pile anchorage 19, 684, 685, 721, 723, 738, 740, 741,
compaction method 542, 548, 551 798
component wave method 88 coupled piles 18, 457, 466, 467, 468, 481, 482, 740, 741, 765,
composite breakwater 766, 838
19, 116, 132, 133, 134, 137, 166, 259, 358, 412, 413, 418, 420, covering 117, 136, 138, 139, 269, 298, 325, 333, 335, 336, 411,
421, 424, 592, 593, 595, 596, 598, 603, 605, 612, 615, 618, 418, 521, 522, 560, 706, 909, 928, 930
619, 622, 624, 625, 626, 628, 630, 632, 633, 644, 649, 650, covering work 706
846 crack caused by bending 402, 403
composite ground 481, 533, 535, 536, 540 cracking 7, 369, 448, 615, 898, 931
composite seismic angle 274, 275, 277, 278 crack width 366, 367, 369, 371, 373, 374, 375, 813
composite slab 407, 409 crawler crane 317
composite structure 407 creep characteristics 452, 880
compressibility 209, 213, 219, 223, 445, 475, 476, 480, 522, 540 crest height 10, 139, 165, 866, 867, 974, 975
compression curve 218 crest line 107, 195, 204
compression frequency-dependent characteristics 880 critical wave height for cargo handling works 122, 123
compression index 212, 219, 222, 356, 476, 478, 540 cross-shore sediment transport 183, 189, 196
compressive strength 209, 225, 227, 232, crown concrete 614, 615, 625
258, 274, 339, 345, 352, 366, 432, 448, 452, 464, 500, 502, cumulative distribution function 28, 29
511, 519, 520, 524, 525, 534, 535, 544, 545, 836 curbing 884, 885
– 983 –
current force 197, 561, 562, 566, 857, 860 599, 600, 601, 602, 606, 612, 649, 699, 701, 702, 703, 704,
current pressure coefficient 307 708, 725, 731, 732, 733, 734, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741,
current pressure force 297, 304, 306, 307 743, 747, 748, 763, 764, 775, 777, 778, 779, 785, 786, 791,
curtain wall 117, 635, 636, 637, 638, 645 792, 793, 804, 823, 827, 828, 830, 831, 832, 833, 835, 836,
curtain wall breakwater 635, 636, 637, 645 857, 860, 861, 862, 873, 874, 879, 892, 893, 901, 938, 944
curved-slit caisson 142, 628 design vehicle 914, 924, 933
cusp 124, 125, 128 design water depth 616, 690
cuspline 124, 125, 128 design water level 138, 389, 620
cylindrical failure surface 484 design wave 119, 136, 137, 141, 145, 151, 154, 155, 156, 166,
cylindrical member 145 169, 386, 556, 590, 593, 605, 607, 644, 666
cylindrical structure 129 design working life
4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 23, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 50, 55,
D 79, 123, 152, 155, 311, 325, 344, 365, 368, 369, 373, 374, 375,
damage rate 411, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 422 403, 411, 593, 605, 607, 624, 836, 893, 895, 896, 900, 901,
damping factor 230, 231, 232, 248, 255, 256, 257, 260, 520, 925
822, 945 detached breakwater 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 142, 180, 194, 416, 424,
Darcy's law 217, 667, 668 589, 674, 973, 974, 975
Davenport 306, 310 detached pier 151, 676, 847, 848, 849
dead weight tonnage 290, 298, 300 detailed design 643
Dean 169, 198 diffracted wave 91, 92, 133, 142, 589
deep foundation 434, 435, 436, 437, 450, 452 diffraction 83, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 142, 146,
deep mixing method 19, 352, 498, 499, 500, 503, 506, 548, 549, 148, 159, 163, 164, 173, 305
694 diffraction coefficient 91, 92, 93, 95
deepwater wave energy flux 188 diffraction diagram 91, 92, 94, 95
deepwater wavelength 136, 184, 187, 413 diffraction force 305
deepwater waves 88, 89, 126, 127, 132, 202 diffraction theory 146, 148, 159, 305
deepwater wave steepness 109, 119, 135, 136 dike 20, 114, 116, 165, 167, 168, 197, 424, 498, 669, 671, 672,
deflection curve equation 724 797, 940, 973
deformation modulus 210, 218, 499, 520 dilatancy 223, 544
deformation moment 715, 757, 768, 775, 791, 792 directional spreading 81, 82, 84, 89, 92, 96, 416
deformation of ship hull 304, 880 directional spreading function 81, 84
degree of damage 6, directional spreading parameter 81, 82
7, 8, 9, 14, 30, 38, 403, 411, 415, 417, 418, 431, 586, 655, 656, directional wave spectrum 81, 84, 86, 88, 117
660, 682, 849, 851, 904, 927, 935, 942, 948 directivity 237, 242, 264, 267
degree of saturation 214, 229 discontinuous part 139
density currents 178, 179 discrete method 600, 700
density currents at river mouth 178, 179 displacement of the stabilized body 516, 517
deposit layer 7 displacement stroke 679
depth of navigation channel 122, 556, 558, 559, 931 displacement tonnage 293
design bearing capacity coefficient 894 distribution function 28, 29, 152, 153, 154, 644
design CBR 900, 902 divergent wave 124, 125, 127, 128
design daily traffic volume 920, 921, 923 DOL criterion 154
design depth 558 dolphin 17, 18, 20, 122, 148, 156, 298, 581, 676, 844, 845, 846,
design high water level 666 856, 875, 878
design hourly traffic volume 915, 921, 922, 923, 924 dolphin mooring 156
design parameter 4, 6, 13, 14, 21, 22, 36, 225, 228, 590, 601, 603 domestic gross tonnage 290, 293, 687, 689
design point 29, 31 dominating actions 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 19, 374, 404, 411, 656, 682,
design section force 905 683, 684, 685, 691, 851, 853, 871, 886
design ship 55, 289, 290, 293, 294, 296, 297, Donnelly 418, 424
298, 302, 303, 306, 308, 553, 554, 555, 556, 558, 560, 563, double-buoy mooring 579
570, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 661, 682, double exponential distribution 60, 153
686, 687, 689, 837, 842, 844, 845, 851, 852, 854, 865, 866, downdrift 651, 652, 657
867, 871, 872, 877, 937, 938, 942, 944, 961 DP model 86, 87
design significant wave height 132, 419, 597 drag coefficient 145, 146, 147, 158, 159, 196, 197, 305, 306, 857
design situation 11, 12, 13, 271, 373, 374, 375, 376, 387, drag force 144, 145, 147, 148, 157, 158, 161, 196, 422, 857
392, 403, 404, 406, 407, 411, 586, 587, 592, 594, 635, 641, drag force by currents 157, 158, 161
655, 681, 682, 683, 685, 686, 691, 711, 712, 713, 714, 758, drainage 114, 120, 200, 218, 220, 223, 224, 227, 228, 232, 493,
759, 767, 801, 808, 827, 829, 850, 852, 853, 864, 875, 884, 494, 495, 550, 659, 886, 910, 911, 930, 932, 948
886, 889, 904, 905, 928, 936, 943, 949, 964, 966, 972, 978 drainage distance 220, 494, 495
design standard traffic volume 914, 915, 922, 923 drainage facilities 114, 200, 886, 932, 948
design tide level 139, 156, 388 dredged soil 19, 350, 351, 352, 518, 544, 551
design traffic volume 915, 916, 921, 925 dry container 954
design value 5, 21, 22, 129, drying shrinkage 435
210, 213, 215, 314, 331, 366, 368, 369, 411, 412, 418, 421, 426, dry unit weight 214
427, 428, 429, 430, 434, 436, 437, 439, 440, 442, 450, 452, dry work method 932
453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 466, 472, 484, 486, 487, 488, 489, DT 298, 837, 922
500, 505, 508, 510, 511, 512, 516, 526, 527, 537, 538, 598, dual anchoring 579
– 984 –
INDEX
dual lumped mass system 945 719, 798, 847, 849
dual main truss 65 effective surcharge pressure 432, 532, 696
DWT 124, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 300, 301, 560, effective weight 430, 486, 487, 488, 512, 514, 538, 543, 602, 612
687, 688, 689, 804 elastic beam analysis method 718, 723, 726
dynamic analysis 15, 16, elastic constant 218, 232
17, 18, 244, 247, 431, 499, 520, 595, 608, 609, 612, 692, 701, elastic deformation 160, 219, 472, 679, 945, 946
716, 717, 723, 742, 745, 749, 752, 756, 762, 770, 772, 790, elastic deformation of ground 472
796, 803, 818, 820, 835, 847, 849, 860, 945 elastic deformation of pile 472
dynamic modulus of deformation 230 elastic solution 475
dynamic penetration resistance 471 elastic wave velocity 232, 266
dynamic response 138, 146, 147, 168, 643 elasto-plastic model 478
dynamic water pressure 271, 280, 394, 504, 505, 506, 509, 526, electrical cone test 228
527, 597, 612, 665, 702, 708, 723, 725, 731, 794, 845 e-log p curve method 219
dynamic water pressure during an earthquake 280, 845 embankment 212, 224, 225, 226, 353, 356, 482, 485, 490, 492,
DYNEQ 256, 257, 268 493, 503, 540, 547, 797
embedded length ratio 447, 448, 770, 776, 777
E embedment length 434, 711, 712, 723, 725, 726, 728, 729, 734,
earth pressure calculation formula 524 758, 759, 782, 835, 909
earth pressure of filling 401, 792 embedment length of sheet pile 725, 734
earth pressure reduction effect 523, 701, 728 emergency equipment 661
earthquake fault model 176 emergency supply transport 676, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683,
earthquake ground motion 4, 5, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 235, 684, 685, 811, 812
238, 240, 243, 245, 246, 255, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 271, emergency telephone 930
364, 365, 372, 373, 374, 375, 378, 379, 380, 382, 384, 391, empirical Green function method 264, 265
392, 407, 431, 440, 455, 484, 489, 499, 500, 504, 508, 510, empty container 917
512, 513, 515, 516, 537, 585, 586, 587, 592, 593, 594, 595, encounter probability 55
598, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 624, 635, 654, 655, 656, end bearing area 446
657, 659, 660, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, end bearing capacity 446, 453, 455
685, 691, 692, 693, 694, 697, 698, 701, 702, 703, 704, 707, end loading test 442
708, 709, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 719, 720, 722, 723, end protection work 899
725, 731, 732, 734, 736, 737, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, end resistance of a pile 443, 445
745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 752, 753, 755, 756, 757, 758, energy balance equation 88, 89, 90, 93
759, 760, 762, 763, 767, 768, 769, 770, 772, 774, 775, 779, energy loss 73, 74, 90, 174, 175, 302
787, 789, 790, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 810, 811, 812, 813, Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures 885, 915, 924
814, 815, 817, 818, 823, 824, 826, 827, 829, 833, 834, 837, engineering bedrock 258
838, 840, 841, 842, 843, 846, 848, 851, 852, 865, 870, 903, environmental action 6, 10, 19, 20, 55, 311, 338, 368
904, 905, 906, 907, 913, 914, 915, 927, 928, 935, 941, 942, environmental monitoring 201
943, 944, 945, 948, 949, 964, 965, 966, 967, 969, 978, 979 equivalent beam method 717, 725, 728, 730, 731, 751
earthquake motion 7, 176, 240, 245, 266, 267, 268, 545, 797, 798 equivalent coefficient of permeability 667
earthquake-resistance container crane 944 equivalent crown height coefficient 114, 115
earthquake-resistance crane 944, 945 equivalent deepwater wave height 93, 98, 99, 104, 117, 119,
earthquake-resistance mechanism 946 136, 144, 184, 412, 414
earth-retaining section 817, 818, 819, 824, 825, 826, 835, 837, equivalent linear analysis 255, 257
840, 845, 847, 848 equivalent linear model 230
earth-retaining structure 819 equivalent N-value 229
ebb tide 179, 181, 188 equivalent relative velocity 305
ebb tide shoreline 181 equivalent static analysis 244, 245, 246
eccentric and inclined load 488, 597, 598, 600, 613, 620 equivalent-thickness method 477
eccentric distance 438 equivalent wall height 778, 779, 786, 791, 792, 793
eccentricity factor 289, 297, 298, 937 equivalent wall width 770, 774, 775, 778, 790, 791, 792, 846
economical design 413 error function 369
eddy viscosity 70, 87 estimated tide level 172, 173
edge wave 174 estuarine hydraulics 19, 178
effective confining pressure 259, 523, 709 estuary 55, 179
effective diameter 495, 496, 497 exceedance probability 152, 153, 154, 162
effective diameter of drain 495, 496, 497 expanded void theory 446
effective fetch 85 expected number of damage occurrence 23
effective fetch length 85 expected total cost 24, 25, 592, 603, 623, 643, 644, 704, 734,
effective grain size 217 797, 798, 829, 847, 849
effective harbor entrance width 588 expected value 23, 24, 161, 162, 211, 592, 603, 623, 734, 829
effective length 456, 457, 460, 663, 748 extended Goda's formula 139, 141
effective overburden pressure 220, 226, 227, 229, 230, 258, extended Tanimoto's formula 420
259, 444, 456, 476, 477, 511, 525, 530, 532 external stability 36, 38, 78, 378, 499, 503, 505, 511, 643, 645
effective stress extremely soft subsoil 494, 544
220, 223, 225, 226, 227, 244, 247, 256, 257, 275, 504, 537, extrusion 384, 389, 390, 391, 392, 401, 407, 500, 506, 515, 516
550, 600, 602, 698, 700, 703, 704, 719, 797, 798, 847, 849 extrusion failure 401
effective stress analysis 244, 256, 257, 275, 504, 537, 698, 700,
– 985 –
F floor slab 150, 343, 367, 847, 849, 859

fluctuating drift force 159
facilities for wave control 975 fluctuating wind 161, 306
facilities prepared for accidental incident 586, 587 fluorescent sand tracers 185, 186
facilities subject to the technical standard 39, 40, 41, 47, 48, 49, FLUSH 256, 257, 268, 797
50, 178, 271 fly ash 338, 549
factor for effective cross-sectional area 500, 501, 512, 513 foam treated soil 518
failure mode 6, 7, 24, 36, 37, 38, 445, 547 FOMN 38
failure of bearing capacity 510 footing 15, 20, 133, 134, 373, 374, 378, 389, 391, 392, 396,
failure probability 6, 7, 14, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 403, 407, 409, 479, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 603, 606, 608,
30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 506, 507, 510, 512, 513, 514, 516, 592, 615, 640, 645, 649, 704
593, 594, 603, 604, 605, 623, 624, 626, 627, 630, 631, 633, foot protection block 339, 351, 615, 616
634, 691, 704, 706, 712, 713, 714, 715, 734, 759, 768, 788, forced replacement 490
814, 829, 830, 831, 833, 834 foreshore 181, 182, 188, 973, 974, 975
fast Fourier transform (FFT) 609, 693 FORM 21, 29, 30, 31, 33, 37, 38, 167
fatigue failure 79, 367, 409, 410, 813, 815, 826 foundation for cargo handling equipment 908, 909
fatigue limit 5, 365, 367, 373, 374, 375, 391, 399, 403, 815, 895 foundation ground 15, 16,
fatigue limit state 5, 365, 367, 373, 374, 375, 391, 399, 403, 815, 17, 25, 140, 230, 233, 244, 245, 352, 426, 429, 430, 432, 488,
895 498, 504, 506, 534, 537, 587, 592, 594, 597, 598, 600, 601,
fatigue strength 374, 375, 403, 410, 813, 815 603, 604, 607, 609, 612, 613, 620, 623, 626, 627, 630, 631,
FDEL 256, 257 633, 634, 648, 649, 650, 665, 668, 691, 693, 699, 701, 702,
fender 156, 160, 297, 703, 704, 706, 707, 714, 768, 796, 797, 846, 927, 928
298, 302, 303, 304, 307, 519, 709, 723, 742, 743, 753, 764, foundation replacement by excavation 490
821, 822, 830, 831, 837, 842, 844, 845, 846, 848, 856, 857, Fourier spectrum 235, 250, 252, 263
860, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 910, 911, 937, 938, 947 four principal tidal constituents 68, 69
fender equipment 875, 877 frame structure 751, 931
fender reaction force 723, 742, 753, 764, 830, 831, 837, 854, freeboard 801, 807, 849, 851, 852, 854, 856, 858
857, 860, 880 free earth support method 717, 725
fender system 297, 298, 302, 304, 875, 876, 877, 878, 880 frequency domain analysis method 709
ferry 126, 294, 299, 919, 934 frequency filter 826
fetch 84, 85, 86, 87, 163 frequency spectrum 71, 80, 81, 89, 120, 133, 306
fetch length 84, 85, 86, 87 frequency spectrum of wind velocity 306
filler 342, 343, 344, 898 frictional resistance 127, 307, 358, 426, 434, 505, 526, 527, 614,
filling 222, 278, 280, 350, 355, 368, 377, 385, 386, 388, 708
390, 399, 400, 401, 410, 474, 490, 491, 519, 520, 523, 597, friction coefficient 20, 244, 306, 347, 358, 359, 506, 507, 508,
599, 614, 615, 699, 707, 708, 757, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777 598, 599, 606, 607, 612, 648, 793, 873
filling sand 342, 410, 599, 604, 613, 621, 623, 627, 631, 634, friction drag 157
649, 665, 667, 702, 706, 707, 708 friction enhancement mat 342, 358, 599, 611
final consolidation settlement 475, 476 friction pile 440, 441, 470, 471, 832, 833, 834, 839
fines content 491, 494, 521, 524, 529, 531, 532, 533, 534, 544, front toe reaction force 793
550 front wall slit 403, 404
finite amplitude standing wave theory 135 fueling facilities 5, 886
finite amplitude wave theory 133, 135, 145 full load draft 290, 302, 581
finite difference method 93, 265, 477 fully plastic state moment 684, 685
First-Order Multinormal approach 38 fumigation 950
First-Order Reliability Method 21, 30
fixed passenger boarding facilities 964, 965 G
FLAC 797
galvanic anodes method 334
flexibility 86, 246, 289, 297, 298, 304, 343, 421, 726, 728, 878,
gate 15, 660, 662, 663, 929, 953
932, 937
general cargo ship 124, 298, 299, 300, 301
flexibility factor 289, 297, 298, 304, 937
generated electricity flux 334
flexibility number 726, 728
geometrical moment of inertia 724, 726, 728, 732, 858
FLIP 256, 257, 669, 797, 849
geophysical exploration 207, 210
floating body 17, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 304,
geostrophic wind 59
373, 376, 641, 642, 643, 645, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806,
geosynthetic 353
807, 849, 851, 852, 854, 858, 859
geotechnical condition 207, 553, 694, 695
floating breakwater 156, 160, 641, 642, 643
Global Positioning System 176
floating bridge 156
global warming 78, 201
floating disaster-prevention base 156
Goda's formula 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 139, 140, 141,
floating dock 124, 384
142, 144, 605
floating mooring facilities 851
GPS buoy system 176, 203
floating pier 4, 5, 156, 577, 578, 643, 676, 851, 852, 853, 854,
gradient wind 58, 59
855, 856, 857, 858
grain size 180, 184, 187, 196, 210, 213, 216, 217, 229, 271, 343,
floating structure 129, 156, 157, 160, 853, 862, 880
344, 491, 494, 521, 524, 532, 533, 535, 727, 973, 974, 975
floating type 516
granulated blast furnace slag 350, 352, 521, 550
flocculation 178
gravity type breakwater 591, 643, 644
floodgate 659, 660
gravity type quaywall 245, 797
flood tide 179, 188
– 986 –
INDEX
gravity type special breakwater 15, 20 horizontal coefficient of consolidation 477
gravity type structure 76, 342 horizontal-plate type permeable breakwater 117
Green function 92, 238, 253, 261, 262, 264, 265 horizontal seismic coefficient 437, 819
Green's law 174 horizontal shear modulus 780, 784, 785
green space 50, 963, 978, 979 horizontal slit 404, 628
Gringorten 152, 169 H-shaped steel 327, 407, 446, 447, 452
groin 6, 15, 20, 180, 181, 189, 194, 333, 338, 579, 651, 652, 653, Hudson's formula 411, 412, 413, 416, 417, 418
658, 672 HWL 68, 69, 332, 333, 653, 786
gross tonnage 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 298, 308, 309, 577, HWOST 69
687, 689, 865, 866, 884, 887, 962 hybrid caisson 407, 408, 409, 410, 597, 614
ground bearing capacity 390 hybrid structure 409, 424
ground chain 17, 800, 801, 802, 804, 805, 806, 807 hydraulic gradient 76, 217
ground contact area 891 hydraulic model experiment 193, 194, 404, 405, 412, 418, 419,
ground slots 954, 955 420, 421
ground stress 426 Hyogoken Nambu Earthquake 256, 261
ground subsidence 288 hyperbolic model 230
ground water level 75, 258, 450 hypocenter 235, 240, 250, 251, 656, 678
group velocity 84, 86, 90, 128, 186, 195 hypocenter parameter 240
grouting method 355, 357, 544 hysteresis 230
Gumbel distribution 152, 153, 154
gust factor 61 I
Gutenberg-Richter equation 252 IHO 936
immediate settlement 288, 475, 478
H
immersed tunnel 246, 341, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932
hammer driving method 443 immersed tunnel element 341, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932
hanger 869 immersed tunnel method 929
Hansen 862 IMO 166, 167, 168, 169, 176, 177, 199, 205, 206, 643, 645, 650,
harbor calmness 15, 79, 80, 93, 122, 123, 154, 155, 204, 577, 799
581, 583, 585, 586, 588, 590, 642, 795 impact load 322
harbor entrance 72, 73, 92, 93, 122, 588, 590, 650, 651, 652 importance sampling 29
harbor paradox 73 improved subsoil 498, 499, 500, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508,
harbor resonance 71, 73, 74, 83, 84, 121, 122 509, 510, 511, 512, 515, 516, 517, 518, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538,
hardener 337, 351, 352, 547 539, 540, 542, 544
hazard curve 253 improved subsoil system 503, 504, 506, 509
hazardous cargo 4, 7, 376, 595, 636, 642, 678, 950, 959 improvement ratio 529, 544
hazardous cargo handling facilities 376 impulsive breaking wave force 129, 132, 135, 136, 137, 138,
hazardous materials storage facilities 959 139, 142, 143, 147, 420, 597, 622, 628
headed stud 409 impulsive breaking wave force coefficient 132, 138, 420
head loss 76, 217, 494, 496 impulsive pressure 405
heaving 160, 556, 557, 690, 902 impulsive uplift 148, 151, 405
heavy tamping method 548 impulsive wave force 135, 136, 147, 148
height of embankment 493, 540 impulsive wave pressure 129, 344
high cube container 924 incident wave height 91, 93, 143, 150, 159, 174
high-density blocks 416 incident waves 70, 91, 92, 94, 95,
high earthquake-resistance facilities 96, 107, 131, 133, 138, 143, 144, 145, 159, 161, 165, 179, 192,
365, 375, 376, 398, 540, 676, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 256, 304, 305, 412, 416, 589, 650, 973
685, 686, 704, 716, 734, 736, 737, 745, 746, 749, 752, 756, increase rate of strength 493
762, 768, 772, 790, 796, 810, 811, 812, 814, 817, 818, 829, inertia coefficient 145, 146, 148
830, 831, 833, 834, 903, 904, 907, 915, 935, 942, 948 inertia force 144, 145, 147, 230, 244, 245, 503, 504, 505, 506,
highest high water level 69, 599, 604, 613, 621, 623, 627, 631, 509, 515, 526, 527, 698, 702, 708, 774, 821, 835
635, 649, 936, 937 initial construction cost 4, 5, 23, 24, 592, 603, 623, 704, 734
highest one-tenth wave 116 initial investment cost 55, 56
highest water level 68, 69, 172, 173, 174, 590, 596, 597, 599, initial shoreline configuration 975
619, 653, 689, 786, 795 initial tangent elastic modulus 218
highest wave 83, 102, 104, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, inland active fault 678, 679
139, 143, 145, 149, 588 inner bar 182
highest wave height 83, 102, 104, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 139, inshore 181, 975
143, 145, 149 in-situ permeability test 217, 228
high-fluidity concrete 932 in-situ test 14, 226, 232, 461, 480, 500
high replacement ratio 533, 536, 541 in-situ vane shear test 227
high-speed ferry 126 inspection and diagnosis plan 45, 47
high-strength concrete 340 installation depth 143, 599, 601, 606, 607, 612
high water level 68, 69, 331, 599, 604, 613, 621, 623, 625, 626, intensity of wave pressure 130, 134, 136, 597
627, 628, 631, 632, 635, 649, 650, 666, 719, 936, 937 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 74
Highway Bridge Specifications and Commentary 64, 316, 330 intermediate buoy 156, 856
Hiley's equation 471 intermediate soil 223, 225, 228
Hiroi's formula 133 intermediate weight 156
– 987 –
internal earth pressure 373, 375, 378, 379, 380, 382, 385, 386, Latin hypercube sampling method 29
389, 391, 392, 399, 400, 401, 407 least squares method 212
internal stability 500, 503, 511, 512 length between perpendiculars 302, 303, 304, 306, 555, 556,
internal water pressure 378, 385, 386, 389, 401, 407 575
international gross tonnage 290, 294, 687 length overall 307, 554, 560, 575, 578, 579, 580, 844, 845, 867
International Hydrographic Organization 936 length overall of design ship 554, 560, 579, 580
International Navigation Association 880 Lesser 196, 199
International Organization for Standardization 247, 268, 316 levee 4, 109, 665
international ship container 924 Level 1 earthquake ground motion 5, 7, 10,
intertidal zone 331, 332, 333, 336, 973 14, 25, 235, 238, 243, 245, 255, 372, 373, 374, 375, 378, 379,
inverse fast Fourier transform 609, 693 380, 382, 384, 391, 392, 407, 431, 440, 455, 484, 489, 499,
IPCC 74, 78 500, 504, 508, 510, 512, 513, 515, 516, 537, 585, 592, 593,
Iribarren-Hudson's formula 413 595, 598, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 635, 654, 655, 659,
Isbash's constant 421, 422 660, 676, 677, 680, 691, 692, 693, 694, 697, 698, 701, 702,
ISO 11, 21, 29, 39, 244, 247, 268, 314, 316 703, 704, 707, 711, 713, 714, 715, 719, 720, 722, 723, 725,
731, 732, 734, 736, 737, 739, 740, 741, 743, 744, 745, 746,
J 747, 748, 749, 750, 752, 753, 755, 756, 757, 758, 762, 763,
jacket 18, 20, 841, 842, 843 767, 769, 770, 772, 774, 775, 779, 787, 789, 790, 794, 795,
jacket type pier 817 796, 810, 811, 812, 818, 823, 824, 826, 829, 833, 834, 837,
Japanese Industrial Standards 19 838, 840, 841, 842, 846, 848, 851, 852, 865, 903, 904, 914,
Japanese Unified Soil Classification System 216, 217 927, 935, 942, 945, 964, 966
Japan Society of Civil Engineers 170, 310 Level 2 earthquake ground motion
jetty 15, 657, 658, 659, 908, 974 4, 5, 10, 14, 15, 235, 238, 240, 245, 246, 264, 265, 266, 267,
joint 16, 27, 31, 58, 60, 76, 77, 79, 88, 147, 154, 155, 156, 157, 364, 365, 499, 500, 585, 586, 587, 598, 612, 624, 654, 655,
326, 327, 328, 340, 353, 354, 389, 390, 410, 449, 454, 456, 656, 657, 659, 660, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 698,
473, 614, 615, 665, 667, 668, 699, 719, 732, 747, 757, 764, 708, 709, 716, 723, 742, 745, 749, 752, 757, 763, 772, 790,
768, 776, 778, 779, 787, 815, 835, 857, 860, 861, 890, 898, 796, 810, 817, 818, 826, 827, 829, 870, 903, 904, 906, 907,
899, 908, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 970 914, 915, 927, 935, 942, 944, 945, 948, 969, 978
joint board 353 level crossing 924
joint distribution 147 life cycle cost 12, 19, 23, 36
joint frequency distribution 58, 79, 154, 155 lifetime 4, 5, 7, 152, 155, 415
joint probability density function 27 lift coefficient 196, 197
joint structure 473, 899, 930 lift force 169, 196, 197, 598, 600, 601, 606, 615, 648, 815
JSCE 11, 27, 36, 48, 66, 67, 77, lighting facilities 869, 881, 883, 948, 950, 957
78, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 177, 198, 199, light-weight treated soil 548
200, 204, 205, 206, 247, 268, 269, 278, 309, 326, 337, 341, limiting breaking height 103
344, 345, 352, 356, 358, 359, 423, 424, 425, 480, 481, 482, limiting wave height 103
548, 550, 551, 587, 643, 644, 645, 648, 650, 659, 669, 671, limit state 5, 6, 7, 21, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 38,
796, 797, 798, 799, 847, 849, 850, 862, 911, 926, 938, 956, 79, 152, 155, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375,
960, 976 376, 378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 391, 398, 399, 403, 404,
judgment of liquefaction 229 407, 453, 484, 485, 487, 506, 684, 685, 712, 713, 760, 769,
808, 813, 815, 836, 895, 905
K limit state design 365
limit state design method 365
Kana 165, 198, 269, 547, 548, 797
limit state function 6, 21, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 38
Karman 149
line load 315, 475
KD value 413, 415, 417
liquefaction 15, 16, 17, 18,
keel clearance 299, 304, 377, 554, 578, 580, 662, 686
19, 55, 207, 229, 233, 245, 255, 257, 268, 351, 426, 441, 455,
Kelvin 125, 128
490, 491, 505, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 529, 543, 544,
Keulegan-Carpenter number 145
545, 548, 550, 551, 593, 595, 636, 692, 698, 716, 745, 749,
key element method 932
752, 756, 762, 772, 790, 796, 797, 818, 845, 847, 907, 931
KiK-net 238, 250, 268
liquefaction countermeasure works 490, 543, 544
kinematic viscosity of water 127
liquid limit 222, 351, 518
K-NET 238, 250, 251
littoral drift 19, 55, 144, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 194, 195, 588,
Kuroshio 74
589, 641, 651, 652, 657, 660, 662, 672, 674, 974
L littoral drift phenomena 180
live load 65, 66, 312, 314, 323, 719, 845, 849, 857, 859
laboratory mixing test 500, 525 L load 316
laboratory permeability test 217 LNG carrier 294, 298
landfill material 19, 350, 351, 523, 761, 890 load factor 377, 378, 379, 381, 382, 383, 390, 396, 401
landscape 49, 50, 176, 931, 937, 974, 975, 976 loading arms 947
large isolated structure 148 loading test 348, 439, 440, 441, 442,
large-scale triaxial compression test 345, 431 443, 446, 447, 448, 449, 454, 455, 457, 458, 459, 460, 464,
lateral bearing capacity 435, 458, 466, 480, 481, 482, 738 465, 467, 471, 479, 480, 481, 482, 820, 847, 849, 894
lateral displacement 288, 467, 478, 516, 520, 718 load-pile head displacement curve 458
lateral flow 717 load-settlement curve 442
lateral loading test 458, 464, 820 local buckling 407, 474, 482
lateral resistance of pile 459, 747, 748, 820
– 988 –
INDEX
lock 661, 662, 663 median diameter 184, 185
logarithmic normal distribution 22 member factor 365, 370, 371, 836, 837
log loader 317 metacenter 377, 558
longitudinal construction joint 898 meteorological tide 68, 69
longitudinal gradient 931 method with cross-sectional division 859
long-period wave 71, 73, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 165, 166, 170, microtremor 238, 248, 251, 252, 266
204, 205, 206, 582 mild-slope equation 88, 93
long pile 456, 459, 460, 461, 738, 742 minimization of expected total cost 24, 25
longshore bar 181, 189, 191, 192, 198 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism 21,
longshore currents 165 40, 43
longshore sediment transport 180, 181, 183, 185, 186, 195, 196, MIR criterion 154
651, 652, 657, 672 mixing blades 501
longshore sediment transport rate 180, 181, 185, 186, 195 MLIT 926
long-term consolidation 475, 477 mobile crane 61, 63, 914, 915, 925
Longuet-Higgins 117, 165 model test 13, 14, 91, 92, 96, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 116,
long wave 98, 164, 172, 173, 175, 176 122, 128, 129, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144,
low crested upright wall 133 145, 148, 150, 151, 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 169, 259,
low water level 68, 331, 333, 519, 596, 602 275, 302, 411, 460, 544, 620, 622, 625, 628, 629, 632, 636,
LPG carrier 294, 298 637, 642, 648, 726, 727, 770, 773, 775, 776, 793, 795, 879
L-shaped block type quaywall 691 model vibration test 700
L-shaped member 197 moderate heat portland cement 338
L-type scouring 192 modified Fellenius method 429, 430, 486, 487, 488, 537, 600
luni-solar diurnal component of tides 69 modified seismic coefficient method 246
LWL 68, 331, 332, 333, 537, 699, 704, 719, 773, 786, 866 modified virtual slope method 106
LWOST 69 modulus of elasticity 458, 474, 475, 909, 910
modulus of subgrade reaction 717, 718, 724, 726, 727, 728, 731,
M 779, 780
Mach-stem wave 588, 652 modulus of volume 257
Mackenzie 862 moment of inertia 303, 378, 468, 724, 726, 728, 732, 858, 909
Magnitude 236, 237, 243, 252, 253, 269 monitoring 50, 179, 201, 205, 482, 486, 661, 887, 888, 930, 931,
maintenanceability 9, 10 932
maintenance cost 55, 876, 906, 907 mooring anchor 17, 156, 578, 579, 641, 643, 801, 802, 804, 805,
maintenance dredging 43, 674, 931 851, 853, 854, 858, 860, 861, 862
maintenance level 44, 45 mooring buoy 5, 157, 159, 676, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805,
maintenance planning document 42 807, 849, 851
maintenance program 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47 mooring chains 854, 857, 858, 859
maintenance shop 952, 955 mooring dolphin 844
maintenance work 5, 42, 43, 44, 45, 337, 861, 939 mooring equipment 156, 160, 161, 163, 297, 852, 853, 880, 936
Manning's roughness coefficient 176 mooring facilities 6, 15, 18, 24, 38, 43, 50, 83, 84, 122, 245, 279,
manoeuverability index of turning 575 289, 297, 298, 299, 303, 304, 308, 309, 314, 324, 363, 577,
marina 120, 122, 194, 881, 915, 916, 919 578, 584, 662, 676, 678, 679, 686, 749, 755, 844, 851, 853,
Markov Chain Monte Carlo 29 857, 870, 871, 872, 875, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 884,
marshaling area 951, 952, 954, 955, 956 886, 887, 888, 889, 892, 893, 898, 900, 907, 909, 934, 942,
Marshall stability 901, 902 944, 945, 947
mass concrete block type upright breakwater 625 mooring force 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, 857
mastic asphalt 342, 343, 344, 652 mooring line 121, 156, 157, 160, 641, 642, 643, 686, 870, 871,
material factor 365, 368, 369 872
mattress work 617 mooring pile 5, 20, 577, 578, 676, 808
Mavis 145, 168 mooring post 297, 304, 308, 309, 709, 844, 846, 870, 871, 872,
maximum allowable vehicle traffic volume 914 873, 874, 884, 910, 911, 953
maximum draft 553, 554, 578, 579, 580, 581, 686 mooring ring 18, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874
maximum instantaneous wind speed 61 mooring rod 156
maximum moment model 252 mooring rope 120, 163, 204, 307, 308, 309, 853
maximum scouring depth 190, 191 mooring system 121, 156, 157, 160, 204, 289, 304, 307, 579,
maximum wave 98, 105, 126, 127, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 137, 642, 850, 852, 858, 861
147, 151, 152, 417, 558 Morihira's formula 139
mean adhesion 435, 444, 455 motions of floating body 643
meandering damage 142 movable bed 193, 194
mean low water level 331, 333, 596 movable bridge 885, 964, 965
mean monthly-highest water level 68, 590, 596, 597, 599, 619, movable passenger boarding facilities 963, 964, 965, 966
653, 689, 795 MRI 86, 87, 163
mean monthly-lowest water level 68, 596, 699, 719, 866 MSL 68
mean period 106, 155 Muller's equation 859
mean sea level 68, 69, 74, 75 multi directional random waves 81, 88, 104, 147
mean uneven settlement ratio 478 multi-layered ground 268
mean water level 57, 69, 70, 104, 105, 117, 119, 201, 596, 597 multiple integrals 21, 27, 28
mean wave height 83, 116 multiple lanes 922, 923
– 989 –
multiple reflection theory 248, 696 offshore 41, 67, 70, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 90, 117, 122, 130, 132,
multiple-wing type permeable breakwater 117 135, 143, 144, 155, 156, 157, 168, 170, 180, 181, 183, 188, 189,
multi-purpose wharf 950 194, 195, 196, 202, 203, 204, 205, 297, 299, 301, 341, 344,
Munk 84, 163 490, 502, 581, 589, 616, 645, 652, 686, 807, 969, 974
mv method 219, 476 offshore berth 297, 299, 301, 581
Myers' formula 59 offshore petroleum stockpiling base 156
offshore waves 80, 82, 83, 84, 144, 155
N offshore wind 67, 87
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management oil handling equipment 942
48, 78, 248, 269, 296, 423, 553, 576, 643, 797, 798, 799, 911, oil storage facilities 7, 959
926, 938, 956 one-dimensional seismic response analysis 609, 822
natural beach 180, 188, 189, 973 one-line theory 194
natural frequency 71, 72, 120, 146, 173, 695, 696 open ended pile 446, 474, 480
natural frequency of ground 695, 696 open storage yard 7, 314, 890, 958, 959
natural frequency period 71, 72, 120, 146, 173 open-type quaywall with sheet pile wall anchored by forward
natural period 73, 121, 124, 204, 246, 696, 721, 818, 820, 822, batter piles 752
823, 824, 826, 827, 837, 842, 843, 857, 944, 945 open-type wharf 339, 369, 371, 719, 818, 819, 820, 821, 835,
natural period of ground 696 836, 837, 903
nautical chart 68 open-type wharf on vertical piles 818, 820, 835, 836
navigation channel 7, 122, 178, 194, 553, 554, 555, 556, 558, open-type wharves on coupled raking piles 817, 837, 838, 839
559, 560, 571, 574, 575, 588, 652, 931 optimization problem 31, 38
nearshore currents 178, 179, 186, 196 ore carrier 297
nearshore zone 198 original sea bottom depth 690
negative friction 451 overburden pressure 213, 219, 220, 226, 227, 229, 230, 258,
negative skin friction 435, 441, 442, 451, 452, 453, 474, 503 259, 429, 444, 456, 476, 477, 511, 525, 530, 532
negative wave force 134, 135 overconsolidation ratio 213, 228
negative wave pressure 134, 135 overturning 14, 15, 16, 36, 38, 74, 141, 245, 373, 376, 458,
neutral axis ratio 366 504, 506, 508, 509, 536, 537, 586, 587, 592, 593, 594, 599,
NHHWL 69 603, 606, 608, 609, 612, 620, 623, 626, 630, 633, 648, 649,
nominal diameter 366, 413, 414, 415 654, 655, 691, 693, 699, 701, 703, 704, 707, 708, 758, 759,
non-breaking 128, 139, 174, 412, 413, 415, 417 767, 770, 773, 789, 792, 793, 846, 871, 872, 873, 874, 944
non-dominating actions 11, 19, 404 overturning resistance coefficient 792
non-exceedance probability 152, 153, 154
P
nonlinear analysis 255, 256, 257, 260
nonlinear dynamic analysis 835 packed drain 494
nonlinear interaction 86, 87, 88 parallel system 7, 36
nonlinearity 33, 98, 147, 148, 151, 156, 218, 219, 230, 304, 650 parapet 6, 15, 20, 109, 116, 136, 165, 167, 339, 598, 614, 654,
nonlinear seismic response analysis 14, 30, 500, 818 655, 674
nonlinear wave transformation model 96 parking lots 6, 678, 933
non-reinforced concrete 338, 339, 365, 599, 604, 613, 621, 623, partial factor 4, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24,
627, 631, 634, 649, 702, 706, 707, 897 25, 36, 129, 210, 212, 213, 215, 315, 368, 370, 390, 391, 411,
normal consolidation 218, 219, 222, 476 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 434, 436, 437, 440, 441, 450,
normal distribution 22, 23, 28, 161, 162, 211, 233, 502 452, 453, 454, 455, 472, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 491, 493,
normal random variable 28, 30, 31 500, 505, 506, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516,
normal stress 223, 224, 225, 501, 537 525, 526, 527, 528, 538, 590, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603,
NOWPHAS 155, 170, 205, 206 605, 606, 607, 612, 613, 620, 623, 624, 626, 630, 633, 648,
NS value 412 649, 701, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 725, 731, 733, 734,
N-type scouring 192 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 743, 747, 748, 764, 778, 779, 785,
number of containers handled 916, 917, 954 786, 787, 788, 791, 792, 793, 794, 804, 827, 828, 829, 839,
number of lanes 914, 915, 921, 922, 923 857, 860, 861, 862, 874, 876, 879, 892, 893, 901
numerical computation 92, 129, 178, 195 partial factor method 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22
numerical simulation 108, 161, 164, 174, 175, 176, 177, 193, particle density 209, 210, 214, 350, 524
194, 201, 304, 648, 858 particle size distribution 49, 445
N-value 207, 211, partition wall
225, 229, 232, 432, 433, 443, 444, 445, 452, 453, 455, 459, 139, 373, 374, 375, 377, 384, 385, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392,
460, 464, 465, 491, 496, 525, 529, 530, 531, 532, 534, 542, 400, 401, 402, 403, 406, 407, 409, 410, 708, 757, 859
543, 727, 728, 741, 742, 820, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834 passenger boarding facilities 43, 869, 887, 963, 964, 965, 966
passenger ship 50, 309, 552, 678, 884, 887
O passive earth pressure
oblique berthing 880 272, 273, 277, 435, 436, 437, 469, 470, 503, 507, 508, 510,
oblique compression characteristics 880 515, 516, 709, 717, 719, 725, 732, 737, 738, 739, 740, 742,
obliquely incident wave 91, 92 743, 746, 763, 764, 766, 775, 777, 780, 781, 785, 798
occupancy ratio of large vehicle 917 PC 38, 74, 78, 155, 292, 294, 298, 326, 327, 328, 340, 341,
occurrence frequency 83, 155 550, 576, 688, 733, 897, 933
occurrence probability 69 peak cut effect 586
occurrence probability distribution 69 peak frequency 81, 121
ocean currents 172, 178 peak hourly traffic 919, 921
– 990 –
INDEX
peak wave height 132, 152 phase velocity 87, 128, 251, 266, 267
Peck 450, 480, 548, 798 PHC 340
penetration depth 434, 435, 437, 447, 456, 930 Phillips 87
perforated wall 404, 645 PHRI method 458, 459, 461, 747, 748
perforated-wall caisson 136, 142, 628 physically handicapped person 929
performance-based design 8, 911 PIANC 309, 880, 910, 911
performance criteria 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 19, pier 4, 5, 17, 18, 20, 36, 148, 150, 151, 156, 169, 196, 203, 297,
58, 79, 289, 365, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 391, 392, 398, 403, 312, 315, 339, 367, 577, 578, 579, 643, 676, 751, 753, 754,
404, 407, 411, 544, 553, 577, 582, 585, 586, 587, 592, 593, 810, 811, 812, 815, 816, 817, 818, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824,
594, 635, 640, 641, 651, 654, 655, 657, 659, 660, 661, 664, 826, 827, 828, 829, 835, 836, 837, 838, 840, 841, 842, 843,
669, 672, 674, 681, 682, 683, 685, 686, 691, 711, 712, 713, 847, 848, 849, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 870,
714, 744, 755, 758, 759, 767, 770, 789, 800, 801, 808, 810, 875, 878, 894, 895, 897, 898, 903, 907, 908, 935, 936, 937,
811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 835, 841, 842, 847, 851, 852, 944, 945
853, 864, 865, 870, 871, 875, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, Pierson-Moskowitz 87
903, 904, 905, 913, 914, 927, 928, 929, 933, 935, 936, 942, piled pier 18, 20, 148, 150, 151, 297,
943, 948, 949, 957, 958, 959, 961, 964, 966, 968, 972, 978 315, 751, 753, 754, 810, 811, 812, 815, 816, 817, 818, 820, 821,
performance requirements 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 19, 39, 40, 822, 823, 824, 826, 827, 828, 829, 835, 836, 837, 838, 840,
42, 43, 44, 45, 79, 364, 365, 409, 410, 499, 500, 516, 517, 518, 841, 842, 843, 878, 894, 895, 897, 898, 903, 907, 908
520, 552, 553, 577, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 622, 625, 651, pile driving test 472
654, 655, 657, 659, 660, 661, 664, 669, 671, 672, 674, 676, pile foundation 426, 434, 439, 449, 469, 470, 479, 480, 482,
678, 680, 682, 808, 810, 811, 812, 827, 836, 849, 851, 864, 640, 849, 850, 907, 908
865, 870, 913, 914, 927, 933, 935, 940, 941, 942, 944, 948, pile group 439, 450, 452, 453, 454, 456, 466, 470, 480, 482,
958, 961, 963, 968, 972, 978 838, 839, 847, 849
performance verification 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, pile head displacement 457, 458, 470
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 36, 39, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, pile joint 76, 454, 665, 667, 668, 719, 776, 778, 835
68, 70, 71, 75, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 93, 105, 109, 114, 119, 121, pile-supported section 818, 821
132, 134, 135, 141, 142, 143, 146, 152, 154, 156, 173, 176, pile type breakwater 20
178, 200, 201, 207, 208, 210, 212, 213, 221, 224, 225, 226, pile type dolphin 18, 20, 844, 846
227, 228, 230, 239, 244, 245, 247, 248, 255, 264, 271, 279, pile type fender 875, 878
280, 289, 294, 297, 304, 309, 312, 314, 317, 325, 328, 333, pipeline 168, 196, 246, 882
337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 343, 358, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, pipe type permeable breakwater 117
378, 379, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 389, 391, 392, 394, piping 353, 732
395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 403, 404, 405, 408, 409, piping phenomenon 732
410, 411, 412, 415, 418, 419, 424, 426, 432, 439, 441, 442, pitching 160, 556, 557, 690
458, 470, 473, 475, 477, 478, 485, 490, 492, 493, 494, 496, placement-type cellular-bulkhead 485, 789, 795
498, 499, 500, 501, 503, 505, 506, 518, 519, 521, 523, 525, placement-type cellular-bulkhead quaywall 485, 789, 795
529, 533, 536, 537, 540, 542, 543, 544, 545, 553, 554, 555, plastering block 801
578, 579, 581, 583, 586, 587, 590, 593, 595, 596, 597, 598, plastic board drain 543
600, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 611, 612, 613, 614, 618, 619, plastic deformation 219
622, 624, 625, 628, 629, 632, 636, 641, 642, 643, 647, 648, plastic flow 343, 426, 475
650, 651, 655, 656, 657, 660, 661, 664, 665, 672, 676, 684, plasticity index 228, 232, 259
686, 691, 693, 697, 698, 700, 702, 703, 708, 709, 715, 717, plate loading test 894
719, 720, 722, 723, 725, 731, 734, 737, 740, 742, 744, 745, platform 17, 20, 157, 384, 685, 686, 726, 757, 758, 759, 760,
746, 749, 750, 751, 753, 754, 755, 757, 760, 761, 762, 763, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 845, 878
770, 771, 773, 775, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 795, 797, 801, plaza 5, 963, 978
802, 803, 817, 818, 821, 822, 824, 826, 836, 837, 838, 839, pneumatic caisson 434
840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 846, 847, 848, 849, 852, 853, 854, pneumatic fender 875
855, 857, 864, 865, 866, 871, 875, 876, 877, 878, 880, 881, pneumatic flow mixing method 544, 548, 551
890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 900, 907, 908, 909, 915, 916, 928, pneumatic unloader 322, 323
929, 931, 933, 937, 941, 945, 951, 952, 965, 970, 975 pocket dredging 674
performance verification method 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, point mass model 709
21, 22, 210, 213, 226, 230, 415, 490, 498, 518, 590, 605, 691, Poisson's ratio 218, 232, 328, 474, 475, 520, 938
717, 744, 751, 757, 770, 789, 791, 852, 854 pontoon 353, 641, 854, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861
performance verification of seismic-resistant 230, 255, 595, porous wall 628
607, 608, 719, 818, 822, 824, 945 portal bridge crane 848
permanent action 4, 6, 7, 9, 372, 373, 392, 592, 659, 691, 711, Port and Airport Research Institute 48, 93, 164, 370
744, 755, 758, 767, 927, 932, 942, 964, 969 Port and Harbour Law 3
permanent situation 24, 272, 314, 372, 373, 432, Port and Harbour Research Institute 170, 171, 309, 310, 738
486, 489, 592, 594, 601, 603, 623, 626, 630, 643, 691, 701, port area 49, 50, 343, 351, 428, 477, 478, 488, 914, 926
702, 703, 704, 712, 713, 714, 715, 725, 728, 733, 734, 738, port steel structure 334, 335, 336
741, 743, 747, 759, 768, 769, 773, 775, 779, 787, 789, 793, 864 Poulos 482
permeability test 217, 228 Prakash 481
permeable detached breakwater 194 pre-consolidation pressure 223
permeable rubble-mound breakwater 73 premixing method 523, 524, 525, 545
permeable type 117, 404, 589, 638 premixing-type stabilization method 550
permeation coefficient 76 pressure coefficient 61, 63, 64, 137, 139, 158, 307, 786, 788, 793
phase lag function method 161 pressure gradient 58
– 991 –
pressure moment coefficient 305 recyclable material 350
pressure type wave gauge 202 recycled asphalt 356
primary consolidation 221, 477 recycled rubber 355
principal dimensions of ship 293 reduction coefficient 139, 503, 504, 536, 537, 540, 542
principal direction 89, 147 reduction of earth pressure 525, 526
probabilistic variable 828 reefer container 954
probability density 21, 27, 31, 161, 301 reflected wave 93, 94, 95, 156, 174, 305, 583, 588, 590, 614,
probability density function 21, 27, 301 628, 637, 645, 652, 653, 795
probability of action 9 reflection 73, 83, 93, 95,
Product of Conditional Marginals 38 96, 97, 122, 142, 143, 148, 159, 189, 192, 237, 248, 250, 257,
progressive waves 125, 133, 136, 143, 149, 151, 305 583, 625, 628, 629, 635, 637, 638, 696, 709, 795, 799
projected area 62, 64, 65, 66, 157, 158, 196, 305, 306, 307 reflection coefficient 95, 96, 97, 122, 143, 159, 189, 625, 628,
propagation path effects 235, 238, 249, 250, 251, 253, 261, 262, 629, 637, 638, 795, 799
263, 264 refraction 71, 80, 83, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 128, 163,
protective facilities for harbor 43, 363, 583, 969 164, 173, 174, 179, 186, 202, 203, 588
protective potential 335 refraction coefficient 71, 88, 89, 90, 93, 96, 186
PS logging method 232 region segmentation method 160
Public Notice of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and regular waves 73, 80, 88, 96, 99, 103, 105, 106, 108, 114, 128,
Tourism 40, 43 129, 136, 137, 143, 159, 165, 173, 304, 305, 412, 417, 558
pulling resistance of pile 454, 455, 456, 821 reinforced concrete 313, 327, 328, 338, 339, 340, 341,
pulling test 455, 750 365, 372, 373, 376, 391, 392, 398, 403, 407, 409, 410, 473,
punching shear 167, 392, 429, 836 599, 604, 613, 621, 623, 627, 631, 634, 649, 702, 706, 707,
punching shear failure 167, 392, 429 708, 753, 760, 821, 854, 856, 897, 907, 909, 910, 930
punching shear force 836 reinforced concrete pavement 897
pure car carrier 300 reinforced concrete pile 340, 473
reinforcement 280, 326, 338, 339, 340, 342, 344, 369, 408, 409,
Q 410, 482, 644, 650, 754, 836, 837, 898, 908
quaywall 4, 5, 16, 17, 19, 20, 25, reinforcing bar 43, 339, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373,
43, 71, 93, 120, 122, 224, 244, 245, 247, 259, 280, 297, 298, 374, 375, 392, 395, 397, 614, 709, 740, 898
303, 305, 308, 309, 312, 315, 334, 339, 345, 351, 353, 381, relative density 215, 216, 229, 529, 532, 727
383, 389, 391, 393, 401, 404, 410, 430, 431, 478, 485, 498, relative roughness 197
499, 500, 505, 506, 519, 521, 523, 533, 537, 538, 540, 542, reliability analysis 33, 74, 378, 516, 737
543, 577, 578, 610, 611, 612, 624, 665, 667, 676, 680, 682, reliability-based design method 7, 13, 14, 19, 21, 22, 23, 27, 29,
683, 684, 685, 686, 689, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 38, 605, 643
698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 707, 708, 711, 712, 713, reliability index 21, 22, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32,
714, 715, 716, 717, 719, 720, 722, 723, 728, 732, 734, 735, 33, 36, 500, 502, 506, 507, 510, 512, 513, 514, 516, 539, 540,
737, 738, 741, 742, 743, 745, 746, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 603, 604, 605, 623, 624, 627, 631, 634, 704, 706, 734, 735,
754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 765, 766, 788, 829, 830, 831, 833, 834
767, 768, 770, 771, 773, 774, 775, 778, 779, 781, 785, 786, reliability theory 506, 603, 623, 829
789, 790, 791, 792, 795, 797, 816, 824, 825, 826, 844, 846, replacement method 215, 490
866, 874, 876, 877, 878, 880, 887, 889, 890, 892, 893, 894, replacement rate 533, 534, 550, 694, 705, 706
898, 900, 907, 909, 944, 953 Residual Water Level 275
qu method 225, 227, 228 residual water pressure 271, 279, 397, 399, 400, 401, 406,
504, 506, 509, 519, 701, 702, 704, 708, 717, 718, 719, 724,
R 725, 730, 731, 746, 747, 750, 754, 763, 764, 775, 791, 792
resistance coefficient 77, 127, 741, 791, 792
radiation coefficient 262, 265
resistance moment of filling soil 775
radiation stress 117
resistance wire type wave gauge 203
radioactive glass sand 180, 183
resistant moment 431, 537, 707, 708
radius of gyration 303
response spectrum 20, 246, 720, 818, 822, 824, 826, 827, 837
rail mounted cargo handling equipment 317
responsible engineer 473, 620, 624
rail span 679, 683, 908, 944, 945, 946, 952, 953
restorability 9, 655, 656, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 811, 812,
rail-type traveling cargo handling equipment 906
914, 928, 935, 943, 978
Ramberg-Osgood model 230
restoration cost 734, 829
random variable 6, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32
restoring force 157, 160, 246, 256, 297, 304, 307
random waves 80, 81, 82, 83, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 98,
retarder 338
99, 104, 105, 106, 109, 129, 131, 136, 147, 151, 159, 161, 164,
return period 4, 5, 10, 14, 19, 23, 55, 58, 79, 123, 152, 154, 155,
165, 167, 173, 412, 417, 418, 419, 420, 424, 803
156, 593, 607
rapid load test 442
return wave height 152, 153
ratio of reinforcement to concrete sections 366, 837
revetment 4, 6, 15, 16, 17,
Rayleigh distribution 83, 147, 155, 161, 162, 163
20, 105, 114, 115, 122, 124, 189, 336, 342, 398, 401, 407, 410,
Rayleigh wave 251, 266, 267
485, 498, 503, 505, 519, 521, 523, 533, 540, 664, 665, 666,
RC 340, 604, 613, 621, 623, 627, 631, 634, 649, 706, 707
667, 668, 669, 819, 881, 969, 971
rebound coefficient 472
RI 215
REC criterion 154
rigid frame structure 751, 931
reclamation revetment 664, 665, 667, 668
river flow 156, 178
recompression 226
river mouth 128, 170, 178, 179, 199, 583, 657, 936, 975
recreation 973, 976
– 992 –
INDEX
river mouth terrace 179 Sawaguchi's method 758
rocking 606 scouring 42, 124, 175, 178, 189, 190, 191,
rod compaction method 542 192, 342, 343, 353, 354, 365, 421, 423, 598, 614, 615, 616,
rolling 21, 49, 160, 301, 302, 327, 338, 343, 556, 557, 558, 583, 638, 641, 651, 653, 659, 690, 691, 866, 927, 928, 930, 973
672, 690, 968, 969, 976 scouring prevention mat 342, 343
roll-on roll-off ship 298 scouring prevention works 189
root mean square amplitude 119 scour prevention 617, 650, 690
rope bitt 845 SCP 19, 20, 352, 358, 485, 533, 539, 540, 550, 551, 603, 605, 624,
rough terrain crane 891, 892, 894, 902 694, 705, 706
Rowe's method 718, 723, 724, 728, 730 seabed slope 102, 103, 135, 144, 412
rubber fender 821, 875, 877, 879, 938 sea bottom ground 635, 718, 805
rubber mat 353, 359 sea bottom slope 99, 102, 105, 117, 974, 975
rubble 20, 73, 76, 106, 117, 135, 138, sea bottom topography 70, 82, 105, 106, 109, 114
192, 259, 312, 313, 314, 336, 343, 344, 345, 353, 358, 378, seal plate 353
411, 412, 416, 417, 418, 421, 422, 423, 424, 430, 431, 432, 481, seawall 4, 6, 15, 20,
491, 509, 512, 597, 598, 599, 600, 606, 607, 612, 613, 615, 93, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 114, 115, 165, 176, 224, 351, 478,
616, 617, 619, 620, 622, 643, 644, 650, 652, 696, 700, 703, 654, 655, 656, 789, 795, 797, 963, 968, 969, 970
704, 825, 826, 847, 849, 908, 909, 910 seawater immersion ratio 334
rubble mound 76, 135, 192, 259, 336, 343, 353, secondary consolidation 221, 477, 478
358, 378, 418, 423, 424, 430, 512, 597, 598, 599, 600, 612, Second-Order Reliability Method 33
615, 616, 617, 619, 620, 622, 643, 644, 650, 825, 826 section modulus 732, 734, 827
rubble mound breakwater 424 sedimentation 42, 178, 198, 222, 344, 352, 597, 651, 657, 668
rubble mound foundation 76, 418, 424, 598, 615, 616 sediment control groin 6, 15, 20, 333, 651, 652, 653, 672
rubble stone 76, 345, 411, 412, 416, 417, 421, 422, 491, 606, 616, sediment grain size 180, 184, 187, 974
652, 696, 820 sediment sorting action 180
running-up waves 181, 653 sediment transport 180, 181, 183, 185, 186, 189, 195, 196, 198,
RWL 506, 537, 539, 702, 704, 706, 707, 731, 735, 736, 786, 788 199, 651, 652, 657, 672, 674, 975
seepage 75, 76, 217, 355, 356, 654, 655, 660, 665, 667, 668, 669,
S 931, 968, 969, 970, 976
safety 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 14, 19, 23, 24, 25, seepage control work 968, 969
28, 29, 36, 40, 41, 42, 43, 48, 74, 75, 114, 145, 157, 166, 176, seepage flow 217, 667
177, 189, 212, 238, 331, 365, 367, 368, 369, 411, 418, 421, 434, seepage flow analysis 667
436, 439, 440, 449, 453, 454, 469, 473, 475, 486, 488, 493, seiche 71, 77, 120, 122, 172
503, 506, 516, 533, 536, 544, 552, 560, 578, 583, 584, 585, seismic bedrock 5, 7, 235, 236, 238, 248, 250, 251, 253, 262,
586, 588, 590, 592, 593, 594, 603, 623, 643, 646, 655, 664, 263, 264, 265, 608, 609, 610, 696, 822, 826, 944
669, 678, 704, 728, 734, 757, 764, 787, 788, 792, 797, 829, seismic coefficient
851, 853, 857, 870, 880, 884, 885, 887, 888, 924, 930, 931, 19, 20, 230, 233, 244, 245, 246, 247, 268, 271, 274, 275, 277,
935, 936, 937, 940, 944, 947, 950, 964, 965, 968, 969, 972, 278, 280, 437, 499, 500, 503, 504, 506, 509, 515, 526, 527,
974, 976, 978 536, 537, 545, 546, 609, 610, 611, 612, 693, 694, 697, 698,
safety factor 19, 23, 24, 368, 411, 418, 421, 475, 493, 594 700, 701, 702, 719, 720, 722, 723, 725, 731, 746, 750, 753,
safety index 29, 74 757, 763, 773, 774, 789, 795, 819, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825,
salt concentration 215 826, 827, 837, 838, 840, 841, 842, 846, 848, 944
salt injury 836, 937 seismic coefficient for verification
sand bar 181, 182, 674 20, 245, 504, 506, 509, 515, 526, 527, 536, 537, 609, 610, 611,
Sand Compaction Pile 481, 485, 529, 533, 534, 541, 548, 550, 612, 693, 694, 697, 698, 700, 702, 720, 722, 723, 725, 731,
551, 706 746, 750, 753, 757, 763, 773, 774, 789, 795, 819, 821, 822,
sand compaction pile method 350, 521, 529, 530, 531, 533, 536, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 837, 838, 840, 841, 842, 846, 848
537, 538, 541, 542, 550, 551, 603, 605, 624, 705 seismic coefficient method 19, 230, 233, 244, 245, 246, 271,
sand drain method 494, 543 499, 500, 545, 609, 698, 700, 701, 719, 723, 822, 824, 944
sand invasion prevention cloth 353 seismic deformation method 246
sand invasion prevention sheet 543, 700 seismic force 230, 358, 430, 432, 484, 698, 765, 847, 849, 947
sand mastic 342, 343, 344, 345, 644, 652 seismic inertia force 774
sand mastic asphalt 342, 343, 344, 652 seismic moment 236, 240, 241, 242, 243, 262, 263, 265
sand mat 350, 493, 494, 533 seismic observation 238, 248, 256, 259
sand replacement method 215 seismic-resistant performance 676, 929, 944
sand ripples 182 seismic response analysis
sand spit 179 14, 30, 230, 239, 240, 245, 247, 255, 256, 257, 258, 264, 268,
sand supply rate 529, 530, 531, 532 500, 609, 610, 611, 679, 693, 694, 695, 696, 698, 700, 709,
sand wave 674 720, 722, 783, 818, 820, 821, 822, 835, 944
sandy beach 181, 199, 583, 588, 973 self weight 6, 15, 16, 17, 55, 150, 222, 312, 317,
sandy ground 216, 225, 426, 430, 432, 372, 373, 378, 379, 384, 385, 386, 391, 392, 394, 404, 430,
434, 441, 443, 444, 450, 453, 459, 461, 475, 486, 487, 488, 437, 438, 455, 476, 484, 486, 519, 585, 592, 594, 601, 654,
510, 511, 533, 550, 600, 602, 703, 704, 849 659, 680, 691, 704, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 719, 753, 758,
Sarpkaya 168, 169 759, 767, 768, 810, 821, 823, 843, 845, 848, 851, 864, 865,
saturated copper sulfate electrode 335 870, 913, 914, 927, 935, 941, 942, 947, 964, 966
Savage 186, 198 semi-infinite breakwater 95, 97
Saville 106, 165 semi-infinite elastic body 475
– 993 –
semi-submerged type 141 shoreline change model 194
semi-trailer truck 924, 925 Shore Protection Manual 168, 198, 417, 424
sensitivity factor 21, 22, 32, 36, 38, 603, 604, 605, 613, 621, short-period stability problem 224, 484
623, 624, 627, 631, 634, 649, 706, 707, 736, 737 short pile 457, 458, 460
series system 7, 36 side resistance 426, 434, 435
serviceability 5, 9, 14, 79, 155, 365, 366, 367, 372, 373, 374, 375, side roller 317
376, 378, 398, 403, 404, 423, 441, 453, 641, 679, 680, 681, significant wave 70, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 92,
682, 683, 684, 712, 713, 714, 760, 767, 769, 808, 811, 812, 94, 103, 104, 106, 108, 116, 120, 121, 124, 130, 131, 132, 133,
813, 850, 852, 864, 870, 871, 878, 884, 886, 889, 923, 928, 136, 139, 143, 145, 151, 152, 155, 190, 204, 412, 413, 417, 418,
935, 943, 949, 966, 972 419, 558, 590, 597, 598, 625, 626, 632, 653, 795
serviceability limit 5, 155, 365, 366, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, significant wave height
378, 398, 403, 441, 453, 713, 760, 769, 813 70, 80, 82, 83, 92, 94, 103, 104, 106, 116, 120, 121, 124, 130,
serviceability limit state 5, 155, 365, 366, 372, 373, 374, 375, 131, 132, 139, 143, 151, 155, 190, 204, 412, 413, 417, 418, 419,
376, 378, 398, 403, 453, 713, 760, 769, 813 558, 590, 597, 598, 625, 626, 632, 653, 795
service conditions 367 significant wave method 84, 85
settlement of mound 377 significant wave period 80, 83, 84, 94, 131, 132, 133, 136, 145,
settlement of pile 454, 472 413, 419
settlement reduction ratio 540, 541 signs 290, 593, 616, 669, 885, 888, 936, 937, 950, 957
setup 68, 70, 71, 77, 103, 117, 176 silica fume 370
shaft 127, 439, 440, 441, 442, 444, 471, 480, 501, 502, 560, 563, siltation 43, 178, 179, 196, 198, 552, 651, 674, 866
570, 572, 573, 576, 927, 928, 929, 931 similarity law 163, 709
shaft resistance 439, 440, 441, 442, 444 similarity number 726, 728
shaft resistance of pile 440 simplified Bishop method 429, 430, 431, 486, 487, 488, 598, 600
SHAKE 256, 257, 268 simultaneous occurrence 11, 13, 19, 156, 242
shaking table test 500, 709, 773, 797 single anchoring 579
shallow spread foundation 426, 444 single pile 36, 439, 440, 441, 450, 451, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457,
shallow water area 86, 174, 553 458, 467, 847, 849, 878
shallow water waves 126, 132 single pile structure 878
shape factor of foundation 427, 428 sinker 17, 156, 641, 643, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 851,
shear characteristic 207 853
shear connector 407, 409, 410, 930 sinker chain 17, 800, 801, 804, 805, 806, 807
shear deformation 475, 478, 669, 711, 715, 755, 757, 767, 768, sinker type 802, 803
773, 775, 787, 789, 791, 877 site amplification factors 235, 238, 243, 248, 250, 251, 253, 261,
shear deformation of a wall body 715 263
shear failure 167, 391, 392, 427, 429, 475, 506, 513, 514, 775, 815 site effects 235, 237, 238, 248, 249, 261, 263, 264, 824
shearing force 409, 410, 484, 486, 487, 488, 643, 877, 880, 931 Skempton 222, 479
shearing stress 454, 512, 544 skin friction 435, 439, 441, 442, 444, 446, 450, 451, 452, 453,
shear modulus 230, 231, 232, 236, 238, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 455, 456, 471, 474, 503, 757, 765
260, 328, 520, 780, 784, 785, 788 slag 19, 338, 345, 346, 350, 351, 352, 521, 522, 536, 545, 550,
shear strength 210, 212, 213, 218, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 614, 901
228, 230, 340, 345, 347, 428, 429, 430, 441, 443, 444, 450, slenderness ratio 449
452, 484, 486, 487, 500, 501, 503, 505, 506, 515, 516, 520, sliding 14, 26, 36, 38, 74, 137, 138, 141, 142, 182, 244, 245, 271,
522, 523, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538, 600, 602, 703, 704, 815 331, 342, 358, 431, 484, 488, 504, 506, 516, 523, 525, 526,
shear wave velocity 208, 210, 696 527, 528, 536, 537, 587, 592, 593, 594, 598, 600, 603, 605,
sheet flow 182 606, 608, 609, 612, 615, 620, 623, 626, 630, 633, 643, 644,
sheet pile anchorage 20, 684, 685, 722, 723, 738, 742, 757 648, 649, 654, 655, 691, 693, 699, 701, 702, 704, 708, 711,
sheet pile quaywall 19, 245, 315, 714, 715, 755, 757, 758, 759, 767, 768, 785, 787, 792, 846,
334, 485, 542, 665, 683, 685, 686, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 867, 871, 872, 873, 874, 903, 904, 905, 909, 931
717, 720, 722, 723, 728, 734, 738, 741, 742, 745, 746, 749, sliding resistance 342, 525, 598, 606
750, 751, 755, 756, 757, 759, 878, 908, 909 sliding stability 605
shellfish gathering 973, 976 sliding surface 271, 484, 488, 600, 606
ship berthing force 7, 845 slip failure 15, 16, 17,
ship dimensions 127, 296, 308, 576 24, 25, 34, 312, 429, 430, 431, 432, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488,
ship fender 875 489, 490, 491, 493, 505, 506, 516, 523, 525, 528, 533, 536,
ship hull structure 880 537, 538, 539, 540, 544, 551, 592, 594, 596, 597, 600, 601,
ship motions 122, 289, 297, 304, 308, 553 603, 605, 607, 613, 614, 620, 623, 624, 626, 630, 633, 665,
ship motion simulation 861 691, 701, 703, 704, 705, 706, 711, 714, 715, 734, 736, 758,
ship navigation 124, 200, 552, 553, 554, 583, 588, 606, 676 759, 766, 767, 768, 769, 785, 819, 836, 969
shipping company 950 slipway 5, 20, 384, 801, 866, 867, 868, 869
ship squatting 554 slit 114, 115, 117, 122, 141, 142, 391, 403, 404, 405, 406, 628,
ship storage facilities 5, 961 637, 795
ship storage yard 866 slit caisson 122, 142, 391, 405, 628
ship turning 575, 577, 578 slit wall partition 406
shoaling coefficient 93, 98, 99, 102 slope failure 488
shoaling effect 126, 159 slope gradient 135, 136, 189, 345, 413, 598, 619, 620, 632, 633
shoreline 70, 82, 99, 117, 119, 132, 143, 144, 181, 183, 187, 188, slope stability analysis 484, 486, 487, 489
194, 195, 651, 652, 653, 673, 974, 975 sloping breakwater 20, 74, 116, 117, 139, 140, 358, 411, 412,
– 994 –
INDEX
413, 415, 416, 418, 593, 619, 620, 621 steel material 326, 328, 330, 332, 333, 334, 340, 410, 732, 736,
sloping-top caisson 136, 140, 141, 167, 590, 594, 632, 633 737, 743, 787, 878
sloping-top caisson breakwater 140, 141, 167, 590, 594, 632, 633 steel pile 327, 329, 359, 446, 447, 449, 452, 456, 464, 471, 472,
slow drift 159 473, 474, 475, 479, 480, 481, 482, 799, 911
slow drift oscillations 159 steel pipe sheet pile 329, 330, 331
small amplitude wave theory 98, 145, 147 steel sheet pile
small cargo ship 298, 687 326, 327, 330, 331, 333, 334, 336, 338, 667, 669, 670, 715,
small craft basin 7, 122, 552, 579, 581, 582 717, 719, 728, 732, 751, 757, 768, 775, 780, 781, 790, 798, 970
SMB method 85 steel sheet pile quaywall 334, 715, 728
smear 495, 496 steel sheet pile revetment 336
soft cohesive soil ground 224, 475 steel shell type 930
soil improvement Steel Ship Regulations 309
215, 218, 227, 228, 350, 351, 356, 426, 485, 490, 492, 493, steep slope 137, 167, 174, 416, 424, 588, 890
498, 503, 506, 523, 536, 537, 538, 544, 548, 549, 550, 551, Stelson 145, 168
597, 601, 640, 668, 669, 694, 696, 705, 706, 717 step-resistance type wave gauge 202
soil improvement method 227, 351, 548, 549, 550 Sternberg 186, 198
soil test 207, 210, 211, 212, 213, 222, 225, 258, 269, 272, 274, stern line 686, 872
356, 524, 549 Stewart 117, 165
solidified geotechnical material 545, 547 stiffening member 811, 812, 815, 841, 842
solitary wave 104, 128 Stokes' third order wave 150
sorting pond 950 storage facilities 5, 7, 363, 958, 959, 961
sounding 207, 208, 216, 556 storm surge 57, 58, 59,
soundness 18, 852, 853, 871, 929, 943, 945, 965, 967 68, 69, 70, 74, 75, 77, 144, 156, 176, 203, 583, 585, 586, 590,
source effects 235, 236, 238, 249, 250, 251, 253, 261, 263 596, 647, 650, 654, 659, 665, 865, 931, 957, 968, 973, 976
spatial autocorrelation 33 storm surge height 156
spatially-distributed load 475, 538 storm surge protection breakwater 586, 647
spectrum energy 86, 87 straddle carrier 317, 891, 953, 955
splash zone 331, 336, 367 straight sliding surface 484, 488
spreading method 92 strain dependency 520
spring line 308, 309 strain energy 231
spring rise 69 strain level 218, 256, 260, 265, 475, 520
squeezed-out failure 429 stress concentration 536, 703
SRC 407, 410 stress concentration coefficient 536
stability against overturning 508 stress distribution method 537
stability against sliding 26, 523, 525, 526, 527, 648, 649, 701, stress reduction coefficient 536, 540, 542
757, 785, 846 stress sharing ratio 536, 541, 542
stability analysis 212, 225, 484, 486, 487, 488, 489 strip method 160, 305
stability number 411, 412, 413, 415, 416, 418, 419, 420 structural analysis factor 365, 506, 509, 511, 512, 514, 515, 516,
stability of slope 484, 485, 486, 529, 819 528, 600, 606, 612, 648, 649, 702, 703, 704, 708, 732, 733,
stabilized body 355, 498, 499, 500, 501, 503, 505, 506, 509, 734, 738, 739, 743, 747, 748, 775, 785, 792, 861, 873, 874
510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 516, 517, 526 structural robustness 39, 829
stabilized soil 346, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 544, 549 structure factor 365, 368, 369, 370, 371
standard design strength 340, 500, 502, 512, 514, 520, 521, 523, structure with steel plates 407
528 strutted frame type pier 840, 841
standard deviation 6, 21, 30, 32, 38, 154, 162, 212, 213, 233, strut type pier 18
293, 298, 301, 502, 666 S-type ground 459
standard initial natural frequency of ground 695 subgrade reaction 435, 436, 437, 438, 458, 459, 461, 463,
standard intensity of illumination 881, 882 464, 465, 468, 477, 481, 503, 505, 512, 513, 550, 717, 718,
standard penetration test 207, 210, 225, 228, 229, 230, 443, 459 723, 724, 726, 727, 728, 731, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784,
Standard Specifications of Concrete 43 785, 820, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 838, 847, 849
standing wave domain 192 subgrade reaction of sheet pile 726
standing wave force 129, 133 submerged breakwater 117, 176, 192, 194, 196, 199, 413, 422,
standing wave height 97, 143 425
standing wave pressure 139 submerged member 128, 147
standing waves 96, 98, 132, 133, 135, 138, 148, 149, 151, 168, subsurface structure 246, 251, 252, 261, 265, 498
174, 192 suction dredger 490, 491, 665
static bearing capacity formula 441, 454, 455 superstructure 15,
static friction coefficient 244, 347, 358, 506 36, 139, 140, 151, 203, 333, 339, 367, 369, 371, 392, 393, 397,
static load 150, 151, 246, 312, 314, 315, 343, 439, 442, 475, 821, 399, 412, 428, 434, 439, 454, 456, 469, 470, 491, 498, 503,
823, 856, 859 504, 505, 506, 509, 512, 520, 523, 537, 594, 597, 598, 620,
static maximum lateral resistance 456, 458, 470 622, 635, 684, 685, 709, 710, 711, 713, 714, 723, 732, 741,
static maximum pulling resistance 454, 455, 456 742, 751, 753, 754, 755, 757, 767, 769, 770, 793, 808, 810,
static performance verification method 230 811, 812, 813, 819, 821, 826, 835, 836, 840, 841, 842, 848,
stationary jib crane 323 851, 871, 872, 873, 874, 894, 895, 898, 907, 937, 945
stationary pneumatic unloader 323 superstructure of piled pier 148
steel beam 64, 66 supervision of construction work 473
steel manufacture slag 352 surcharge 7, 10,
– 995 –
14, 55, 200, 272, 273, 277, 278, 288, 312, 314, 346, 373, 374, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 755, 764, 897, 898, 909
379, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 400, 407, 429, 432, 484, 486, tie bar 898, 899
491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 503, 504, 506, 509, 520, 532, 537, tie installation point 726, 728, 731, 732, 734, 764
546, 600, 601, 604, 624, 628, 632, 635, 682, 683, 684, 685, tie rod 16, 25, 542, 684, 685, 715, 718, 723, 725, 726, 728, 733,
691, 696, 700, 702, 703, 704, 706, 712, 713, 714, 715, 725, 734, 764
731, 739, 742, 759, 760, 763, 764, 765, 768, 769, 770, 773, tie wire 733
775, 778, 786, 791, 792, 812, 813, 814, 815, 819, 826, 830, timber handling facilities 552
831, 832, 850, 852, 853, 858, 865, 890, 891, 905, 906, 909, timber sorting pond 950
928, 936, 943, 949, 965, 967, 979 time-dependent mild-slope equation 93
surcharge method 492, 494, 495 time factor 220, 221, 476, 495, 496
surface layer sediment movement 180, 184 time-series seismic wave profile 821
surface roughness 145, 412, 423 Timoshenko 912
surface wave exploration 207 tire-mounted multi-purpose jib crane 317
surface wave profile 202, 203 T load 316
surf beat 119, 144, 165 toe pressure 506, 510, 511, 513
surf similarity parameter 105, 413 total trip 920
surf zone 70, 139, 181, 183, 186, 189, 190, 191, 198, 651, 652 towing 127, 377
surging 120, 124, 160, 413 TP 69, 168
surging breaker 413 tracer 183, 185, 186, 198
suspended sediment 182, 186, 198, 653 tractive force 7, 297, 304, 308, 309, 641, 650, 723, 733, 734,
Sverdrup 84, 163 742, 743, 764, 801, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 821, 830, 831,
swash zone 181, 183, 187 837, 843, 845, 848, 853, 857, 860, 872, 873, 874, 907, 908
S wave 177, 206, 232, 236, 237, 242, 250, 251, 255, 258, 259, tractor crane 317
262, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 269 traffic load 898
swaying 160 training jetty 15, 657, 658, 659
swell 85, 86, 96, 122, 163, 164, 223, 224, 228, 554, 556, 581, 858 train load 312, 314, 316
system failure probability 37, 507, 510, 512, 513, 514, 516, 593, transfer crane 317, 955
594, 603, 604, 623, 627, 631, 634, 704, 706, 788 transmission characteristic 625, 630
system reliability 37, 38, 506, 604, 623, 627, 631, 634, 704, 705, transmitted wave height 116, 585, 586, 619, 632
706, 734, 735 transmitted waves 116, 117, 589, 619, 622, 625, 628, 630, 637,
system reliability index 506, 604, 623, 627, 631, 634, 704, 706, 641, 795
734, 735 transport of wave energy 86, 87, 88
transverse construction joint 898
T transverse wave 124, 125, 126, 128, 232
Tanimoto's formula 418, 419, 420 transverse wave velocity 232
tanker 159, 297, 298, 299, 301, 304, 686, 846 trapezoidal caisson 133
target reliability index 22, 25, 36, 506, 623 traveling of cargo handling equipment 904, 906
target safety level 23, 24, 36 treated soil 351, 352,
taut mooring 156 498, 500, 501, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 509, 510, 511, 512,
Technical Manual for Floating Structures 170, 310 515, 516, 518, 519, 520, 523, 524, 525, 528, 545, 548, 549
Technical Manual for Immersed Tunnel 929 trench type earthquake 679
Technical Manual for Maintenance of Port Facilities 47 triaxial compression test 218, 227, 228, 345, 431, 432, 444, 524,
Technical Manual for the Deep Mixing Method in Marine 525
Construction Works 499 trigger level 248
Technical Manual of New Type Breakwaters 628 trim 544, 553
Technical Standards of Rail Truck Laying 908 trip generation and attraction 916, 917, 920
temporary structure 154, 333, 798, 799 trough 80, 134, 135, 149, 172, 189, 265, 380, 381, 383, 386, 401,
tensile strength 325, 326, 330, 340, 456, 500, 501, 733, 768, 606, 700, 975
787, 878, 938 Tschbotarioff method 487
tensile stress 329, 330, 392, 410, 733, 768, 781, 788, 827 T-shaped sheet piles 787
tensile yield strength 805 tsunami
tension leg platform 157 4, 10, 14, 55, 68, 74, 75, 77, 169, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177,
Terzaghi's consolidation theory 476, 477 197, 203, 204, 205, 240, 364, 365, 422, 583, 585, 586, 587,
the first limit resistance 441, 442, 454 598, 612, 613, 648, 649, 650, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660, 800,
thermal characteristics 877, 880 849, 851, 853, 968, 973, 976
the second limit resistance 440, 442, 443, 454 tsunami arrival time 173
threshold depth of sediment movement 180, 182, 183, 184, 195 tsunami height 172, 174, 176
threshold rate of wave overtopping for inducing of damage 114 tsunami period 173
thruster 578 tsunami protection breakwater 197, 422, 586, 587, 648, 649, 650
Tickell-Elwany 147 tsunami record 172, 176
tidal constituent 68, 69 tsunami reduction effect 176, 650
tidal current force 860 tsunami run-up 177
tidal flats 179, 973, 975, 976 tsunami wave force 176
tidal waves 976 tsunami wave height 172, 173, 174
tides in river 178 turning basin 578, 662
tie 16, 25, 542, 684, 685, 713, 715, 717, 718, turning of bow 578
723, 725, 726, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, type of breakwaters 167, 644, 645
– 996 –
INDEX
typhoon 42, 59, 60, 69, 70, 74, 85, 163, 166, 590 vegetation 975, 976, 979
vehicle load 312, 314, 316, 885
U vehicle loading facilities 885
Ueda's formulae 643 vehicle ramp 853, 885
ultimate bearing capacity 427, 435, 449, 467, 479 velocity potential 148, 159, 160
ultimate equilibrium 484 velocity pressure 61, 62, 63, 64
ultimate limit ventilation equipment 930
5, 152, 365, 370, 371, 373, 374, 375, 378, 403, 404, 407, 684, vertical bearing capacity 434, 436, 437, 480, 757, 785
685, 712, 713, 760, 769, 808, 811, 813, 815, 836, 905 vertical coefficient of consolidation 477
ultimate limit state vertical drain method 227, 228, 492, 493, 494, 496, 548, 549
5, 152, 365, 370, 371, 373, 374, 375, 378, 403, 404, 407, 684, vertical joint 354, 615
685, 712, 713, 760, 769, 808, 813, 815, 836, 905 vertical loading test 441, 446
ultimate load 458 vertical-pile anchorage 19
ultrasonic current meter type directional wave recorder 203 vertical slit-wall caisson 628
ultrasonic type wave gauge 202, 203 very large crude oil carrier 294
unconfined compressive strength very large floating structure 156, 160
225, 227, 232, 258, 274, 345, 352, 432, 448, 452, 502, 519, very large ship 581
520, 524, 525, 534, 535, 544, 545 very soft clay 227
unconsolidated undrained condition 223 vibratory pile driving method 446
underwater tunnel 927, 928 vibro-flotation method 542, 543
underwater welding 334 virtual fixed point 754, 820, 828
undisturbed sample 214, 215, 216, 225, 227, 232, 475 virtual ground surface 763, 819, 820, 822, 825, 826, 828, 829,
undrained shear strength 835
212, 213, 218, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 230, 428, 429, 430, virtual mass factor 289, 297, 298, 302, 937
443, 444, 450, 486, 487, 503, 520, 535, 600, 602, 703, 704 VLCC 560, 563, 570, 572, 573, 576
unevenly distributed load 315 void ratio 96, 150, 195, 214, 216, 218, 219, 223, 225, 232, 271,
uneven settlement 288, 391, 441, 478, 615, 662, 818, 835, 907, 476, 484, 521, 540
908, 932 VRT 21, 29
uni-directional random waves 80
W
uniformity coefficient 216, 217, 431, 521
uniformly distributed load 430, 475, 734, 858 Wagner 150
universal joint 157 waiting room 678
unmooring basin 578, 580 waling 16, 711, 713, 714, 733, 734, 743
uplift pressure 131, 139, 140, 174, 383, 387, 388, 390, 405, 421, wall type improvement 498
848 WAM model 87, 164
upper beam 404, 406 warehouse 7, 61, 312, 314, 315, 773, 882, 958
upright breakwater 20, 96, 117, 593, 618, 619, 622, 625, 632 waste disposal seawall 963
upright wall 96, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, waste disposal site 351, 518, 968
138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 147, 174, 192, 415, 418, 570 water-cement ratio 43
upright wave-absorbing caisson 141, 403, 404, 405, 406 water content 179, 209, 210, 214, 271, 347, 348, 349, 351, 356,
upright wave-absorbing type quaywall 795 524
upright wave-dissipating block 485, 594 waterfront area 937
upward displacement of piles by pulling 467 water gate 4, 6, 20, 660
usability 8, 10, 14, 200, 215, 238, 553, 554, 577, 578, 579, 586, water hydrant 961
661, 664, 672, 850, 852, 864, 888, 889, 927 water particle acceleration 145
UU 223, 224 water particle velocity 144, 145, 168
waterproofness 342
V water purification function 974
vacuum consolidation method 494, 495 water quality test 962
Van der Meer 106, 165, 413, 415, 424 water supply volume 962
Van der Meer's formula 415 water-tightness 367, 660
vane shear test 227, 234 waterway 6, 43, 124, 179, 294, 363, 552, 553, 554, 555,
variable action 6, 7, 9, 11, 558, 560, 561, 566, 567, 568, 570, 575, 578, 580, 588, 590,
80, 84, 123, 367, 372, 373, 392, 403, 411, 592, 635, 641, 654, 651, 658, 674, 675, 929, 932, 936, 937, 950
659, 660, 691, 711, 744, 755, 758, 767, 789, 808, 810, 811, waterways and basins 6, 179, 363, 552, 588, 590, 651
841, 842, 851, 865, 875, 884, 886, 888, 889, 904, 927, 942, wave-absorbing caisson 141, 403, 404, 405, 406, 628, 629, 630,
948, 964, 966, 972 795
variable load 519 wave-absorbing caisson type breakwater 628, 629, 630
variable situation 11, 13, 14, 19, 374, 411, 416, 484, 489, 499, wave-absorbing performance 625, 628, 629, 630, 795
500, 504, 537, 592, 593, 594, 603, 608, 609, 611, 613, 620, wave action 22, 88, 94, 128, 129, 130, 139, 140, 167, 189, 412,
623, 626, 630, 649, 693, 701, 702, 703, 704, 713, 714, 715, 415, 645, 658, 674, 854, 857, 859, 877
720, 723, 725, 731, 733, 734, 739, 741, 743, 746, 748, 750, wave breaking 68, 70, 93, 99, 102, 103, 104, 106, 117, 119, 127,
753, 757, 763, 769, 770, 774, 775, 779, 787, 789, 794, 795, 131, 132, 136, 139, 179, 186, 195, 415, 419, 420, 973
807, 812, 814, 818, 823, 824, 829, 837, 838, 840, 841, 842, wave breaking point 99, 106, 119, 136, 186, 195
846, 848, 852, 864, 904, 905, 945 wave crest 107, 124, 128, 135, 145, 149, 169, 195, 204, 380, 383,
Variance Reduction Techniques 21, 29 386
V-block method 932 wave diffraction 95, 98, 159
– 997 –
wave direction 81, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 95, wind setup 70, 71
96, 98, 121, 127, 129, 130, 133, 136, 137, 138, 154, 155, 169, wind tunnel test 61, 63, 64, 158, 306, 565
183, 202, 203, 204, 416, 418, 419, 558, 597, 651, 844 wind waves 85, 86, 87, 122, 163, 164, 173
wave-dissipating block 20, 36, workability 338, 342, 470, 473, 932
96, 107, 138, 139, 140, 385, 389, 415, 416, 417, 421, 485, 590, woven cloth 353
593, 594, 605, 607, 622, 623, 624, 632, 633, 637 WTO 560, 574
wave-dissipating type seawall 109, 114
wave-dissipating work 97, 114, 135, 138, 139, 589, 603, 605, Y
622, 624, 632, 706 yawing 160, 302, 561, 566
wave drift force 159 yield load 458
wave drift force coefficient 159 yield stress 213, 219, 221, 222, 227, 329, 374, 375, 392, 453, 474,
wave energy balance equation 88 477, 520, 635, 641, 684, 711, 712, 713, 732, 733, 734, 736,
wave energy flux 185, 186, 188, 195 737, 743, 748, 758, 760, 767, 768, 769, 786, 788, 801, 808,
wave-exciting force 157, 159, 160, 161, 304 809, 810, 814, 815, 818, 827, 841, 842, 853, 904, 938
wave group 83, 94, 132, 133, 151, 412
wave hindcasting 84, 86, 87, 88, 93, 152, 154, 156, 597 Z
wavelength 73, 80, 83, 92, 94, 95,
zoning 251, 252
96, 97, 98, 117, 119, 124, 125, 126, 130, 131, 132, 134, 136,
137, 139, 140, 144, 145, 148, 149, 159, 172, 175, 184, 186, 187,
192, 413, 419, 597
wave-making resistance 157, 160, 304, 305
wave-making resistance force 160, 304, 305
wave observation 77, 154, 155, 169, 177, 186, 202, 203, 204,
205, 206
wave overtopping 70, 74,
93, 105, 108, 109, 114, 115, 119, 124, 133, 156, 165, 421, 586,
590, 619, 625, 628, 630, 638, 646, 648, 654, 664, 666, 667,
669, 940, 973
wave overtopping quantity 109, 114, 115, 666
wave overtopping rate 70, 109, 114, 115, 165, 666, 667, 973
wave profile 119, 128, 167, 202, 203, 204, 232, 235, 241, 255,
263, 264, 821
wave ray 87, 88, 173
wave reflection 73, 93, 95, 96, 142, 148, 189, 192, 583, 625, 635,
638
wave refraction 88, 89, 93, 96, 174, 588
wave refraction coefficient 88, 89, 96
wave run-up 165
waves entering into river mouth 178
wave setup 68, 70, 77, 103, 117
wave shoaling 83, 173, 179
wave spectrum 81, 84, 86, 88, 117, 147, 161, 164, 166, 412
wave steepness 109, 117, 119, 124, 127, 133, 135, 136, 144, 189,
413
wave transformation 88, 93, 95, 96, 109, 136, 650, 651
wave transmission 116, 117, 586, 628, 632, 638, 642
wave transmission coefficient 638, 642
Weibull distribution 152, 153, 154, 301
welded joint 410, 473
welded part 410
well point method 543
wharf 5, 18, 20, 25, 50, 148, 267, 339, 369, 371, 550,
676, 680, 686, 687, 690, 719, 751, 753, 754, 755, 797, 798,
818, 819, 820, 821, 828, 835, 836, 837, 838, 847, 849, 882,
902, 903, 906, 911, 934, 950
width of embankment 492
width of navigation channel 554, 555, 560, 574, 575
width of sediment movement zone 195
wind blown sand 674
wind drag force 157, 158, 161
wind-driven current 74, 178
wind duration 84, 85
wind field 84, 85, 86
wind load 61, 63, 305, 322, 846, 848, 849
wind pressure 57, 58, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 157, 158, 297, 304,
305, 308, 309, 315, 597, 846, 947
wind pressure coefficient 61, 63, 64, 158
– 998 –
TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND COMMENTARIES
FOR PORT AND HARBOUR FACILITIES IN JAPAN


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Ports and Harbours Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)

National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, MLIT

TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND

TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND

ISO2394 General principles on reliability for structures,

* indicates chiefs of committees.

Abbreviations English term

API American Petroleum Institute

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

CBR California Bearing Ratio

CDL Chart Datum Level

CIQ Customs, Immigration and Quarantine

DOL Deviation of Out Liar

DWT Dead Weight Tonnage

FCL Full Container Load

FLIP Finite Element Analysis Program for Liquefaction Process

FRP Fiber Reinforced Plastic

GPS Global Positioning System

HWOST High Water of Ordinary Spring Tide

HWL Mean Monthly-highest Water Level

IHO International Hydrographic Organization

IMO International Maritime Organization

IPCC International Panel on Climate Change

ISO International Organization for Standardization

JSCE Japan Society of Civil Engineers

LCL Less than Container Load

LWL Mean monthly-lowest Water Level

LWOST Low Water of Ordinary Spring Tide

MIR Minimum Rate of Residual Correction Coefficient

MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

MRI Meteorological Research Institute

MSL Mean Sea Level

NILIM National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management

OCDI Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan

PARI Port and Airport Research Institute

PHC Prestressed Hightension Concrete

PHRI Port and Harbour Research Institute

PIANC World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure

REC Residue of Correlation Coefficient

RWL Residual Water Level

SALM Single Anchor Leg Moring

SCP Sand Compaction Pile

SI International System of Unit

SRC Steel Framed Reinforced Concrete

TP Mean Sea Level of Tokyo Bay, Tokyo Peil

VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier

WTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1 General Rules. .......................................................................................................................................... 3

Part II Actions and Material Strength Requirements

Chapter 1 General ..................................................................................................................................................... 55

Chapter 4 Earthquakes........................................................................................................................................... 235

Chapter 5 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure.............................................................................................. 271

Chapter 8 Ships......................................................................................................................................................... 289

Chapter 10 Self Weight and Surcharge................................................................................................................312

3.3 Underwater Concrete. ............................................................................................................ 340

Part III FACILITIES

Chapter 1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 363

Chapter 2 Items Common to Facilities Subject to Technical Standards................................................. 364

Chapter 3 Waterways and Basins....................................................................................................................... 552

Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities ................................................................................................................................ 676

3 Mooring Buoys................................................................................................................................... 800

Chapter 6 Port Transportation Facilities............................................................................................................ 913

2.4 Widening of the Curved Sections of Roads........................................................................ 924