Real Numbers (Math)

Study Material

If P Is a Prime Number Which Divides A2, Then P Divides A, Where A Is a Positive Integer

We know that a number which cannot be written in the form of , where p and q are integers
and q ≠ 0, is known as an irrational number.

For example: all numbers of the form , where p is a prime number such as
etc., are irrational numbers.

How can we prove that these are irrational numbers?

We can prove this by making use of a theorem which can be stated as follows.

“If p divides a2, then p divides a (where p is a prime number and a is a positive integer)”.

So go through the given video to understand the application of the above stated property.

[[VIDEO:749]]

Similarly, we can prove that square roots of other prime numbers like , etc. are
irrational numbers.

Besides these irrational numbers, there are some other irrational numbers like etc.

We can also prove why these numbers are irrational. Before this, let us first see what happens to
irrational numbers, when we apply certain mathematical operations on them.

 Addition or subtraction of two irrational numbers gives a rational or an

irrational number.
 Addition or subtraction of a rational and an irrational number gives an
irrational number.
 Multiplication of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number gives
an irrational number.
 Multiplication of two irrational numbers gives a rational or an irrational
number.
We will now prove that is irrational.

We know that is irrational (as proved before).

Now, the multiplication of a rational and an irrational number gives an irrational number.

Therefore, is an irrational number.

Let us now try to understand the concept further through some more examples.

Example 1:

Prove that is irrational.

Solution:

Let us assume that is not irrational, i.e. is a rational number.

Then we can write , where a and b are integers andb ≠ 0.

Let a and b have a common factor other than 1.

After dividing by the common factor, we obtain

, where c and d are co-prime numbers.

As c, d and 2 are integers, and are rational numbers.

Thus, is rational.
 is rational as the difference of two rational numbers is again a rational number.

This is a contradiction as is irrational.

Therefore, our assumption that is rational is wrong.

Hence, is irrational.

Example 2:

Prove that is irrational.

Solution:

Let us assume is rational. Then, we can write

where a and b are co-prime and b ≠ 0.

Now, as a and b are integers, is rational or is a rational number.

This means that is rational.

This is a contradiction as is irrational.

Therefore, our assumption that is rational is wrong.

Hence, is an irrational number.

Terminating And Non-Terminating Decimal Expansions Of Rational Numbers

 A number is said to be rational if it can be written in the form , where p and q represent
integers and q≠ 0.

To understand the decimal expansion of rational numbers, let us start by taking a few examples
of rational numbers.

The numbers etc. are rational numbers.

Let us consider the decimal expansions of a few rational numbers.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

We notice that in examples (a) and (e), the decimal expansion is terminating (there is a finite
number of digits after the decimal point), whereas in examples (b), (c), and (d), the digits after
the decimal point are repetitive (same digit or set of digits occur again and again) and non-
terminating (there is an infinite number of digits after the decimal point).

Hence, we can say that the decimal expansion of a rational number can be of two types:

(i) Terminating

(ii) Non-terminating and repetitive

Let us now consider a few examples.

Example 1:
Write the decimal expansion of and find if it is terminating or non-terminating and
repetitive.

Solution:

We perform the long division of 1237 by 25.

Hence, the decimal expansion of is 49.48, which is terminating.

Example 2:

Write the decimal expansion of and find if it is terminating or non-terminating and

repetitive.

Solution:

We perform the long division of 2358 by 27.

We can see that the remainder 9 is obtained again and again. Hence, the decimal expansion of

is non-terminating and repetitive.

In the previously discussed examples, we carried out the long division method in order to check
the decimal expansion of rational numbers. Now, we will do this without carrying out the actual
long division method.

Let us start by taking a few rational numbers in the decimal form.

(a)

(b)

0.275

On prime factorizing the numerator and the denominator, we obtain

Can you see a pattern in the two examples?

We notice that the given examples are rational numbers with terminating decimal expansions.

When they are written in the form, where p and q are co-prime

(the HCF of p and q is 1), the denominator, when written in the form of prime factors, has 2 or 5
or both.

The above observation brings us to the given theorem.

If x is a rational number with terminating decimal expansion, then it can be expressed in

the form, where p and q are co-prime (the HCF of p and q is 1) and the prime
factorisation of q is of the form 2n5m, where n and m are non-negative integers.

Contrary to this, if the prime factorisation of q is not of the form 2n5m, where n and m are
non-negative integers, then the decimal expansion is a

non-terminating one.

Let us see a few examples that will help verify this theorem.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Note that in examples (b) and (d), each of the denominators is composed only of the prime
factors 2 and 5, because of which, the decimal expansion is terminating. However, in examples
(a) and (c), each of the denominators has at least one prime factor other than 2 and 5 in their
prime factorisation, because of which, the decimal expansion is non-terminating and repetitive.

To summarize the above results, we can say that:

 Let x = be any rational number.

i. If the prime factorization of q is of the form 2m5n, where m and n are non-negative
integers, then x has a terminating decimal expansion.

ii. If the prime factorisation of q is not of the form 2m5n, where m and n are non-
negative integers, then x has a non-terminating and repetitive decimal expansion.

Let us solve a few more examples to understand this concept better.

Example 3:

Without carrying out the actual division, find if the following rational numbers have a
terminating or a non-terminating decimal expansion.

(a)

(b)

Solution:

(a)

As the denominator can be written in the form 2n5m, where n = 6and m = 2 are non-negative
integers, the given rational number has a terminating decimal expansion.

(b)

As denominator cannot be written in the form 2n5m, where n and m are non-negative integers, the
given rational number has a non-terminating decimal expansion.

Example 4:

Without carrying out the actual division, find if the expression has a terminating or a
non-terminating decimal expansion.
Solution:

As the denominator can be written in the form 2n5m, where n = 7and m = 0 are non-negative
integers, the given rational number has a terminating decimal expansion.

Hence, 5.5859375 is the decimal expansion of the given rational number.

Polynomials (Math)

Study Material

Relationship Between Zeroes Of A Polynomial And Its Coefficients

Consider a quadratic polynomial p(x) = 3x2– 5x – 12.

Can we find out the sum and the product of the zeroes of this polynomial?

Yes, we can find the sum and the product of zeroes but firstly we have to find out the zeroes of
the polynomial.

Here, the zeroes of polynomial p(x) are 3 and .

Now, the sum of zeroes = 3 +

And the product of zeroes = 3 × =–4

Can we find out the sum and the product of zeroes by any other method?

Yes, there is also a method in which there is no need to find out the zeroes. In that method we
use the coefficients of the polynomial to find the sum and the product of zeroes.

Firstly let us see the relation between the sum and product of zeroes and the coefficients of the
polynomial.

Let us first consider a quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants.

If αand β are the zeroes of p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, then,

Sum of zeroes = and

Product of zeroes = αβ =

Now, let us find the sum and product of zeroes of the polynomial given in the beginning, using
these relations.

The polynomial is p(x) = 3x2 – 5x – 12.

On comparing this equation with ax2 + bx + c, we have

a = 3, b = –5 and c = –12

∴ Sum of zeroes = – =

And the product of zeroes =

Using these relations we obtained the same values as we found after calculating the zeroes.

Now, let us know the relations between the sum and the product of zeroes and the coefficients of
a cubic polynomial.

The general form of a cubic polynomial is p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d where a, b, c and d are
constants.

Ifα, β and γ are the three zeroes of cubic polynomial p(x), then the relations are given by
Let us solve some more problems to have a better understanding of the concept.

Example 1:

Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between
the zeroes and the coefficients.

(a) x2 – 9x + 20 (b) 5x2 + 21x – 20.

Solution:

(a) The given quadratic polynomial is p(x) = x2 – 9x + 20.

Firstly we will find the zeroes by the method of splitting the middle term and then verify the
relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients of the polynomial.

In this method, we have to find two numbers whose product is 20 and sum (or difference) is 9.

Such two numbers are 4 and 5 so, we have

x2 – 9x + 20 = x2 – (4 + 5)x + 20

= x2 – 4x – 5x + 20

= x (x – 4) – 5 (x – 4)

= (x – 4) (x – 5)

Thus, for finding zeroes, we put x2 – 9x + 20 = 0.

(x – 4) (x – 5) = 0

(x – 4) = 0 or (x – 5) = 0

x = 4 or 5

Thus, 4 and 5 are the zeroes of the polynomial p(x) = x2 – 9x + 20.

Now sum of zeroes = 4 + 5 = 9

And product of zeroes = 4 × 5 = 20

Now, on comparing p(x) = x2 – 9x + 20 with the general quadratic polynomial

ax2 + bx + c = 0, we have a = 1, b = –9 and c = 20.

Using the formulae, we have

Sum of zeroes

=9

Product of zeroes

= 20

Hence, it is verified that Sum of zeroes = and

Product of zeroes = αβ = .

(b) Comparing the given polynomial with ax2 + bx + c, we have, a = 5, b = 21

and c = – 20.

Using the method of splitting the middle term we have,

p(x) = 5x2 + 21 x – 20 = 5x2 + (25 – 4)x – 20

= 5x2 + 25x –4 x – 20

= 5x(x + 5) –4 (x + 5)
= (x + 5) (5x – 4)

For finding zeroes, put p(x) = 0

(x + 5) (5x – 4) = 0

x = – 5 or x =

Thus, the zeroes of the polynomial 5x2 + 21 x – 20 are – 5 and .

Now, sum of zeroes = – 5 + = =

And product of zeroes = – 5 × = –4 = =

Hence, verified.

Example 2: If 1, 2, and 6 are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial x3 – 9x2 + 20x – 12, then
verify the relations between the zeroes and the coefficients.

Solution:

The given cubic polynomial is p(x) = x3 – 9x2 + 20x – 12.

On comparing the given polynomial with the general form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d of cubic
polynomial, we have a = 1, b = – 9, c = 20, d = – 12.

Now the zeroes are 1, 2, and 6.

Let α = 1, β = 2 and γ = 6

Now α+ β + γ = 1 + 2 + 6

=1×2+2×6+6×1

= 2 + 12 + 6
= 20

and αβ γ = 1 × 2 × 6

= 12

Hence, this verifies the relations between the coefficients and the zeroes of the cubic polynomial.

Division Of Polynomials With Other Polynomials By Long Division Method

Example 1:

Check whether (x − 5) is a factor of x2 − 4x − 5 or not.

Solution:

(x − 5) will be a factor of x2 − 4x − 5, if the polynomial x2 − 4x − 5 on dividing by x − 5 gives

remainder zero.

The division has been shown below:

The remainder is zero.

∴ (x − 5) is a factor of x2 − 4x − 5.

Example 2:

Find the quotient and remainder when (15x − 4 + x3 − 6x2) is divided by

(x2 − 3x + 2).

Solution:

Firstly, we arrange the terms of the dividend and the divisor in the standard form.

The dividend in the standard form will be

x3 − 6x2 + 15x − 4.

The divisor is already in standard form.

The division has been shown below:

Thus, the quotient is and the remainder is .

Example 3:

and are the zeroes of the polynomial 16x4 − 64x3 + 40x2 + 80x − 75. Find the other
zeroes of the polynomial.

Solution:

Let p(x) = 16 x4 − 64x3 + 40x2 + 80x − 75

 and are two zeroes of p(x).

⇒ (x − ) and (x + ) are the factors of p(x)

⇒ x2 − is a factor of p(x)

To find the other factors, we have to divide p(x) by x2 − as follows:

Now, is the factor of p(x).

So, we can write =

= (Splitting the middle term)

To find the zeroes, put =0

We have
Thus, the remaining zeroes of the polynomial are x = and .