Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Trading strategies in derivatives studied in the project are the basic strategies used by
investors to reduce risk and gain returns. There are different strategies used according to
different market situations. The strategies are developed using combination of options,
futures and spot.
1
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
2
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Study covered the basic knowledge of different strategies in futures & options
market:
Hedging
Speculation
Arbitrage
It also includes analysis of real market prices of for two months to make comparison
between theoretical strategies and practical returns.
Futures Contract
Option Contract
3
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
4
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
5
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
RESEARCH DESIGN:
A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the
information needed. Research design can be exploratory research or descriptive research. For
this project I have used descriptive research.
SOURCES OF DATA
Sources of data are means from where information is collected for the study and
analysis purpose. There are two sources of data collection,
1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data.
For this project I have used only secondary data. Secondary data are those data which are
collected by the other person and which are used by the researcher for his present study. I
have used the secondary data to understand the basic concept of derivatives from the
reference book N.D. Vohra and B.R. Bagri.
6
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
NJ has over 8,600* NJ Fundz Network Partners and over 4,500* normal advisors
associated with us. NJ presently has over Rs. 5,050* Crores of assets under advice. NJ has
over 130* PSCs (Partner Service Centers) in 22* states spread across India. The numbers are
reflections of the trust, commitment and value that NJ shares with its clients.
7
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Commitment to Excellence
8
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Business Branding
Marketing
Technology
9
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Research
Communications
With this comprehensive supporting platform, the NJ Fundz Partners stays ahead of the
curve in each respect compared to other Advisors/competitors in the market.
A good product/service offering, targeted at meeting the needs of the clients, lies at
the center of any business. With customers today expecting single window solutions and
services, successful and easy integration of products is the need of the hour.
10
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Government/RBI bonds
Infrastructure Bonds
NJ Customer Care offers a 'Single Service Point' to all the advisors to help solve their
customer queries. Our centralized team of Customer Care Executives solves your queries at
the earliest. You can also view the latest status of all your queries online.
Telephonic
Email or
Query Management:-
Automated On-line Query Management Module is used to efficiently handle the
queries of our Advisors/Associates.
Query entered is automatically forwarded to the concerned person who can immediately
solve the same.
Status is updated online and turns around time for different types of queries defined.
11
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Derivatives Concept:
A word formed by derivation. It means, this word has been arisen by derivation.
Something derived; it means that some things have to be derived or arisen out of the
underlying variables. A financial derivative is an indeed derived from the financial market.
The term "Derivative" indicates that it has no independent value, i.e. its value is
entirely "derived" from the value of the underlying asset. The underlying asset can be
securities, commodities, bullion, currency, live stock or anything else. The derivative itself is
merely a contract between two or more parties. Its value is determined by fluctuations in the
underlying asset. The most common underlying assets include stocks,
bonds, commodities, currencies, interest rates and market indexes. Most derivatives are
characterized by high leverage.
A very simple example of derivatives is curd, which is derivative of milk. The price
of curd depends upon the price of milk which in turn depends upon the demand and supply of
milk.
12
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Interest Rates
Common shares/stock
Derivatives are generally used as an instrument to hedge risk, but can also be used
for speculative purposes. For example, a European investor purchasing shares of an
American company of an American exchange (using U.S. dollars to do so) would be
exposed to exchange-rate risk while holding that stock. To hedge this risk, the investor could
purchase currency futures to lock in a specified exchange rate for the future stock sale and
currency conversion back into Euros.
13
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
DEFINATION OF FERIVATIVES
“A derivative is a contract between a buyer and a seller entered into today regarding a
transaction to be fulfilled at a future point in time.”
Over the life of the contract, the value of the derivative fluctuates with the price of the
so-called “underlying” of the contract – in our example, the USD-EUR exchange rate. The
life of a derivative contract, that is, the time between entering into the contract and the
ultimate fulfillment or termination of the contract, can be very long – in some cases more
than ten years. Given the possible price fluctuations of the underlying and thus of the
derivative contract itself, risk management is of particular importance.
Derivative is a product whose value is derived from the value of one or more basic
variables, called bases (underlying asset, index, r reference rate) in a contractual manner.
These contracts are legally binding agreements, made on the trading screen of stock
exchanges, to buy or sell an asset in future. The asset can be an interest, share, index,
commodities or foreign exchange, etc.
In the Indian Context the Securities Contracts (Regulations) Act, 1956 (SC(R) A) defines
"derivative" to include:
14
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
2. A contract which derives its value from the prices, or index of prices, of underlying
securities.
Derivatives are definitely not a modern invention. They were know and were used from
ancient times. Bernstien (1992) attributes the first option transaction to the Greek philosopher
Thales from Miletus who was adept at forecasting the harvest of olives in the ensuing season.
He predicted an outstanding next autumn and so also the demand for the olive presses.
Therefore he entered in to agreements with olive press owners before autumn for the
exclusive use of their presses. For this he paid the deposits in advance with an agreement that
he will not demand his money if the harvest is not good. When the harvest time came, there
15
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
was plenty of demand for the presses and since he had the rights to use them, he hired out
them at high prices and made big money. Though Thales was not interested in making
money, all he wanted was to prove that philosophers can make money if they do so desire.
This is a primitive form of derivatives where Thales knew well in advance that his maximum
loss will be the advance he paid while his profits depended on what he demand.
Most future markets have evolved from the basic commodity market and agricultural
futures were the foremost contracts that made their appearance long before financial futures.
Agricultural futures are not unfamiliar contracts- in most parts of the world, money lenders
used to compel most of their borrowers to sell their forthcoming crop at a price agreed upon
at the time of taking the loan. The way these agreements are futures but their price were not
determined at arm’s length distance nor the contract are liquid enough. Still they represent
the forerunners to the relatively organized future that evolved subsequently in the 18 th century
in the US. though there are reports of future trading on Amsterdam bourse after its creation in
1611.
3.2.1 DERIVATIVES INTRODUCTION IN INDIA
The first step towards introduction of derivatives trading in India was the
promulgation of the Securities Laws (Amendment) Ordinance, 1995, which withdrew the
prohibition on options in securities. SEBI set up a 24 – member committee under the
chairmanship of Dr. L.C. Gupta on November 18, 1996 to develop appropriate regulatory
framework for derivatives trading in India, submitted its report on March 17, 1998. The
committee recommended that the derivatives should be declared as ‘securities’ so that
regulatory framework applicable to trading of ‘securities’ could also govern trading of
derivatives.
To begin with, SEBI approved trading in index futures contracts based on S&P CNX
Nifty and BSE-30 (Sensex) index. The trading in index options commenced in June 2001 and
the trading in options on individual securities commenced in July 2001. Futures contracts on
individual stocks were launched in November 2001.
The following points shoes the need for the derivative market:
16
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
1. To help in transferring risks from risk averse people to risk oriented people
4. To increase the volume traded in markets because of participation of risk averse people
in greater numbers
IMPORTANCE OF DERIVATIVES
India's three-year old futures and options market is the on the verge of fast becoming
a haven for retail investors. They are slowly emerging as instruments for mass investment,
hedging and speculation. What is noteworthy is that notwithstanding stringent margins, a
small set of scripts and surveillance and reporting requirements still the derivatives volume
have surpassed cash market volumes within such a short time. Derivatives have a number of
advantages such as hassle free settlement, lower transaction cost, flexibility in terms of
various permutations and combinations of trading strategies etc.
Managing risk
There are several risks inherent in financial transactions. Derivatives allow you to
manage these risks more efficiently by unbundling the risks and allowing either hedging or
taking only one risk at a time.
For example, If we buy a share of we take the following risks:
Price risk that share may go up or down due to company specific reasons
(unsystematic risk).
Price risk that share may go up or down due to reasons affecting the sentiments of the
whole market (systematic risk).
17
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Liquidity risk, if our position is very large, that we may not be able to cover our
position at the prevailing price (called impact cost).
Cash out-flow risk that we may not able to arrange the full settlement value at the
time of delivery, resulting in default, auction and subsequent losses.
Once investor is long on share investor can hedge the systematic risk by going short
on share Futures. On the other hand, if investors do not want to take unsystematic risk on
anyone share, but wish to take only systematic risk - investor can go long on Index Futures,
without buying any individual shares.
Speculation
Derivatives offer an opportunity to make unlimited money by way of speculation.
Speculators are of two types. One type is of optimistic variety, and sees a rise in prices in
future. He is known as 'bull'. The other type is a pessimist, and he sees a fall in prices, in
future. He is known as 'bear'. They undertake 'futures' transactions with the intention of
making gains through difference in contracted prices and future cash market price prices. If,
in future, their expectations turn out to be true, they gain and if not they lose. Of course, they
may limit their losses through options.
High leverage
Leverage opportunities are often expensive and complicated to implement for many
investors in the cash market, or are simply not feasible. However, options and futures
represent (highly) levered investments in the underlying cash instruments. They require only
a small fraction of the investment in the underlying securities. The case is most obvious for
futures, where there is essentially no initial investment except margin payments.
Arbitrage
Arbitrageurs profit from price differential existing in two markets by simultaneously
operating in two different markets. Arbitrage can be done between two instruments when
they are related to each other, but they are temporarily mispriced. For example, the futures
18
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
price and spot price are related by the interest rate, time to maturity and corporate benefit, if
any, in the interregnum.
Hedging mechanism
Derivatives provide an excellent mechanism to hedge the future price risk. Hedging is
a mechanism to reduce price risk inherent in open positions. Derivatives are widely used for
hedging. A hedge can help lock in existing profits. Its purpose is to reduce the volatility of a
portfolio, by reducing the risk. Hedging is used to protect portfolio volatility due to market
fluctuation during budget, elections and other political or corporate turmoil. The basic rule in
hedging is that the risk of loss in portfolio is offset by the gains in the futures or options.
Hence hedging is beneficial. Thus hedging helps to reduce risk by locking returns but does
not maximize them rather it minimizes the loss arising out of adverse situations. One needs to
keep in mind that hedging does not make money but removes unwanted risk by reducing the
losses.
3. Liquidity
4. Risk Management
Hedgers use futures or options markets to reduce or eliminate the risk associated with
price of an asset.
19
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Speculators use futures and options contracts to get extra leverage in betting on
future movements in the price of an asset. They can increase both the potential gains and
potential losses by usage of derivatives in a speculative venture.
Price Discovery
The futures and options market serve an all important functions of price discovery.
The individuals with better information and judgment are liable to participative in these
20
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
markets to take advantage of such information. When some new information arrives, perhaps
some good news about the economy, for instance, the actions of speculators quickly feed
their information into the derivatives markets causing changes in prices of the derivatives. As
these markets are usually the first ones to react because the transaction cost is much lower in
these markets than in the spot market. Therefore, these markets indicate what is likely to
happen and thus assist in better price discovery.
Risk Transfer
By their very nature, the derivative instruments do not themselves involve risk.
Rather, they merely redistribute the risk between the market participants. In this sense, the
whole derivatives market may be compared to a gigantic insurance
Market Completion
The modem derivatives market provides a wide range of products linked to the key
factors affecting financial and commercial performance. Whether it is a small domestic
importer or a transnational manufacturing giant, external risk is common to business. These
21
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
factors include interest rates, foreign exchange, equity values and commodity prices. The
power of derivative instruments manages and finds opportunity in risks.
The equity derivatives were almost usual in order for the risk and reward profile of
equity investments to remain competitive with the fixed income offered by debt instruments
such as bonds. Initially large institutional investors in Europe, Japan and the United States
were the primary users, but today, however, even small investors have a direct means to
manage equity risk. Equity derivative instruments allow investors to structure requirements
in terms of market timing and risk-reward profile. Importantly, the use of derivatives has
changed the nature of equity portfolio management. Traditional techniques such as
fundamental and technical analysis, diversification strategies and asset allocation strategies
now rank alongside the derivative risk management as means of achieving investment
objectives.
Swaps are private agreements between two parties to exchange cash flows in the
future according to a prearranged formula. They can be regarded as portfolios of forward
contracts. Interest rate swaps make use of one party's comparative advantage in the capital
market strong issuer of notes are able to borrow through fixed, cheap rate funds. Weaker
borrowers only have access to floating rate loans. By exchanging their payment obligations
through a swap, both parties are able to obtain a lower cost of funds.
From this pattern of strong issuer weak borrower and the source of capital markets for
credit, the swap market has developed into the primary method of managing interest rate risk.
This success has also encouraged intermediaries to introduce a diverse array of further
innovations, essentially derivatives upon derivatives, including interest rate caps, collars,
floors and options on interest rate swaps- known as swaptions.
The main foreign exchange linked derivatives are currency swaps, long dated
forwards, currency options and combinations of the above. For borrowers, access to currency
22
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
derivatives ensures that they have access to the lowest cost capital markets around the world.
The international capital markets through foreign exchange derivatives markets, encourages a
competitive cost of capital. In addition to this integration role, foreign exchange derivatives
serve a very real purpose. Foreign exchange fluctuations affect the competitive positions of
companies, the cost of borrowings abroad and the returns on global investment portfolios.
Precise commercial and financial objectives can be managed through such derivatives.
The commodity derivatives are designed to satisfy the needs of producers, refiner and
consumers of the world's materials. The original derivatives market, commodity derivatives
satisfy the needs of participants to manage price risk. Commodity price risk often forms the
core business of users of such derivatives. Liquidity, solvency and possibly even survival
demand the use of derivatives. Today, active users include oil producers, airline companies,
electricity generation companies, mining companies to mention a few. Commodity
derivatives are also being used with lenders and investors to ensure the returns and carrying
capacity of new projects.
23
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
In broad terms, there are two distinct groups of derivative contracts, which are
distinguished by the way they are traded in the market:
1.OTC and
2.Exchange-traded
Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives are contracts that are traded (and privately
negotiated) directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other
intermediary. Products such as swaps, forward rate agreements, and exotic options are almost
always traded in this way. The OTC derivative market is the largest market for derivatives,
and is largely unregulated with respect to disclosure of information between the parties, since
the OTC market is made up of banks and other highly sophisticated parties, such as hedge
funds. Reporting of OTC amounts are difficult because trades can occur in private, without
activity being visible on any exchange. Because OTC derivatives are not traded on an
exchange, there is no central counter-party. Therefore, they are subject to counter-party risk,
like an ordinary contract, since each counter-party relies on the other to perform.
Exchange-traded derivative contracts (ETD) are those derivatives instruments that are
traded via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges. A derivatives exchange is a
market where individuals trade standardized contracts that have been defined by the
exchange. A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all related transactions, and
takes Initial margin from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. According to BIS, the
combined turnover in the world's derivatives exchanges totaled USD 344 trillion during Q4
2005.
Some types of derivative instruments also may trade on traditional exchanges. For
instance, hybrid instruments such as convertible bonds and/or convertible preferred may be
listed on stock or bond exchanges. Also, warrants (or "rights") may be listed on equity
exchanges. Like other derivatives, these publicly traded derivatives provide investors access
to risk/reward and volatility characteristics that, while related to an underlying commodity,
nonetheless are distinctive.
FORWARD CONTRACTS
24
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
It is an agreement between a buyer and a seller in which the buyer has the right and
obligation to buy a specified assets on a specified date and at a specified price. The seller is
also under an obligation to perform as per the terms of the contract.
One of the parties to the contract assumes a long position and agrees to buy the
underlying asset on certain specified future date for a certain specified price. The other party
assumes a short position and agrees to sell on the same asset on the same date for same
specified price.
They are the bilateral contracts and hence exposed to counter-party risk
Each contract is custom designed, and hence is unique in terms of contract size,
expiration date and the asset type and quality.
The contract is generally not available in public domain on the expiration date, the
contract has to be settled by delivery of the assets.
If the party wishes to reverse the contract, it has to compulsorily go to the same
counterparty, which often results in high prices being charged.
Illiquidity
25
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
FUTURE CONTRACTS
Futures contracts designed to solve the problems that exist in forward markets.
Futures contracts are standardized contracts between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a
certain time in futures at certain price.
A future are also a kind of a forward which represent obligation on the part of the
buyer and seller but the term and condition of the contract are specified by the exchange
where they are actually traded.
They are entered into through exchange, traded on exchange and clearing
corporation/house provides the settlement guarantee for trades. Hence, futures markets are
more liquid with centralization of trading.
Futures terminology
Spot price: The price at which an asset trades in the spot market
Futures price: The price at which the future contract trades in the futures market.
Contract cycle: The period over which a contract trades. The index futures contracts on the
NSE have one-month, two-months and three months expiry cycles which expire on the last
Thursday of the month. Thus, a January contracts expires on the last Thursday of January. On
the Friday, following the last Thursday of every month, a new contract having three-month
expiry is introduced for trading.
Expiry date: It is the date specified in the futures contract. This is last day on which the
contract will be traded, at the end f which it will cease to exist.
26
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Contract size: The amount of asset has to be delivered under one contract. For instance, the
contract size on NSE’s futures market is 50 Nifty.
Cost of carry: The relationship between futures prices and spot prices can be summarized in
terms of what is known as the cost of carry. This measures the storage cost plus the interest
that is paid to finance the asset less the income earned on the asset.
Margins
Initial margin: The amount that must be deposited in the margin account at the time a
futures contracts first entered into is known as initial margin.
Marking-to-market: In the futures market, at the end of each trading day, the margin
account is adjusted to reflect the investor’s gain or loss depending upon the futures closing
price. This is called marking-to-market.
Maintenance margin: This is somewhat lower than the initial margin. This is set to ensure
that the balance in the margin account never becomes negative. If the balance in the margin
account falls below the maintenance margin, the investors receives a margin call and is
expected to top up the margin account to the initial margin level before trading commences
on the next day.
Tick Size: It is the minimum price difference between two quotes of similar nature.
Open interest: Total outstanding long or short positions in the market at any specific point
in time. As total long positions for market would be equal to total short positions, for
calculation of open Interest, only one side of the contracts is counted.
Physical delivery: Open position at the expiry of the contract is settled through delivery of
the underlying. In futures market, delivery is low.
OPTION CONTRACTS
27
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Option contracts are fundamentally different from forwards and futures contract. An
option gives the holder of the option the right to do something. An option is a contract, which
gives rights, but not the obligation, to exercise on the counter-party i.e. right but not
obligations.
Options are contracts that give the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy (in
the case of a call option) or sell (in the case of a put option) an asset. The price at which the
sale takes place is known as the strike price, and is specified at the time the parties enter into
the option. The option contract also specifies a maturity date. In the case of a, the owner has
the right to require the sale to take place on (but not before) the maturity date; in the case of
an American option, the owner can require the sale to take place at any time up to the
maturity date. If the owner of the contract exercises this right, the counter-party has the
obligation to carry out the transaction.
Option terminologies
Index options: Index options have the index as the underlying. Some options are European
while others are American. Like index futures contracts, index options are also cash settled.
Stock options: Stock options are the options on individual stocks. Options currently trade on
over 1000 stocks listed on NSE. A contract gives the holder the right to buy or sell shares at
the specified price
28
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Buyer of option: The buyer of an option is the one who pays an option premium and buys
the right but not the obligation to exercise his option on the seller/writer.
Writer of option: The writer of an option is one who receives the option premium and is
thereby obliged to sell/buy the asset if the buyer exercises on him.
Call option: A call option gives the holder right but not obligation to buy a given quantity of
the underlying asset, at a given price on or before future date.
Put options: Put option gives the holder the right but not the obligation to sell a given
quantity of underlying asset at a given price on or before a given future date.
Option price/premium: Option price is the price which the option buyer pays to the option
seller. It is also referred to as the option premium.
Expiration date: The date specified in the option contract is known as the expiration date,
the exercise date, the strike date or the maturity.
Strike price: The price specified in the options contract is known as the strike price or the
exercise price.
American options: American options are the options that can be exercised at any time up to
the expiration date. Most exchange traded options are American. Options on the individual
securities available at NSE are American type of option.
European options: European options are options that can be exercised only on the
expiration date itself. European options are easier to analyze than American options, and
properties of American options are frequently deduced from those of its European
counterpart. S&P CNX IT options at NSE are European type of option.
29
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
A Call option is said to be in-the-money when the current price stands at a level
higher than the strike price (i.e. spot price > strike price). If the Spot price is much higher
than the strike price, a Call is said to be deep in-the-money option.
In the case of a Put, the put is in-the-money if the Spot price is below the strike price
(i.e. spot price < Strike price).
A Call option is out-of-the-money when the current price stands at a level which is
less than the strike price (i.e. spot price < strike price). If the current price is much lower than
the strike price the call is said to be deep out-of-the money.
In case of a Put, the put is “out of the money” OTM if current price is higher than
strike price ((i.e. spot price > strike price).
SWAP CONTRACT
A swap is contract between two parties to deliver one sum of money against
another sum of money at periodic interval. The most basic form of swap is an interest rate
swap where two parties agree to exchange interest payment for a certain period of time. The
most familiar interest rate swap is fixed or floating rate swap. In this swap one of the counter
parties agrees to make fixed rate payment to the other and vice versa. These two payments
30
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
are known as the legs or sides of swap. Swap payments are made generally semi annually
and the maturity on generic swap range from 3 to 5 years.
Equity swap are similar to interest rate swap contract. There are two counterparties
who exchange regular cash flows based on some agreed term to maturity. Equity swap
market is substantially smaller than IRS or currency swap even in major markets like New
York and Landon.
Commodity swap requires the counterparties to exchange a cash flow based upon a
fixed price and quantity of a particular commodity for a cash flow based upon the same
quantity and market price of that commodity.
Swap Terminology:
Counterparties: One party pays fixed rate interest payment to another party who pays
variable rate payment to the first party.
Fixed rate payer: The party who pays fixed interest and receive variable is known as fixed
rate payer.
Floating rate payer: The other party who pays variable and receive fixed is known as
floating rate payer.
Trade date: Trade date is the day the party agree to commit to the swap.
31
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Settlement or payment date: It is when interest payments are made (6 months after the
effective date).
32
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
tend to give returns greater then this risk free asset and the growth of capital market and
trading platform has provided a liquidity, yet there is a market risk leading to capital erosion
also. This risk of the capital market bring into the powerful risk management tools in the
form of derivatives.
Strategies are generally combination of various product like future, calls, puts and
enable an individual to realize unlimited profits, limited profit, unlimited losses or limited
losses on his profit or risk taking ability.
Four simple views, Bullish view, Bearish view, Volatile view and Neutral view.
_
33
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
If the underlying price closes below the out-of-the-money (lower) put option strike
price on the expiration date, then the investor gets maximum profits. If the stock price
increases above the in-the-money (higher) put option strike price at the expiration date, then
the investor has a maximum loss potential of the net debit.
_ 34
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
A volatile view will imply that the market will move either upwards or downwards,
but which way is not clear. However, market will not stay where it is. I this sense, a volatile
view is opposite of the neutral view. Volatile view is usually based on various situations
which might warrant heavy movement. For example, during budget time, a favorable
proposal might impact the price favorably, or the price could fall significantly. An expected
foreign collaboration could see the price rise, and if it were not to happen, the price could
fall. While a positive development might result in a price rise, a negative development might
dampen the prices. Decision on hue lawsuit could significantly impact prices any which
direction.
Long straddle:
Buy a call as well as put on the same underlying for the same maturity and strike
price. If the price of the underlying increases, the call is exercised while the put expire
worthless and if the price of the underlying decreases, the put is exercised, the call expires
worthless. Either way if there is volatility to cover the cost of the trade, profits are to be
made. The straddle has two break even points viz. the strike price plus both Premia and the
strike price minus both Premia.
_
35
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Long strangle:
A strangle is a slight modification to the straddle to make it cheaper to execute. Buy
simultaneously a slight OTM put and a slight out-of-the-money OTM call of the same
underlying and expiration date. A strangle is a slightly safer strategy in the sense that one buy
a call and a put but at different strike prices rather than one single strike price, as in the case
of a straddle. Straddle the investor is directional neutral, but is looking for an increased
volatility in the stock / index and the prices moving significantly in the either direction. The
lower cost however implies a wider break even and you would make profit only if the scrip
moves up or down by a wider margin. As with a straddle, the strategy has a limited
downside (i.e. the call and the put premium) and unlimited upside potential.
36
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
finishes on either side of the upper and lower strike prices at expiration. However this
strategy offers very small returns when compared to straddles, strangers with only slight less
risk.
[PAY OFF POFILE FOR SHORT CALL BUTTERFLY]
Neutral view is when that the index or scrip in question is likely to remain whether it
is, or that the movement is not likely to be significant.
short straddle:
It is the opposite of the long straddle and is adopted when it is expected that the
market will remain range bound. Sell a call and a put on the same underlying for the same
maturity and strike price. Investors get net income. If the underlying does not move much in
the either direction, the investor retains the premium as neither the call nor the put will be
exercised. However, in case the underlying moves in either direction, up or down
significantly, the investor’s losses can be significant. This makes it a risky strategy and so it
should be adopted very carefully. If the underlying value stays close to the strike price on
expiry of the contracts, maximum gain, which is the premium received is made.
_
37
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Short strangle:
A short strangle is a slight modification to the short straddle. It tries to improve the
profitability of the trade for the seller of the option by widening the breakeven points so that
there is a much greater movement required in the underlying stock/ index, for the call and the
put option to be worth exercising. Simultaneously sell a slight OTM put and a slight OTM
call of the same underlying stock and expiration date. The net credit received by the seller is
less as compared to a short straddle, but the breakeven points are also widened. The
underlying has to move significantly for the call and put to be worth exercising. If the
underlying does not show much of a movement, the seller of the strangle gets to keep the
premium.
As a seller of the option with a neutral view, investor should sell strangles rather than
straddles_ this is a relatively lower risk lower return strategy.
38
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
As a buyer of volatility, one would rather buy straddle most of the time (rather than
strangles) as it gives profit faster than strangles. Although there is outward flow of premia to
buy a straddle, yet if that is reasonable then one would actively pursue this strategy.
ACCOUNTING OF DERIVATIVES
39
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
The institute of chartered accountants] of India (ICAI) has issued guidance notes on
accounting of equity index and equity stock futures & options contracts from the view point
of parties who enter into such future contract as buyers or sellers. For other parties involved
in the trading process like brokers, trading members, clearing members and clearing
corporations, a trade in equity index futures is similar to trade in, say shares, and does not
pose any peculiar accounting problems.
Clearing member: Clearing member means a member of clearing corporation and includes
all categories of clearing members as may be admitted as such but the clearing corporation to
the derivative segment
Contract month: Contract month means the month in which the exchange/clearing
corporation rules require a contract to be fully be finally settled.
Daily settlement price: Daily settlement prices is the closing prices of the equity index
future contract for the day or such other as may be decided by the clearing house from time
to time.
Final settlement price: The final settlement price is the closing of equity index futures
contract in the last trading day of the contract or such other price as may be specified by the
clearing corporation, from time to time.
Long position: Long position is an equity index futures contract means outstanding purchase
obligations in respect of the index futures contract at any point of time.
Open position: Open position means the total number of equity index futures contract that
have not yet been offset and closed by an opposite position.
40
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Settlement date: Settlement date means the date on which the outstanding obligations in an
equity index futures contract are required to be settled as provided in the Bye-Laws of the
Derivative exchange/segment.
Short position: Short position in an equity index futures contract means outstanding in
respect of any equity index futures contract at any point of time.
It may be mentioned that at the time when contract is entered into for purchase/sale of
equity index futures, no entry is passed for recording the contract because no payment is
made at the time except for the initial margin.
At the balance sheet date, the balance in the “Initial margin – equity index futures
account” should be shown separately under the head “current assets”.
In cases where instead of paying initial margin in cash, the client provides bank
guarantee or lodges securities with the member, a disclosure should be made in the notes to
the financial statements of the client.
Accounting At The Time Of Daily Settlement
41
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
credited/debited to the bank account and the corresponding debit or credit for the same
should be made to an account titled as “mark-to-market margin money – equity index futures
account”
Payment Of Daily Margin Receipt Of Daily Margin
Mark to mark margin a/c Dr. Bank/cash a/c Dr.
To bank/cash a/c To Make to mark margin a/c
Sometimes the client may deposit a lump sum amount with broker/trading member in
respect of mark-to-market margin money instead of receiving/paying mark-to-market margin
money on the daily basis. The amount so paid is in the nature of a deposit and should be
debited to appropriate account. Say, “Deposit for mark-to-market margin money account”.
The amount of “mark-to-market margin” received/paid from such account should be
credited/debited to “mark-to-market margin money – equity index futures account” with a
corresponding debit/credit to “Deposit for mark-to-market margin money account”.
Deposit Made To Margin Account Amount
Deposit made to margin a/c Dr. -----------
To bank/cash a/c -----------
At the year-end, balance in the “Deposit for mark-to-market margin money account”
should be shown as deposit under the head “current assets”.
42
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
The profit/loss, so computed, should be recognized in the profit and loss account by
corresponding debit/credit to “mark-to-market margin money – equity index futures
account”.
However, where a balance exists in the provision account created for anticipated loss,
any loss on arising on such settlement should be first charged to such provision account, to
the extent of the balance available in thru provision account, and the balance of loss, if any
should be charged to profit and loss account. Same accounting treatment should be made
when a contract is squared-up by entering into a reverse contract.
If more than one contract in respect of the series of equity index futures contracts to
which the squared-up contract pertains is outstanding at the time of the squaring of the
contract, the contract price of the contract co squared-up should be determined using the
weighted average method for calculating profit/loss on the squaring-up.
On the settlement of equity index futures contract, the initial margin paid in respect of
the contract is released which should be credited to “initial margin – equity index futures
account”, and a corresponding debit should be given to bank account or the deposit account
(where the amount is not received).
Release of Initial Margin Amount
Bank a/c Dr. -----------
To initial margin of equity stock a/c -----------
43
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
The amount of initial margin on the contract, in excess of the amount adjusted against
the mark-to-market margin not paid, will be released. The accounting treatment in this regard
will be the same as explained above.
In case, the amount t be paid on daily settlement exceeds the initial margin the excess
is a liability and should be shown as such under the head ‘current liabilities and provisions’,
if it continues to exist on the balance sheet date. The amount of profit or loss on the contract
so closed out should be calculated and recognized in the profit and loss account in the
manner dealt with above.
Disclosure Requirements
The amount of bank guarantee and book value as also the market value of securities
lodged should be disclosed in respect of contracts having open positions at the year end,
where initial margin money has been paid by way of bank guarantee and/or lodging of
securities.
Total number of contracts entered and gross number of units of equity futures traded
(separately for buy/sell) should be disclosed in respect of each series of index futures.
The number of equity index futures contracts having open position, number of units
of equity index futures pertaining to those contracts and the daily settlement price as of the
balance sheet date should be disclosed separately for long and short positions, of each series
of equity index futures.
FUTURE CONTRACTS
Ref Ref
Expense Dr. Income Cr.
No. No.
To M-2-M margin A/c (Loss) To M-2-M margin a/c (Profit)
Provision for anticipated Loss
- Loss incurred
Deposit to Mark-to-market
Net Amount Received from
margin:
Broker
Opening Balance
- M-2-M margin Paid
- Amt. payable to daily margin
= Closing Balance
Loans & Advances:
Disclosure:
Note: Initial paid in form of Bank
Guarantee and Lodge securities.
The institute of chartered accountants] of India (ICAI) has issued guidance notes on
accounting of equity index options and equity stock options from the view point of the
parties who enter into such contracts as buyers/holders or sellers/writers. Following are the
guidelines for accounting treatment in case of cash settled index options and stock options.
45
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
The seller/writer of the option is required to, pay initial margin for entering into the
option contract. Such initial margin paid would be debited to ‘equity index option margin
account’ or ‘equity stock option margin account’, as the case may be.
Initial Margin Payment By Seller Amount
Equity Index/Stock Option Margin a/c Dr. -----------
To bank a/c -----------
In the balance sheet, such account should be shown separately under the head ‘current
assets’.
Accounting At The Time Of Payment/Receipt Of Margin
Payments made or received by the seller/writer for the margin should be
credited/debited to the bank account and the corresponding debit/credit for the same should
also be made to ‘equity index option margin account’ or ‘equity stock option margin
account’, as the case may be.
Net Amount Received/Paid By The Seller On The Open Position
Amount Paid Amount Received
Equity Index/Stock Option Margin a/c Dr. Bank/cash a/c Dr.
To bank/cash a/c Equity Index/Stock Option Margin a/c
Sometimes, the client deposit a lump sum amount with the trading/clearing member
in respect of the margin instead of paying/receiving margin on daily basis. In such case, the
amount of margin paid/received from/into such accounts should be debited/credited to the
‘deposit of margin account’. At the end of the year the balance in this account would be
shown as deposit under ‘current assets’.
On the exercise of the option, the buyer/holder will recognize premium as an expense
and debit the profit and loss account by crediting ‘equity index option premium account’ or
‘equity stock option premium account’. D1
Apart from the above, the buyer/holder will receive favourable difference, if any,
between the final settlements price as on the exercise/expiry date and the strike price, which
will be recognized as income.
Income = final settlement price > Exercise price (long call & Short Put)
Income = final settlement price < Exercise price (long put & short call)
On exercise of the option, the seller/writer will recognize premium as an income and
credit the profit and loss account by debiting ‘equity index option premium account’ or
‘equity stock option premium account’. D2
Apart from above, the seller/writer will pay the adverse difference, if any, between
the final settlement prices at the exercise/expiry date and the strike price. Such payment is
recognized as loss.
Loss = Final Settlement price > Exercise price (long call & short put)
Loss = Final settlement price < Exercise Price (long put & Short call)
As soon as an option gets exercised, margin paid towards such option would be
released by the exchange, which should be credited to ‘equity index option margin account’
or ‘equity stock option margin account’, as the case may be, and the bank account will be
debited.
47
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
OPTION CONTRACTS
Profit & Loss Account of the ………….. For the year ending…………
Ref Ref
Expense Dr. Income Cr.
No. No.
From Buyer’s Viewpoint
(loss) (profit)
48
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
FINDINGS
49
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
by arbitrage and provide good knowledge of when to use these strategies in most effective
way according to different market situation.
The study shows how strategy works according to fundamental changes. The
understanding of payoff patterns of futures and options has contributed to knowledge of
implementation of strategies.
Finally, it recognizes the basic strategies and their usage in real stock market where
besides price, various factors also have influence. Thus in outline, project report establishes
knowledge of different strategies and accounting standards of derivatives.
CONCLUSION
50
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
The Indian Capital Market has undergone qualitative changes in the last decade due
to phenomenal growth of derivatives. Derivatives are used for variety of purposes, but most
important are hedging and arbitrage. This study attempts to simplify the concept of these
basis strategies with the knowledge of market condition and payoff strategies so that investor
can make out opportunities for reducing the loss and gain fair returns.
To make accounting records, there is need of knowledge of all the elements and
terminologies used in derivatives contracts such as participants, margins, payoff and their full
effects to client’s book. The understanding patterns of all future and options payoffs help in
their accounting procedures. The pricing & accounting of the derivatives thus provides client
with skills of profit generation in stock market.
SUGGESTIONS
51
Trading Strategies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
commodity market all over the world but with some consciousness.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Futures and options” by N.D. Vohra and B.R. Bagri, Second Edition, 2003 Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
www.njfundz.com
www.nseindia.com
www.mbaguys.net/project-reports/?prefixid=finance
www.isda.org/educat/faqs.html
53