mmd-081 Block 1 - Child Development

MMD-081
Perspectives on
Disability
Indira Gandhi National Open University
National Centre for Disability Studies
Block
1
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 1
Principles and Factors Influencing Child Development 5
UNIT 2
Area of Child Development 15
UNIT 3
Theories of Child Development 30
UNIT 4
Developmental Deviations 45
Expert Committee
Dr. Latha Pillai Prof. Manmohan Singh Dr. Saroj Arya
Pro-Vice Chancellor Retd. Professor of Psychology Retd. Head, Dept. of Rehabilitation
IGNOU, New Delhi Usmania University, Hyderabad Psychology, Andhra Pradesh
Prof. S.P. K. Jena Prof. C.L. Kundu Prof. Yashvir Singh

Dept. of Applied Psychology Retd. Vice Chancellor Retd. Head of Department
South Campus Kurukshetra University Dept. of Psychology
Delhi University Agra
Prof. (Mrs). Amulya Khurana Dr. Seema Bhattacharya Dr. J.P. Singh
Dept. of Psychology Psychologist Member Secretary
IIT, Delhi Prayas, Jaipur Rehabilitation Council of India
New Delhi
Prof. J.P. Mittal Dr. S.K. Mishra Dr. Hemlata
Psychologist Dy. Director Dy. Director
Retd. Professor Rehabilitation Council of India NCDS,IGNOU
NCERT New Delhi New Delhi
Dr. S.K. Prasad Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra

Dy. Director Research Officer
NCDS,IGNOU NCDS,IGNOU
New Delhi New Delhi
Acknowledgement
We express our heartfelt gratitude to the Dr. Latha Pillai, Pro V.C., IGNOU for her
constant guidance and support in the initiation and development of this programme
of study.
Programme Coordinator Programme Consultant

Dr. S.K. Prasad Ms. Ngashangva Pamyaphy
Deputy Director Consultant
NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Block Writer Block Editor

Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra Dr. S.K. Prasad
Unit 1, 2, 3, 4 Deputy Director &
NCDS,IGNOU Programme Co-ordinator
New Delhi NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Format Editor Associate Block Editor

Dr. S.K. Prasad Ms. Ngashangva Pamyaphy
Deputy Director & Programme Co-ordinator Consultant
NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi
July, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
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BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This block consist the detailed information and description about the child
development. The rationale for studying Child Development is to equip the
Rehabilitation Psychologist with the nuances and facts about children and childhood
stage, which is the foundation and the germ from which life begins. Many theorists
like Freud and Watson, no matter what their perspectives are, both have proposed
that Childhood is the most critical phase of life in the human life cycle. This is
reflected in Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages - the initial first five years; this
is when the blueprint of personality is formed, and also determines which
psychopathology would develop in adulthood, reflecting a deterministic and
restrictive view about personality. On the other extreme, Watson’s radical view
on child rearing was largely accepted during his times. Behaviour Analysis which
becomes the backbone of Psychological assessment began with the writings of
Watson. He strongly advocates that environment is the only factor that contributes
to personality formation, and went to the extent of quoting “Give me a dozen
healthy infants…….I will guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to
become any type of specialist’’. These two theorists remind us though in extremely
different manner, that childhood determines and lays foundation of an individual’s
development: healthy or deviant. Considering the importance and need of studying
child development, the units of this block are being introduced to you.
Unit 1 introduce you to the field of Child Development - Principles and factors
influencing Child Development. Every child around the world invariably goes
through the same process but at the same time there are individual differences. So
this unit discuss the underlying principles that govern growth process and also
elaborate on factors that contribute to making every human being unique. The
influencing factors range from genetic make-up to social and home environment.
Unit 2 describe areas of Child Development: Physical and motor development,
Cognitive development, Social and emotional development and language
development. The developmental milestone in each area is being discussed; the
knowledge of developmental delay gives us an indication of any subsequent difficulty
or disability.
Unit 3 describe the theories of child development: Freud’s theory largely place an
emphasis on the unconscious and claims that all motives were directed towards
fulfilling instinctual needs. Erikson focuses less on the unconscious aspect and
gives place to psychosocial factors in personality development. Piaget’s theory
tries to understand how we go about processing incoming information.
Unit 4 discuss the concept of developmental deviation. Deviation is in simple
words – moving away from the standard norms. Different types of deviation and
models of exceptionality is being discussed, namely: Statistical model - explains
in terms of normal distribution curve, Biological model – deviation from set medical
standard, and Social model – deviation from social norms.
Child Development
4
Principles and Factors
Influencing Child
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES AND FACTORS Development
INFLUENCING CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is development
1.3 Principles of Child Development
1.3.1 Development is Continuous
1.3.2 Development is Sequential
1.3.3 Development Proceeds from General to Specific Responses
1.3.4 Development has Individual Differences
1.3.5 Development is Cumulative in Nature
1.3.6 Holistic Child Development
1.3.7 Development Occurs in a Context
1.4 Individual Differences

1.5 Factors Influencing Child Development
1.5.1 Heredity
1.5.2 Environment
1.6 Let Us Sum Up

1.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Excercises
1.8 Unit End Excercises
1.9 Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Child development is a discipline in human behavioural sciences which focuses on
the qualitative and quantitative ways children change over a given span of time
period. Child Development is a field of science which studies child from conception
to adolescence. We need to study about the principles and factors influencing
child development in rehabilitation psychology as we need to know about the
various factors which have an influence on the growth and development of children.
In this Unit, we will discuss the principles of child development and factors
influencing child development in detail.
Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
 explain the major concepts and principles of child development;
 enumerate the principles of child development;
 delineate the factors influencing child development; and
 discuss the relevance of socio-cultural and biological influences on child
development. 5
Child Development
1.2 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT
Development can be seen as changes which are reasonably enduring and occurs
in a sequence. Development can be defined as changes occurring in an individual’s
physical, neurological structures, behaviours and traits. Development is adapting
to newer and improved ways of behaviour to survive and adapt as per the
environment. For example, babling to talking, crawling to walking, scribbling to
writing, etc.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVLOPMENT

1.3.1 Development is Continuous
Growth and development is continuous from conception till death? Changes in the
body and behaviour patterns take place continuously. At times development slows
down at other times it is accelerated. Development is not static at any time or in
simple words development does not stop at any given time. Growth and
development during infancy is very high and slows down in middle childhood and
again speeds up in adolescence and slows down during adulthood.
Although the physical manifestation of certain features may appear to be sudden,

the process of development is continuous. For example, emergence of teeth of a
baby may appear to have grown overnight, speaking word or language.
Development is continuous which means that each stage of child development has
its foundations built upon a preceding stage and has a definite influence on the
child in the succeeding stage of development. Every development or behaviour is
dependent on the development that has occurred before.
Mothers who suffered from Rubella or German measles during the first trimester
(three months) of pregnancy generally gave birth to children with hearing defects
and mental retardation. The protein energy malnutrition prevalent among children
of 0-6 years results in poor cognitive and physical development of children even
when they grow up.
1.3.2 Development is Sequential

Development follows an orderly sequence which is universal for all children. Each
stage of development leads to the next. For example, child learns Scribbling
before writing. Order of development remains unchanged and can never be reversed
for example, gain of height.
The rate and speed of development may vary in individual cases, but the sequence
of the development is always same. All children over the world would follow
same sequence of development even though at different pace due to individual or
socio-economic reasons.
Development proceeds in two directions. Either it is cephalo caudal development

or proximal-distal pattern. Cephalo caudal development of human being means
growth and development occurs from “head to toe” sequence. That is, first the
head, the brain, then heart, and then trunk and then legs would develop. The
growth pattern also helps to explain why children first hold things in a grasp and
later with three fingers. Proximal-distal development of human beings proceeds
6
from centre of heart towards outward. For instance the fingers would develop Influencing Child
after arm. Development
Hence, the development follows the pattern of “near to far” sequence.
1.3.3 Development Proceeds from General to Specific

The developmental pattern of children always proceeds from general activity to
specific activity. Infant’s response to the environmental cues move from general
response to specific response. And, as children grow generalisations reduce and
specific behavioural response to a particular individual or event develops. Like
child waves, both arms initially in early stages and the child may waves with one
hand and later reaches out for things also. Also for language development child
starts with general word say ‘dog’ for all four legged animals and later uses
specific term for different animals.
1.3.4 Development has Individual Differences

Development varies from child to child and the rate of development varies for
different areas, each area is influenced by individual differences among children
because, development proceeds at its own rate and reaches its maturity in its own
time period due to various factors like nutrition, health, genetic, inheritance, and
socio-cultural context. In a later section we would read in detail about the factors
influencing development.
The developmental pattern across all children is same but time table of development
among all children is unique and individualistic. Development is influenced by both
heredity and environment. Always remember that each child is a unique individual.
No two children, even twins behave or develop in an identical manner, there is
always individual differences among them. Hence, both the rate of development
as well as characteristic of development is different among all the children. Even
though we use a particular chronological age to represent characteristic traits of
that age group or cohort, the developmental sequence among individual children
varies.
1.3.5 Development is Cumulative in Nature

Development occurs in a cumulative manner in nature, that is, epigenetic. All new
development occurs upon the old development or preceding development.
1.3.6 Holistic Child Development

Child develops as a unified whole. All areas of development-physical, motor,
language, cognitive, social and emotional areas are influenced by each other. All
aspects are inter-related and integrated. All areas of development are dependent
on each other and also is influenced by them.
1.3.7 Development Occurs in a Context

The growth and development of child is influenced by the culture, society,
community, family, ethnic group and context in which the child develops. The
twins and siblings if raised in two different societies or culture show differences.
As the child develops in relation to the context in which she/he is brought up.
7
Child Development
 Check Your Progress 1
a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space provided
below:
i) What is development?
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ii) List the principles of development?
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1.4 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Meaning - It is undeniable fact that members of the same species resemble each
other in so many aspects. That is why, when observed casually or superficially all
ants, hens, or cows look alike to us. We also as a human being have so many
common characteristics and are alike in so many respects. These common
properties and characteristics distinguish and separate living species from one
another.
But by this discussion it should not be concluded that members of the same
species are alike in all respects. No two members of the same species are exactly
alike in all respect. All the living organisms whether human being or other differ
in size, shape, appearance, speed of reactions and innumerable other aspect of
behaviour. We can see that some are healthy and jolly while others are weak and
irritable. Some learn quickly and others slowly. Some remember well and others
forget. Some respond quickly and others slowly. In this way there exist differences
in individuals.
Definition: The variations in human being that separate them from one another
and make one as an unique individual in oneself is known as individual differences.
Types of individual differences.
i) Physical differences :- Individuals differ in height, weight, color of skin,
color of eyes and hair. Size of hands and heads, arm, feet, mouth and nose.
Structure and functioning of internal organs, facial expression, mannerisms
and functioning of speech and wealth, hair styles and other such native
acquired physical characteristics.
ii) Mental differences: - People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities
like reasoning and thinking powers, power of imagination, creative expression,
concentration etc. In the field of general intelligence also we find tremendous
difference between individuals on the basis of these differences they are
8 usually classified as retarded, borderline, normal, bright, very superiors and
genius.
iii) Difference in motor ability:- There exist wide differences in motor capacities Influencing Child
such as reaction time, speed of action steadiness, rate of muscular movements, Development
manual dexterity and resistance to fatigue etc.
iv) Differences in achievement:- Differences exist in achievement and the
knowledge even among individual who had almost same amount of intelligence
and had been subjected to equal amount of schooling and experiences.
v) Emotional Differences:- In some individuals positive emotions like love
affection and amusement etc are more prevalent whereas in others negative
emotions are more powerful. Individuals also differ in the manner, they express
their emotions. Some are emotionally stable and mature which others are
emotionally unstable and immature. In this way there exist wide emotional
differences among individuals.
vi) Difference in Interests and Aptitudes:- There exist great variations among
the individuals in relations to the specific tastes and interests. Some take
interest in meeting people, attending social functions and are very fond of
picnics and group excursions. Other feels happy in solitude, avoids social
gatherings and is interested in meditation or enjoying company of books. In
similar way, people are found to have different aptitudes; some have
mechanical aptitude, while others have musical or artistic aptitudes.
vii) Differences in attitudes, beliefs and opinions:- Individuals are found to
possess varying attitudes towards different people, groups, objects and ideas.
Their attitudes may be positive, negative or of somewhat in different nature.
Similarly they are different in respect of beliefs, opinions, and idea. Some
believe in one thing others in other. Some are conservative and rigid while
others are progressive, liberal and dynamic.
viii) Learning differences:- Individual differences are found in the field of learning
also. Some learn more easily and are able to make use of their learning more
comfortably than others. Individuals develop their own method or mode of
learning, in which one is comfortable. In the same way suitability of learning
environment also depends upon the individual’s nature of the learner. Thus,
there are wide individual differences in relation to learning.
ix) Differences in social and moral development:- Individuals differ in respect
of their social and moral development. Some are found to be properly
adjusted in the social situations and lead a happy social life while others are
socially handicapped, unsocial or antisocial. Similarly, people differ in respect
to ethical and moral sense.
a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space provided
below:
i) Define individual differences.

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Child Development 2) Match the columns
Individual Differences Examples
i) Physical Difference a) Leader of group
ii) Mental differences b) Height and Weight
iii) Emotional differences c) Shows temper tantrums
iv) Social Differences d) Intelligence Qoutient
1.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILD

DEVELOPMENT
Child development is influenced by various factors like the child rearing practices,
genes inherited, socio-economic status and societal norms and environment. In
the following sub-sections we would study about these factors in detail. This
brings about the individual differences among individuals.
1.5.1 Heredity
At the moment of conception when the parent cells fuse and then a unique
biological pattern is fixed, is the most important moment in life of a child. At that
time a pattern for future growth and development of individual is set. To what
extent and in what direction a child’s potentialities will be realized will depend
upon his environment. Certain potentials may be partially or entirely repressed.
A potential genius may become a mentally handicapped because of a birth injury.
Influences of heredity and environment are so closely interlocked that one cannot
be considered separately from the other.
The dynamic relationship between these two factors may be seen by the influence
that a child’s genetic make up may have upon his or her use of the environment.
Given the same environment and all other factors being constant, a child with
higher intellectual capabilities will tend to exploit his/her environment more
completely than one with lesser potential. Thus, a very bright child may learn more
from a meager environment than a less gifted child may learn from richer
environment. Some people inherit a high resistance capacity other inherit so little
resistance that they cannot be protected by best of environment; though most
people fall ill.
Environment includes habits of living, such as sleeping, eating, activity and adjustment
to one’s circumstances and to other people around you.
How Heredity Operates:
In the nucleus of the fertilized egg are found units that comprise the heredity of
the individual and in which lay his potentialities for development. At the time of
conception the new organism receives, in equal parts from each parent, 46
chromosomes (44 autosome chromosomes and the sex chromosomes -XX or
XY). These chromosomes contain probably about 10,000 pairs of genes. It is
thought that the substance of the genes is a chemical, deoxyribose nucleic acid or
DNA, which contains nucleotides of four bases which in a number of varieties of
combinations appear to be capable of encoding all the characteristics that an
organism transmits from one generation to the next. Sometimes the individual has
10 less or more than 46 chromosomes because of abnormal chromosome in the
ovaries of the mother or in the sperm of the father. Certain abnormalities have Influencing Child
been found to be associated with this condition. For example the mongoloid has Development
47 chromosomes and is characterised by specific abnormalities in structure and
related physical and mental development.
Genes do not act alone. They react with the cytoplasm of the cell, and they act
also with one another. Genetic action may not be expressed because the environment
has not provided the necessary elements, for example -dietary habits and diabetes.
Expression may be modified by environments as illustrated by the serial differences
in the height of children in the United States and other countries and handedness,
which has a genetic component but is often influenced by social pressure.
Characteristics influence by heredity:
Heredity and environment cannot be separated. Certain characteristics can be
attributed to heredity almost exclusively. In others, there is strong environmental
character. Yet again, others can be attributed primarily to heredity in one set of
circumstances and to environment in another.
Sex of the child is basically determined by the genes of a special pair of
chromosomes called sex chromosomes. Every ovum that is ready to fertilize
contains one X. Some sperms may contain X; some sperms may contain Y. If
an X bearing sperm fertilized the ovum, the new organism will be a XX, a girl.
If a Y bearing sperm fertilizes the ovum the sex of the organism will be XY a boy.
It is therefore, the father who determines whether his child will be a girl or a boy.
The characteristics that are accepted as due almost exclusively to heredity are: -
Colour of eyes and hair, blood types, form of physical features and structure of
body.
Though, research indicates that both heredity and environment plays a role in
development of intelligence and personality. But, a person with low IQ cannot be
converted into a genius by the environment.
The resemblance between “identical” twins who have been reared apart is likely
to be higher than that between ordinary brothers and sisters reared in the same
home.
The personality of an individual can be viewed as the resultant of the interaction
of this “metabolic personality” with the psychological, social and cultural forces
from its surrounding. That environmental forces are potent in formation of personality
is evident in a number of studies.
Implications for child development:-
All children have certain needs for growth. All children do not meet these needs
in the same way. Children will differ in sleep and activity requirements and in
sensitivity and response to emotional stimuli. Therefore no programme can be
standardized in details for all children in the home or school. It is to be remembered
that children in the same family do not generally have exactly the same genetic
make up, so their response to the home environment will be different.
If the parent has knowledge of the family background with its assets and liabilities,
this knowledge may allay unnecessary fears on the one hand and give a realistic
approach to possible difficulties on the other. Knowledge of possible potentialities
will help parents to plan intelligently for their children. 11
Child Development Environment is a strong factor to be remembered. Todd once said, “The adult
physical form is determined by heredity but enhanced, dwarfed, warped or mutilated
in its expression by the influence of environment in the adventure of life.”
Influence of the interaction of heredity and environment on growth
patterns:-
Various longitudinal growth studies, at the University of Michigan, Fels institute for
Research, and Brush Foundation provide evidence that children of the same
family tend to show a notable similarity in their patterns of growth.
In physical growth there also is evidence of similarity in families. Similar growth
patterns in height, in bone development and in tooth decay and similar speed of
maturing have been seen. There are slow maturing and fast maturing families. By
knowing the father and mother of a child may help in the interpretation of child’s
health status and growth. There are some children who inspite of the best
environment are underweight, perhaps have poor muscular tone or are just not
robust. Members of a family may have different as well as similar patterns of
growth.
Effect of parental environment on development:-
It has been stated above that the immediate environment within the body influences
the action of the genes. The normal course of development as set by them can
be affected by changes in the environment of the fetus in the uterus. Some
contributing factors may be maternal dietary, inadequacies, viral infections for
example-german measles during first six to ten weeks of pregnancy. A child
whose mother has had German measles in early pregnancy may have congenital
defects.
Among woman who smokes cigarettes during pregnancy, there is a tendency to
have babies of lower birth weight and had greater chance of having premature
deliveries. In the study of literature from 1956 to 1961 it was concluded that
unsuccessful attempts to induce abortion with drugs was one of the causes of
congenital malformation. (Kucera and Benesova, 1962).
Maternal health during pregnancy is also important. Passamanick, Liend field and
co-workers have found an association between frequencies of abnormalities of
perinatal and immediately postnatal periods and the frequency of cerebral palsy,
epilepsy, mental deficiency, reading disorders and behaviour disorder as reported
by teachers. Asian pregnancy has been found to increase the number of infantile
abnormalities/anomalies; the incidence of anomalies was higher when the disease
occurred during the 1st three months of pregnancies. Asian flu also increased the
number of premature births as well as still birth rate and prenatal mortalities. In
study of 19 drugs addicted mothers and their 12 premature and 11 full-term
infant, addiction was thought to be associated with the fact that of the 23 infants
in the study, 6 were born in the breech position, 19 had respiratory distress and
17 had withdrawal symptoms.
A history of anxiety during pregnancy has been found to be associated in the
children who are products of that pregnancy with lower scores on tests of intelligence
and indices of emotional adjustment than are found in the children of non anxious
mother.
12
1.5.2 Environment Influencing Child
Development
There are two types of environments; shared environment and non-shared
environment. Shared environment is a set of experiences that is shared by children
raised in the same family with each other; especially sharing of experiences by
identical twins and fraternal twins reared in the same family is higher than even
siblings reared in the same family than friends reared in different families. Non-
shared environment is a set of experiences that is, experienced by one child
reared in one family and another child not reared in the same family. This
provides activities, behaviours, attitude and prejudices which are not same among
the children in the same class or group.
Environment influences largely on how a person would develop having an impact

on individual’s genetic make-up. This is also called range of reaction. This means
that genetic component provides a range of behaviour which may occur in response
to different stimuli received from the environment.
Genes are said to make individuals choose other people who are compatible with
their inherited traits. This is called “Niche Picking”. It is a process in which
people look for, search, select or build environments that are compatible with
their genetic make-up.
Both nature (genetic) and nurture (environment) influences child’s development.

Even if the child’s genetic potential is present to attain certain growth and
development of a trait for example height; the nurturing provided to the child from
its caretaker in the form of health and nutrition would determine the ultimate height
which the child would attain. If children have the same environment then heredity
plays an important role in determining the individual differences seen in the children.

1) Fill in the blanks.
i) Sex of child is basically determined by genes of the special pair of
chromosomes called as .................................
ii) .................................... health during pregnancy is very important for
child’s development
iii) If X bearing sperm fertilised the ovum, the child’s sex would be
...................................
iv) Genes are said to make individuals choose other people
whose genes are compatible with their inherited traits is called as
.......................................
1.6 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 2
2. i) - b
ii) - d
iii) - c
iv) - a
13
Child Development Check Your Progress 3
1. Sex Chromosome
2. Mother’s
3. Male
4. Niche Picking
1.7 UNIT END EXCERCISES

1. Explain the principles of child development. Give examples from your daily
life experiences.
2. Discuss individual differences by illustrating at least three examples.
3. Describe the importance of nature and nurture on child development.
1.8 LET US SUM UP

The unit acquainted you with the major concepts and principles of child development
and provides knowledge about the socio-cultural and biological influences on
child development. In the beginning of this Unit, we studied about the child
development as discipline and learnt about the term development. Further, we
studied the principles of child development that development is continuous,
development is sequential, development has individual differences, development is
cumulative in nature, holistic child development and that development occurs in
context. We studied these principles of child development in details. Further, the
unit focused on the individual differences. In this we learnt the definition of individual
differences and its type like physical differences in interests and aptitudes, differences
in attitude, beliefs and opinions, learning differences and individual differences in
Social and moral development. In the end of this Unit we studied the various
biological (heredity) and environmental influences on child development. We learnt
how heredity operated and how it influences the characteristics of individual.
Similarly we discussed the effect of parental environment on child development.
1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Cole, M. & Cole, S.R. (1989). The Development of Children. New York:
Scientific American Books.
Dworetzky, J.P. (1981). Introduction to Child Development. Minnesota: West
Publishing Co.
Hurlock, E.B. (1985). Child Development 6th Ed., New Delhi: McGraw Hill
Book Co.
14
Area of Child Development
UNIT 2 AREA OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Different Areas of Child Development
2.3 Physical and Motor Development
2.3.1 Physical Development
2.3.2 Reflexes in New Born Child
2.3.3 Gross Motor Development
2.3.4 Fine Motor Development
2.4 Cognitive Development

2.5 Social and Emotional Development
2.5.1 Development of Emotional Expression
2.5.2 Specific Emotions
2.5.3 Regulation of Emotions
2.5.4 Temperament
2.5.5 Development of Attachment
2.6 Language Development

2.6.1 Components of Language
2.6.2 Development of Language
2.7 Let Us Sum Up

2.8 Answer to Check Your Progress Excercises
2.11 Glossary
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Child development consists of the development of child. It is generally similar for
all children irrespective of caste, creed, region or class differences. Children from
all parts of the world would undergo relatively orderly changes over time in
physical and neurological structures, thought processes and behaviour. Like children
all over the world would walk at the same time, start babbling, using telegraphic
speech at the same time. Children of the same age would play ‘peek-a-boo’
game. And there are many such examples. In this unit, we would study about the
processes and areas of child development.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Enlist the areas of development
 Understand the various developmental areas and their role in child’s
development 15
Child Development  Differentiate the skills child learns in the different areas of development
 Explain the main areas of child development – physical and motor

development, cognitive development, social and emotional development, and
language development.
2.2 DIFFERENT AREAS OF CHILD

DEVELOPMENT
Development in children is studied as a discipline of study. It is important to study
child development so as to understand the differences or deviations among children
from the average child. It explains individual differences and how environment
influences child’s development.
The different areas of child development are:

 Physical and motor development
 Cognitive development
 Social and emotional development
 Language development
Before, we discuss different areas of child development there are certain concepts
which would help you to build a comprehensive idea of the growth process.
Concepts are given below:
i) Growth and maturation: Growth and maturation of the child is seen as the
child progress by age. Maturation is defined as a genetically determined
process of growth which enfolds with time, maturation occurs through
successive changes in both physical structure and functional ability.
ii) Developmental milestones: Developmental milestone is the skills or
behaviour which is seen in a specific time period, this specific time period is
around which average child will show specific behaviour. Developmental
delay is a delay in development of age specific ability for important
developmental milestones. This is a major concern in child development.
iii) Mechanism of growth: The mechanism of growth in every area has both
genetic and environmental influences and growth is a product of interaction
with each other.
This unit will focus on various areas of development, and gives highlight on
mechanism of growth and developmental milestones which are generally
observable from the period of infancy till puberty.
2.3 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

In this section we will learn about the physical and motor development in children.
2.3.1 Physical Development

Physical development influences children’s behaviour both directly and indirectly.
Directly, it determines what children can do e.g. a child well developed for his age
16
would be able to compete on equal terms with his peer groups and may not feel Area of Child Development
isolated. Indirectly, physical development influences attitudes towards self and
others, these in turn are reflected in the kind of adjustment they develop e.g. an
obese child who cannot keep pace with the thinner age-mates might often leads
to feeling of inadequacy. Their age-mates refuse to play with them or ridiculed
them as “fatties”.
Physical growth occurs in a cyclical manner which means that physical growth
does not occur at a uniform rate but rather in periods and phases of different
velocities. Physical growth in height and weight occurs from birth till 15-20 years
of age. The individuals proportions changes from large head and small torso and
limbs of neonate to adults with relatively large head and long torso and limbs.
The first two years are important for the development of brain and nervous
system. In the first year connections between the nerves cells are formed. Most
of the nerves cells are present at birth and gradually increases in numbers. By
the eight year, brain nearly reaches its maturity in size, but inter-cerebral association
tracts and gray matter are hardly complete until later years.
Bone grows in its size, undergoes changes in the number of bones and composition
as well. Bone development is most rapid during the first years of life then slows
up at the end of puberty. Ossification or hardening of bones begins in the first year
and ends during puberty. Ossification is important as the bones of babies are soft
they can be easily subjected to deformity and fractures.
The physical size and height, muscle and borne strength are determined by genetic
factors however, nutrition and exercise also determine the strength and ease with
which the body can move. Skilled voluntary activities develop due to practice and
learning.
The physical development is responsible for various motor skills which we would
be discussing in the next section.
2.3.2 Reflexes in New Born Child

Infants, very first movement are called reflexes which are automatic. As they grow
up, these reflexes disappear and gets incorporated into purposeful or voluntary
movements which is called skills. Both this reflexes and skills are called motor
ability. Reflexes are the child’s reactions to the social world showing child’s active
role. Below we list the various reflexes as shown in neonates.
Eye Blink: Child blinks or closes eyes when a bright light is flashed on the eyes.
It is a permanent reflex.
Rooting: Baby turns his/her head towards the finger which is stroking the child’s
cheek lightly and opens the mouth and sucks the finger. Involuntary reflex disappears
in about 3 months and becomes permanent.
Moro: A startled response to sudden loss of support or when a loud voice is
made near the baby, the child would throw his arms outward and extends legs
and clenching fists in the centre of the body. The reflex lasts about 6 months.
Palmar grasp: When a finger is placed in the centre of the baby’s palm then the
baby grasps finger. This reflex is shown by the child till about 3-4 months.
17
Child Development Sucking: When a finger is inserted inside the mouth of the baby it will suck it
rhythmically. It is less in the first four days and later is replaced to voluntary
response by 4-6 months.
Babinski: When the foot of the baby is stroked from heel to toes then the baby
curves up his/her big toe and other toes fan and curl. It disappears by about 12
months.
Stepping: when the baby is held up and his/her bare feet touches flat surface then
the baby takes one step after another in a rhythmic movement. It disappears at
about 3-4 months.
2.3.3 Gross Motor Development

Motor developments are of two type gross motor development and fine motor
development. Growth and maturation of the child is seen as the child progresses
by age. Gross motor development uses large muscles. The child displays following
gross motor behaviours.
 At one month the baby lifts the chin
 At two months the baby lifts the chest
 At three months the baby reaches for the object but misses it
 At four months the baby sits with support
 At five months the baby grasps object
 At six-seven months the baby sits without support
 At nine months crawls on abdomen
 At 10 months walks with support
 At 10 months creeps on hands and knees
 At 11 months stands alone
 At 13 months walks alone
 At 18 months goes up and down stairs
 At 24 months handedness appears which is usually right handedness
* Adapted from Mussen etal (1990)
2.3.4 Fine Motor Development
Fine motor development is the child’s ability to use fine or small muscles like
hands, fingers, etc. Fine motor development later leads to writing, drawing skills
which are developed during early childhood. Below is the list of fine motor skills
developed usually in young child.
 At about 4-5 months baby tries to grasp blocks
 At about 6-7 months baby transfers objects from one hand to another
grasping of small objects is also done using whole palmar grasps.
 At about 8 months baby uses fingers to grasp
 At about 9 months baby can stand with the help of a support like holding
18 on to a furniture to stand up, is able to grasp small objects using index finger.
 At about 11-12 months the baby is able to use thumb and index finger to Area of Child Development
grasp objects
 At 3 years scribbling is done
 At 5 years is able to copy shapes
* Adapted from Hetherington and Parke (1999).
Both fine motor and gross motor development is influenced by the environmental
stimulations received by the child. Though some of the development is related to
biological maturation.
Note: Reply in the space provided below and later check your answers with
that provided at the end of this unit
i) Define gross motor development.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
ii) List of examples of few fine motor developments?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2.4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development is the child’s ability to comprehend, learn and solve
problems. It shows the intelligence in the child later. Cognition is the mental ability
of the individual through which he/she acquires and process knowledge. There are
two main proponents of cognitive development about whom we would study in
this unit. Some theorist emphasizes the role of biological maturation on child’s
cognitive ability and another theorists believes in the society’s and communication
role in cognitive development.
The main proponent and theorist of cognitive development is Piaget. We will
study in detail about his theory in the next unit. Below is the list of behaviors
shown by the child related to cognitive development?
 At birth the child uses reflexes
 At one month uses reflexes
 At two months stops crying when sees mother’s breast or bottle
 At three months attends to faces and sounds and has memory recognition.
 At four months repeats actions of own body that gives pleasure
 At five months follows an objects
 At six months reacts to changes seen in familiar surroundings
 At seven months explores objects 19
Child Development  At eight months searches for hidden objects
 At nine months recalls
 At ten months repeats play sequences, explores toys
 At eleven months uses objects to play
 At one year searches for objects hidden in front of them
 At fifteen months understands cause and effect relationship, uses dolls to
play
 At eighteen months searches for objects which may not be hidden in front
of them.
 At twenty one months starts understanding different categories like colors.
 Around 23 months the baby engages in make believe play and imitations of
adult’s facial expression is seen.
 At twenty four months uses languages symbolically
 At three years may see the others perspective
 At seven years is able to conserve weight
 At 8-10 years understands other persons perspective
 At 11-12 years is able to conserve volume
 At 12 years and above abstract thinking emerges, logical thinking and
applications in thought processes is possible.
Generally, cognitive development in a child is inferred from behaviour, competency,
performance and potentials shown by a child.
Another theorist, Vygotsky believed that society played a major role in cognitive
development. According to him, a child should be supported in their efforts to
learn by the society primarily the child’s care takers. According to this theory,
there exists a zone of proximal development in a child – it is the range of activities
which can be done by a child with the help of an adult. So to promote cognitive
development social interaction among the child and the care takers is must. Through
interactions child is able to understand concepts from the perspective of another,
thus inter subjectivity is possible. Social interaction also leads to scaffolding, it is
the support given by a teacher in a class to fit the child’s current level of
performance. Here, the child is supported in actions like maze, puzzles, block
building etc.
Genetic and biological factors were seen in genetic causes of mental retardation.
However, it is still not possible to pinpoint which specific changes in the brain
shows cognitive changes. At the same time cognitive development are also related
to experience and learning particularly higher level abilities.
2.5 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Social environment of child primarily, includes mother, father, and/or sibling, and/
or grandparents. In India, some relations of mother or father may also be staying
20 with the child in their early years. An interaction with mother who is generally
primary care taker is important for the child’s well being and development. Social Area of Child Development
influences are important and in later infancy and early childhood television viewing
also leaves an impact on the child. Studies find that if children watch too many
aggressive behaviour on television they would imitate similar kind of behaviour in
their play activities. At times parents use television now-a-days as ‘care-taker’
of the child. Parents should wisely monitor the television viewing especially of
young children and the children’s hour of watching television should be minimal
as much as possible.
In the social interactions with significant others children display a lot of emotional
expressions. Emotions are conscious awareness of a specific change in internal
feeling tone, often accompanied by a set of thoughts about the quality of the
feeling and the events that produced it (Mussen, etal 1990). Generally, emotions
are subjective reactions to something in the environment that are usually experienced
cognitively as either pleasant or unpleasant, that are generally accompanied by
physiological changes, and that are often expressed in some form of visible
behaviour (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). Emotions like smile, cry, happy, angry
are expressed by young children.
Emotions help the new-born child to communicate with the adults. Primary
caretaker after a few months is able to recognize the different reasons for child’s
cry like crying for being wet, crying for milk/food, crying for warmth, crying to
sleep, etc. It is of use to understand emotions of children at various life span.
Emotions are related to the cognitive development of the child, health and it
regulates children’s social behaviour.
2.5.2 Development of Emotional Expressions

Children especially infants express themselves through emotions only. Primary
care taker has to be cautious in judging the child’s thoughts and feelings and needs
of the child at the given point of time. Some emotions like happiness, anger, sad,
surprise, disgust and fear, are common among all human beings across the world.
These emotions are said to be expressed from long time through out man’s
evolution from primitive ages. These emotions are called basic emotions. Below
is the outline sketch of the emotions as expressed by the young child.
 From birth to about one month baby shows smile and distress. It is said to
be relatively involuntary to external stimulation.
 From two to three months baby gives social smile which is in response to
the external stimulation.
 At four to five months baby begins laughter, expresses frustration and shows
being upset.
 At six to eight months baby shows joy, surprise and anger.
 At nine to eleven months baby shows stranger anxiety.
 About twelve to seventeen months baby shows anger, fear, anxiety and
elation.
 About eighteen to thirty five months baby expresses shame, affection and
defiance.
 About thirty six to fifty four months baby expresses guilt, pride and love.
Adapted from Hethrington & Parke (1999). 21
Child Development
2.5.3 Specific Emotions
At the time of birth, ‘birth cry’ is an important factor to determine the wellness
in the child. Later the child uses cry to demonstrate different needs, emotions and
feelings to the significant others. Also you would observe that when we look at
the neonate we may at times feel that the baby is smiling. This is called reflex
smile. It is the newborn’s smile in response to the internal stimulus and is not
aroused by external stimulus. By two month this reflexive smile becomes social
smile. Smiling baby triggers more positive social interaction with the care takers
than the baby who usually cries. The social smile is in response to human faces
seen by the child. Laughter in the child emerges by four months. It helps to
interact with caretaker more than smile. Happy children evoke blissful joy to their
significant others. Smiling and laughter is the first emotional expression of the
child. As the child grows stimulus for smiling and being happy changes. Some
children are able to recognise the significant faces early by about four months and
show joy at seeing them.
Young child also shows anger and sadness. He/she cries a lot in pain and shows
relief at removal of the distressing situation. Anger expressions are displayed by
the child in about 4 to 6 months and are prominently displayed at toddler hood.
When the child stamps foot, throw things, etc. This is called temper tantrums of
the child. With age anger expressions increases this may be due to cognitive
development, social learning and developed communication skills in the young
children.
Babies show fear from a very young age. It is seen by the end of the first year
of age. Fear is expressed by a particular type of cry in the younger child. About
8 – 9 months children develop stranger anxiety. Stranger anxiety is the expression
of fear at seeing an unfamiliar face especially adults or older child. Depending on
the child’s temperament some babies express emotions including fear. Some are
highly distressed at the sight of a stranger while another though distressed but is
easily pacified. Situations where the child meets strangers also influence child’s
expression of fear and distress. Child near the mother shows less fear especially
in her lap than a child who is little away from mother. Also, fear of strangers when
they come to the child’s home is less than when they meet strangers outside home.
For a child, mother or the primary caretaker is the secure base or the point from
which to explore, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional
support (Berk, 2007). At about fifteen months infants show separation anxiety at
being separated from the mother or primary caretaker. Separation anxiety is the
distress experience by the infant at being separated or left by the mother or
primary caretaker. With the cognitive development of the child and realization of
object permanency coming in the child with time realizes mother will return to him/
her. And, thereby this anxiety reduces.
As the child grows and enters early childhood complex emotions like shame, guilt
and pride emerge. Child shows pleasure when praised. With emergence of these
complex emotions child is now taking responsibility for self behaviour. This is
called self-conscious emotions as these emotions lead to enhancement of child’s
sense of self or may also lead to negative impact on the sense of self. As the child
grows into middle childhood and adolescence the complexity of emotions increases.
This again may be linked to the child’s emotional behaviour and development of
intellectual functioning and language skills acquired by the child.
22
2.5.4 Regulation of Emotions Area of Child Development
As the child grows so does his/her emotions. With the growth of emotions children
learn to manage their emotional experiences. Managing of one’s emotions or
regulation of emotions also called emotional self regulation is corelated with increased
cognitive abilities in children. Emotional self-regulation refers to the strategies we
use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can
accomplish our goals (Berk, 2007). Emotional self regulation is a voluntary process
and with efforts and training child is taught self-regulation during late childhood
period.
Emotional self regulation and expression of emotions in socially approved methods

is correlated to each other. The rule for emotional display is cultural specific and
at times regulated by specific gender, age and group one belongs to.
2.5.5 Temperament
Temperament is the general emotional state of a person. It is generally said that
the Bollywood actor Meena Kumari, had a sad temperament or was a tragic
queen. Some persons have happy, angry, sad or calm expressions. Reactivity
refers to variations in quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and
motor action and self regulation refers to the strategies that modify reactivity
(Rothbart, 2004; Rothbart & Bates, 1998). Childhood temperaments is believed
to have an impact on adult person’s personality. According to Berk there are
three types of children based on their temperaments. These are:
 The easy child
 The difficult child
 The slow to warm up child.
Berk further defines these three types as below:
 The easy child: Is the child who quickly establishes regular routines, in infancy,
is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.
 The difficult child: Is the child who has irregular daily routines, is slow to
accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely.
 The slow to warm up child: Is the child who is inactive, shows mild, low-
key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts
slowly to new experiences.
At times temperament needs to be regulated with control. This effortful control

involves a self will which is voluntary in reaction to a stimuli which may otherwise
trigger a negative response from the person. This self regulation helps to react in
a mature and socially approved methods.
2.5.6 Development of Attachment

Attachment is a strong emotional bond that forms between infant and the primary
care giver in the second half of the child’s first year of age (Hetherington).
Researches show that with a warm caregiver the attachment of children is high.
Bowlby postulated ethological theory of attachment. According to John Bowlby
23
Child Development attachment promotes survival. Attachment of children with parents is actively
controlled and signaled by the young infant. The development of emotions like
smile, cry helps to formulate attachment with mother.
There are four stages of attachment development. These are:
 Pre attachment phase (birth to 6 weeks): Signals like grasping, smiling, crying
and gazing into adult eyes by the infant are used, some babies recognize
mothers smell, walking, noice, etc during this stage. Mother or significant
others encourage them by giving them comfort during this stage.
 Attachment in the making process (6 weeks to 6-8 months): During this

phase, infants respond to people both familiar and unfamiliar in different
ways. Caregiver responds to the child and a sense of trust develops in the
child.
 Clear-cut attachment phase (6-8 months to 18-2 years): During this phase
infants shows separation anxiety from mother, a secure base to the child.
Child response to the mother when she comforts the child shows the
perception of infants trust on mother.
 Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months – 2 years onwards):

Language and representation of the outside world influences the attachment.
Now, the child is able to comprehend the influence of the parents coming
and going and to predict the return of the mother. The understanding of the
fact that mother would come back helps the child to develop a secure
attachment with the mother.
Ainsworth et al (1978) described children’s attachment behaviour on the basis of

the infants reaction to separation from mother or separation anxiety and presence
of strangers or stranger anxiety. The reaction of the infant to mother-the secure
base was recorded and the following various types of attachment behaviors were
observed.
Secure attachment: It is the type of attachment in which children unite with their
mothers with least distress and happily unite with their mothers.
Insecure avoidant attachment: It is the type of attachment in which children

are not much bothered by their mothers absence and avoids her on her return.
Insecure resistant attachment: It is the kind of attachment in which children

becomes very resistant at their mothers leaving them and cry a lot. On the return
of their mother they show inconsistent behaviour by showing happiness as well as
resistance towards mother.
Insecure-disorganized attachment: It is the type of attachment in which infants

displays a disoriented and disorganized behaviour when the mother returns after
a brief separation.
A genetic factor seems to regulate some social emotional development that occurs
at a set and specific, predetermined age such as all the basic emotions. Experiences
allow us to determine which people we should become close, which social rules
to be observed and how to express emotions appropriately according to the
situation.
24
 Check Your Progress 2 Area of Child Development
that provided at the end of this unit.
i) Enlist types of children on the basis of temperament expressed by.....
infants.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
ii) List different emotions expressed by child which are related to basic emotions.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.6 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Language is a unique gift seen only among human beings. Through language
people communicate with each other. Language is a communication system in
which words and their written symbols combine in various, regulated ways to
produce an infinite number of messages (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). Language
develops at extraordinary speed in early childhood (Berk, 2007).
2.6.1 Components of Language

Language consists of several components. Berk describes these components as
discussed below:
 Phonology: Phonology refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence
of speech sounds.
 Semantics: Semantics involves vocabulary. Vocabulary is the ways concepts
are expressed through words.
 Morphenes: It is the smallest unit of language with meaning expressed in
words and word combinations.
 Phoneme: Is the smallest sound which can be differentiated.
 Grammar: grammer consists of syntax and morphology.
 Syntax: Syntax is rules by which the words are arranged into sentences.
 Morphology: Morphology is the use of grammatical markers that indicate
number, gender, active or passive voice and verbs.
 Pragmatics: Pragmatics refer to the rules for engaging in appropriate and
effective communication. 25
Child Development  Socio-linguistic knowledge: Social and cultural influence on the language of
how a dialect is spoken in a particular society.
2.6.2 Development of Language

There is said to be a sensitive period which is essential for learning of language
or language acquisition by children. Hearing language and communicating with
significant others is essential for acquiring language skills. Infants and early childhood
children should be encouraged to communicate and also give a lot of stimulus in
the form of talking should be done with children.
At the time of birth child communicates with cry. At about one month infant begins
cooing. Cooing is the production of vowel – like sounds, oo, in response to the
social interaction with mother. About four-five months of age infant produces
sounds with a combination of consonant-vowel. Sounds like pa, ma, dada, etc.
At about 1 year of age infant produces one word. This one-word sentence is also
called holophrase. Here one word is supposed to indicate the meaning of a
complete sentence. For example, water, apple, dog, mummy, papa, etc. By about
eighteen months infant is able to produce two words and remember few words.
Two words speech is also known as telegraphic speech as like a telegraph the
meaning is conveyed to the mother or primary caregiver. For example, Mummy,
apple, my book, etc. By about 2 – 2 ½ years children are able to use language.
With age and cognitive development complex language is developed. Initially child
has 50 words vocabulary which increases to 250-300 words and later memorises
1000-1500 words.
During early childhood years. Children use language as over extension or under
extension. Over extension is using single word to mean many things. For example
calling all four legged animals as dog. Under extension is using single word in a
restricted way. For example calling your pet dog as dog while calling dogs on the
streets as animals or cows.
Theory regarding the mechanism of language acquisition has no single accepted
model. It varies from learning theory with emphasis on reinforcement and imitation
(Skinner) to biological, nativist theories with innate underlying mechanism
(Chomsky), to a more interactive approach within social context (Piaget).

i) Enlist types of children on the basis of temperament expressed by infants.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
26
ii) List different emotions expressed by child which are related to basic Area of Child Development
emotions.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
1. Match the following:
Column A Column B
i) Morphenes a) Two words
ii) Holophrase b) At the time of birth
iii) Telegraphic Speech c) One word which gives
complete meaning
iv) Cooing d) Vowel sounds
v) Crying e) Smallest unit of language
with Meaning
2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have studied various areas of child development. Different areas
of child development include physical and motor development, cognitive
development, social and emotional development, and language development. Each
of these areas of development goes through various stages. Child is born with
inborn reflexes. The Unit contained detailed description and distinction of gross
motor and fine motor development. The process of language development is
discussed in brief. Social development and role of mass media is discussed in the
childhood years. Emotional development of children has been discussed in detail
and various types of children as per their temperaments is outlined. Language
acquisition has been described in detail.
2.8 ANSWERS TO CHEK YOUR PROGRESS

EXCERCISES
1. Gross motor development is a type of motor development in which the
child uses large muscles of the body.
27
Child Development 2. Few examples of fine motor development are:
a) Grasping
b) Holding
c) Writing
d) Colouring
e) Drawing
f) Scribbling
Check Your Progress Excercise 2
1. a) Easy child
b) Difficult child
c) Slow to warm up child
2. Fear, smile, happy, surprise, sad and anger.

Check Your Progress Excercise 3
1. i) e
ii) c
iii) a
iv) d
v) b

1. Make a list of Various Stages of Physical Development from infancy till
adolescence.
2. Identify few children and make a list of attachment behaviour as categorised

by Ainsworth.
3. Write down your reflections on relationship between cognitive and language

development.

Berk, L.E. (2007). Child Development. 7th Ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.
Dworetzky, J.P. (1981). Introduction to Child Development. Minnesota: West

Publishing Co.
Hetherington & Parke. (1999). Child psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint.

5th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill College.
28
Mussen, P.E.; Congen, J.J.; Kagan, J.; and, Huston, A.C. (1990). Child Area of Child Development
Development and Personality. 6th Ed. New York: Harper & Row Publishers Inc.
Rothbart & Bates. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Gen. Ed.) & N.

Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 3. Social and Emotional
Development (5th Ed.). New York: Wiley.
Rothbart. (1989). Temperament in Childhood: A Framework. In G.A.

Kohnstamm, J.E. Bates & M.K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in Childhood.
(p. 59-73). Chichester, England: Wiley and Sons.
2.11 GLOSSARY
Neonate : Newborn child
Gross motor development : Child uses the large muscles of the body
Fine motor development : Child uses the small muscles of the body
Zone of proximal development : Range of tasks difficult for the child to do

alone but can do with adult support.
Scaffolding : Support provided by an adult to the child

to carry out a certain activity and as the
child masters that activity the support is
withdrawn gradually.
Cooing : Infants produce vowel like sound
Babbling : Infant produces consonant vowel

Combination sounds.
29
Child Development
UNIT 3 THEORIES OF CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
3.4 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
3.5 Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.8 Unit End Excercise
3.10 Glossary
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we will learn about the basic and important theories of personality
development. These are psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development
given by Sigmund Freud, psychosocial theory by Erik Erikson and Cognitive
theory by Jean Piaget. First, we will study about the psychoanalytic theory
given by Frued, we will discuss the three personality structures, defense
mechanisms and psychosexual stages of personality development. The second
part of Unit deals with psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson. We will learn
about the various psychosocial stages of personality development. Finally,
we will discuss Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
 describe psychoanalytic theory of psychosocial stages;
 explain psychosocial theory by Erik Erikson; and
 describe theory of cognitive development.
3.3 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Psychoanalytic theory was proposed by Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). The
theory is based on the basic needs of human being and the primary forces
behind human behaviour that is biological animal drive, including sex and
aggression. Psychoanalytic theory can be divided into three major sections,
in which section one deals with the theory of personality structures which
consist of id, ego and superego. The second section is theory of personality
dynamics in which conscious and unconscious thoughts and defense
mechanism are described and the third section deals with psychosexual stages
of personality development. Let us discuss personality structure.
30
Structure of Personality Theories of Child
Development
Id: According to Frued, id is the most primitive part, and is driven by the
sexual energy which underlies the basic urges like urge to eat, drink, and sex.
This sexual energy is called as Libido. Id operates on ‘pleasure principles’
which means achievement of pleasure feeling as quickly and immediately as
possible, and functions on “primary process” that is, a continual flow of
events involving infantile images and wishes.
Ego: To control id, there is ego. It is the psychic apparatus that seeks to
express and gratify the desires of ‘id in accordance to the realities and
superego. It elaborate the ways of thinking and direct behaviour of a person
and acts as ‘executive function’. It helps a person in getting along with other
persons by behaving in socially approved manner and adjusts the person to
the realities of external environment. In general we can say that ego satisfies
the urges of id but in socially approved and acceptable manner.
Superego: Superego is constituted by the rules, norms and moral made by
parent and other adults and is the conscience of a person. According to Frued
the child is not born with superego but acquire it through the process of
socialization. It helps the person to acquire values, ethics, norms of the
society so as he or she can be adjusted successfully in that society.
‘Introjection’ is one procedure through which superego receives its content.
Defence Mechanism
Now let us discuss the second section of psychoanalytic theory that is ‘Defense
Mechanisms’. According to Frued the two forces ‘id’ and ‘superego’ are
usually contradictory to each other, as one need immediate gratification and
later one restricts it due to moral and ethical reasons. This hassle leads to
great tension, at this point ego plays major role. Ego has to satisfy the id’s
desire which is not socially accepted as well as take care of superego also,
hence at this point defense mechanism works. There are various types of
defense mechanism used by individual to release this tension. Some of these
are repression, identification, projection, displacement, reaction formation,
rationalization and regression.
Psychosexual Stages
The third section is the psychosexual stages of personality development
given by Frued. According to Frued, personality development of individual
occurs in stages, which is largely based on satisfaction of instinctual needs.
He gave a series of five stages of personality development which are oral,
anal, phallic, latency and genital stage. Let us discuss these stages in detail.
1. Oral stage (0-18 months): This stage focus of oral sensual pleasures
and satisfaction of child. According to this theory, child finds sensual pleasures
first in sucking, feeding and later by biting. These sucking movements give
pleasure and satisfy the oral needs to infant. The infant who get little
opportunity to suck or bite or has unsatisfactory oral needs may acquire an
oral fixation which leads to oral aggressive or oral sadistic type personality.
These type of persons are argumentative, pessimistic, bitingly sarcastic in
nature. But child who get sufficient sucking experience may develop oral
passive personality with optimistic view and trusting relationships.
2. Anal stage (18 months to 3 years): According to Freud, child realizes
31
pleasure in retention and expulsion of faeces and learns to enhance this
Child Development pleasure by delaying bowel movements. The important aspect of this stage is toilet
training. The interpersonal conflicts between child and parents plays important
role in this. To enhance the pleasure the child learns to hold back’ the faeces and
if it became excessive, it also affects other modes of behaviour and child may
develop anal-retentive personality and anal-expulsive type. The anal retentive type
characterized by saving nature, orderliness, stinginess, obstinacy, punctuality and
extreme cleanliness or extreme messiness whereas anal expulsive types are generally
cruel, destructive, disordered, short tempered and have emotional disturbances.
3. Phallic stages (3-4 years): At this stage the libidinal pleasure revolves
around genital region. The children at this stage finds more interest in
observing their genital organs, masturbating and show interest in concepts
like birth process and sex. The child learns the anatomical difference between
male and female, curious to know about origin of babies, role of father in
procreation and sexual activities of parents. Oedipus complex in boys and
electra complex in girls is main characteristic of this stage. According to
these complex, child has a sexual feelings for the opposite sex parent, that
is boys desire for mothers and girls desire for their fathers and simultaneously
feel jealousy of the same sex parent and consider them as a rival.
4. Latency stage (6-12 years): According to this theory sexual desires
submerged during this stage. During this period the child learns values,
morals and social norms. According to Frued, the child wants to gain opposite
parent attention and realize that parent likes the (same sex) parent, hence to
gain the attention, child idealized the behaviour, morals of same sex parent
and this process leads to develop a superego in child.
5. Genital stage: The final stage of psychosexual personality development
is genital stage. According to Freud, at this stage the child is in his or her
puberty and feels attracted toward opposite sex person.
i) Enlist the name of personality structures according to psychoanalytic
theory.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
ii) Name some of the defense mechanism.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
iii) What are the psychosexual stages of personality development?
........................................................................................................
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32
Theories of Child
3.4 ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL Development
DEVELOPMENT
Psychosocial theory was proposed by the German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson
(1902 – 1994). He was trained by Anna Freud daughter of Sigmund Freud
and was under the influence of psychosexual theory. But Erikson believed
that human beings are social animal and personality development of a person
cannot be controlled by only the basic needs but these are constructed as a
result of interaction between internal and external environment. We can see
that, the theory of Erik Erikson is based on the process of socialization
which finally decides the personality of individual. Let us discuss the seven
stages of personality development given by Erikson.
Psychosocial stages of personality development
i) Trust Vs Mistrust (0-1 years): The first stage corresponds to the oral
stage in classical psychoanalytic theory. In Erikson’s view, the new
dimension of social interaction that emerges during this period involves
trust at the one extreme, and mistrust at the other. The degree to which
the child comes to trust the world, other people and himself depend to
a considerable extent upon the quality of the care that he receives. The
infant whose needs are met when they arise, whose discomfort are
quickly removed, who is cuddled, fondled, played with and talked to,
develops a sense of the world as a safe place to be and of people as
helpful and dependable. When, however, the care is inconsistent,
inadequate and rejecting, it fosters a basic mistrust, develops attitude of
fear and suspicion on the part of the infant toward the world in general
and people in particular that will carry through to later stages of
development.
ii) Autonomy Vs Doubt (2-3 years): This corresponds to anal stage of
psychoanalytic theory. Erikson saw here the emergence of autonomy.
This autonomy dimension builds upon the child’s new motor and mental
abilities. The child takes pride in these new accomplishments and wants
to do everything himself. If parents recognize the young child’s need to
do what he is capable of doing at his own pace and in his own time,
then he develops a sense that he is able to control his muscles, his
impulses, himself, his environment and develop sense of autonomy.
When, however, his caretakers are impatient and do for him what he is
capable of doing himself, they reinforce a sense of shame and doubt. If
the child leaves this stage with less autonomy then the child will exhibit
doubt on the Contrary, the child who moves through this stage with his
sense of autonomy outbalancing his feelings of shame and doubt is well
prepared to be autonomous at later phases in the life cycle. Again,
however, the balance of autonomy to doubt set up during this period can
be changed in either positive or negative directions by later events. It
might be noted, in addition, that too much autonomy can be as harmful
as too little.
iii) Initiative Vs Guilt (4-5 years): This stage corresponds to the genital
stage of classical psychoanalysis. The child can pretty much master his
body. He can thus initiate motor activities of various sorts on his own 33
Child Development and no longer surely responds to or imitates the actions of other children.
The same holds true for his language and fantasy activities. Accordingly,
Erikson argues that the social dimension that appears at this stage is his
initiative at one of its poles and guilt at the other.
Whether the child will leave this stage with the sense of initiative for
outbalancing his sense of guilt depends to a considerable extent upon
how parents respond to his activities, children who are given much
freedom and opportunity to initiate motor play and physical activities
have their sense of initiative reinforced. Initiative is also reinforced
when parents answer their children’s questions (intellectual initiative)
and do not inhibit fantasy or play activity. On the other hand, if the
child is made to feel that his motor activity is bad that his questions are
a blunder and that his play is silly and stupid, then he may develop a
sense of guilt over self-initiated activities in general that will persist
through later life stages.
iv) Industry Vs Inferiority (6-11 years): It is a stage that corresponds to
latency phase of psychoanalysis, when the child’s love for a parent of
the opposite sex and rivalry with the same sexed parent (elements in the
so-called family romance) is quiescent. It is also a period during which
the child becomes capable of deductive reasoning, and of playing and
learning by rules. It is not until this period for example, that children
can really play scrabbles, checkers and other games which require taking
turn. Erikson argues that the psychosocial dimension that emerges during
this period has a sense of industry at one extreme and a sense of inferiority
at the other end.
During these elementary school years, social institutions other then the
family come to play.
v) Identity Vs Role confusion: Adolescent comes along with many social
and psychological changes, and becomes preoccupied with questions of
identity i.e, what they are in the eyes of others and also questions about
the roles and skills they would develop in their adult life. Adolescents
experiment with different roles and ideologies trying to find and establish
the most compatible fit. Erikson regarded this stage as a cross road between
childhood and adulthood, which is a necessary psychological moratorium to
give the person time and energy to play different roles and live with different
self images.
The crisis which emerged during this period is developing a sense of
ego identity at the positive end and a sense of role confusion at the
negative end. The main task is to bring together all of the things he has
learned about himself, and integrate these different images of himself
into a whole that makes sense and that shows continuity with the past
while prepared for the future. To the extent that the young person succeeds
in this endeavor, he arrives at a sense of psychological identity, a sense
of who he is, where he has been and where he is going
Those who fail to achieve a cohesive identity would exhibit a confusion
of roles (identity crises) and those who emerge from this stage with a
strong sense of self identity are prepared to enter adulthood with certainty
and confidence.
34
The formation of peer groups and the intolerance of individual differences Theories of Child
are ways in which adolescence attempt to cope with a sense of identity Development
confusion. Some young people seek a “negative identity”. An identity
opposite to the one prescribed for them by their family and friends
Falling in love, becomes a process and a way by which the adolescent may
consolidate their sense of identity by projecting a diffused self-image onto the
partners and it gradually assume a more distinctive shape, thus identification
with idealized figure are means by which adolescent seeks self definition as
they attained a focused identity, the youth develops the virtue of fidelity- a
faithfulness not only to ones self definition but to an ideology that provides
an image of self in the world. The individual brings with him from his childhood,
the attainment of a sense of personal identity and it also depends upon the
social milieu in which he or she grows up.
Failure to establish a clear sense of personal identity at adolescence does not
guarantee perpetual failure. And the person who attains a working sense of
ego identity in adolescence may encounter challenges and threats to that
identity as he moves through life.
vi) Intimacy Vs Isolation: Stage six in the life cycle is young adulthood,
roughly the period of courtship and early family that extends from late
adolescence till early middle age. For this stage, and the stages described
here after, classical psychoanalysis has nothing new or major to say. The
new inter-personal dimension that emerges at this stage is that of intimacy
at one extreme and isolation at the other.
When Erikson speaks of intimacy he means much more than love-
making alone: he means the ability to share with and care about another
person without fear of losing oneself in the process. Isolation is the
sense of being alone without anyone to share with or care for. Social
conditions may help or hinder the establishment of a sense of intimacy.
vii) Generativity Vs Self-absorption: This stage, the middle age brings with
it what Erikson speaks of as either generativity or self absorption and
stagnation. What Erikson means by generativity is that the person begins
to be concerned with others beyond his immediate family, with future
generations and the nature of the society and world to which those
generations will live. Generativity does not reside only in parents, it can
be found in any individual who actively concerns himself with the
welfare of young people and with making the world a better place for
them to live and to work. Those who fail to establish a sense of
generativity fall into a state of self-absorption in which their personal
needs and comforts are of, predominant concern.
viii) Integrity Vs Despair: Stage Eight in the Eriksonian scheme corresponds
roughly to the period when the individual’s major efforts are nearing
completion and when there is time for reflection and for the enjoyment
of the children, if any. The sense of integrity arises from the individual’s
ability to look back upon on his life with satisfaction. At the other
extreme is the individual who looks back upon his life as a series of
missed opportunities and missed direction; now in the twilight years he
realizes that it is too late to start again. For such a person the inevitable
result is a sense of despair at what might have been.
35
Child Development  Check Your Progress 2
i) What are the psychosocial stages of personality development?
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3.5 PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY

Introduction
Piaget has focused on studying one of the most significant human behaviour –
cognition. All the intellectual abilities encompassing thinking, information processing,
remembering, abstracting, and generalizing are included in the term “cognition”.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is known as “process oriented”, since

his theory focus on how the brain functions to process or “biologically digest”, the
incoming information.
Piaget like other cognitive theorist recognized that an important part of cognition
is the acquisition of categorization of concept. Concepts are sets of common
characteristics among symbols or events. A concept serves as a representation of
a feature or features common to a variety of experiences.
According to Piaget, cognitive structures called schemas; organizes and interpret

experiences through the process of adaptation to deal effectively with surroundings.
Changes in the conception of the world are regulated by the mechanism of
equilibrium. These processes begin early in life as the child interacts with the
environment and continues even into adulthood. These concepts are describe as
follows
Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Schema – It is the basic cognitive unit. This concept involves a pattern of action
or a mental structure that is involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge, or a
child’s conceptualization of a specific situation observable behaviour. We have
schemata of sight, sucking, shaking and include any other controlled activity.
Organisation – It involves the integration of all processes into one overall system.
The schemas are organized so as to increase the understanding of the concepts.
Adaptation – It is a two fold process through which children create new structures
to deal effectively with their surrounding. It involves both assimilation and
accommodation.
Assimilation – It is the taking in or incorporation of a new object experience or

concept into the existing set of schemata. At any age babies have a stock of
36
mechanism. They know how to use them. When they use them to respond to new Theories of Child
situations they are assimilating. Development
Accommodation – Accommodation is the process by which the new schema is

given place in the mind and accommodation of new objects, situations and words
take place.
Equilibrium – Assimilation and accommodation are constantly working together

to produce changes in conceptualization of the world and child’s reactions to it.
The balance between assimilation and accommodation is known as equilibrium.
This mechanism protects child from being overwhelmed by new experiences and
new information and from over reaching in an attempt to accommodate to a
rapidly changing environment.
Stages of Development
The four stages of development are sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete

operational and formal operational. Each child is expected to exhibit the
characteristics of each stage. These four stages are based on criteria given below:
1. Each stage must represent a quantitative change in the children’s cognition.
2. Children progress through the stages in culturally invariant sequences.
3. Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous
stage.
4. At each stage the child’s schemas and operations form an integrated whole.
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
Substages of Sensorimotor Stage:
The sensorimotor stage is further divided into six sub-stages, these are:
1. Basic Reflex (Birth to month): Neonates involuntary response to external

stimulation. For example, sucking.
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 months): In this sub-stage infant

acquires adaptations.
3. Secondary Circular Reaction (4 to 8 months): Beginning of intentional

action, child is interested in the results of her actions. In this substage, child
no longer focuses on her own body but is now concerned with external
objects and events.
4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reaction (8 to 12 months): In this

sub-stage child’s actions are goal directed. Object permanence appears in
this sub-stage.
5. Tertiary Circular Reaction (12-18 months): In this sub stage, the child
discovers new means of doing things through active trial and error
experimentation and also develops intentionality, which refers to the ability to
act in a goal directed manner.
37
Child Development 6. Invention of new means through mental combinations (18-24
months): In this stage child works with mental representation, that means,
ability to picture events in his minds and to follow them through to some
degree.
Characteristics of sensorimotor stage:
Habituation: It is a process of becoming accustomed to a sound, a sight or

some other stimulants; it is a kind of learning. The first time the child hears
a new sound; he usually stopped sucking and didn’t begin until the sound
stopped. But, if the same sound has been presented again and again, it loses
its novelty and has no further effect on sucking activities.
Imitation: Invisible imitation (imitation with parts of the body that infant can’t
see for themselves, such as mouth) doesn’t begin until 9 months of age. Visible
imitation although starts earlier.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):
By the end of sensorimotor stage child has developed very premature

representational abilities when he hear his mother’s voice, he recognized it as
co-symbol of his mother and displayed the same excitement upon
hearing that beloved voice as he does when his mother actually walked into
the room.
In preoperational stage, the child’s remarkable development is the ability to make

mental representation of symbols related to person or objects. These mental
representations are called signifiers and the objects or events that they represent
are called significate/significant.
Signifiers may be:
1) Symbols: Symbols are very personal, representatives that involves visual,

auditory, or kinesthetic images which bear some resemblance to the object.
2) Signs: like words or numerals which is an arbitrary, socially shared type

of signifier bearing no physical resemblance to its significate.
Symbolic functioning is the ability to make one thing represent a different thing
which is not present. The hall mark of symbolic function is acquisition of language
skills developed at this age. Development of symbolic functions may be inferred
from five types of activities.
i) Delayed imitation: Imitation after some time the events has been observed.
ii) Symbolic Play: Children make one object stand for something else. eg.
using a hairbrush to represent a microphone.
iii) Drawing: Piaget sees elements of play and imitation in this activity. He
considers drawing halfway between symbolic play and mental image.
iv) Mental Image: Mental image is closely related to drawing and Piaget
denies that mental image can be product of perception but an internalization
of imitation. This images are not an exact copy but rather includes errors
38 i.e., there is a gap between the object and its images we create.
v) Language Proper: Acquisition of language enables the child to have a Theories of Child
mental representation of chain of events quickly and easily evokes that which Development
is not physically present. It is a fully elaborated social system capable
of representing any kind of relationship or object.
Characteristics of Preoperational Thoughts:

The main characteristics of Preoperational thoughts are given below:
1. Egocentrism: Preoperational children cannot think through other person’s
perspective as they are limited by egocentrism. The egocentric child
considers his own point of view as the only possible one. Children
believe that the sun and moon follow them as they move and assumes
that everyone knows exactly what they mean by it.
Egocentrism is also seen in language. Each preoperational child speaks
without knowing or caring whether the others are interested or even
listening.
2. Centration: The Pre-operational children focus on one aspect of situation
and neglect others; leading to illogical reasoning e.g. the children can
not consider both height and width at the same time. They centre at one
or other and can not solve the problem. Their faulty perception inhibits
logical thinking.
3. Irreversibility: They fail to understand that an operation can go in two
or more directions.
4. Focus on States: The Pre-operational child still focuses on successive
states and is not able to understand the meaning of the transformation
from one stage to another (conservation).
5. Action Rather Than Abstraction: The Pre-operational child thinks
and learns by running the reality sequence in his mind just as he might
do in action. The child doesn’t completely differentiate between reality
and fantasy.
6. Transductive Reasoning: The Childs earliest concepts are concrete
rather than schematics (abstracts).
7. Deductive Reasoning: It goes from the general to the particular e.g. All
people are mammals, so I am.
8. Inductive Reasoning: The Pre- operational child goes from one particular
to another particular without taking into account the general. It may
ascribe cause and effect relationship to two unrelated events.
Concrete Operational Stage: (6 – 11 Years)
A child in concrete operational stage is able to use symbols in a rather
sophisticated way to carry out operations, or mental activities in opposed to the
physical activities that were the basis for his earlier thinking. He uses mental
representations of things and events that allow him to become proficient at
classifying, seriating dealing with numbers and understanding the principle of
conservation. He is able to take all aspects of a situation into account when
drawing conclusions instead of getting stuck at one point as he did during pre-
operational stage and he understands the reversibility characteristics of most pre-
operational stage operations. 39
Child Development The child’s egocentrism is diminishing and he begins to conceive himself as a
distinct and separate individual from the rest of the universe including other people.
The ability to put himself in place of another improves his ability to communicate.
It also affects his ability to make moral judgments.
With premature concepts like realism, animism and artificiality coming to an
end, his thought becomes more stable and logical but he still is not able to deal
with abstract ideas.
Characteristics of Concrete Operational Stage
1. Realism: When children confuse psychological wants with objective reality
and see names, pictures and thought and feelings as actual entities, they are
in the state of what is called realism.
First Stage: 5 to 6 year children consider the names of things as real and
immutable as the things themselves. They dream with their eyes and are able
to “see” what they dream. They believe that bad dreams come as a punishment
for misbehavior.
Second Stage: Children now think that dreams originate in thought, or in
the voice but the dreams are seen, in front of them. They recognize that
dreams are unreal and not true, but still see them as images outside the
person, which are seen with the eyes.
Third Stage: Children now recognize that names have been given to objects
by people and that dreams are the products of thoughts, which take place
inside the head.
2. Animism: Young children’s egocentric tendency to endow inanimate
objects with life, consciousness and will like themselves. As they mature
children are less and less likely to attribute life to inanimate objects.
1st stage: Children regard every thing that has a use of any sort as alive.
2nd stage: Anything that moves or can be moved is alive.
3rd stage: Things that move spontaneously are alive but those that require
an outside agent to move them are not.
4th stage: Only plants and animals, or only animals are alive.
3. Artificialism: The ego centric child considering himself the centre of
the universe develops a feeling of omnipotence. People have made the
sun the moon and stars and put them in the sky. Only by third stage with
adult interaction the child achieves the realization that human activity
is not involved in the creation of natural phenomenon.
1st stage (7-8 years): Complete artificalism.
2nd stage (8-9 years): Transitional stage, half natural, half artificial.
3rd stage (9-11 years): No artificialism.
4. Conservation: The ability to conserve involves the ability to recognize
that two equal quantities of matter remain equal (in substances weight,
number, volume & space) even if the matter is rearrange, as long as
nothing is added or taken away.
40
5. Horizontal Decalage: It is used to describes the phenomenon of the Theories of Child
child’s inability to transfer what he has leaned about one type of Development
conservation to a different type for which the underlying principle is
identical.
6. Transitivity: It is the ability to recognize a relationship between objects by
knowing the relationship between each of them.
Formal Operations (12 yrs and beyond)
The child now thinks in terms of what might and not just what he sees in a
concrete situation. Since he can imagine an infinite variety of possibilities, he is,
for the first time, capable of hypothetical reasoning. Once he develops a hypothesis,
he can construct a scientific method to test that hypothesis and to deduce whether
it is true. He is capable of hypothetic dedicative reasoning. He considers all the
possible relationship that might exist and goes through them one by one to eliminate
the false and arrive at the true reasons.
This systematic process of reasoning operates for all sorts of problems. Children
in formal operational stage were better equipped to integrate what they have
learned in the past with their problems of the present and their planning for the
future. They apply these thought processes to the mechanics of day to day living
and also to the construction of elaborate political and philosophical theories.
There are large numbers of cognitive operations with which to tackle problems
and thus consider all sort of possibilities the adolescents are capable of abstract
thought. In the process of exploring his new abilities the adolescents sometimes
loses touch with sociality and feels that he can accomplish everything by himself
alone.
In a nutshell, Piaget’s theory consists of four stages, follows cognitive principles
and is process oriented.
i) Name some of the important concepts of theory of cognitive
development given by Jean Piaget.
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........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
ii) What are the stages of cognitive development, according to Piaget?
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41
Child Development
3.6 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we studied main three theories of child development. All these three
theories are important and pioneer in their fields as psychoanalytic theory by
Sigmund Freud, Psychosocial theory by Erik Erikson and Cognitive theory by
Jean Piaget. We learnt about the personality structures, i.e., id, ego & superego
described by Frued, we also discussed about the defense mechanism used by
individual in their day to day life. The main five psychosexual stages of personality
development given by Frued is discussed in detail. Further, we dealt with
psychosocial theory of development proposed by Erik Erikson. Psychosocial
theory comprises of eight psychosocial stages and each stage has specific task.
Lastly we learnt about the cognitive theory given by Jean Piaget who formulated
stages of cognitive development, and tried to explain what constitute the cognitive
structure and the process involved in it.
3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Structure of Personality
Id,
Ego,
Superego
2) Following are the defense mechanism:
Repression,
Identification,
Projection,
Displacement,
Reaction formation,
Rationalization, and
Regression
3) The psychosexual stages of personality development are:
Oral stage
Anal stage
Phallic stage
Latency stage and
Genital stage
42
Check Your Progress 2 Theories of Child
Development
1. Psychosocial stages of personality development:
i) Trust vs Mistrust
ii) Autonomy vs Doubt
iii) Initiative vs Guilt
iv) Industry vs Inferiority
v) Identity vs Role confusion
vi) Intimacy vs Isolation
vii) Generativity vs Self absorption
viii) Integrity vs Despair
1. Key concepts of cognitive theory:
i) Schema
ii) Organization
iii) Adaptation
iv) Assimilation
v) Accommodation
vi) Equilibrium
2. Stages of Cognitive Development are:
i) Sensorimotor stage
ii) Preoperational stage
iii) Concrete operational stage
iv) Formal operation stage
3.8 UNIT END EXCERCISE

1. Describe the psychosexual stages of personality development proposed by
Freud?
2. Explain the various psychosocial stages of personality development?
3. What is cognition? Explain the stages of Piaget’s cognitive theory.

 Berk, L.E. (2007). Child Development. 7th Ed., New Delhi: Pretice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd.
 Hetherington & Parke (1999). Child psychology: A contemporary
viewpoint. 5th Ed. Boston: McGraw Hill College.
43
Child Development  Morgan, C.T., King, R.A., Weisz, J.R. and Schopler, J. (2003). Introduction
to psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited.
 Mussen, P.H.; Conger, J.J.; Kagan, J.; and Huston, A.C. (190). Child
Development and Personality. 6th Ed. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers
Inc.
 Singh, V. (2010). Psychoanalytic theories. In Human Development:
Theoretical approaches, Block 1 of Human Development and Family
relationships (MCFT – 001), IGNOU, New Delhi
3.10 GLOSSARY
Anal stage : The second stage of psychosexual development
during which bowel control is achieved and
libidal pleasures are focused on the expulsion
or retention of faeces.
Basic trust : The inner feeling that one’s social world is a
safe and stable place and that caring others
and nurturing are reliable
Schema : A pattern of action or a mental structure that is
involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
Cognition : Inner processes and products of the mind which
result in attaining knowledge
Mental Representation : It is an internal description of information that
the mind can use accordingly
Adaptation : It is the process of building schema through
direct interaction with the surrounding.
44
Developmental Deviations
UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENTAL DEVIATIONS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Developmental Deviation: Definition
4.4 Types of Deviation
4.4.1 Positive Deviation
4.4.2 Negative Deviation
4.4.3 Multiple Deviation
4.5 Models of Exceptionality

4.5.1 Statistical Model
4.5.2 Biological Model
4.5.3 Social Model
4.6 Causes of Developmental Deviations

4.7 Exceptionality: Impairment, Disability and Handicap
4.8 Classification of Exceptional Children
4.9 Needs of Exceptional Children
4.10 Let Us Sum Up
4.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.14 Glossary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied in child development; principles of development, areas of
development and some theories related to child development in earlier units in
this Block. Now, in this Unit, we will discuss about the developmental deviations.
We will define deviations and exceptionality. We will deal with different types
of deviations namely positive deviation, negative deviation and mixed deviation.
We will also study about the different models of exceptionality. In this Unit,
we will learn about the concept of impairment, disability and handicap. After
studying this Unit, you will be acquainted with knowledge on causes of
exceptionality and would be able to assess the basic and special needs of
exceptional children.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
l explain developmental deviation and its types;
45
Child Development l explain the models of exceptionality;
l differentiate impairment, disability and handicap;
l discuss the causes of exceptionality; and
l delineate the needs of exceptional children.
4.3 DEVELOPMENTAL DEVIATION:

DEFINITION
The tem ‘deviation’ means a process of going away from some standard or
normal norms. The developmental deviation means deviating from the standard
developmental milestones or particular stage. For example, a child of six months
is supposed to sit and able to control his/her head and neck movements, but
if a child of six months is not able to control his/her head and neck movement
then he/she can be considered as deviating from normal development. In other
words we will say the child is an exception. All children are different from each
other in one way or another. Overall, children of similar age group follow a
same set of development or we can say a normal curve of development. For
example, you can observe that children of same age group or same standard
have almost similar height, weight, health, intelligence and academic competencies.
But there are some children whose development don’t follow a normal curve
and lie at the extreme ends of that curve. Usually, we named them as exceptional,
gifted, special, retarded or disabled. These are the children who deviate from
the average position either positive or negative side and termed as a typical
or exceptional (Mangal, 2009). According to Crow and Crow, “the terms typical
or exceptional is applied to a trait or person possessing the trait which is deviated
from the normal trait up to that extent of deviation from the normal possession
of that trait is so great that because of it the individual warrants and received
special attention from his behaviour responses and activities is thereby affected”.
Now to understand exceptionality, let us first understand what is normal
development? We can say the child is normal, if he or she posses the same
traits or characteristics which the majority of children of his age and grade have
or we can say that every child is unique and not even one child is alike to
another child. Even, we can see the difference in identical twins. But these are
the small differences and he or she is not different.
4.4 TYPES OF DEVIATIONS

As we studied in previous section the deviation is moving away from the normal
standard, now let us study the types of deviations. The value of developmental
deviation can be moved both sides, that is positive or negative. In other words,
the child can be labeled less or more exceptional depending upon his or her
deviation from the standard norms. Further depending upon the nature of the
deviation that is in positive or negative direction from the standard mean value
the child can be labeled as positively or negatively exceptional with special needs
of education and adjustments. There are some children who exhibit somewhat
mixed symptoms and can be classified under multiple deviation. Hence, we can
say that there are three types of deviation, that is, positive deviation, negative
deviation and multiple deviations.
46
4.4.1 Positive Deviation Developmental Deviations
A deviation is said to be positive if the child possesses one or more traits or

characteristics with the higher degree on the positive side in comparison to the
standard norms or mean value of that characteristic at the particular age. The
exceptional child who possesses positive deviations will likely accelerate in almost
all field of development, that is, physical, mental, social, emotional, moral etc.
provided the environment is ideal for their development. Sometimes the children
who are positively deviated on the physical and motor development will show
superior development in physical and motor development and the children whose
social, emotional or moral aspects are positively deviated will accelerate in these
areas of development. These children are generally termed as “gifted children”
with the specific needs of development, which we will discuss later in this Unit.
4.4.2 Negative Deviation

A child is said to be negatively deviated, when the growth and development
of child is drifted towards negative side or at lower degree in comparison to
average development of the child at that specific age.
Due to negative deviation the child may lag behind in various areas of
development in comparison to his or her age-mates. As we have studied earlier
that positive deviation make the child superior due to the higher degree of
development in specific traits or characteristics, similarly the child who posses
negative deviation in development has not only negative effect on the welfare
of that child but a negative deviation in specific area of development will affect
not only that development but also hinders the normal development of other
areas also. For example child whose cognitive development is slow or negatively
deviated not only shows lower academic records but also marked disability in
day-to-day chores. Similarly negative deviation on the social and emotional area
will make child socially handicapped, delinquent, emotionally disturbed, socially
deprived and child may exhibit one or more behaviour problems.
4.4.3 Multiple Deviation

Multiple deviation is comparatively complex concept than to positive and negative
deviation. We can see a child to exhibit complex blend of either positive, negative
or mixed deviation. A child with multiple deviation has more than two
exceptionalities at a same time in different areas of development. These children
are termed as children with multiple disabilities. The multiple deviation is
categorized into three main categories, these are:
i) Multiple positive deviation
ii) Multiple negative deviation
iii) Multiple mixed deviation
i) Multiple positive deviation: The child with multiple positive deviation
means two or more deviations which have value towards positive side of
growth and development. For example, a child with multiple positive
deviation in physical and cognitive development can enable him or her to
exhibit outstanding performance in sports as well as in academic records.
Multiple positive deviation make child extremely good in several areas of
development and he exhibits several extraordinary characteristics like good
47
Child Development physical health, excellent sensory or motor abilities and also show his or
her giftedness in the field of social and emotional development.
ii) Multiple negative deviation: On the contrary with the multiple positive
deviation, the child has multiple negative deviation when he or she exhibits
two or more traits or characteristics towards the negative value of normal
growth and development. The person suffering from multiple negative
deviation has to face more difficulties and disadvantages in comparison to
the person with negative deviation. For example, a person with locomotor
disability, with some interventions can learn and continue normal schooling
but locomotor disability with mental retardation required higher level of
intervention and make the condition more vulnerable. Some of the common
example of multiple negative disabilities are, deaf and blind, deaf and dumb,
orthopedic impairment and cognitive disability and social and emotional
disabilities.
iii) Multiple mixed deviation: Multiple mixed deviation, as the name suggests
is deviation of two or more traits or characteristics in both sides, that is,
if one trait of a child is positively deviated the other might have negative
deviation. In this case the child is consider as gifted child who is suffering
from one or the other type of disabilities for example deaf, blind, emotional
disturbances etc. Hellen Keller is one good example of multiple mixed
deviation.
1. State ‘True’ or ‘False’:
i) The term ‘deviation’ means going away from the
standard norms. True / False
ii) Every stage of human development has specific
set norms of development, generally known as
developmental milestones. True / False
iii) Exceptionality is different from the developmental
deviation. True / False
iv) When two or more characters deviated towards negative
side, it is known as mixed deviation. True / False
v) Children with multiple deviation can be gifted only. True / False
4.5 MODELS OF EXCEPTIONALITY

In this section we will discuss different models of exceptionalities. Broadly, there
are three models of exceptionality, these are:
i) Statistical Model
ii) Biological Model
iii) Social Model
48
4.5.1 Statistical Model Developmental Deviations
We can understand the statistical model of exceptionality through normal curve

(see fig 4.1).
Areas of Development
40%% 40%%
8% 8%
2% 2%
Below Above
(Average Mean)
Idiots Average Average Gifted
Normal
Negative deviation Positive deviation
Figure 4.1: Areas of Development
* Adapted from S.K. Mangal

The above figure (4.1) shows the normal distribution of various areas of
development or we can say a normal curve of areas of development of general
population. Now let us consider an example; The IQ test was administered
on 1000 children and on the basis of data, the normal curve was drawn as
per the distribution of sample according to their IQs. It is found that around
80% of population fall into a normal or average range of IQ i.e. -1? to
+1?. It is also found that 8% of sample has below average IQ that is, ranging
from -1? to -2? and further there are 2% of sample who has very low IQ
ranging from -2? to -3? and labeled as idiots. Both these deviations are negative
deviations. On the other hand, 8% of sample population has above average
IQ ranging from +1? to +2? and further 2% exhibits extra ordinary IQ and
considered as gifted, ranging from +2? to + 3?. Both these deviations are towards
positive side.
Hence, by calculated IQ we can not only identify the exceptional children but
also understand their deviation direction and levels. Similarly, we can identify 49
Child Development and judge the other disabilities also. On the basis of this statistical model we
can defined exceptionality as a possession of one or more traits or characteristics
in abundance or lesser degree, and characterized by the value of its measure
being above or below the average mean value of that specific trait or character
possessed by the normal person.
4.5.2 Biological Model

The biological model is also known as medical model. According to this model,
the person is termed as exceptional, if either he or she received defective genes,
suffers from chromosomal abnormality during the time of conception, or defects,
deficits, impairments and disabilities in the body and mind, during the time of
delivery and doesn’t born as a normal child. In this case the deviation is towards
negative side. Similarly, if the person is favoured by the heredity and has
extraordinary genes then he or she exhibits the superior characters and excels
in various areas of development. The deviation is on positive side and the person
is termed as gifted.
Hence, on the bases of this model, we can defined exceptionality as the deviation
in variable degree for more areas of development is comparison to set medical
standards of development for a particular age group, and the children can be
termed above average or below average, or commonly exceptional children.
4.5.3 Social Model

Social model is also known as behaviour model. Human being is a social animal
and each social group has set standard and norms of behaviour for their
members, every social group has some expectation of in terms of physical,
mental, emotional, behaviour development for a specific age group and which
need to acquire at that age for normal development. But if the child is deviating
from these expectations and behaves in different manner which is not socially
and legally approved then the child is said to be abnormal or exceptional. Hence,
according to this model, the child is said to be exceptional if he or she fall
short (negative deviation) or go beyond (positive deviation) of social exceptions.
4.6 CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENTAL

DEVIATIONS
Now, you are well aware of developmental deviations in positive as well as
negative sides. What makes a child deviate from or move towards negative
or positive side? What are the major causes of these deviations? We will try
to answer these questions in this section.
There are number of factors that lead to developmental deviations. Broadly we

can classify them into two main factors that is Biological factor and Environmental
factor.
i) Biological Factors: As we studied earlier, that some hereditary factors

leads to exceptionality like defective genes, abnormal chromosomes during
the time of conception. Some of the common examples of abnormal
chromosomes are Down syndrome, Fragile X-syndrome, Triple X Syndrome,
etc. Similarly, family history also plays an important role in positive deviation
50
that is extraordinary mental capacities and creativity and negative exceptionality Developmental Deviations
like familial mental retardation which is associated with one’s hereditary
endowments. An international project named as “Human Genome Project”
is recently undertaken, to understand the hereditary basis for the causation
of exceptionality. In this project, the main aim was to determine the complete
sequence of the three billion DNA subunits (bases) to identify all human
genes and make them accessible for further biological study (Mangal, 2009).
ii) Environmental Factors: The external factors that affect the child development
during pre-natal, ante natal and post natal period are known as environmental
factors. Environmental factors are further categorized under three groups,
these are:
i) Prenatal factors,
ii) Ante-natal factors, and
iii) Post-natal factors.
i) Prenatal factors: The factors that effect the child’s development during
pregnancy period that is from conception till delivery of child are known
as prenatal factors. These are consumptions of alcohol, smoking by
expectant mother, use of un-prescribed or prescribed drugs during
pregnancy etc.
ii) Ante-natal factors: Factors that affect the child’s development during the
time of delivery are known as ante-natal factors, for example, absence of
oxygen (anoxia), head injury during delivery, long periods of labour pain,
fetal distress etc.
iii) Post-natal factors: Factors that affect the child development after birth
are known as post-natal factors for example, malnutrition, childhood
diseases, rheumatic fever, polio, head injury accidents etc.
Sometimes, interaction between biological and environmental factors also play

very important role in child’s exceptionality. As biology of the child laid the
foundation to his or her development; environment gives shape to that
development. The interruption of any of this tasks will automatically leads to
exceptionality.
1. Enlist the different models of exceptionality

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
51
Child Development 2. Fill in the blanks:-
i) Down Syndrome, Fragile X-Syndrome, Triple X Syndrome are
examples of ........................ .
ii) Pre-natal factors affect the child development during .........................
period.
iii) Ante-natal factors like lack of oxygen, head injury, fetal distress may
lead to .........................
4.7 EXCEPTIONALITY: IMPAIRMENT,

DISABILITY AND HANDICAP
You often heard the terms ‘impairment disability’, ‘handicap’ in the context of
exceptionality. Usually, these terms are used interchangeably, but there is a slight
difference in these three terms. The international classification of impairments,
Disabilities and Handicap has been clearly defined by (WHO, 1980), as follows:
· Impairment: Impairment can be defined as a fundamental, structural

psychological or physiological deficit (for example, loss of senses in deaf
and dumb impairment).
· Disability: Disability can be defined as the functional deficit that a person

experiences as a result of impairment (for example, unable to communicate
due to deaf and dumbness).
· Handicap: Handicap can be defined as the disadvantage a person with

disability experiences in various societal settings as a result of that disability
(for example, deaf and dumb people can’t participate in debates, singing
competitions etc.
Let us understand this, with the help of following example:
“Raj Kumar was a very good athlete and wanted to represent his country in
major competitions like Common Wealth Games, Olympics etc. One day he
met with an accident and lost one of his legs. Now, although he overcome
that mishappening and was able to walk with the help of artificial limb, but
his dream to represent his country in athletic event will remain unfulfilled”.
In the above case vignette ‘Rajkumar lost his leg’ is an impairment. Now, he
can not walk or run is disability. The present state of Rajkumar (that is lost
of leg) hinders him to participate in athletic activities is handicap. Through this
discussion we can conclude that all three terms have linear relationship i.e.
Impairment - ------------------ Disability ------------------ Handicap
This relationship states that one condition leads to another, ie, impairment, leads
in disability and disability leads to handicap.
The National Centre for Medical Rehabilitation Research (NCMRR), National

Institute of Health, USA (1993) has given a model, known as NCMRR Model
of Disability (see figure 4.2).
52
Functional Developmental Deviations
Limitations
Impairment
The person with

disability and
rehabilitation
process
Disabilities
Pathophysiology
Societal
Limitation
Figure 4.2 NCMRR Model of Disability
* Source: S K Mangal
According to this model, pathophysiology is the initial phase of development
of disability in a person. In this the person will experience basic biological and
psychological disturbances. Impairment is second phase to development of
disability which characterized more specific effect of these disturbances for
example, absence of limbs leads to abnormal motor functions. The third phase
is functional limitations which specify the particular set of related activities that
are affected due to the impairment. Disability is the fourth component or phase
of this model, which discriminate the person from the normal or average person
of that age due to impairment and functional limitations. Finally, the handicap
is the fifth and last phase of this model which is renamed as ‘societal limitation’,
refers to the role of the society and environment in limiting the opportunities
for one’s growth and development (Mangal, 2009).
4.8 CLASSIFICATION OF EXCEPTIONAL

CHILDREN
The exceptional children are classified and labeled by number of educationists
and thinkers in the field of disability. Generally, the disadvantages of classification
of exceptional children are pointed out: Reynolds 1991; Stainback and Stainback
1991, Lipsky and Gartner 1989, Kliewer and Beckline, 1996):
l Classification means to segregate exceptional children from their average

age-mates.
l It may mislead the teachers and other adults to set the norms of expectations
according to their developmental deviation. They may expect too much or
too less from these children as they are labeled exceptional.
l This can lead to peer-rejection, social isolation and humiliating situation to

exceptional children.
53
Child Development l They may lead to superior or inferior complexes in exceptional children,
depending upon their label e.g. gifted or retarded.
But except this disadvantage, exceptional children should be classified and labeled
because of following reasons (Kauffman 1998, Macmillan and Mujers 1979,
Mesibov, Adams, and Klinger 1997):
l It is compulsory to know the direction and level of deviation so as to

understand the exceptionality in child.
l Classification helps parents, teachers and other adults to understand the

specific problems and limitation of particular category and work accordingly.
l The exceptional children do have special needs which required to be cater

only with help of classification and labeling.
Hence, broadly we can classify the exceptional children as following (Mangal,

2009);
1. Mentally Exceptional Children
i) Giftedness
ii) Creativeness
iii) Mental retardation
2. Sensory Exceptional Children
i) Visual impairment
ii) Hearing impairment
3. Locomotor disability or orthopedic impairment
4. Children with communication disability
5. Learning disability/slow learners
6. Socially and Emotionally Exceptional children
i) Emotional disturbances
ii) Delinquency/social disability
iii) Deprived/socially disadvantage
7. Multiple disability
i) Cerebral palsy
ii) Autism
Diagrammatically we can represent these disabilities/exceptional children as in

Fig 4.3
54
Developmental Deviations
Exceptional Children
Exceptional Children
Mentally Exceptional
Giftedness Creativeness
Mental Retardation
Sensory Exceptional
Visually Impairment Hearing Impairment
Locomotor / Orthopedics
Impairment
Communication
Learning Disability / Slow Learners
Socially and Emotionally Exceptional

Children
Disturbances
Emotional Disturbances Delinquency / Social Disability
Deprived / Social Disadvantage
Multiple Disability
Cerebral Palsy Autism
Figure 4.3: Classification of Exceptional Children
4.9 NEEDS OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

As we can understand now that children with developmental deviation has
specific needs or we can say special needs including the basic needs that the
average child requires during that particular age group. These basic needs are
broadly categorized into”
i) Physiological needs; and
ii) Socio-emotional needs
i) Physiological needs: The needs that are physical in nature are known as
physiological needs. These needs are necessary for one’s survival, physical
well-being, procreation, and performing overall physical and biological
functions as a human being. The types of human’s physiological needs are
as follows:
l Need of fresh air for respiration / breathing
55
Child Development l Need of food and water
l Need of sleep
l Need of physical and mental work
l Need of sex
l Need of treatment during ailment or injury
l Need of being healthy
ii) Socio-emotional needs: These are the needs which one can not see but
feel like:
l Need of love and to be loved
l Need of security
l Need of belongingness
l Need of social approval
l Need of status
l Need of self respect
l Need of self actualizing
l Need of getting education etc.
Beside these basic needs, the exceptional children required some special needs
to be fulfilled for better life. These are as following:
i) Need of Awareness: The child should be aware of his or her exceptionality
and the nature as well as its level of deviation.
ii) Needs for coping with exceptionality: According to this need the child should
know how to cope with this situation, or we can say rehabilitation of child
should be there.
iii) Need of being accepted: The child should be accepted with his or her
exceptionalities and no discrimination should be made on the basis of his
or her deviation.
iv) Need of Education: The child with positive or negative deviation require
different set-up of education in comparison to normal or average children.
The educational needs of child should be met through inclusive education
or other methods.
v) Need for being independent: The child with exceptionality should be made
independent in life functioning if possible. For example hearing aid for hard
for hearing child etc.
vi) Need for proper guidance and counselling: The exceptional child sometime
find himself / herself confuse regarding his abilities or disabilities, hence,
there should be provision of proper guidance and counselling for these
children.
56
vii) Need of getting equal educational opportunities. Developmental Deviations
viii) Need for special devices, equipments and assistive devices,

ix) Need for financial support.
1. Match the following:
i) Impairment : a) The functional deficit that a
person experiences as a
result of impairment
ii) Disability : b) Disadvantage a person with
disability experiences
in various societal settings as
a result of disability
iii) Handicap : c) Fundamental, structural,
psychological or
physiological deficit.
2. Enlist the special needs of exceptional children.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4.10 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have studied the meaning of exceptional developmental
deviations. We also studied various types of developmental deviation that are
positive deviation, negative deviation and mixed deviation. Models of exceptionality
are also discussed, that includes statistical model, biological model and social
model. The unit acquaints you with major causes of developmental deviations
which are broadly categorized under biological and environmental factors. We
also understand the concept of impairment, disability and handicap, under which
we study the NCMRR model of disability. We learnt the advantages and
disadvantages of classifying and labeling exceptional children and we also know
the various categories under which these children are classified. At the end of
this Unit we learnt about the basic as well as special need of exceptional children.
4.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

i) True
ii) True
57
Child Development iii) False
iv) False
v) False
1. i) Statistical Model
ii) Biological Model
iii) Social Model
2. i) Chromosomal abnormality
ii) Pregnancy
iii) Exceptionality
1. i) b
ii) c
iii) a
2. i) Need of awareness
ii) Need for coping with exceptionality
iii) Need of being accepted
iv) Need of education
v) Need of being independent
vi) Need for proper guidance and counselling
vii) Need for financial support

1. How can you classify exceptional children?
2. Differentiate between impairment, disability and handicap.
3. Explain various models of disability.
4. What are the special needs of exceptional children?

 Crow and Crow Alice (1973), Educational Psychology, New Delhi:
Eurasia Publishing House.
 Kauffmen, J.M. (1998). “Commentary: Today’s Special education
and its message for tomorrow. Journal of Special Education, 32 (3),
127 – 137
58
 Kirk, S.A., Gallagher, J.J., Anasterscow, N.J. and Coleman, M.R. (2006). Developmental Deviations
Educating Exceptional Children (11th Ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
 Kliewer, C. and Beckline, D. (1996). Labelling: Who wants to be called
retarded? (2nd Ed.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
 Lipsky, D.K. and Gartner A. (1989), Beyond Special Education: Quality
for All, Baltimore: Brookes.
 Macmillan, D.L. and Meyers C.E. (1979): “Educational Research in
Handicapped Learners”. Review of research in Education (Vol.-7),
Washington, DC: American Education Research Association.
 Mangal, S.K. (2009). Educating Exceptional Children: An Introduction
to Special Education, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
 McCuffin, Reley, P.B. and Plomin, R. (2001). “Toward Behaviour
Genomics”. Science 291, 1232 – 1249.
 Mesibur, G.B., Adams, L.W. and Linger, L.G. (1997). Autism:
Understanding the Disorder, New York: Plenum.
 National Institute of Health (1993). “Research Plan for the National
Centre for Medical Rehabilitation Research”. (NIH Publication No. 93-
3509) Bethesda, M.D.: Author
 Reynolds, M.C. (1991). Classification and Labelling in J.W. Lloyd, N.N.
Singh and AC Repp. (Eds.), The regular Education Initiative: Alternate
Perspectives on Concepts, Issues and Models, Syeamore, IL: Sycmore.
 Stainback, S. and Stainback, W. (EDS.) (1991). Teaching in the Inclusive
Classroom: Curriculum design, adaptation and delivery, Baltimore:
Brookes.
 Telford, C.W. and Sawrey, J.M. (1997). The Exceptional Individual (3rd
Ed.), Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice – Hall.
 World Health Organization (WHO) (1980). International Classification
of Impairment, Disabilities and Handicap, Geneva: Switzerland: Author.
4.14 GLOSSARY
Pre-natal factors : Factors that affects the child development before birth
of child, i.e. during pregnancy
Ante-natal factor : Factors associated with birth or delivery process
Post-natal factors : After birth factors
Impairment : Impairment can be defined as fundamental, structural,
psychological or physiological deficit
Disability : The functional deficit that a person experiences as a
result of impairment
Handicap : The disadvantage the person with disability experiences
in various societal settings as a result of disability
59

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MMD-081

Prof. S.P. K. Jena Prof. C.L. Kundu Prof. Yashvir Singh

Dr. S.K. Prasad Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra

Programme Coordinator Programme Consultant

Block Writer Block Editor

Format Editor Associate Block Editor

1.4 Individual Differences

1.6 Let Us Sum Up

1.3 PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVLOPMENT

Although the physical manifestation of certain features may appear to be sudden,

1.3.2 Development is Sequential

Development proceeds in two directions. Either it is cephalo caudal development

Hence, the development follows the pattern of “near to far” sequence.

1.3.3 Development Proceeds from General to Specific

1.3.4 Development has Individual Differences

1.3.5 Development is Cumulative in Nature

1.3.6 Holistic Child Development

1.3.7 Development Occurs in a Context

1.4 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

i) Define individual differences.

1.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILD

Environment influences largely on how a person would develop having an impact

Both nature (genetic) and nurture (environment) influences child’s development.

 Check Your Progress 3

1.6 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.7 UNIT END EXCERCISES

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.4 Cognitive Development

2.6 Language Development

2.7 Let Us Sum Up

 Explain the main areas of child development – physical and motor

2.2 DIFFERENT AREAS OF CHILD

The different areas of child development are:

2.3 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

2.3.1 Physical Development

2.3.2 Reflexes in New Born Child

2.3.3 Gross Motor Development

2.4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

2.5 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

2.5.2 Development of Emotional Expressions

Emotional self regulation and expression of emotions in socially approved methods

 The easy child

 The difficult child

 The slow to warm up child.

Berk further defines these three types as below:

At times temperament needs to be regulated with control. This effortful control

2.5.6 Development of Attachment

There are four stages of attachment development. These are:

 Attachment in the making process (6 weeks to 6-8 months): During this

 Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months – 2 years onwards):

Ainsworth et al (1978) described children’s attachment behaviour on the basis of

Insecure avoidant attachment: It is the type of attachment in which children

Insecure resistant attachment: It is the kind of attachment in which children

Insecure-disorganized attachment: It is the type of attachment in which infants

2.6 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

2.6.1 Components of Language

2.6.2 Development of Language

 Check Your Progress 3

 Check Your Progress 4

2.7 LET US SUM UP

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHEK YOUR PROGRESS

2. Fear, smile, happy, surprise, sad and anger.