Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
848
have been fewer attempts at learning preferences from ordi- denote by D = D1 × . . . × Dn the set of all possible alterna-
nal comparisons, notably: (a) learning lexicographic prefer- tives. If x ∈ D, then (x)i denotes the value of x for the i-th
ences [Schmitt and Martignon, 2006; Dombi et al., 2007; attribute Xi . An attribute Xi is binary if Di has two elements,
Yaman et al., 2008]; (b) a few works on learning CP-nets which by convention we note xi and xi . A (strict) preference
[Athienitou and Dimopoulos, 2007; Koriche and Zanuttini, relation is a strict order on D, i.e., an irreflexive and tran-
2009], (c) more general ceteris paribus preferences [Sachdev, sitive (theferore asymmetric) binary relation. If moreover
2007] or (d) utility functions learned from ordinal compar- is connected then is a linear preference relation (or linear
isons between logical formulas [Domshlak and Joachims, order for short). Note that if we see a transitive relation as
2007]. These approaches are discussed in Section 6. a graph over D (where there is an edge from x to y if x y),
In both (a) and (b), the preference relation on the multiat- then is irreflexive if and only if the graph is acyclic.
tribute domain is built from “local” preference relations on Suppose now that we have a finite set of examples E, where
the attribute domains; these local orderings are then com- each example is a pair of distinct alternatives (x, y ) (also de-
bined either in a lexicographic manner for (a), or, for (b), as- noted, equivalently, by x y ) such that x is preferred to y .
suming that the local comparisons are lifted to comparisons In a recommender system for instance, these examples may
of vectors of values when all other attributes have the same have been recorded in the course of a user interaction with
value (ceteris paribus). CP-nets allow dependencies between the system. Ideally, we would like to learn how to order ev-
variables, and then providing local preferences on the values ery unordered pair of distinct alternatives {x, y }. Therefore,
of one attribute depending on the values of other attributes. ideally, our target is a linear preference relation1 .
In order to learn general CP-nets, given a set of examples, In this paper, we focus on learning separable ceteris
one would have to identify the dependency structure and the paribus preference structures (SCP structures for short).
conditional preference tables. One could then search for the SCP-structures are particular cases of conditional preference
simplest CP-net compatible with the examples, or for the best networks, or CP-nets [Boutilier et al., 2004], obtained when
trade-off between simplicity and compatibility with the ex- the dependency graph between attributes is empty, therefore
amples. However, in this paper we focus on a simpler prob- when every attribute is preferentially independent of all other
lem, namely, learning the simplest class of CP-nets: separa- attributes (CP-nets allow more generally the preference of an
ble CP-nets (whose associated dependency graph is empty). attribute to depend on the values of other attributes). A SCP
There are several reasons for that. First, separable prefer- structure on V is a collection N of linear orders i , one on
ences are a very important class of preference relations on each Di . A swap is a pair of alternatives {x, y } that differ
multi-attribute domains, as e.g. in economics or social choice in the value of one attribute only. From a SCP structure N
(see for instance [Bradley et al., 2005]), so that learning sep- we induce a preference relation N as follows. First, a linear
arable preferences deserves a study on its own. Second, as order on D is said to satisfy N if for every attribute Xi and
we will see, learning separable preferences is computation- every z, z such that z and z coincide on all attributes except
ally hard – more than one would think at first sight, since Xi , z z if and only if (z)i i (z )i . Then, N is the inter-
reasoning with separable CP-nets can be done in linear time. section of all preference relations satisfying N . Note that N
Third, designing methods for learning non-separable prefer- is a partial order on D. Any linear order that satisfies a SCP
ences, as we said, is a challenging and important issue to be structure is separable. Separability means that attributes are
investigated, but it is also a very involved question that surely mutually preferentially independent. Note that if N is a SCP
cannot be answered in a single paper. Focusing first on sep- structure, then N is irreflexive, and thus can be extended to
arable preferences is a nontrivial and necessary step towards a linear order on D [Boutilier et al. 2004, Th. 1].
learning more complex preferences. Lastly, it is well-known In most of the paper, for the ease of presentation we assume
that a simpler structure can have better generalization proper- all attributed are binary, although our results apply to non
ties than a more complex one that may fit the examples better. binary attributes as well (as shown at the end of section 3). In
In Section 2, we give some background on preferences on this case, for any pair (x, y ) of alternatives, let Diff (x, y ) =
combinatorial domains and (separable) CP-nets. We then fo- {xi | (x)i = xi and (y )i = xi } ∪ {xi | (x)i = xi and (y )i =
cus successively on three forms of compatibility between a xi }; we can then use the following characterisation of N (a
CP-net and a set of examples: weak compatibility in Section corollary of a Theorems 7 and 8 by Boutilier et al., 2004):
3, strong compatibility in Section 4 and implicative compat-
ibility at the end of Section 3. We show that while it can be Lemma 1 Let N be a SCP structure over binary variables,
checked in polynomial time whether there exists a SCP-net and y = x. Then x N y if and only if N contains xi
implying a set of examples, determining whether there exists xi for every xi ∈ Diff (x, y ) and xi xi for every xi ∈
a SCP-net weakly (resp. strongly) compatible with a set of Diff (x, y ).
examples is NP-complete. Related work is discussed in Sec- Example 1 Consider three binary attributes A, B and C,
tion 6 and a concluding discussion is given in Section 7. with respective domains {a, a}, {b, b} and {c, c}, and let
N = {a a, b b, c c}. We have abc N abc, while abc
2 The problem 1
Our methodology and results would easily carry over to the
We want to learn an ordering on objects, or alterna- problem of learning nonstrict preference relations (where indiffer-
tives, defined by their values for attributes of a set V = ence is allowed). We stick here to strict preference relation because
{X1 , . . . , Xn }. Each attribute Xi has a finite domain Di . We the presentation is simpler.
849
and abc are incomparable w.r.t. N . Therefore, rather than looking for a CP-net that implies the
examples, we should rather look for a CP-net whose prefer-
We said earlier that the target of our learning process
ence relation is consistent with the examples. A first way of
should ideally be a linear order over D, but we have just seen
understanding consistency is to require that the learned CP-
that a SCP structure N does not in general correspond to such
net N is such that the examples are consistent with at least
an order, since the preference relation N induced from N is
one preference relation extending N . In some contexts it
generally not complete. Actually, N can be seen as the set
may even be too strong to require that one of the completions
of all its completions, that is, a SCP structure expresses a set
of N contains all the examples, in particular if they come
of linear preference relations.
from multiple users (given that we want to learn the generic
If an example (x, y ) is a swap, then either x N y or y N
preferences of a group of users), or a single user in different
x, and clearly we would like N to be in agreement with the
contexts:
example, that is, for instance, such that x N y . But if (x, y )
is not a swap, there may be completions and of N Example 3 Suppose that we learn that all users in a group
such that x y and y x. So we should start by discussing unconditionally prefer x1 to x1 and x2 to x2 , whereas their
the possible ways of measuring to which extent a given SCP preferences between x1 x2 and x1 x2 may differ (think as x1
structure generalizes from a given set of examples. and x2 as, respectively, “being invited to a fine dinner” and
Athienitou and Dimopoulos (2007) propose algorithms to “receiving a $50 award”): then E ⊇ {x1 x2 x1 x2 , x1 x2
learn CP-nets whose associated partial order contains all the x1 x2 }. E is clearly inconsistent, so there cannot be any
examples – we say that it implies the examples. We argue here preference structure whose ordering can be completed into
that this requirement may be too strong. To see this, consider a linear preference relation that contains E. However, if
the following example: N = {x1 x1 , x2 x2 }, then each example in E is (in-
dividually) contained in at least one completion of N .
Example 2 We have two binary attributes X1 and X2 (with
domains {x1 , x1 } and {x2 , x2 }), and the set of examples E = We now define three notions of compatibility of a SCP
{x1 x2 x1 x2 , x1 x2 x1 x2 , x1 x2 x1 x2 }. structure with a set of examples. (Note that these definitions
also work for general CP-nets.)
What do we expect to learn from the above set of exam-
ples E? The transitive closure of E is the complete preference Definition 1 Let N be a SCP structure over V. An example
relation x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 . This preference rela- (x, y ) is implied by N if x y for every completion of
tion is separable (the agent unconditionally prefers x1 to x1 N ; it is consistent with N if there is a completion of
and x2 to x2 ). The fact that x1 x2 is preferred to x1 x2 simply N such that x y . Furthermore, we will say that a set of
means that when asked to choose between X1 and X2 , the examples E is:
agent prefers to give up X2 (think of X1 meaning “getting • implied by N if every example of E is implied by N ;
rich” and X2 meaning “beautiful weather tomorrow”). Intu- • globally (or strongly) compatible with N if there is a
itively, since E is separable, we expect to output a structure completion of N such that for all (x, y ) ∈ E, x y ;
N that contains x1 x1 and x2 x2 . However, no SCP
• weakly compatible with N if every example (x, y ) ∈ E
structure implies E (in fact, no CP-net implies E, whatever
is individually consistent with N .
the dependencies). The structure N induces a partial pref-
erence relation in which x1 x2 and x1 x2 are incomparable. Lastly, we will say that E is implicatively / strongly / weakly
More generally, no ceteris paribus structures can “explain” separable if it is implied by / strongly compatible / weakly
that x1 x1 is “more important” than x2 x2 (i.e., with no compatible with at least one SCP structure.
intermediate alternative). Therefore, if we look for a structure Clearly, strong compatibility implies weak compatibility,
implying all the examples, we will simply output “failure”. and if E is implied by N , it is strongly compatible with N .
On the other hand, if we look for a SCP structure that is sim-
ply consistent with the examples, i.e. that does not imply the 3 Weak compatibility
contrary of the examples, we will output N .
The explanation is that when an agent expresses a CP-net, We start by showing how searching for a SCP structure
the preference relation induced by this CP-net is not meant to weakly compatible with a set of examples can be rewritten
be the whole agent’s preference relation, but a subset (or a as a propositional satisfiability problem. In the case of binary
lower approximation) of it. In other terms, when an agent ex- attributes, consider the following translation from sets of ex-
presses the CP-net N , she simply expresses that she prefers amples to sets of clauses, the models of which correspond to
x1 to x1 ceteris paribus (i.e., for a fixed value of X2 ) and sim- SCP structures that are weakly consistent with the examples.
ilarly for the preference x2 x2 ; the fact that x1 x2 and x1 x2 With each example x y we associate the clause Cxy
are incomparable in N surely does not mean that the user re- that contains xi iff xi∈Diff (x, y ) and ¬xi iff xi∈Diff (x, y ).
ally sees them incomparable, but, more technically, that CP- For instance, if x = x1 x2 x3 x4 and y = x1 x2 x3 x4 then
nets are not expressive enough for representing the missing Diff (x, y ) = {x1 , x2 , x4 } and Cxy = x1 ∨ ¬x2 ∨ x4 . This
preference x1 x2 x1 x2 2 . clause expresses that x1 is preferred to x1 , or x2 is preferred
to x2 , or x4 is preferred to x4 . (The explanation for this is that
2
If we want to do this, we have to resort to a more expressive if a SCP structure N contains {x1 x1 , x2 x2 , x4 x4 },
language such as TCP-nets [Brafman et al., 2006] or conditional then by Lemma 1 we have y N x, therefore N is not con-
preference theories [Wilson, 2004]. sistent with x y .)
850
If E is a set of examples then ΦE = {Ce | e ∈ E}. d2 d3 → d1 d3 ) ∧ .... Note that T rans is polynomially
We now define the following one-to-one correspondence be- long. The one-to-one correspondence between interpretations
tween truth assignments over {x1 , . . . , xn } and SCP struc- and SCP structures now works only for interpretations satis-
tures over V. If M is such a truth assignment, let NM con- fying T rans: M |= ΦE ∧ T rans if and only if NM is weakly
tain the preference xi xi for every i such that M |= xi consistent with NM . As a consequence, E is weakly separa-
and the preference xi xi for every i such that M |= ¬xi . ble if and only if ΦE ∧ T rans is satisfiable.
For instance, if M (x1 ) = , M (x2 ) = ⊥, M (x3 ) = ⊥ This translation shows that weak consistency for non-
and M (x4 ) = then NM contains the preference tables binary attributes is in NP, hence it is NP-complete.
{x1 x1 , x2 x2 , x3 x3 , x4 x4 }. Now, as soon as E becomes large with respect to the num-
Proposition 1 Let M be an interpretation. A set of examples ber of attributes n, the chances that E is weakly consistent
E is weakly consistent with NM if and only if M |= ΦE . become low. In this case, we may want to determine a SCP
structure that is weakly compatible with as many examples of
Proof : We show that NM |= y x if and only if M |= E as possible. Applying Corollary 1 to subsets of E, we get
Cxy . Without loss of generality, let x = x1 . . . xn and y = that this problem amounts to solving a MAXSAT problem. The
x1 . . . xi xi+1 . . . xn . Then M |= Cxy if and only if NM SCP structure that best fits a set of examples (in the sense of
contains x1 x1 , . . . , xi xi , which from Lemma 1 is weak compatibility) corresponds to the interpretation maxi-
equivalent to NM |= y x. mizing the number of clauses from ΦE satisfied. This extends
Corollary 1 E is weakly separable if and only if ΦE is satis- to nonbinary variables, with the difference that the clauses in
fiable. T rans are protected.
As a consequence of Propositions 1, we can reuse algo-
As a consequence, weak separability comes down to a sat- rithms for MAXSAT for computing an SCP structure that best
isfiability test. fits a set of examples, as well as polynomial approximation
Example 4 Consider three binary attributes A, B, C, and schemes. Using the same kind of translation, we can easily
the set of examples prove that if all variables are binary and all examples in E
differ at most on two variables, then deciding whether E is
E = {abc abc, abc abc, abc abc, abc abc} consistent can be done in polynomial time (however, the cor-
responding optimization problem remains NP-hard).
ΦE has a unique model, corresponding to the SCP structure
N = {a a, b b, c c}. Therefore, N is the unique SCP
structure weakly compatible with N , which implies that E is 4 Strong compatibility
weakly separable. Characterizing strong compatibility is less easy. The differ-
Proposition 2 Deciding whether a set of examples over bi- ence between weak and strong compatibility is that while in
nary attributes is weakly separable is NP-complete. weak compatibility we look for a SCP structure which is con-
sistent with each individual example in E, in strong compat-
Proof : Membership follows directly from Corollary 1. For ibility we look for a SCP structure which is consistent with
hardness, we use a reduction from 3SAT: let Φ be a set the whole set of examples E.
of non tautological, 3-clauses. For every C = l1 ∨ l2 ∨ l3 Example 4, continued E is not strongly compatible with N ,
in Φ we create an example eC = (x y ) with x = because E ∪ N has the following cycle:
ε1 .x1 ε2 .x2 . . . εn .xn and y = ε1 .x1 ε2 .x2 . . . εn .xn , where, abc N abc E abc N abc E abc
for every i, εi .xi = εi .xi = xi , except that if lj = ¬xi Since E is not strongly compatible with any other SCP struc-
for some j, then εi .xi = ¬xi ; and if lj = xi for some j, ture than N (because N is the unique SCP structure weakly
then εi .xi = ¬xi . Now, let EΦ = {eC | C ∈ Φ}. For compatible with N ), E is not strongly separable3 .
example, if Φ = {x1 ∨ ¬x2 ∨ x3 , ¬x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x4 , x2 ∨
x3 ∨ x4 } then EΦ = {x1 x2 x3 x4 x1 x2 x3 x4 , x1 x2 x3 x4 Note that all alternatives of the cycle on the example above
x1 x2 x3 x4 , x1 x2 x3 x4 x1 x2 x3 x4 }. We easily check that appear in E. More generally, if we denote by D(E) the set
ΦEΦ = Φ, and therefore that Φ is satisfiable if and only if EΦ of alternatives of D that appear in E, we have the following
is weakly separable. characterisation of strong compatibility:
The generalization to non-binary domains is not difficult. Proposition 3 E is strongly compatible with N if and only if
Instead of having one propositional symbol per attribute, we the restriction of N ∪ E to D(E) is acyclic.
have one propositional symbol for every pair of values of ev- Proof : By definition, if E is strongly compatible with N
ery attribute. For instance, if we have an attribute X whose then N can be completed into a linear order containing E,
domain is {d1 , d2 , d3 } then we have the three propositional therefore N ∪ E is acyclic, and so is its restriction to D(E).
symbols d1 d2 , d1 d3 and d2 d3 (d2 d1 being equiva- For the converse, assume that E is not strongly compatible
lent to ¬(d1 d2 ), etc.). For instance, if Y is a binary at- with N : N ∪ E cannot be extended to a linear order, this
tribute, the clause corresponding to the example d1 y d2 y means that it is not irreflexive, so it contains a cycle Γ. Since
is (d1 d2 )∨¬y. The main difference with the binary case is SCP structures are consistent, Γ must contain at least one
the transitivity requirement. Let T rans = Xi ∈V T ransXi
be the propositional formula expressing transitivity – for in- 3
Note that E is both weakly consistent and does not contain any
stance, for D1 = {d1 , d2 , d3 } we have T ransX1 = (d1 d2 ∧ cycles as it was the case for Example 3, yet is not strongly consistent.
851
edge of E. We can transform Γ into a cycle Γ whose vertices that there is a simple solution-preserving translation into SAT
are all in D(E): simply replace, as long as it is possible, any (the models of ΦE correspond bijectively to the CP-nets that
sequence of vertices in Γ of the form x N y N z by the are weakly consistent with E), which allows weak consis-
vertex x N z (which holds because N is transitive). Now, tency to be computed in practice using algorithms for SAT.
every edge in Γ is either in E or adjacent to two edges in E In order to compute a SCP structure strongly consistent with
(recall it cannot be reduced to a single reflexive edge of N E, we can generate structures N weakly consistent with E,
because N is irreflexive), so its extremities are in D(E). So and test for acyclicity of N ∪ E using graph algorithms.
Γ is a cycle of the restriction of N ∪ E to D(E).
852
focus on implicative compatibility limits the applicability of References
the approach. Sachdev [2007] proposes to learn a preference F. Athienitou and Y. Dimopoulos. Learning CP-networks:
theory, in the sense of Doyle et al. [1991], consistent with a a preliminary investigation. In Proc. 3rd Multidisciplinary
set of examples. He assumes that one is given (or has access Work. on Advances in Preference Handling (PREF’07), 2007.
to) the complete set of examples corresponding to an existing
preference theory that one is trying to induce, which practi- C. Boutilier, R. Brafman, C. Domshlak, H. Hoos, and
cally limits its applicability. D. Poole. CP-nets: a tool for representing and reasoning
with conditional ceteris paribus preference statements. JAIR,
21:135–191, 2004.
7 Conclusion and further work W. J. Bradley, J. K. Hodge, and D.M. Kilgour. Separable dis-
Our contribution is twofold: we have seen that finding a sep- crete preferences. Mathematical Social Science, 49(3):335–
arable ceteris paribus preference relation (or equivalently, 353, 2005.
finding a separable CP-net) compatible with a set of exam- R. Brafman, C. Domshlak, and S. Shimony. On graphical
ples is not straighforward to define, due to the fact that, unlike modeling of preference and importance. JAIR, 25:389–424,
lexicographicity, separability does not permit to lift the local 2006.
preference relation into a complete preference relation on the
multiattribute domain. We have proposed and discussed three D. Braziunas and C. Boutilier. Elicitation of factored utilities.
different forms of compatibility between a separable CP-net AI Magazine, 29 (4), 2008.
and a set of examples. For each of these, we have identified L. Chen and P. Pu. Survey of preference elicitation methods.
its complexity and given characterizations that can be used Tech. Rep. 200467, EPFL, 2004.
for computing a separable CP-net that fits best a set of exam- W. Cohen, R. Schapire, and Y. Singer. Learning to order
ples. Although implicative separability is easier than strong things. JAIR, 10:243–270, 1999.
or weak separability, as argued before, implicative separabil-
ity is far less interesting than the other two notions. J. Dombi, C. Imreh, and N. Vincze. Learning lexicographic
Now, our definitions of implicative, strong and weak com- orders. Eur. J. of Operational Research, 183:748–756, 2007.
patibility would work for any CP-net. So far our characteriza- C. Domshlak and T. Joachims. Efficient and non-parametric
tions and complexity results for each of these three forms of reasoning over user preferences. User Modeling and User-
consistency concern only the case of separable preferences, Adapted Interaction (UMUAI), 17(1-2):41–69, April 2007.
where the dependency graph has no edge. A long-term chal- J. Doyle, Y. Shoham, and M. Wellman. A logic of relative
lenge would consist in investigating methods for learning desire (preliminary report). In Proc. ISMIS ’91, 16–31. 1991.
CP-nets with any structure, focusing first on simple struc-
tures (e.g., hypertrees). A first step would consist in learn- C. Gonzales and P. Perny. GAI networks for utility elicitation.
ing CP-nets with a fixed graph: given a set of examples E In Proc. KR’04, pages 224–233. AAAI Press, 2004.
and a dependency graph G, output the CP-net maximizing V. Ha and P. Haddawy. Problem-focused incremental elicita-
G-compatibility (w.r.t. any of the three forms) with E. Unfor- tion of multi-attribute utility models. In Proc. UAI-97, pages
tunately, this is not simple. Our translation of examples into 215–222, 1997.
propositional clauses can be extended, using, for each binary E. Hüllermeier, J. Fürnkranz, W. Cheng, and K. Brinker. La-
attribute, one propositional variable for every combination of bel ranking by learning pairwise preferences. AIJ, 172:1897–
values of its parents. For instance, if A has no parent and is 1917, 2008.
the only parent of B, we use three propositional variables: a,
(a:b) and (a:b), where, for instance, (a:b) assigned to true R. Keeney and H. Raiffa. Decision with Multiple Objectives:
Preferences and Value Trade-offs. Wiley, 1976.
corresponds to the entry a : b b in the preference table for
B. Weak compatibility can then be encoded using, for each F. Koriche and B. Zanuttini. Learning conditional preference
example x y , one clause for each sequence of swaps from networks with queries, 2009. In Proc. IJCAI’09.
y to x, expressing that at least one step of this sequence is M. Sachdev. On learning of ceteris paribus preference the-
blocked. This ensures that yN x does not hold. But there can ories. Master’s thesis, Graduate Faculty of North Carolina
be exponentially many such clauses, even in the case where State University, 2007.
the number of parents in the dependency graph is bounded,
which considerable limits the applicability of this translation. M. Schmitt and L. Martignon. On the complexity of learning
lexicographic strategies. J. Mach. Learn. Res., 7:55–83, 2006.
P. Viappiani, B. Faltings, and P. Pu. Preference-based search
Acknowledgements using example-critiquing with suggestions. JAIR, 27:465–
Many thanks to Richard Booth, Yann Chevaleyre, Kevin Gar- 503, 2006.
cia, Peter Haddawy, Frédéric Koriche, Mathieu Serrurier, N. Wilson. Extending CP-Nets with Stronger Conditional
Chattrakul Sombatheera and Bruno Zanuttini for helpful dis- Preference Statements. In AAAI-04, pages 735–741, 2004.
cussions. Anonymous referees also gave helpful comments.
This research has been partially supported by the project F. Yaman, T. Walsh, M. Littman, and M. desJardins. Demo-
ANR-05-BLAN-0384 “Preference Handling and Aggrega- cratic approximation of lexicographic preference models. In
tion in Combinatorial Domains”. Proc. ICML ’08, pages 1200–1207, 2008.
853