African Sociological Review, 10, (1), 2006, pp. 98-101.

João Baptista Lukombo Nzatuzola

The State of Sociology in Angola

1. Colonial evolution
Sociology as a discipline began to be taught at universities in Portugal after
1974 with the end of Salazar’s fascist system. Meanwhile in the former
colonies, the situation was no better. In contrast with the former French and
English colonies, the transfer of power had been discussed with national liber-
ation organisations, specifically PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau, FRELIMO in
Mozambique, and in the Angola with the three liberation movements, namely
MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA. The Angolan process was more complicated and
complex than in the other territories. However, in each, the one-party system
was the government system. Angola and Mozambique were severely affected
by internal conflicts with negative social and economic consequences.
During the colonial era the Junta de Investigações do Ultramar as well the
Instituto de Investigações Científicas de Angola published a number of studies
and monographs in social science, but more ethnological and anthropological
than sociological, and at times for colonial purposes. Some names could be
cited like Mesquitela Lima, José Redinha, Ilídio de Amaral, Carlos Extemann,
and Ramiro Ladeiro Monteiro. Graduate studies allowed the teaching of some
social science courses, particularly in the Letters and Arts Faculty in Lubango,
and the Faculty of Economy and Law in Luanda.

2. The post-independence situation

After the independence in November 1975 the situation did not really improve.
The school of the Party promoted social science studies, which were in fact
mainly influenced by Marxist-Leninist ideology.
In beginning of 1980 the Arts and Letters Faculty in Lubango has been trans-
formed into ISCED, the High Institute for Educational Sciences, with a similar
institution in Luanda in 1988. But no sociology degrees were awarded,
although at least some classes and lessons were given and included as modules
in programmes. Meanwhile the Culture Secretary of State promoted initiatives
in the social sciences, for example, the national laboratory of anthropology
devoted archaeological research to the Angolan Iron Age societies, but with
close ties to the National Anthropology Museum. The National Centre of
Documentation and Historical Investigation (CNDIH), afterwards transformed
into the National Historical Archive, alongside historical documentation,
conservation and management, carried out some research of interest in social
science.
 THE STATE OF SOCIOLOGY IN ANGOLA 99

It is important to point out that during this period various papers and texts of
interest to social science and sociology in particular were presented; for
example, during the first national culture symposium held in Luanda from 1 to 6
October 1984, and also the colloquium on the cultural dimension of devel-
opment from 10-16 September 1989.
In 1991 an ‘Angola Working Group’ was created in conjunction with
CODESRIA; and issued three publications from 1991 to 1992. Thereafter the
initiative seems to have lapsed, perhaps due to the difficult post-war interval.
In 1993, the AASA – an acronym in Portuguese for the Angolan Association
of Sociologists and Anthropologists – was established with the aim of
promoting scientific and cultural initiatives in social science, as well as
publishing a review Ngola, of which only one issue saw the light of day.
In September 20003, SAS the Angolan Society of Sociology (SAS), with
almost the same aims as AASA but without anthropologists, was established,
composed of sociologists as well other social scientists with sociological
interests.
According to Fernando Pacheco, in an analysis in 1991 on scientific investi-
gation in Angola, the post-independence situation was conditioned by three
determinant factors:
(i) The exodus of Portuguese scientific personnel, who had abandoned
Angola during the period that antedated independence and were never
replaced, either in quality or in quantity.
(ii) The general lack of resources allocated to an activity that had not been
seen as a priority in a country almost destroyed by war.
(iii) The lack of adequate research into national politics and society.
2.1. Main Features of Sociology during the First Republic
After independence sociology was basically excluded from institutions of
knowledge. Rather the emphasis was on the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.
The ideology failed to gain significant followers or political leaders, and did not
contribute to the development of Angola. Thus personnel in sociology taught
historical materialism, with a monopoly in social science basically of Marxism-
Leninism ideology. This was an imported intellectual influence; and was rather
seen as a philosophy for Angolan society.
There was a lack of scientific research partly due to the influence of
historical materialism. Thus social science did not succeed in deepening
knowledge and culture studies in Angola. Many staff were from fields other
than true social science. Indeed there were some studies arising out of
individual initiatives, but they were not always seen as in the interest of the
party’s rule and views.
There were however a number of social, artistic and literary works during the
First Republic with a marked sensitivity to the social dimension of literature,
with the priority objective of establishing an authentic Angolan literature.
100 AFRICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 10(1)

Among a wide variety of works in literature from Angolan writers one can refer
to texts with social context that merit a sociological reading: like Sagrada
Esperança (Sacred Hope) written by Agostinho Neto the former Angolan
president, Dizanga dia Muenhu by Boaventura Cardoso; Os discursos do
Mestre Tamoda, by Uanyenga Xitu; Quem me dera ser Onda by Manuel Rui;
and Maiombe by Pepetela (Luiz J. Manuel da Costa; NGOLA; revista de
estudos sociais janeiro-dezembro 1997, vol. 1, no. 1).

3. National identity and sociology

Rather than being seen as a rationalising political ideology or a programme to
guide it, nationalism is a cultural, social and historical phenomenon. The liber-
ation movement as the negation by negation, can only be authentic when a basis
has arisen for a proper identity, and community differentiation. The trend that
we could call nationalist or revolutionary is a requirement that depends on
solidarity with the collective or community identity. The Angolan national
identity is related to its colonial experience, colonialism, the post-colonial and
the experience since independence.

4. Scientific knowledge priorities and scientific investigation

Perhaps given its function to consolidate national independence around
modern values and through Marxism-Leninism, the University Agostinho
Neto as a scientific knowledge institution has given priority to courses and
disciplines related to Sciences, Medicine, Law, Economy, and Engineering. As
is clear, the concern of the one-party rule in the First Republic was to produce
lawyers, economists, engineers. There was little space for social sciences such
as sociology, anthropology, and political science. Social science was basically
confined to the Party’s school close to the ruling MPLA where Marxism-
Leninism was taught by foreigners – teachers mainly from the former socialist
Eastern bloc, Russia and Cuba.
During this period sociology was almost an unknown science. Sociologists
with few exceptions were not engaged in sociology, but were rather involved in
technical duties in administrative institutions as well as the private or informal
sector. They were very restricted, working in professional isolation and
mutually anonymous.

5. From 1992 with the Second Republic: what position for sociology?
The new Angolan constitution, providing for democratic multi-party
government after 1991, marked a major change for Angolan academics. There
developed institutions with space for scientific research and teaching as well
professional promotion. At ISCED a sociology option was introduced,
although with an educational training content.
 THE STATE OF SOCIOLOGY IN ANGOLA 101

As already mentioned, there was the formation of professional sociology

association, the SAS, in September 2003. In the same year, a Letters and Social
Sciences Faculty, with degrees in sociology, was established.

Conclusion
Most research activity at institutions in the post-war period was characterised
by the absence of clear rules and by planned political material. In general, there
has been an attempt to preserve the existing inheritance, threatened by the
consequences of the conflict, and also by the limited horizons of political
leaders. In some cases, a few studies were carried out and edited, but some were
not published since they did not conform to the party’s rule and development
priorities. The government in general and specific Ministries do not prioritise
social scientific research and study in their political strategies and budgets.
The result of this situation has been difficulties, even failures and a lack of
trust, when launching development projects, or devising crucial policy
decisions. There are some individual initiatives inside the country as well as
abroad, but they are not usually taken into account due to lack of government
interest or other political considerations. Our scientific culture, even with the
one public university and few private institutions, is too limited and particularly
concentrated in Luanda. Many social scientists are unwillingly forced to worry
about finding solutions to their daily problems and lack of resources; and do not
have enough time to devote to research. The clientelism of the ruling party and
traffic in influence suffocate individual initiative and stultify any personal
creativity among social scientists, who are seen as not politically reliable.
There is a gap between the intention to promote sociology, even in the Science
and Technology ministry, and the concrete actions that eventuate. In general,
surveys, case studies and so on are often funded by institutions of the United
Nations and by international NGOs. Few studies are generated from the
national authorities, although mention can be made of some initiatives from
INE, the national institute of statistics related to the Planning Ministry. The
kind of documents issued by Ministries are in general annual reports, or compi-
lations of statistics, at times lacking rigour in questioning, criticism and reliable
data production.

References
Ciencias Sociais Em África; Alguns projectos de Investigação, Dakar, CODESRIA,
1992.
NGOLA: Revista de Estudos Sociais, Associação de Antropólogos e Sociólogos,
Janeiro-Dezembro, 1997, vol. 1, no. 1.
Pacheco, Fernando, ‘As ciências sociais em Angola: Ponto de situação in N’gola’,
Revista de Estudos Sociais, Janeiro-Dezembro, 1997, vol. I, no. 1 (AASA).