Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648

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Using BRDF for radiance and luminance calculation

Krzysztof Wandachowicz, Konrad Domke *

Poznan University of Technnology, Institute of Industrial Electrical Engineering, ul. Piotrowo 3a, 60 965 Poznan, Poland

Received 8 September 2003; received in revised form 30 October 2005; accepted 1 December 2005
Available online 24 February 2006

Abstract

Correct representation of the phenomenon of reflection of visible radiation or thermal radiation is a necessary precon-
dition for accurate modelling of luminous phenomena (visualization) and thermal phenomena (heat transfer). A full
description of reflective properties of materials is included in BRDF1—difficult to apply in computer calculations. The arti-
cle presents several BRDF models and for the most extended model (the one developed by Embrechts), a method of deter-
mination of optimum coefficients defining BRDF is proposed, based on empirical data. The article presents an example of
visualization illustrating the effects of spread reflection, using the method presented.
 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: BRDF; Models of radiation reflection; Visualization

1. Introduction

In processes of visualization, in modelling of heat transfer and in a range of computer graphics software,
the reproduction of the propagation of optical radiation (i.e. ultraviolet (0.38–0.01 lm) visible (0.78–0.38 lm)
and thermal radiation (1000–0.78 lm)) should involve the reproduction of accompanying physical phenom-
ena. A correct representation of the phenomena of generation, propagation and absorption of radiation, inter-
actions with matter forming the boundaries of the system (reflection, absorption) is a necessary condition
determining the correctness of the model under construction. One of the most significant phenomena which
must be taken into consideration in each model describing optical radiation is reflection. Reflection occurs
when radiation hits reflective matter which constitutes a completely (or partially) opaque boundary of the sys-
tem. The phenomenon of radiation reflection is determined by the characteristics of the reflecting surface and
to some extent by parameters of incident radiation itself. The basic effect of reflection is a change of direction
in which the incident ray propagates, and the resulting change of spatial characteristics of the reflected ray.
Extreme cases include diffuse reflection, in which regardless of the incidence angle of radiation hi, radiation

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Konrad.Domke@put.poznan.pl (K. Domke).
1
The term BRDF (i.e. bi-directional reflectance distribution function) is used chiefly in computer graphics; lighting engineering uses the
concepts of radiance coefficient qe or luminance coefficient qv: where ‘‘e’’-energetic, ‘‘v’’-visible.

1569-190X/$ - see front matter  2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.simpat.2005.12.001
642 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648

is reflected uniformly (diffused) in all directions, and specular reflection, where the incidence angle is equal to
the reflection angle, i.e. hr = hi. The real reflection characteristics of materials usually represent intermediate
cases, demonstrating the so-called spread reflection.

2. Reflection characteristics of materials

The description of the phenomenon of reflection is captured most comprehensively by BRDF, which is the
relation of radiance Le [W/(m2 sr)] or luminance Lv [lm/(m2 sr)], defined along the direction of the reflected
ray, to irradiance Ee [W/m2] or illuminance Ev [lx] on the surface. BRDF is defined by the expression [1,2]
given below:
Lr ðhr ; ur Þ Lr ðhr ; ur Þ
qðhi ; ui ; hr ; ur Þ ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
dEi Li ðhi ; ui Þ  cos hi  dxi
After transformations of (1) Eq. (2) may be obtained:
Z 2p Z p=2
Lr ðhr ; ur Þ ¼ Li ðhi ; ui Þ  qðhi ; ui ; hr ; ur Þ  cos hi  dui  dhi ð2Þ
0 0

Eq. (2) describes the relationship between radiation Li coming from any direction, falling on the surface de-
scribed by BRDF (q), and reflected radiation Lr in direction (hr, ur) [2,14] (see Fig. 1).
The relationships (1) and (2) refer to total values defined for the full range of wavelength k 2 (0  1). For
more accurate modelling and considering monochromatic values BRDF should include wavelength k. Now
BRDF will be defined as q(k, hi, ui, hr, ur). It must also be remembered that the value of BRDF is determined
by the kind of surface (kind of material, way of finishing), the state of surface during the measurement (oxi-
dation, roughness and ornaments) and, indirectly, the temperature of the surface.
The definition of BRDF is similar to the definition of radiance coefficient and luminance coefficient q con-
sidered for radiation incident from given direction of incidence. In lighting engineering, both coefficients can
also be considered for other illumination conditions, e.g. for diffuse light propagating from hemisphere.
It is quite difficult to use BRDF given by formula (1), in modelling of processes of optical radiation prop-
agation. BRDF values can only be empirically defined in the course of prolonged and expensive measure-
ments, and the four-dimensional data table is difficult to visualise. The process also requires considerable
computer memory resources, which is of particular importance in the case of creation of databases for various
materials.
Therefore, due to the factors described above, in order to describe the phenomenon of reflection, different
BRDF models are created. These models differ in terms of degree to which they take into consideration all the
factors determining reflection characteristics. Moreover, the models are based either on more or less complete
descriptions of properties of reflecting surfaces (which requires their experimental determination) or on mea-
sured reflection characteristics (usually only for selected directions). On that basis, it is possible to specify the
parameters of functions approximating the relation (1) for any directions of incident and reflected rays. This
method saves time spent on calculation and takes up less computer memory.

Fig. 1. Angles used in Eqs. (1), (2) and (5), ‘‘i’’—direction of incidence, ‘‘r’’—direction of reflection.
 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648 643

3. Models of reflection characteristics

The work on creating a model describing reflection properties, conducted so far, was focused on fulfilling
three main criteria: accuracy, consistency with the physical model and time spent on calculations. Elementary
work, based on the model of geometrical optics, was performed by Torrance, Sparrow and Cook [4–6]. These
authors created a model of surface, using idealised facets arranged perpendicularly and in parallel. Facet sur-
faces displayed specular reflection. This model made it possible to represent specular and spread reflection
characteristics. Further work on the subject resulted in He’s new model based on laws of physics describing
the way in which radiation is reflected from rough surfaces [7]. Other work in this field includes research con-
ducted by Poulin and Fournier, who developed a model of surface consisting of microscopic cylinder-shaped
cavities [8]. Calculations for these models can be performed using numerical methods; however, they require
considerable time and memory resources.
The requirement condition of consistency with the physical basis of phenomena related to radiation reflec-
tion on the boundary between two media is only fulfilled by models and algorithms which perform calcula-
tions for perfectly diffused reflection. In this case, the equation describing reflection characteristic of the
material is known precisely, its value depending on the total reflectance q:
q
q¼ ð3Þ
p
The equation is simple and it does not depend on the incidence angle of radiation. Algorithms performing cal-
culations for perfectly diffuse reflection are very popular. They are employed in the majority of software cal-
culating illuminance and irradiance or luminance and radiance distribution.
More advanced models take into consideration spread characteristics, too. Phong [9] was the first to put
forward a description of BRDF (q) using a trigonometrical function with exponent n:
q ¼ qs  C s  cosn d ð4Þ

where qs is the specular reflectance, Cs is the standardization coefficient, d is the angle between the vector indi-
cating the direction of viewing and the vector indicating the direction of reflection, n is the exponent value,
which determines the value of BRDF.
This model is still simple and not very accurate. Using a cosine function, it is not possible to describe all bi-
directional reflectance distribution functions of real materials. Function (4) does not take into consideration
the angle of incidence. Phong’s equation is nevertheless widely used in simpler algorithms of computer-gener-
ated graphics to create visualization representations. However, the shortcomings of function (4) made it nec-
essary to introduce an improved model which could describe the phenomenon of radiation reflection in a more
accurate way and would thus be more useful in computer graphics. Following research conducted by Beckman
[10], a number of researchers applied the Gaussian distribution to define the bi-directional reflectance distri-
bution function. In their papers, Ward [11] and Uetani and Matsuura [12] proposed their own equations
describing reflection characteristics of materials. Furthermore, for the proposed equations they presented ori-
ginal methods of calculation, making it possible to obtain visualization representations and calculate e.g. lumi-
nance distributions. However, these results are not free from simplifications regarding consistency of proposed
equations and calculation methods with the laws of physics describing the way in which radiation is reflected
from the surface of materials.
As regards consistency with the physical model, the most advanced equation was proposed by Embrechts in
his Ph.D. thesis published in 1995 [13]. The equation was created after conducting a thorough analysis of
reflection of electromagnetic radiation from a smooth and rough surface. Embrechts’ equation consists of
three parts describing respectively specular reflection, spread reflection and diffuse reflection:
2  p  dðhi  hr Þ  dðuÞ Cðhi Þ  Cðhr Þ 1 1 2 2
bðhi ; hr ; uÞ ¼ as  qs ðhi Þ  þ asc  qs ðdi Þ   4
 e4s tg c
sin 2hi cos hi  cos hr cos c
þ av  ð1  qsurf ðhi ÞÞ  ð1  qsurf ðhr ÞÞ ð5Þ

where b is the radiance or luminance factor, connected with BRDF (q) by the relation: q = b Æ p1 (see Fig. 1).
644 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648

The first part in Eq. (5) refers to specular reflection occurring during radiation incidence on the boundary
between two media characterized by different refractive indices ‘‘n’’ (Fig. 2). This term concerns radiation
reflected from a moderately rough surface. The parameter as depends on the degree of surface roughness
and the incidence angle of radiation hi. It assumes values from the interval 0  1. The coefficient qs(hi) is spec-
ular reflectance resulting from the reflection of radiation on the boundary between two media. The value of
this coefficient is defined using Fresnel’s equation. The terms d(hr  hi) and d(u) are Dirac’s functions, defining
the angles hr and u for which the first part of Eq. (5) is nonzero. This case occurs for the angles hr = hi and
u = 0, i.e. for the direction resulting from specular reflection of radiation. For the angles hr 5 hi and u 5 0,
the Dirac’s function equals zero.
The second part of Eq. (5) refers to spread reflection, which occurs when rays fall on a rough surface
(Fig. 2). The parameter asc describes the degree of surface roughness. The coefficient qs(di) is specular reflec-
tance resulting from the reflection of radiation on the boundary between two media.
On a rough surface, the so-called shadows zones appear when radiation falls at the incidence angle of hi > 0.
Such areas, are an effect of surface roughness. The shadow zones influence the values and the course of reflec-
tion characteristics of rough surfaces, they should be taken into account in the form of additional functions
C(hi) and C(hr).
The third part in Eq. (5) refers to diffuse reflection (Fig. 2) which for dielectrics is connected to volume
reflection. Volume reflection can be described by means of Lambert’s law only to a limited extent (for a specific
incidence angle of radiation and within the range of viewing angles (50  50). Therefore, in order to
describe volume reflection, the function av Æ (1  qsurf(hi)) Æ (1  qsurf(hr)) was used. The coefficient qsurf, which
is the function of the incidence angle hi, is rays reflectance from the rough surface of a given material. This
coefficient concerns the reflection of radiation from the surface of the material only, without taking into con-
sideration the penetration of radiation inside the material. Therefore, (1  qsurf(hi)) of the incident radiant flux
will penetrate into the material. The coefficient av expresses the ratio of the flux which goes out after interre-
flections between particles inside the material and the flux which penetrates into the material. The coefficient av
is defined in a similar manner to reflectance; however, it should be treated as a constant value (independent of
the incidence angle of radiation) characterizing a given material.
Thus in the model given by (5), reflection characteristic is described with the five parameters listed below:

• n: parameter connected with the refractive index of the medium,

• as: parameter connected with the degree of surface roughness, used to describe the specular component,
• asc: parameter connected with the degree of surface roughness, used to describe the spread component,
• av: coefficient characterizing reflective properties of the material, concerning volume reflection only,
• s: parameter connected with the degree of surface roughness, defined as a ratio of the mean distance
between irregularities to the mean height of irregularities.

From the models of reflection presented above, proposed by Torrance, Sparrow and Cook [4–6], He [7],
Poulin and Fournier [8], Phong [9] (the latter given by (4)), and Embrecht [13], the model proposed by Embr-
echt is the closest to the physical description of the radiance reflection from the surface of material. The
parameters n, as, asc, av, s allow to determine the value of function (5). They are related to the physical descrip-

Fig. 2. Reflection of radiation from a rough surface. Three components: specular reflection, spread reflection, diffuse reflection.
 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648 645

tion of the reflecting surface of the material. In this model, Embracht included radiation reflection both from
smooth surface and rough surface, as well as the dependence of BRDF on the incidence angle of rays hi.

4. Seeking a solution for Embrechts’ function

Looking for a solution for Embrechts’ equation consists in finding optimum values of the parameters n, as,
asc, av, s of formula (5). Optimum values are such values of n, as, asc, av, s, for which function (5) best approx-
imates the measured values of radiance or luminance factor b for all values of angles hi and hr. It needs to be
stressed that the comparison of the value of the function (5) and the values of radiance or luminance factor
obtained in the course of measurements needs to be conducted for the widest possible range of angles of inci-
dence hki (0, 10, 20, . . . , 80) and of viewing angles hmr (70, 60, . . . , 10, +10, . . . , +70).
In the first step, the following three parameters will be determined: n, asc, s. It is necessary to make two
assumptions:

• for given constant values of parameters n and s the expression (1  qsurf(hi)) does not depend on the values
of hr for hr 2 (0, 80).
• the value of as is constant for a given material and does not depend on the value of hi.

The first assumption is temporary. In further steps the dependence of the expression (1  qsurf(hi)) on hr will
be the considered. However, notice that for fixed values of n and s the dependence of (1  qsurf(hi)) on hr is
negligible.
The value of as will be one of the five parameters which will give the values of Embrachts’ function for a full
range of angle of incidence.
Using the least mean square method we look for the minimum value of D1b (6), as a function of two param-
eters, n and s, for changing values of hki and hmr . In (6) bM denotes the measured values of luminance factor,
and b denotes the value of luminance factor obtained from formula (5):
" #2
X bM ðhk ; 0Þ  bðhk ; 0Þ þ bðhk ; hm Þ  bM ðhk ; hm Þ
1 i i i r i r
Db ¼ ð6Þ
k;m bM ðhki ; hmr Þ

The value of n changes in the range from 1.1 to 2 and the value of s in the range from 2 to 25. We get the
optimum values of n and s when the value of function (6) is minimal. The optimum value of asc is calculated
when the values of n and s are fixed.
In the second step the remaining two parameters, as and av will be determined. The value of as changes in
the range from 0 to 1 with increase 0.1. We look for a minimum of D2b given by formula (7), for changing val-
ues of parameter as. When D2b reaches a minimum, we get the optimal value of parameter as. Finally, the opti-
mal value of av is calculated.
" #2
X bðhk ; hm Þ  bM ðhk ; hm Þ
2 i r i r
Db ¼ ð7Þ
k;m bM ðhki ; hmr Þ

The method is described in detail in [3]. It allows to determine the parameters of function (5) on the basis of
formulae (6) and (7).
In [13] we can find values of measured luminance factor of white opaline plastic sample. One of the typical
properties of this material is the fact that in addition to diffuse reflection, it also produces specular reflection.
Due to this, for the viewing angle hr equal to the angle of incidence hi, no measurement of the luminance factor
is possible because the luminance value is too big. Assuming experimental data from [13] as input data, using
the software presented in [3] (which uses formulae (6) and (7)), optimum parameter values of Embrechts’ equa-
tion corresponding to these data have been determined. This is illustrated in Table 1.
The software given in [3] allowed to use the above determined optimal values of parameters n, as, asc, av, s to
calculate the values of luminance factor, which were then compared with the measured values of luminance
factor presented in [13].
646 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648

Table 1
Optimum parameter values of Embrechts’ function for a white opaline plastic sample
Parameter n s asc as av
Value 1.5 10 0.2 1 0.6

Table 2 shows relative error calculated as a difference between measurement values and values of b for
determined optimum parameters from Table 1.
Worsening accuracy of approximation is clearly visible around the discontinuity of BRDF corresponding
to specular reflection. We can also see also demonstrates that the mean difference between measured lumi-
nance factor and luminance factor values calculated using Embrechts’ function does not exceed 10%, with
the exception of areas around the discontinuity of the function, corresponding to specular reflection.
Fig. 3 presents changes of luminance factor values for selected incidence angles, hi = 20 and hi = 80. The
value of the coefficients as and qs influences the value of the expression (1  qsurf(h)), which results in decreas-
ing luminance factor for measuring hi and hr. The influence of the angle of incidence on the luminance factor is
clearly visible. The calculated value of the qs coefficient (related to surface reflection) is 0.04 when hi = 20 and
it reaches 0.4 when hi = 80.

Table 2
Approximation error of luminance factor in Embrechts’ function in %
Viewing angle hr Angle of incidence hi
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
70 3.5 2.3 3.0 7.4 3.6 4.1 12.5 – 20.0
60 0.2 3.1 5.1 0.2 2.9 7.5 – 12.5 10.6
50 2.4 4.0 0.4 2.0 6.0 – 7.5 4.1 13.3
40 3.0 0.6 1.0 3.7 – 6.0 2.9 3.6 8.4
30 0.4 0.8 3.0 – 3.7 2.0 0.2 7.4 1.0
20 4.6 4.2 – 3.0 1.0 0.4 5.1 3.0 9.3
10 11.3 – 4.2 0.8 0.6 4.0 3.1 2.3 7.9
0 – 11.3 4.6 0.4 3.0 2.4 0.2 3.5 4.3
10 16.3 – 8.2 0.3 1.0 0.7 2.7 2.8 20.6
20 6.6 16.9 – 7.7 3.8 1.2 0.1 7.3 8.5
30 1.6 4.8 17.5 – 8.7 2.8 1.8 2.2 5.8
40 1.6 1.0 5.8 18.7 – 8.4 3.8 1.8 4.8
50 2.1 0.6 2.3 7.9 29.7 – 13.0 3.6 11.3
60 3.1 2.6 0.9 2.0 10.1 34.6 – 27.1 4.0
70 0.7 1.2 1.7 4.3 7.7 15.4 48.3 – 21.0

Incident angle 20˚ Incident angle 80˚

1.0 1.0
Luminance factor β
Luminance factor β

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Viewing angle θr Viewing angle θr
Measurement Calculation Measurement Calculation

Fig. 3. Luminance factor b for the incidence angles of 20 and 80 for a plate made of white opaline plastic sample. A comparison of
measured values with values calculated using Embrechts’ function.
 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648 647

5. Application of Embrechts’ function in visualizations

The application of the equation of Embrechts’ model can be illustrated with the calculation of luminance
distribution (in the range of visible radiation) of a specified spatial configuration, examined or modelled by
means of the RADIANCE system [14]. The configuration examined is a model room, with two luminaires
on the ceiling, a table in the middle and a window covered with a dark curtain (Fig. 4). The top of the table
is made of white opaline plastic sample, as described in Section 4. Other surfaces inside the room are charac-
terized by diffuse reflection. The observer is at the table, at the height of 1.2 m above the floor. The observer
views the surface of the table along the line determined by the intersection of the table by a surface which is
perpendicular to the table and parallel to the longer side of the room. The angle a determining the viewing
angle changes within the range from 0 to 90 (Fig. 4). As a result, the observer does not only view the surface
of the table, but also the radiator placed on the wall and the curtain covering the window.
The RADIANCE system is used to calculate luminance distribution of surfaces viewed by a conventional
observer. The observer changes the direction of viewing according to angle a (Fig. 4). The results of calcula-
tions are presented in Fig. 5.
The results obtained show that the material covering the upper surface of the table is characterized by
spread reflection. This is confirmed by the two maxima occurring for the angle a = 0 and a = 35–37. These
maxima are related to the reflection of light coming from sources of great luminance, i.e. from luminaires
placed on the ceiling. Analyzing the second maximum, one can notice that the greater the value of the angle
a, the greater the value of calculated luminance. This reflects the phenomenon of increased specular reflectance
along with increasing incidence angle of rays. In the transition from the first to the second maximum, one can
notice that first luminance decreases, then it reaches its local minimum and rises again. This pattern of lumi-
nance changes results from the presence of a component, responsible for spread reflection. In the angle range
a = 75–90 one can notice a certain local disturbance of luminance distribution. This disturbance is the result

Fig. 4. Geometrical arrangement of the room for which calculations of luminance distribution were performed.

2000

1500
L [cd/m2 ]

1000

500

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
α [1 ]0

Fig. 5. Luminance distribution on the table surface viewed by a conventional observer.

648 K. Wandachowicz, K. Domke / Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 14 (2006) 641–648

of the changing the object observation: from the table surface to the surface of the radiator and the curtain, i.e.
two surfaces with a different type of reflection and different reflectance.

6. Conclusions

The analysis of results obtained in calculations confirms that the adopted model of description of reflection
characteristics demonstrates a high degree of consistency with real values. Using the BRDF model based on
Embrechts’ equation, and at the same time defining the parameters of this equation using empirical data
according to the procedure presented in Section 4, it is possible to obtain in computer graphics software used
for visualization, correctly reproduced optical phenomena related to spread reflection. Similarly, it is possible
to perform simulation calculations of radiance or luminance distributions for the real reflection characteristics
of a selective materials, even in cases involving the use of materials with spread reflection characteristics in e.g.
daylighting systems or indirect lighting. In such cases, failure to take into account their real reflection char-
acteristics produces major errors in simulations or gives rise to visualization representations that are not true
to life.
Another possibility is to perform modelling or simulation calculations for materials which reflect radiation
selectively. In such a case, in the examined range, the relation between BRDF and the wavelength k is taken
into consideration. The monochromatic values are calculated and summed.

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