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0100 36 777 19
DNA
DNA can replicate itself, it can make exact replica ( copy) of itself when
cells want to divide
Steps:
4. Hydrogen bonds form between base pairs to form ‘’ rungs’’ ساللمof the ladder, bonds
form between the sugar-phosphate components األجنابof the newly formed
nucleotides
5. New double stranded molecules twist up into double helices
64
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
6. The 2 new molecules of DNA that are produced, each consists of 1 old strand, 1 new
strand. This is called Semi-conservative way هام جدا
* Each separated DNA strand acts as Template قالب او موديلto form new
complementary strand ( new partner )
* DNA Polymerase : catalyzes replication and proofreads each new DNA strand,
Fixing errors and minimizing
occurance of mutations
65
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Cells that have 2 sets of chromosomes are called diploid ( each chromosome has a
homologous partner )
RNA :
3 types of RNA :
transcription translation
DNA RNA Protein
1 – Transcription
The process by which DNA makes RNA, it is
facilitated by RNA polymerase enzyme and occurs
in nucleus
66
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
The triplet codes in DNA are transcribed into a codon sequence in mRNA
Then the complementary sequence of codons in mRNA is UUU AUU GGC CUG
2- RNA processing
After transcription and before the newly formed strand of RNA is shipped out
يخرجof the nucleus to the cytoplasm, this initial transcript is processed or
edited by series of enzymes النسخة تتعدل
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Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
mRNA → codon
tRNA → Anti-codon
- Anti-codon (contained
in anti-codon loop) → special
region on tRNA that can base
pair with codons on mRNA … the anticodon must be complementary مكمل له أو متوافق
معاهto codon to base pair with it
Genetic code:
68
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Ribosome:
- The organelle that synthesizes protein…. mRNA binds to ribosome and tRNA carries
amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes
Once peptide bond is formed. The 1st and now empty tRNA is released from
ribosome and return to cytoplasm to bind with another amino acid
Ribosome slides down 1 codon so that codon in A-site shifts to P-site and
next codon in sequence moves to A-site اللى عليه الدور
69
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
[UAA , UGA , UAG ] 3 of possible 64 codons don’t specify any amino acid ….
When Stop codon appears in A-site خالص كده مفيش أمينو أسيد جديد, final tRNA is
released from ribosome and completed protein is released
* P-site stands for Peptide where the growing peptide is attached to ribosome
*A-site stands for Amino acid where next amino acid is attached to growing protein
Reverse transcriptase
RNA DNA
70
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Gene regulation
o Every cell does not constantly synthesize every polypeptide it has the ability to
make. For example, cells in pancreas are not always producing tons of insulin
because it is not always needed
o That means that every gene in a cell is not turned on all the time. How does a cell
know when to turn on a gene or when to turn it off? This is actually a very complex
process in humans and one that is not understood well. However, a simple model
for gene regulation can be found in bacteria in a region of DNA called the operon
o operon is actually a cluster of functional genes + switches مفاتيح التشغيلthat turn
them on and off
o two types of operons. One is the Lac or inducible operon → is normally turned
off unless it is actively induced or triggered to turn on by something in
environment
o The other is repressible operon, which is always turned on unless it is actively
turned off because it is temporarily not needed
o Some of the parts of operon. The two most relevant ones are the promoter and
the operator
1. promoter is the binding site of RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase must
always bind to DNA before transcription can take place.
2. So promoter is like an “on” switch
3. The other region is operator → This is binding site for repressor, which
turns off the Lac operon
4. Another part of operon, with a funny name, is the TATA box (named for its
sequences of alternating adenine and thymine), which helps RNA
polymerase bind to promoter
Human Genome
71
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
o Recombinant DNA means → taking DNA from two sources and combining them in
one cell ( this technique is used in lab production of insulin )
o genetic engineering or biotechnology → branch of science that uses
recombinant DNA techniques for practical purposes
o gene replacement therapy and environmental cleanup → 2 important areas of
study in genetic engineering
o Scientists are trying to learn how to → insert functioning genes into cells to replace
nonfunctioning ones in humans
If they are successful → it would mean an end to genetic diseases like cystic
fibrosis and sickle cell anemia
Another is that these foreign genes might adversely affect people who eat
the genetically engineered organisms
72
Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Gel Electrophoresis
o Gel electrophoresis separates large molecules of DNA on the basis of their rate of
movement through an agarose gel in an electric field
o The smaller the molecule, the faster it runs through gel
o If necessary, concentration of the agarose gel can be changed to provide better
separation of tiny DNA fragments
o In order to run DNA through a gel, it must first be cut up by restriction enzymes
into pieces small enough to migrate through gel
o Once separated on gel → DNA can be analyzed in many ways
o Figure 10.9 shows an electrophoresis gel with 4 samples of DNA. The DNA in lanes 1,
2, and 4 were previously cut with restriction enzymes;
o the DNA in lane 3 was left uncut. Each sample is running in its own lane. The shorter
pieces of DNA run farther and faster through the gel
الخالصة القطع الصغيرة هتعدى بسرعة كأنه فلتر و القطع الكبيرة هتعدى
ببطء
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Cellular and molecular biology
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Once DNA is amplified, these copies can be studied or used in a comparison with
other DNA samples
Questions 1-4
(A) Transcription
(B) Translation
(C) Replication
(D) Transpiration
(E) Splicing
1. Results in the production of RNA
2. Includes the removal of the introns
3. Is said to be semi-conservative
4. The "reading" of mRNA codons in groups of three nucleotides
Ans : 1- A 2- E 3- C 4- B
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Cellular and molecular biology