Candles 1
Candles
See also → Waxes, Chap. 4.7.
Franz Willhöft, Rosengarten-Nenndorf, Federal Republic of Germany
Rudolf Horn, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany page 2
Records show that candles were first used
around the eighth century B.C.
Until about 1850, candles were made out
of raw [8006-40-4] or bleached [8012-89-3]
beeswax and animal fats (beef tallow). Sper-
maceti [8002-23-1], paraffin [64742-43-4], and
stearin [11099-07-3] have since been added to
the list of raw materials.
Raw Materials. The raw materials used in
the production of candles can be classified as
basic materials and additives.
Basic materials: paraffin, beeswax, stearin
Additives: microcrystalline waxes, hard
waxes, opacifiers, coloring agents, and
other such additives as polyethylene,
resins, and perfumes
Refined paraffin, obtained from mineral oil
and having a low oil content, is the principal
raw material used today in the fabrication of
candles (→ Waxes). It is a mixture of normal
paraffins, isoparaffins, and cycloparaffins (naph-
thenes). The percentage of each component in
the mixture depends on the type of crude oil
and on the extent of refining prior to wax iso-
lation. The n-paraffins shrink severely on solid-
ification, and at temperatures below the solidifi-
cation point they form relatively large, uniform
crystals. The isoparaffins contract less on solid-
ification than the n-paraffins and form smaller,
less uniform crystals. The cycloparaffins, which
can be composed of one or more rings and of
branched or unbranched chains, usually solidify
in an amorphous mass. Only a few form small,
needle-shaped crystals.
Beeswax (→ Waxes) is a mixture which con-
tains approximately 12 % n-paraffins in addition
to hydrocarbon waxes, free fatty acids, cerotic
acid [506-46-7], cerotic esters, and cholesteryl
esters. It is plastic andhighly malleable, but it
does not smear. It is hard and brittle under cold-

c 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
10.1002/14356007.a05 029
conditions, an indication that the softening point
and the melting point lie far apart on the tem-
perature scale. Beeswax is used to produce wax
sheets which are then processed into candle dec-
orations and altar candles.
Stearin is used in pure form or in mixtures
for candle making. It contains primarily palmitic
acid [57-10-3] and stearic acid [57-11-4] (C16
and C18 fatty acids) and gives the candle an
opaque, white, and very full appearance.
Microcrystalline waxes are hydrocarbon
waxes with a very fine crystalline structure.
Hard waxes (→ Waxes) are either natu-
ral, particularly carnauba wax [8015-86-9],
or synthetic products.Polymethylene
[68649-50-3] (synthesized using the Fischer-
Tropschtechnique) or polyethylene [9002-88-4]
(obtained using the Zieglersynthesis) mainly
are used. When added to the raw materials, they
give candlesan opaque appearance, and in trace
amounts they give a good hardness.
Opacifiers include stearin, hard waxes,
polyethylenes, and, above all, organic and inor-
ganic pigments. Air, blown into the wax mate-
rial, also acts as an opacifier.
Candle material can be colored by adding ei-
ther 0.1 – 0.8 % of an oil- or paraffin-based dye
or about 0.5 – 2.0 % of a pigment to the basic
materials.
Wick. The wick is made of braided cotton
and can be either flat or round. Usually raw yarn
is employed, hence the wick subsequently must
be washed, bleached, prepared, spun, and dried.
Ammonium salts (e.g., ammonium nitrate, am-
monium phosphate, and ammonium sulfate),
potassium chloride, potassium nitrate, borax,
and boric acid prevent the wick from glowing
after the candle has been put out. They regulate
the state of the wick, ensure complete burning,
and act as oxygen carriers. The wick controls the
melting, evaporation, and burning of the candle
2 Candles
material. It conveys the liquid wax from the cup
to the burning zone. The capillarity of the wick
should be sufficient to enable the liquid wax to
rise fast enough and yet not stream down the
sides of the candle.
Manufacturing Technique. Although sub-
stantially improved models of the well-known
candle molding or candle drawing machines are
still available, a powder press (one- to eight-
stanchion press) is normally used. The paraffin
powder is so intensely compressed in a cylinder
that at a compression of approximately 1.7 : 1 a
solid, rough candle is formed. Methods used in
the extrusion of plastics have also been applied to
the processing of wax; in no other method used
in the manufacture of candles are the demands
on the raw materials so critical. The granules are
pressed through a cylinder by means of a screw
conveyer and subsequently forced through a per-
forated disc into a slightly constrictive compres-
sion chamber. The end of the machine is joined
to a small, heated, cylindrical tube from which a
ribbon of the still malleable candle continuously
issues.
In the latest method employing a horizon-
tal piston press, the granules (powder, chunks,
Candy → Confectionery
beads) are fed into the press and compressed
with each cycle of a hydraulic piston. The cycle
time and throughput are variable. The candle ap-
pears discontinuously through the bore that de-
termines its diameter.
The wick can also be dipped into the wax melt
using special machines and the process repeated
until the candle acquires the required diameter.
The appearance of rough candles produced in
this manner can subsequently be improved by
dipping them into a coloring bath.
Economic Aspects. The production of can-
dles in the Federal Republic of Germany in-
creased from 8 kt in 1955 to 46.5 kt in 1983. The
per capita consumption in 1983 was almost 1 kg.
The candle production in Western Europe in
1979 amounted to 165 kt; per capita consump-
tion was about 430 g. The production in the
United States in 1979 was 100 kt.
References
General References
1. M. Faraday: The Chemical History of a
Candle, Chatto & Windus, London 1908.