Chapter 1:

Basics of Heat Transfer

Dr. Apichart Chaengbamrung

Mechanical Engineering
Kasetsart University
Objective of this chapter
„ To understand the basic concept of heat
transfer
„ To define what the difference between
thermodynamics and heat transfer is
„ To understand basic concept of 3 modes
of heat transfer

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
„ The energy transfer is always from the higher
temperature medium to the lower temperature.
„ The energy transfer stops when the two medium
reach the same temperature.
„ Heat: the form of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a results of
temperature difference.
„ Heat Transfer: the science that deal with the
determination of the rates of energy transfer

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
„ Thermodynamics
… be concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a
system undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another (give no indication how long the
process will take)
… deal with equilibrium states and changes from one
equilibrium state to another

„ Heat Transfer
… be concerned with the determination of the rate of
heat transfer to or from a system, the times of cooling
or heating and the variation of the temperature
… deal with nonequilibrium phenomenon
… Use of the law of thermodynamics
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Application Areas of Heat Transfer
„ Household application such as water
heater, iron, cooling system of the
computer etc.
„ Many devices such as car radiators, solar
collectors, components of power plants
etc.
„ The optimal thickness in the walls and
roofs of the house, on hot water or steam
pipes
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Historical Background
„ The middle of the 19th century
„ Truly understand the nature of heat
„ Developed the kinetic theory, molecules as
tiny balls that are motion and possess
kinetic energy
„ Developed the caloric theory, heat is a
fluid-like substance that can be poured
from one body into another.
„ Rejected the caloric theory by James. P.
Joule

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Engineering Heat Transfer
„ The heat transfer problems uncounted in
practice can be considered in two groups.
… Rating problem
… Sizing problem
„ The heat transfer can be studied either
experimental and analytically.

“Often a good compromise is reached by

reducing the choices to just a few by analysis,
and the verifying the finding experimentally.”
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Heat and other forms of energy
„ Energy has many form such as thermal,
mechanical, electrical, potential etc.
„ Summation of all energy concerned is the
total energy, E.
„ The sum of all microscopic forms of
energy is called the internal energy, U.
( Temp increases → U increases)

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The internal energy
„ Sensible energy or sensible heat is the internal
energy associated with the kinetic energy of the
molecules.
„ Latent energy or latent heat is the internal
energy associated with the phase of system
„ Chemical energy or bond energy is the internal
energy associated with the atom bonds in a
molecule
„ Nuclear energy is the internal energy associated
with the bonds within the nucleus of the atom
itself
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Specific heats of gases, liquid and solid
„ Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree depending on how the process is executed,
constant volume or constant pressure
„ The specific heat at constant volume, Cv is the energy
required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree by the volume is held constant
„ The specific heat at constant volume, Cp is the energy
required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree by the pressure is held
constant
„ Cp > Cv for ideal gas Cp = Cv + R

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Specific heats of gases, liquid and solid
„ For Ideal gas:
du = CvdT and dh = CpdT
or
dU = mCvdT and dH = mCpdT
„ A substance whose specifice volume (or density)
does not change with temperature or pressure is
called an incompressible substance
„ For an incompressible substance:
Cp ≈ Cv ≈ C

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Energy Transfer
„ Energy can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms: heat, Q and work, W
„ Work per unit time is Power, W&
„ Heat (or thermal energy) is the sensible and
latent forms of the internal energy
„ Heat transfer,Q& , is the amount of heat
transferred during the process
„ Heat flux,q& , is the rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer
Q&
q& =
A 12
The first law of thermodynamics
„ Or called “the conservation of energy principle”
„ State that “the energy can neither be created
nor destroyed; it can only change forms”
„ 1st law →“the net change (increase or
decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during that process”
or
Ein – Eout = ∆Esystem
Or, un the rate form, as
E& in − E& out = dEsystem dt 13
The 1st law for control mass
dE = δQ − δW
m(V22 − V12 )
U 2 − U1 + + mg ( z 2 − z1 )=1 Q2 −1W2
2

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The 1st law for control volume
General equation:
dE & & 1 1
= Q − W + m& (h + V + gZ ) − m& (h + V + gZ )
CV 2 2

2 2
CV CV i i i i e e e e
dt
For steady state steady flow (sssf)
& 1 2 1 2
QCV + ∑ m& i (hi + Vi + gZ i ) = ∑ m& e (he + Ve + gZ e ) + W& CV
2 2
For unsteady state, unsteady flow (usuf)
⎧⎡ V2 ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤ ⎫
⎨ ⎢ m (u + + gZ ) ⎥ − ⎢ m ( u + + gZ ) ⎥ ⎬
⎩⎣ 2 ⎦2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 1 ⎭ CV
1 2 1 2
= Q CV − W CV + ∑ m i ( h i + V i + gZ i ) − ∑ m e ( h e + V e + gZ e )
2 2 15
Heat transfer mechanisms
„ Heat can be transferred in three different
modes:
Conduction
Convection
And Radiation
„ All modes require the existence of a
temperature difference and from the high-
temp medium to a lower-temp medium
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Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation

solid a surface electromagnetic

stationary fluids & moving fluids waves

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Conduction
„ require a solid media
„ random translational, internal rotation, and
vibrational motion of molecules
„ material’s properties – thermal conductivity
(W/m-K)

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Conduction
(Area) (Temperature difference)
Rate of heat conduction ∝
T1 Thickness
T2 or
Q dT
&
Qcond = − kA (Watt )
A
dx
A

∆x
It is called the Fourier’s law of heat conduction
dT/dx is the temperature gradient
k is the thermal conductivity of the material

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Thermal conductivity
„ Measure of a material’s
ability to conduct heat
„ Can be defined as the rate of
heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per
unit area per unit temperature
difference

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Thermal conductivity

The range of thermal conductivity of

various material at room temperature
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Thermal conductivity

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Thermal conductivity

The variation of the thermal

conductivity of various
solids, liquids and gases
with temperature

T, K
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Thermal diffusivity
„ The product of ρCp (J/m3.oC) is called the heat
capacity of material that represent the heat
storage capability of a material
„ Thermal diffusivity is a material property that
represents how fast heat diffuses through a
material as is defined as
Heat conducted k
α= = 2
(m / s)
Heat stored ρ Cp
„ Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat
stored per unit volume
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Thermal diffusivity

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Scope of Study in Conduction
Conduction

Steady State Transient

1-D 2-D 3-D

Plane Cylinder Sphere Fin

Wall

Lumped Capacity Graphic Finite difference

Method Method Method

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Convection
„ Convection is the mode of
energy transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent liquid of
gas that is in motion
„ Can be separated to 2 kinds of
convection:
Forced convection
Free (or natural) convection

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Convection
„ If fluid is forced to flow over the
surface by external means such
as a fan, pump or the wind, this
convection is called “Forced
convection”
„ If the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced
by density difference due to the
variation of temperature in the
fluid, this convection is called
“Free (or natural) convection”

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Convection
„ require a fluid media
„ random molecular motion and bulk motion of
fluid

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Type of Convection
Convection

Forced Convection Natural/Free Convection

The flow of the fluid is caused by The flow of the fluid is induced by
external means such as a fan, a buoyancy forces, which arise from
pump, or atmospheric winds. density difference caused by
temperature variation in the fluid.

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Convection
„ The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference and contacted
area that is defined as
Q& conv = h As (Ts − T∞ ) It is the Newton’s law
of cooling
where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2)(not a fluid property, it depends on conditions of
the flow such as the surface geometry, the bulk fluid
velocity etc.)
As is the surface area
Ts is surface temp
T∞ is the temperature of fluid sufficiently far
from the surface

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Convection

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Forced Convection
Forced

External Internal

Laminar Turbulence Laminar Turbulence

Flat Plate Cylinder Sphere Circular Non-Circular Concentric

Tube Tube Tube

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Natural Convection
Natural

External Internal

Laminar Turbulence Laminar Turbulence

Flat Plate Cylinder Sphere Plate Concentric Concentric

Channels Cylinders Spheres

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Radiation
„ Radiation is the energy emitted by matter
in the form of electromagnetic waves (or
photon)
„ Not required the presence of an
intervening medium
„ Energy transfer by radiation is fastest and
suffer no attenuation in a vacuum
„ In heat transfer studies, interested only
“thermal radiation”

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Radiation
„ require no media
„ thermal radiation is energy emitted by means of
electromagnetic waves
„ emission occurs from solid surfaces, liquids and
gases

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Radiation
„ The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature, Ts, is given by the
Stefan-Boltmann law as

Q& emit ,max = σ AsTs4 (W )

where σ = 5.67×10-8 W/m2 is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum
rate is called a Blackbody and the radiation emitted by a
blackbody is called blackbody radiation

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Real Body Radiation
„ The radiation emitted by all
real surface is less than the
radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same
temperature defined by:
Q& emit = ε σ AsTs4 (W )

where ε is the emissivity of

the surface, 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1

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Radiation
„ The absorptivity, α, is the fraction of the radiation
energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by
the surface, 0 ≤ α ≤ 1
„ A blackbody is a perfect emitter and perfect
absorber
„ Both ε, α of the surface depend on the
temperature and the wavelength of the radiation
ƒ The rate at which a surface
absorbs radiation is determined
from
Q& absorbed = α Q& incident (W )
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Radiation
„ The difference between the rates of
radiation emitted by the surface and
the radiation absorbed is the net
radiation heat transfer
Emitted > Absorbed → gaining energy
Emitted < Absorbed → losing energy

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Radiation
„ The net rate of radiation
heat transfer between two
surface is given by:
Qrad = ε α As (Ts − Tsurr )
& 4 4

note: the emissivity and the surface

area of the surrounding surface do
not have any effect on the net
radiation heat transfer

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Radiation
„ For radiation + convection (or
conduction) case,
Q& total = hcombined As (Ts − T∞ ) hcombined is a combined heat
transfer coefficient

„ Radiation in forced convection applications

is usually disregarded

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Scope of Study in Radiation

Radiation

Processes Exchange among

surfaces

Blackbody Graybody

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