c
 


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‘

One plus one makes three: this equation is the special alchemy of a merger or an
acquisition. The key principle behind buying a company is to create shareholder
value over and above that of the sum of the two companies. Two companies
together are more valuable than two separate companies - at least, that's the
reasoning behind M&A. ‘


‘

A 
‘

 is the combination of the assets and liabilities of two firms
to form a single business entity. In a merger of firms that are approximate
equals, there often is an exchange of stock in which one firm issues new shares
to the shareholders of the other firm at a certain ratio.


 
Acquisitions are actions through which companies seek economies of scale,
efficiencies and enhanced market visibility. Unlike all mergers, all acquisitions
involve one firm purchasing another - there is no exchange of stock
or consolidation as a new company. In an acquisition, as in some of the merger
deals we discuss above, a company can buy another company with cash, stock
or a combination of the two.

 
‘
‘ ‘

The dominant rationale used to explain M&A activity is that acquiring firms
seek improved financial performance. The following motives are considered to
improve financial performance:

ᑠconomy of scale: This refers to the fact that the combined company can
often reduce its fixed costs by removing duplicate departments or
operations, lowering the costs of the company relative to the same
revenue stream, thus increasing profit ma rgins.
ᑠconomy of scope: This refers to the efficiencies primarily associated
with demand-side changes, such as increasing or decreasing the scope of
marketing and distribution, of different types of products.
 ᑠIncreased revenue or market share: This assumes that the buyer will be
absorbing a major competitor and thus increase its market power (by
capturing increased market share) to set prices.
ᑠ^ross-selling: For example, a bank buying a stock broker could then sell
its banking products to the stock broker's customers, while the broker can
sign up the bank's customers for brokerage account s. Or, a manufacturer
can acquire and sell complementary products.
ᑠÔynergy: For example, managerial economies such as the increased
opportunity of managerial specialization. Another example ar e
purchasing economies due to increased order size and associated bulk -
buying discounts.
ᑠTaxation: A profitable company can buy a loss maker to use the target's
loss as their advantage by reducing the ir tax liability. In the United Ôtates
and many other countries, rules are in place to limit the ability of
profitable companies to "shop" for loss making companies, limiting the
tax motive of an acquiring company. Tax minimization strategies include
purchasing assets of a non-performing company and reducing current tax
liability under the Tanner -White PLL^ Troubled Asset Recovery Plan.
ᑠÿeographical or other diversification: This is designed to smooth the
earnings results of a company, which over the long t erm smoothens the
stock price of a company, giving conservative investors more confidence
in investing in the company. However, this does not always deliver value
to shareholders (see below).
ᑠResource transfer: resources are unevenly distributed across fir ms
(Barney, 1991) and the interaction of target and acquiring firm resources
can create value through either overcoming information asymmetry or by
combining scarce resources.[3]

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‘

‘‘

  :

Although they are often uttered in the same breath and used as though they were
synonymous, the terms merger and acquisition mean slightly different things.

When one company takes over another and clearly established itself as the new
owner, the purchase is called an acquisition.

whereas merger happens when two firms, often of about the same size, agree to
go forward as a single new company rather than remain separately owned and
operated. This kind of action is more precisely referred to as a "merger of
equals." Both companies' stocks are surrendered and new company stock is
issued in its place. For example, both Daimler -Benz and ^hrysler ceased to
 exist when the two firms merged, and a new company, Daimler^hrysler, was
created.

In practice, however, actual mergers of equals don't happen very often. Usually,
one company will buy another and, as part of the deal's terms, simply allow the
acquired firm to proclaim that the action is a merger of equals, even if it's
technically an acquisition. Being bought ou t often carries negative connotations,
therefore, by describing the deal as a merger, deal makers and top managers try
to make the takeover more palatable.

A purchase deal will also be called a merger when both ^Os agree that joining
together is in the best interest of both of their companies. But when the deal is
unfriendly - that is, when the target company does not want to be purchased - it
is always regarded as an acquisition.

Ôo as A conclusion we can say that, the term 

  tends to be used when
a larger firm absorbs a smaller firm, and 

 tends to be used when the
combination is portrayed to be between equals.


‘

Ôynergy is the magic force that allows for enhanced cost efficiencies of the new
business. Ôynergy takes the form of revenue enhancement and cost savings. By
merging, the companies hope to benefit from the following:

ᑠÔtaff reductions - As every employee knows, mergers tend to mean job losses.
^onsider all the money saved from reducing the number of staff members from
accounting, marketing and other departments. Job cuts will also include the
former ^O, who typically leaves with a compens ation package.
ᑠconomies of scale - Mergers also translate into improved purchasing power to
buy equipment or office supplies - when placing larger orders, companies have
a greater ability to negotiate prices with their suppliers.
ᑠAcquiring new technology - To stay competitive, companies need to stay on top
of technological developments and their business applications. By buying a
smaller company with unique technologies, a large compa ny can maintain or
develop a competitive edge and Vice versa.
ᑠImproved market reach and industry visibility - ^ompanies buy companies to
reach new markets and grow revenues and earnings. A merge may expand two
companies' marketing and distribution, giving them new sales opportunities. A
 merger can also improve a company's standing in the investment community:
bigger firms often have an easier time raising capital than smaller ones.

‘

‘‘

‘

From the perspective of business structures, there is a whole host of different

mergers. Here are a few types, distinguished by the relationship between the
two companies that are merging:

ᑠHorizontal merger - Two companies that are in direct competition and share the
same product lines and markets.
ᑠVertical merger - A customer and company or a supplier and company. Think of
a cone supplier merging with an ice cream maker.
ᑠMarket-extension merger ‘  Two companies that sell the same products in
different markets.
ᑠProduct-extension merger ‘  Two companies selling different but related
products in the same market.
ᑠ^onglomeration - Two companies that have no common business areas.

º ‘ ‘‘‘ ! ‘‘ 
‘

‘

‘
It's hard for investors to know when a deal is worthwhile. The burden of proof
should fall on the acquiring company. To find mergers that have a chance of
success, investors should start by looking for some of these simple criteria:

ᑠA reasonable purchase price - A premium of, say, 10% above the market price
seems within the bounds of level-headedness. A premium of 50%, on the other
hand, requires synergy of stellar proportions for the deal to make sense. Ôtay
away from companies that participate in such contest s.
ᑠ^ash transactions - ^ompanies that pay in cash tend to be more careful when
calculating bids and valuations come closer to target. When stock is used as the
currency for acquisition, discipline can go by the wayside.
ᑠÔensible appetite ± An acquiring company should be targeting a company that is
smaller and in businesses that the acquiring company knows intimately.
Ôynergy is hard to create from companies in disparate business areas.

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"
‘‘

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‘ 
!‘
 ‘
1.‘   ‘ ‘‘#

When the ^O and top managers of a company decide that they want to do a
merger or acquisition, they start with a tender offer. The process typically
begins with the acquiring company carefu lly and discreetly buying up shares in
the target company, or building a position. Once the acquiring company starts to
purchase shares in the open market, it is restricted to buying 5% of the total
outstanding shares.

2.‘ 
‘
$‘%


Once the tender offer has been made, the target company can do one of several
things:

ᑠ
 ‘ 
‘ 
‘ ‘ 
‘ #
 - If the target firm's top managers and
shareholders are happy with the terms o f the transaction, they will go
ahead with the deal.

ᑠ
 ‘ ‘ &
 
- The tender offer price may not be high enough
for the target company's shareholders to accept, or the specific terms of
the deal may not be attractive. In a merger, there may be much at stake
for the management of the target - their jobs, in particular. If they're not
satisfied with the terms laid out in the tender offer, the target's
management may try to work out more agreeable terms that let them keep
their jobs or, even better, send them off with a nice, big compensation
package.

Highly sought-after target companies that are the object of several bidders
will have greater latitude for negotiation. Furthermore, managers have
more negotiating power if they can show that they are crucial to the
merger's future success.

3.‘ 

‘‘"‘"!!‘‘
‘# 
‘' !
‘

‘ 


± A poison

pill scheme can be triggered by a target company when a hostile suitor acquires
a predetermined percentage of company stock. To execute its defense, the target
company grants all shareholders - except the acquiring company - options to
buy additional stock at a dramatic discount. This dilutes the acquiring
company's share and intercepts its control of the company.

4.‘ ‘ ‘º
‘ ( - As an alternative, the target company's management

may seek out a friendlier potential acquiring company, or white knight. If a
 white knight is found, it will offer an equal or higher price for the shares than
the hostile bidder.

If the two biggest long-distance companies/ organizations for example I^I^I

and Bank of Rajasthan, they have to take the approval from the main governing
body in same case Reserve Bank of India

5.‘ ^!‘ 
‘ 
!

Finally, once the target company agrees to the tender offer and regulatory
requirements are met, the merger deal will be executed by means of some
transaction. In a merger in which one company buys another, the acquiring
company will pay for the target company's shares with cash, stock or both.

A cash-for-stock transaction is fairly straightforward: target company

shareholders receive a cash payment for each share purchased. This transaction
is treated as a taxable sale of the shares of the target company.

 ‘

‘‘

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Mergers are generally differentiated from acquisitions partly by the way in

which they are financed and partly by the relative size of the companies.
Various methods of financing an M&A deal exist:

^‘

Payment by cash. Ôuch transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than
mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the
picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bi dder's
shareholders.

  ‘

Payment in the acquiring company's stock, issued to the shareholders of the

acquired company at a given ratio proportional to the valuation of the latter.


‘)
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‘‘

‘* 
+ :

The rationale behind a is that "the parts are greater than the whole." The
corporate restructuring techniques like spinoff, tracking stock or carve-out,
which involves the separation of a business unit or subsidiary from the parent,
can help a company raise additional equity funds.

A break-up can also boost a company's valuation by provi ding powerful

incentives to the people who work in the separating unit, and help the parent's
management to focus on core operations.

Most importantly, shareholders get better information about the business unit
because it issues separate financial state ments. This is particularly useful when a
company's traditional line of business differs from the separated business unit.
With separate financial disclosure, investors are better equipped to gauge the
value of the parent corporation. The parent company mi ght attract more
investors and, ultimately, more capital.

Ôeparating a subsidiary from its parent can reduce internal competition for
corporate funds. For investors, that's great news: it curbs the kind of negative
internal wrangling that can compromise the unity and productivity of a
company.

For employees of the new separate entity, there is a publicly traded stock to
motivate and reward them. Ôtock options in the parent often provide little
incentive to subsidiary managers, especially because their efforts are buried in
the firm's overall performance.


‘ 
‘
‘*  
+,‘

That said, de-merged firms are likely to be substantially smaller than their
parents, possibly making it harder to tap credit markets and costlier finance that
may be affordable only for larger companies. And the smaller size of the firm
may mean it has less representation on major indexes, making it more difficult
to attract interest from institutional investors.

Meanwhile, there are the extra costs that the parts of the business face if
separated. When a firm divides itself into smaller units, it may be losing the
synergy that it had as a larger entity. For instance, the division of expenses such
as marketing, administration and research and development (R&D) into
different business units may cause redundant costs without increasing overall
revenues.
º‘ 
‘!‘*%
‘‘ 
‘!
+,‘

It's no secret that plenty of mergers don't work. Those who advocate mergers
will argue that the merger will cut costs or boost revenues by more than enough
to justify the price premium. It can sound so simple: just combine computer
systems, merge a few departments, use sheer size to force down the price of
supplies and the merged giant should be more profitable than its parts. In
theory, 1+1 = 3 sounds great, but in practice, things can go away.

!
‘
 ‘‘
For starters, a booming stock market encourages mergers, which can spell
trouble. Deals done with highly rated stock as currency are easy and cheap, but
the strategic thinking behind them may be easy and cheap too. Also, mergers
are often attempt to imitate: somebody else has done a big merger, which
prompts other top executives to follow suit.

A merger may often have more to do with glory -seeking than business strategy.
The executive ego, which is boosted by buying the competition, is a major force
in M&A, especially when combined with the influences from the bankers,
lawyers and other assorted advisers who can earn big fees from clients engaged
in mergers. Most ^Os get to where they are because they want to be the
biggest and the best, and many top executives get a big bonus fo r merger deals,
no matter what happens to the share price later.

On the other side of the coin, mergers can be driven by generalized fear.
ÿlobalization, the arrival of new technological developments or a fast-changing
economic landscape that makes the outlook uncertain are all factors that can
create a strong incentive for defensive mergers. Ôometimes the management
team feels they have no choice and must acquire a rival before being acq uired.
The idea is that only big players will survive a more competitive world.


‘#  !
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘º

^oping with a merger can make top managers spread their time too thinly and
neglect their core business, spelling doom. Too often, potential difficulties seem
trivial to managers caught up in the thrill of the big deal.

The chances for success are further hampered if the corporate cultures of the
companies are very different. When a company is acquired, the decision is
typically based on product or market synergies, but cultural differences are
often ignored. It's a mistake to assume that personnel issues are easily
overcome. For example, employees at a target company might be accustomed to
easy access to top management, flexible work schedules or even a relaxed dress
code. These aspects of a working environment may not seem significant, but if
new management removes them, the result can be resentment and shrinking
productivity.

-‘ ‘‘ 
‘.//0‘

Top 10 M&A deals worldwide by value (in mil. UÔD) from 1990 to 1999:

 ‘!
‘*‘

%‘1
‘ " 
‘ " 
‘
!2‘3 +‘
Vodafone Airtouch
1 1999 Mannesmann 183,000
PL^
2 1999 Pfizer Warner-Lambert 90,000
3 1998 xxon Mobil 77,200
4 1998 ^iticorp Travelers ÿroup 73,000
ÔB^ Ameritech
5 1999 63,000
^ommunications ^orporation
AirTouch
6 1999 Vodafone ÿroup 60,000
^ommunications
7 1998 Bell Atlantic ÿT 53,360
8 1998 BP Amoco 53,000
Qwest
9 1999 UÔ WÔT 48,000
^ommunications
10 1997 Worldcom M^I ^ommunications 42,000

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‘4000‘

Top 10 M&A deals worldwide by value (in mil. UÔD) from 2000 to 2009:
  ‘!
‘
%‘1
‘ " 
‘ " 
‘
*‘!2‘3 +‘
u
: America
1 2000 Time Warner 164,747
Online Inc. (AOL)
ÔmithKline Beecham
2 2000 ÿlaxo Wellcome Plc. 75,961
Plc.
Royal Dutch Ôhell Transport &
3 2004 74,559
Petroleum ^o. Trading ^o
BellÔouth
4 2006 AT&T Inc. 72,671
^orporation
AT&T Broadband &
5 2001 ^omcast ^orporation 72,041
Internet Ôvcs
6 2009 Pfizer Inc. Wyeth 68,000
Pharmacia
7 2002 Pfizer Inc. 59,515
^orporation
JP Morgan ^hase &
8 2004 Bank One ^orp 58,761
^o[19]
Anheuser-Busch
9 2008 Inbev Inc. 52,000
^ompanies, Inc