11/1

Wednesday, November 1, 2017

Understanding of Determinant in Terms of Volumes

• The volume of this parallelepiped is the absolute value of the determinant of

the matrix formed by the rows constructed from the vectors r1, r2, and r3.
• Negative determinant = flip the original image
11/2
Thursday, November 2, 2017

Uniqueness Theorem
• Theorem
○ Suppose is a function of
○ That satisfies Linearity and Alternating



○ Then where




• Proof
○
○

○
• Example

○ Consider a function that satisfies the Uniqueness Theorem





○ Let with fixed, and as variable


 


○ Let that satisfies the Uniqueness Theorem

○ Therefore

Properties of Determinant
• (where )
○

○ =

○
○
○
○
○
• Power of Determinants
○
• Determinant of Inverse
○ If has an inverse( ), and , then
○
○

• Matrix Product and Determinant

○

○
11/6
Monday, November 6, 2017

Find the Inverse of Matrix

• Gauss-Jordan Elimination
○
• Example

○ Therefore

Question 1
• Recall that the determinant is a polynomial in the entries of the matrix.
• Find the coefficient of in the following polynomial

• Answer: By cofactor expansion, the coefficient is

Question 2
• Suppose is an orthogonal matrix, meaning is invertible and
• What possible value could the determinant of have?
• Answer:
○

Question 3
• Let be the vector space of all (real) polynomials of degree 2 or less.
• Using the basis , find the matrix of the linear map given by
• for all and
• Answer:
 ○
○
○

Question 4
• Let be real numbers.
• Compute the determinant of the following matrix
• Answer:

○
11/7
Tuesday, November 7, 2017

Determinant and Area

• = area of parallelogram with sides

• Proof by graph

• Proof
○ parallelogram spanned by
○ If is counter-clockwise = area
○ If is
○ Then , because
○ Alternating

 (by definition, same area, but different orientation)
○ Linearity(Homogeneous)

 (Easy to prove from picture)
  (Easy to prove from picture)

○ Linearity(Additive)

 If is parallel, then
□
 If is independent , then
□
 Let , then
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
 Therefore
○ Uniqueness Theorem





Determinant and Volume

• parallelepiped spanned by
Inverse of a Matrix
• Setup
○

○ has a matrix

• The following statements are equivalent

○
○
○
○
 because



○ There is a map with
• Find the inverse of matrix

○ Find , i.e. solve

○ Note:
○ Normal version


 

 where

○ Shorthand


 Therefore

Minors and Cofactors

• Theorem

○
• Cofactor Matrix

• Example

○
○
• Matrix Multiplication

○ Let

○
○
○ Because we have two equal row

Therefore
○ Therefore
11/8
Wednesday, November 8, 2017

Effect of Row Operations on Determinants

Row Operation Determinant

Understanding of Matrix Multiplication in terms of

Linear Map Composition
• Motivation
○
• Setup
○
○
○
○ Let
○ Let
• Claim
○
• Proof

○ Which is the same as matrix multiplication

11/9
Thursday, November 09, 2017

Expansion by Rows Theorem

• Cofactor Matrix

• Determinant and Cofactor Matrix

• Expansion by Rows

• Calculating
○ Expanding

○ Where


 


○ Conclusion

• Theorem

○ is not invertible
• Example

○ Let

○ Cofactor Matrix

○ Adjugate Matrix

○ Determinant

○ Inverse Matrix

Cramer's Rule
• Trying to solve the following system of equations

• It can be written in matrix form

○ Where

• Solve in matrix form, we get

○
 ○

• In particular

• In general

○ Where is at the column

Linear Independence and Determinant

• Theorem
○ Let be vectors with

○ Then is independent

• Example

○ Are dependent?

○ If , then yes

• Proof
○

○ Prove: is linearly independent

 Suppose , then exists
  Suppose , then exists
 If , then
 And

 So

 i.e.
 Therefore is linearly independent
○ Prove: is linearly dependent
 Suppose
 Then is not invertible
 Since is a square matrix this means is not injective
 Therefore
 i.e. There exists a vector with
 Since
 We can find that there are ,
 at least one of which is non-zero with
 Therefore is linearly dependent
11/13
Monday, November 13, 2017

Question 1
•

• For which is invertible?

• When is invertible, find
• Answer:
○

○ Where

Question 2
• Let be square matrix such that for some
• Prove or find a counterexample : is invertible
• Answer:
○
○ Therefore is invertible
• Note:
○ is called Nilpotent matrix
11/14
Tuesday, November 14, 2017

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

• Definition
○ If is linear and is a vector space
○ Then is an eignevector of with eigenvalue if


• Example
○ Suppose you have two eigenvectors
 with
○ Then

○ Find a solution to
 Try
 Then



○ Compute





• Fibonacci Number

○ For example





 

○ It could be viewed as a sequence of vectors

○ Consider

○ Try to compute

 If we had two eigenvectors/eigenvalues for

 And

 Then

• Eigenvector Equation
○ By definition, if is linear and is a vector space
○ Then is an eignevector of with eigenvalue if





○ Therefore
 is an eigenvector with eigenvalue

 is not injective
• Theorem
○ If is given by matrix multipication
○ Then is an eigenvalue of if and only if
○
• Proof
○

Fibonacci Example
 ○ Fibonacci Example

• Solving for eigenvalue and eigenvector

○ For
○ is called the characteristic polynimal of



 Where
○ By Fundamental Theorem of Algebra



 is called the eigentvalue of
○ Given eigenvalues
 We can find eigenvectors by




• Theorem
○
○ are eigenvectors
○ with distinct eigenvalues
○ then is linearly indelendent
• Proof
○ By induction on
○ When
 Given
 Then is independent because
○ When
 Assume Theorem true for
 Suppose
 , and all
 Suppose



 Since Theorem is true for
 is linearly independent


 Therefore
 Since , we find
 is linearly independet
11/15
Wednesday, November 15, 2017

Theorem
• Statement
○ If , then for linear map
○ injective surjective bijective
• Proof
○ By Rank-Nullity Theorem

○ If is injective


 is surjective
 is bijective
○ If is not injective


 is not surjective
 is not bijective

Left Inverse and Right Inverse

• If both left inverse and right inverse exists
• Then they are the same
• Suppose
○
○
○ (i.e. is the left inverse of )
○ (i.e. is the right inverse of )
• Then
○

Injective and Null Space

• Proof:
○ If T is injective
○ then the only one element mapped to 0 is 0 itself.
○ Therefore
• Proof:
○ If
○
○ So
○
○ Therefore is injective
11/20
Monday, November 20, 2017

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

• Definition

○ linear, for

○ We say is an eigentvector for with eigenvalue if

• Note
○
○
○
○

Find all eigenvalues and eigenvectors

•
○
○ Eigenvalue = 1 with eigenvectors of all elements in
•
○
○ Eigenvalue = 0 with eigenvectors of all elements in

○ Eigenvalue = with eigenvector of


○

 Eigenvector:

 Eigenvector:
 •


○

 Eigenvector:

 Eigenvector:

Multiplicity of Eigenvalues
•

○ Eigenvalues: or

○
11/21
Tuesday, November 21, 2017

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

• Definition
○ If is linear and is a vector space
○ Then is an eignevector of with eigenvalue if


• Theorem
○ Linear transformation (or )

○ Then is an eigenvalue of if
○
• Characteristic Polynomial
○ is the called characteristic polynomial of

○
• How to Find Eigenvalues
○ Solve
○ Get roots (possibly repeated)
• How to Find Eigenvectors
○ Solve
○ For
○ is equations with unknowns
○ Typically is the only solution for some
○ Then , and there is a solution
• Coefficients of Characteristic Polynomial
○ By definition

○ By Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

○ Comparing the coefficient of , we get

○ Setting to both polynomials we get

 
○ By Vieta's Formula


○ Expand the first row of determinant to find

 Repeat this procedure, we get


○ Note:

• Theorem

• Trace of Matrix

○ Matrix:

○ Eigenvalues:
○ Characteristic polynomial:
○ The sum of the roots of is called the trace of , denoted as

• Theorem
○ If are eigenvectors of with eigenvalues
○ And if for
○ Then is linearly independent
• Theorem:
• Theorem:
○ If is a matrix and all eigenvalues are different
○ Then is a basis for (or )
• Diagonalization
○ is the linear transformation with eigenvectors
○ Consider


○ Matrix of

 Let

○ is invertible
 Because if
 Then
 is linearly independent



○ Let

 ,
 Let

□
□
□
□
□

□
□
□
□
 Therefore
 Multiply on the left, we have
□
 Multiply on the right, we have
□
 □
○ Application
 If you knew , then


 is easy to calculate:
11/22
Wednesday, November 22, 2017

Theorem
• has a basis and another basis
• Let be a linear transformation
• Define the following matrices
○
○
○
• Then

Question
• Given
○
○
○
• Find

○ For
○

○
11/27
Monday, November 27, 2017

Question 1
• Question
○ Let .
○ Find all eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrix

• Answer

○
○
○ When


○ When

Question 2
• Question
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Suppose is an eigenvector for with eigenvalue .
○ Prove that, for each polynomial,
○ the linear map has eigenvector with eigenvalue
• Answer
○ Let
○
○
○
○
○
○

Question 3
Question 3
• Given
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Let be a scalar.
○ Suppose has an eigenvalue
• Prove
○ has either or as an eigenvalue
• Proof
○
○
○
○ When
 is a eigenvector for with eigenvalue of
○ When
 is a eigenvector for with eigenvalue of

Question 4
• Given
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Suppose are eigenvectors of with eigenvalues and .
• Prove
○ If ( ) is an eigenvector of ,
○ then or or
• (To be continued)
11/28
Tuesday, November 28, 2017

Open Balls and Open Sets

• Open Interval

• Closed Interval

• Interior Point
○ is a subset
○ is an interior point if there is an
○ such that
○ where is the open disc of radius centered at
○

• Koch's Snowflake
• Koch's Snowflake

• Open Sets
○ is open if all are interior points in
• Example

• Boundary Point
○ A point is a boundary point for if for every
○ contains with and
Limits and Continuity
• Limits
○

○ If , then
• Properties
○ If , when , then
○
○
○

○ (only when , )
• Graph
○ Graph of
• Continuity
○ is continuous at
○

• Continuous Function Example

○
○
• Properties
○ If is continuous

• Example
○

○ is continuous at all point except (0,0)

○ Let along a straight line with angle
○

○ Note that does not depend on

○

○ Therefore we get the counter plot near origin

○ And the graph near 0

Derivative
• Directional Derivative
○

• Example
○
 ○

○
○
• Partial Derivative
• Total Derivative
11/29
Wednesday, November 29, 2017

Question 1 (from Monday)

• Given
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Suppose are eigenvectors of with eigenvalues and .
• Prove
○ If ) is an eigenvector of ,
• Proof
○
○
○ Denote the eigenvalue for to be
○
○
○
○ If are linearly independet

 Because

○ If are linearly dependet
 for some



Question 2
• Given
○ Let be a real matrix such that
• Note

• Proof: is invertibe
○
○
○ is invertibe
• Proof: is even
○ Suppose is odd
○
○
Which makes a contradiction
 ○ Which makes a contradiction
○ Therefore is even
• Proof: has no real eigenvalues
○ Suppose
○
○ So
○ Which makes a contradiction
○ Therefore has no real eigenvalues
• Proof:

○
• Proof: (general case)
○
○
○
○ Therefore the eigenvalues come in complex conjugate pairs
○
○ Therefore

Question 3
• Given
○ Let be a finite-dimensional real linear transformation
○ has no real eigenvalues
• Proof: is even
○ Suppose is odd
○
○
○
○ By the Intermediate Value Theorem
○ must have a real root
○ Which makes a contradiction
○ Therefore is even
• Proof:
11/30
Thursday, November 30, 2017

Partial Derivative
• Infinitesimal Interpretation of Derivative

• Definition

○ = The derivative of with respect to , with all other variables fixed

• Other Notations

• Example
○
 ○

• Second Derivative

• Clairaut's Theorem

• Example of

○ see the graph below (horizontal axis: , vertical axis: )

 ○

Total Derivative & Linear Approximation Formula

• Illumination
○
○
○

• Theorem
○ If and are continuous, then there exist functions and

○ Where as
○ Note


 

• Linear Approximation
○
○
○ Where as
• Linear Approximation (Vector Notation)
○
○
○
○
○ Where



• Example
○
○ Find the linear approximation at
○ Calculate



○



○
○ Tangent plane at