Ariny Amos (Astronomer) Experiment, Novel, Lunar Theory. International Trade.

AUTHOR ; ARINY AMOS, 32 YEAR- 2014
ARINY AMOS ; 10 YEARS , 1992

TOPIC; THE MOON.
FOREWORD.
Ariny Amos
I Ariny Amos was captured by the spirit of the Galileo Galilei , Albert Einstein, Apollo , EVAS program
when I was 3 years old. I had been following the space program through out Neptune and Gemini
flights, building model kits and watching the launches from my school admitted , 1987 Odoon Primary
school and Nursery , 1990’S Swaria Primay school in Soroti , Uganda . we had above ground pool in
the backyard, and I would put abrick in the back of the my swim trunks to hold me down on the
bottom , suckin air through a garden hose, and lay there with my arms and lega adrift , pretending I
was walking in space. I was off course eagerly anticipating the Apollo missions to the moon, because
that would give me more models to build but it wasn’t until the February 2006, notable events
occurring in 2006 in spaceflight, including major launches and EVAs. 2006

saw Brazil, Iran, and Sweden all get a national into space for the first time,
Ariny Amos was assigned to operate on facebookwebsite,as an astronaut
commander who guides in any accident prevention, when I hope to convey
with from the earth to the moon is what Ariny Amos captured in connection
with National Aeronautics and Space Administration, that going to the
moon was no just a technological endeavor, but and artistic,Chemist,
scientific historian one ,like Albert Einstein on the Sinistine chapel ceiling .
The same kind of imagination that allowed Albert Einstein to produce the
crowning achievement of his era helped NASA’s engineers build their
moonships, just as Albert Einstein needed faith in his own abilities to
sustain him during the long year of his effort, so faith was at heart of what
it took to put men and their shoes and socks, and pictures of their children
on the surface of the moon.
Above all EVAS launches 2006 was a voyage of inspiration . the thing that
still fuels me in my day- to- day life, as explorer, and what I want to convey
to my children , and to the audience , is that if mankind can figure out a
way to put twelve men on the moon , then honestly , we can solve anything.
That why I believe the 2006 missions are of greatest Astrophysics stories
after.
PREFACE
The eighty’s so called 1980’s were a time of cultural earth quakes ;the horror of the Bill Gates, Carlos
Slim,SadamHesein, Angella Merkel, Bill Clinton, Osama Bin Laden , Barack Obama and king
assassination, The arrival of five mop- topped singers from Washington D.C -USA, The din of protests ,
and – most of all – the violent of the the war in Uganda And something else extraordinary happened
ont the night of February 2006 the space flight major launches 2006 EVA .2006.saw , International
Space station, United states of America, Germany,Brazil,Sweden and Iran get a national into space .
Walk on the moon. In what seemed like a master of technology, I witnessed it live computer monitor
live on internet.i was at Makerkere University Kampala, in my first years studies Bachelor of science in
Agricultural land use and management. Across the world that Billions of people who had worked to
make it happen celebrated their triumph, TV commentators and editorial writers proclaimed that
twenty five years from now our century would be remembered for those footsteps. When human
beings left their planet to explore the universe.
Ariny Amos.
May 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author , Ariny Amos thanks God of his Natural parents Father ;

Thomas Edison Alston (January 31, 1926 was a Major League
Baseball first baseman who played for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1954 to
1957, the first African-American to do so. A native of Greensboro, North
Carolina, he stood 6'5" (200 cm) and weighed 210 pounds (95 kg).
Alston was acquired by St. Louis via a trade with the San Diego Padres of
the Pacific Coast League, where he played in 180 games in 1953, on
January 26, 1954, after team president Gussie Busch told manager Eddie
Stanky to find a black player. Not only did Busch think excluding blacks
from baseball was morally wrong, his company 2%Anheuser–Busch, which
had bought the team a year earlier to keep them from moving to Milwaukee,
sold more beer to African-Americans than any other brewery, leading him
to fear the effect of a boycott.
Mother Kimberly Elise Trammel (born April 17, 1967) was professionally
known as Kimberly Elise, is an American film and television actress. She
made her feature film debut in Set It Off (1996), and later received critical
acclaim for her performance in Beloved (1998).
During her career, Elise has appeared in films such as John Q. (2002), The
Manchurian Candidate (2004), Diary of a Mad Black Woman (2005), The
Great Debaters (2007), For Colored Girls (2010), Dope (2015), Almost
Christmas (2016) and Death Wish (2018). She received a nomination
for Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead for her performance in
the 2004 drama film, Woman Thou Art Loosed, and played the leading roles
in a number of made for television movies. Elise also starred in
the CBS crime drama series, Close to Home (2005–07), and in 2013 began
starring in the 1VH1 comedy-drama series, Hit the Floor. She is four-
time NAACP Image Awards winner and finally Ariny Amos thanks
Gravitational wave.
ABSTRACT
Astronomy (from Greek: ἀστρονομία) is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It
applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and
their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets; the phenomena
also includes supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave
background radiation. More generally, all phenomena that originate outside Earth's atmosphere are within the
purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which is the study of the Universe as a
whole.[1]
Astronomy is one of the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as
the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, Maya, and many ancient indigenous
peoples of the Americas, performed methodical observations of the night sky. Historically, astronomy has included
disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars,
but professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.[2]
Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused
on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, which is then analyzed using basic principles of
physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe
astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking
to explain observational results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results.
Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons,
and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them. It studies
objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics,
formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing
from astronomy and earth science,[1] but which now incorporates many disciplines, including planetary
geology (together with geochemistryand geophysics), cosmochemistry, atmospheric
science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology, and exoplanetology.[1] Allied
disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System,
and astrobiology.
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry "to ascertain the
nature of the astronomical objects, rather than their positions or motions in space".[1][2] Among the objects studied
are the Sun, other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave
background.[3][4] Their emissions are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties
examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very
broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics,
including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum
mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.
In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms
of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to
determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, and black holes; whether or not time travel is
possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe.[3] Topics
also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar
dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale
structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology,
including string cosmology and astroparticle physics.
Astronomers Ariny Amos or Kipsang Arap Tarus in the 21st century understood that the motion of the
Moon was far more complex than those of the planets. The Hellenistic astronomers, Hipparchos and
Ptolemy,Galileo Galilei, Nicholas Copernicus,Tycho Brahe, Sir Isaac Newton, Neil Armstrong, Tom
Hanks, Guy Consolmagno had identified two major perturbations, corresponding respectively to a
steady rotation of the line of apses and to fluctuations of the line of apses and the eccentricity; the
latter was called the “evection” by Bouillau. Tycho Brahe had found a further anomaly, the
“variation”. Jeremiah Horrocks (1673) proposed a model of the Moon's orbit as a rotating ellipse that
was successful for its day. The orbit is distorted from a simple ellipse by the variation and the
evection, the major axis (apse line) advances through 2π in about 9 years, the nodes regress by 2π
upon the ecliptic in about 18 years, and there are further lesser perturbations. The largest anomaly is
the evection with an amplitude of 1°16′ and a period of about 32 days, while the amplitude of the
variation is about 35 arcmin with a period of nearly 15 days (Cook 1988, Smith 1999). This book is
written with instroduction,Description of the Moon , evection, Lunar Theory,Problems on earth
without the moon, literature review, scoope of the study, formations of the moon, structure of the
Moon, apparatus for the experiment formation, raw materials used, results of the experiment,
calculations, discussion of about the experiment, hypothesis for Moon formation,Giant Impact
Hypothesis, Benfords law, Zipf’s law, recommendations, references,
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Front book cover photo.
Foreword………
Preface……..
Acknowledgement…..
Abstract………..
Table of contents…..
INTRODUCTION………..
THE MOON…….
LITERATURE REVIEW……..
FORMATION OF THE MOON…………
LEGAL STATUS OF THE MOON…….
EXPERIMENT ON THE MOON……
RAW MATERIALS DESCIPTION…..
DRINKING WATER………
APPARATUS DESCRIPTION…….
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
ADMINISTATION PERMIT………
GREGORIAN CALENDAR……..
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM……
INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL
UNION………….
PROCEDURE ………….
COMPUTATIONAL ASTROPHYSICS……
GEODESY………
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS………
SIR ISAAC NEWTON’S LUNAR
THEORY….
GEODYNAMO THEORY……..
GIANT IMPACT HYPOTHESIS……
ZIPF’S LAW……
BENFORD’S LAW…….
SUPER SYMMETRIC THEORY OF
STOCHASTIC DYNAMICS…….
CONCLUSION…………..
RECOMMENDATIONS…………
REFERENCES…………
Notes…….
Citations……
References…….
THE MOON.
INTRODUCTION.
The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth and is Earth's only permanent natural
satellite. It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System, and the largest among planetary
satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits (its primary). The Moon is after Jupiter's
satellite Io as the second-densest satellite in the Solar System among those whose densities are
known. The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is "the Moon", which in
nonscientific texts is usually not capitalized.[15][16][17][18][19] The noun moon is derived from Old
English mōna, which (like all Germanic language cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic *mēnô, which
comes from Proto-Indo-European *mḗh₁n̥s "moon", "month", which comes from the Proto-Indo-
European root *meh₁- "to measure", the month being the ancient unit of time measured by the
Moon.[20][21]Occasionally, the name "Luna" is used. In literature, especially science fiction, "Luna" is
used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote
personification of our moon.[22]
The modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar, derived from the Latin word for the
Moon, luna. The adjective selenic (usually only used to refer to the chemical element selenium) is so
rarely used to refer to the Moon that this meaning is not recorded in most major
dictionaries.[23][24][25] It is derived from the Ancient Greek word for the Moon, σελήνη (selḗnē),
from which is however also derived the prefix "seleno-", as in selenography, the study of the physical
features of the Moon, as well as the element name selenium.[26][27] Both the Greek
goddess Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia.[28] The names Luna,
Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such
as apolune, pericynthion, and selenocentric. The name Diana comes from the Proto-Indo-
European *diw-yo, "heavenly", which comes from the PIE root *dyeu- "to shine," which in many
derivatives means "sky, heaven, and god" and is also the origin of Latin dies, "day".
The Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth. The most
widely accepted explanation is that the Moon formed from the debris left over after a giant
impact between Earth and a Mars-sized body called Theia.
The Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth, and thus always shows the same side to earth,
the near side. The near side is marked by dark volcanic maria that fill the spaces between the bright
ancient crustal highlands and the prominent impact craters. The Moon is after the sun as the second-
brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earth's sky. Its surface is actually dark, although compared
to the night sky it appears very bright, with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt.
Its gravitational influence produces the ocean tides, body tides, and the slight lengthening of the day.
The Moon's average orbital distance is 384,402 km (238,856 mi),[10][11] or 1.28 light-seconds. This is
about thirty times the diameter of Earth. The Moon's apparent size in the sky is almost the same as
that of the Sun (because it is 400x farther and larger). Therefore, the Moon covers the Sun nearly
precisely during a total solar eclipse. This matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far
future, because the Moon's distance from Earth is slowly increasing.
The Moon was first reached in 1959 by an unmanned spacecraft of the Soviet Union's Luna program;
the United States' NASA Apollo program achieved the only manned lunar missions to date, beginning
with the first manned orbital mission by 8Apollo 8 in 1968, and six manned landings between 1969
and 1972, with the first being Apollo 11. These missions returned lunar rocks which have been used to
develop a geological understanding of the Moon's origin, internal structure, and the Moon's later
history. Since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, the Moon has been visited only by unmanned spacecraft.
Both the Moon's natural prominence in the earthly sky and its regular cycle of phases as seen from
Earth have provided cultural references and influences for human societies and cultures since time
immemorial. Such cultural influences can be found in language, lunar based calendar systems, art,
and mythology.
Evection
Lunar theory
In astronomy, evection (Latin for "carrying away") is the largest inequality produced by the action of
the Sun in the monthly revolution of the Moon around the Earth. The evection, formerly called the
moon's second anomaly, was approximately known in ancient times, and its discovery is attributed
to Ptolemy.[1] The current name itself dates much more recently, from the 17th century: it was
coined by Bullialdus in connection with his own theory of the Moon's motion.[2]
Evection causes the Moon's ecliptic longitude to vary by approximately ± 1.274° (degrees), with a
period of about 31.8 days. The evection in longitude is given by the expression
{\displaystyle +4586.45''\sin(2D-\ell )} where {\displaystyle D} is the
mean angular distance of the Moon from the Sun (its elongation, and {\displaystyle \ell } is the
moon's mean angular distance of the moon from its perigee (mean anomaly).[3]
It arises from an approximately six-monthly periodic variation of the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit
and a libration of similar period in the position of the Moon's perigee, caused by the action of the
Sun.[4][5]
The evection opposes the Moon's equation of the center at the new and full moons, and augments
the equation of the center at the Moon's quarters. This can be seen from the combination of the
principal term of the equation of the center with the
evection: {\displaystyle +22639.55''\sin(\ell
)+4586.45''\sin(2D-\ell ).}
At new and full moons, D=0° or 180°, 2D is effectively zero in either case, and the combined
expression reduces to {\displaystyle +(22639.55-

4586.45)''\sin(\ell ).}
At the quarters, D=90° or 270°, 2D is effectively 180° in either case, changing the sign of the expression
for the evection, so that the combined expression then reduces
to .
The objective of the study is to produce accurate ephemeric motion of the moon , Moon speed of
motion is faster than earth’s, In astronomy and celestial navigation,
an ephemeris (plural: ephemerides; from Latin ephemeris, meaning 'diary',
from Greek εφημερίς (ephemeris), meaning 'diary, journal'[1][2][3][4]) gives the positions of naturally
occurring astronomical objectsas well as artificial satellites in the sky at a given time or times.
Historically, positions were given as printed tables of values, given at regular intervals of date and
time. Modern ephemerides are often computed electronically from mathematical models of the
motion of astronomical objects and the Earth. Even though the calculation of these tables was one of
the first applications of mechanical computers, printed ephemerides are still produced, as they are
useful when computational devices are not available.
The astronomical position calculated from an ephemeris is given in the spherical polar coordinate
system of right ascension and declination. Some of the astronomical phenomena of interest to
astronomers are eclipses, apparent retrograde motion/planetary stations,
planetary ingresses, sidereal time, positions for the mean and true nodes of the moon, the phases of
the Moon, and the positions of minor celestial bodies such as Chiron.
Ephemerides are used in celestial navigation and astronomy. They are also used by some astrologers.
Ways Earth Would Change If Our Moon Were Destroyed.
For nearly the entire 4.5 billion year history of our Solar System, the Earth hasn't been
alone while we revolve around the Sun. Our giant lunar companion is larger and more
massive than any other moon when compared to the planet it orbits. When it's in its full
phase, it brightly illuminates the night, and the Moon has been linked throughout history
to phenomena such as insanity (or lunacy), animal behavior (howling at the moon), farming
(a harvest moon), and even women's menstrual cycles. While those links don't stand up to
scientific scrutiny, there are many ways the Moon actually does affect the Earth.
Destroying it would be a catastrophe, but would also change our world forever in some
incredibly interesting ways. The near and far sides of the Moon, as reconstructed with
imagery from NASA's Clementine mission. Image credit: NASA / Clementine Mission /
Lunar & Planetary Institute / USRA.
Destroying the Moon would result in approximately 7 x 10^22 kilograms of debris, which
hopefully wouldn't hit Earth in large chunks. Image credit: Blind Spot Pictures Oy, 27
Films Production, New Holland Pictures, from the movie Iron Sky.
Destroying the Moon would send debris to Earth, but it might not be life-exterminating.
Imagine a weapon so deadly it could gravitationally unbind the Moon, blowing it apart. It
would take a medium-sized asteroid's worth of antimatter to do it (about a kilometer in
diameter), and the debris would spread out in all directions. If the blast were weak enough,
the debris would re-form into one or more new moons; if it were too strong, there would be
nothing left; of just the right magnitude, and it would create a ringed system around Earth.
Over time, those lunar fragments would de-orbit thanks to Earth's atmosphere, creating a
series of impacts.
A ringed system around Earth, which could occur if the Moon were destroyed in just the
right way. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons user Grebenkov, as an add on to the work
of Eugene Stauffer.
But these impacts wouldn't be as destructive as the asteroids or comets we're so afraid of
today! Even though chunks of Moon would be massive, dense and even potentially larger
than the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs, they would have a lot less energy. Asteroids
or comets striking Earth move at twenty, fifty or even over a hundred kilometers-per-
second, but lunar debris would be moving at a mere 8 km/s, and would strike only a
glancing blow with our atmosphere. The debris striking Earth would still be destructive,
but would impact our world with less than 1% the total energy of a comparably sized
asteroid. If the chunks hitting us were small enough, humanity could easily survive.
The Bortle Dark Sky Scale, from 1-9, illustrating urban to pristine skies. A full Moon,
incidentally, is bright enough that it can turn even a '1' into a 7 (away from the Moon) to
an 8 (nearby it) on its own. Image credit: International Dark Sky Association, 2008, using
the free software Stellarium.
The night sky would be naturally much brighter. Once the Moon and all its remnants were
gone, the second-brightest object from Earth's sky would be completely gone. While the
Sun is naturally 400,000 times brighter than even the full, perigee Moon, the full Moon is
again 14,000 times brighter than the next-brightest object in the sky: Venus. When you
look at the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, a full Moon can take you from a "1" -- the most pristine,
naturally dark sky possible -- all the way up to a 7 or 8, washing out even bright stars.
Without a Moon, there would be no natural impediments to pristine, dark skies every night
of the year.
Eclipses would be no more. Whether you're talking solar eclipses -- partial, total or
annular -- or lunar eclipses, where Earth's natural satellite passes into our shadow, we
would no longer have eclipses of any type. Eclipses require three objects to be aligned: the
Sun, a planet and a planet's moon. When the moon passes between the Sun and a planet, a
shadow can be cast on the planet's surface (total eclipse), the moon can transit across the
Sun's surface (annular eclipse), or it can obscure just a fraction of the Sun's light (partial
eclipse). But without a moon at all, none of these could occur. Our only natural satellite
would never pass into Earth's shadow if it didn't exist, putting an end to eclipses.
The Moon exerts a tidal force on the Earth, which not only causes our tides, but causes
braking of the Earth's rotation, and a subsequent lengthening of the day. Image credit:
Wikimedia Commons user Wikiklaas and E. Siegel.
The length of a day would remain constant. You might not think about it much, but the
Moon exerts a tiny frictional force on the spinning Earth, causing our rotation rate to slow
down over time. We might only lose a second here or there over many centuries, but it adds
up over time. Our 24 hour day was only 22 hours back when dinosaurs roamed the Earth,
and was under 10 hours a few billion years ago. In another four million years, we won't
need leap days any longer in our calendar, as the rotation rate slows and the length of a day
continues to get longer. But without a Moon, all that would cease. It would be 24 hour days
every single day to come, until the Sun itself ran out of fuel and died.
GoreyHarbour at low tide, illustrating the extreme difference between high and low tide
found in bays, inlets and other shallow, coastal regions here on Earth. Image credit:
Wikimedia Commons user FoxyOrange.
Our tides would be tiny. High tide and low tide presents an interesting, vast difference for
those of us who live near the coast, particularly if we're in a bay, sound, inlet, or other area
where water pools. Our tides on Earth are primarily due to the Moon, with the Sun
contributing only a small fraction of the tides we see today. During full moons and new
moons, when the Sun, Earth and Moon are aligned, we have spring tides: the largest
differences between high and low tide possible. When they're at right angles, during a half
Moon, we have neap tides: the smallest such differences. Spring tides are twice as large as
neap tides, but without our Moon, the tides would always be the same paltry size, and only
a quarter as big as today's spring tides.
The obliquity of Earth's axial tilt, currently 23.4 degrees, actually varies between 22.1 and
24.5 degrees. This is a very small variation compared to, say, Mars. Image credit: NASA,
Wikimedia Commons user Mysid.
Our axial tilt would be unstable. This is an unfortunate one. Earth spins on its axis, tilted
at 23.4° with respect to our orbital plane around the Sun. (This is known as our obliquity.)
You might not think the Moon has much to do with that, but over tens of thousands of
years, that tilt changes: from as little as 22.1° to as much as 24.5°. The Moon is a stabilizing
force, as worlds without big moons -- like Mars -- see their axial tilt change by ten times as
much over time. On Earth, without a Moon, its estimated that our tilt would possibly even
exceed 45° at times, making us a world that spun on our sides. Poles wouldn't always be
cold; the equator might not always be warm. Without our Moon to stabilize us, ice ages
would preferentially hit different parts of our world every few thousand years.
The Apollo mission trajectories, made possible by the Moon's close proximity to us. Image
credit: NASA’s Office of Manned Space Flight, Apollo missions.
We would no longer have our stepping stone to the rest of the Universe. As far as we can
tell, humanity is the only species ever to willfully put ourselves on the surface of another
world. Part of why we were able to do that, from 1969 to 1972, is because of how close the
Moon is to Earth. At only 380,000 km away, a conventional rocket can make the journey in
approximately 3 days, and a round-trip signal at the speed of light takes only 2.5 seconds.
The next closest options -- Mars or Venus -- take months to get there via rocket, over a year
for a round trip, and many minutes for a round-trip communication.
We also never would have had any of the Moon landings. This is Buzz Aldrin setting up the
Solar Wind experiment as part of Apollo 11. Image credit: NASA / Apollo 11.
The Moon is the easiest, most useful "practice run" we could have asked the Universe for if
our goal was to explore the rest of the Solar System. Perhaps we'll take advantage of it
again -- and all that it brings to Earth -- someday soon.
Selected moons of the solar system, with the Earth for scale. Notice that the moon is pretty
big relative to Earth. But Pluto and its moon are even closer in size. Image via NASA.
Bottom line: How our planet would be different, if Earth didn’t have a moon.
Origin of the Moon

The origin of the Moon is usually thought to be that a Mars-sized body struck the Earth,
making a debris ring that eventually collected into a single natural satellite, the Moon, but
there are a number of variations on this giant-impact hypothesis, as well as alternate
explanations, and research into how the Moon came to be continues.[1][2] Other proposed
scenarios include captured body, fission, formed together (condensation
theory), planetesimal collisions (formed from asteroid-like bodies), and collision theories.[3]
The standard giant-impact hypothesis suggests the Mars-sized body, called Theia, impacted
Earth, creating a large debris ring around Earth, which then accreted to form the Moon. This
collision also resulted in the 23.5° tilted axis of the earth, thus causing the seasons.[1] The
Moon's oxygen isotopic ratios seem to be essentially identical to Earth's.[4] Oxygen isotopic
ratios, which may be measured very precisely, yield a unique and distinct signature for each
solar system body.[5] If Theia had been a separate protoplanet, it probably would have had a
different oxygen isotopic signature from Earth, as would the ejected mixed material.[6] Also,
the Moon's titanium isotope ratio (50Ti/47Ti) appears so close to the Earth's (within 4 ppm) that
little if any of the colliding body's mass could likely have been part of the Moon.[7]
The Moon's heavily cratered far-side
Formation of the moon.

Giant impact hypothesis
Some theories have been stated that presume the Earth had no large moons early in the
formation of the Solar System, 4.6 billion years ago, Earth being basically rock and lava.
Theia, an early protoplanet the size of Mars, hit Earth in such a way that it ejected a
considerable amount of material away from Earth. Some proportion of thisejecta escaped into
space, but the rest consolidated into a single body in orbit about Earth, creating the Moon.
The hypothesis requires a collision between a body about 90% of the present size of Earth,
and another the diameter of Mars (half of the terrestrial radius and a tenth of its mass). The
colliding body has sometimes been referred to as Theia, the mother of Selene, the
Moon goddess in Greek mythology. This size ratio is needed in order for the resulting system
to have sufficient angular momentum to match the current orbital configuration. Such an
impact would have put enough material into orbit around Earth to have eventually
accumulated to form the Moon.
Computer simulations show a need for a glancing blow, which causes a portion of the
collider to form a long arm of material that then shears off. The asymmetrical shape of the
Earth following the collision then causes this material to settle into an orbit around the main
mass. The energy involved in this collision is impressive: possibly trillions of tons of material
would have been vaporized and melted. In parts of the Earth, the temperature would have
risen to 10,000 °C (18,000 °F).
"One of the challenges to the longstanding theory of the collision, is that a Mars-sized impacting body,
whose composition likely would have differed substantially from that of Earth, likely would have left Earth
and the moon with different chemical compositions, which they are not."
—NASA[1]
Lunar sample 61016, better known as "Big Muley"
The Moon's relatively small iron core is explained by Theia's core accreting into that of Earth.
The lack of volatiles in the lunar samples is also explained in part by the energy of the
collision. The energy liberated during the reaccreation of material in orbit around Earth would
have been sufficient to melt a large portion of the Moon, leading to the generation of
a magma ocean.
The newly formed Moon orbited at about one-tenth the distance that it does today, and
spiraled outward because of tidal friction transferring angular momentum from the rotations
of both bodies to the Moon's orbital motion. Along the way, the Moon's rotation
became tidally lockedto Earth, so that one side of the Moon continually faces toward Earth.
Also, the Moon would have collided with and incorporated any small pre-existing satellites of
Earth, which would have shared the Earth's composition, including isotopic abundances. The
geology of the Moon has since been more independent of the Earth. Although this hypothesis
explains many aspects of the Earth–Moon system, there are still a few unresolved problems,
such as the Moon's volatile elements not being as depleted as expected from such an
energetic impact.[8]
Another issue is lunar and Earth isotope comparisons. In 2001, the most precise
measurement yet of the isotopic signatures of moon rocks was published.[4] Surprisingly,
the Apollolunar samples carried an isotopic signature identical to Earth rocks, but different
from other Solar system bodies. Because most of the material that went into orbit to form the
Moon was thought to come from Theia, this observation was unexpected. In 2007,
researchers from Caltech showed that the likelihood of Theia having an identical isotopic
signature as the Earth is very small (<1 percent).[9] Published in 2012, an analysis of titanium
isotopes in Apollo lunar samples showed that the Moon has the same composition as
Earth,[10]which conflicts with the Moon forming far from Earth's orbit.
To help resolve these problems, a new theory published in 2012 posits that two bodies—each
five times the size of Mars—collided, then re-collided, forming a large disc of debris that
eventually formed Earth and the Moon.[1] The paper was called “Forming a Moon with an
Earth-like composition via a Giant Impact,” by R.M Canup.[1]
A 2012 study on the depletion of zinc isotopes on the Moon supported the giant-impact origin
for Earth and the Moon.[11]
In 2013, a study was released that indicated that water in lunar magma is indistinguishable
from carbonaceous chondrites and nearly the same as that of Earth in isotopic
composition.[12][13]
The giant-impact hypothesis was again challenged in September 2013,[14] with a growing
sense that lunar origins are more complicated.[vague][15]
In 2018 researchers at Harvard and the University of California developed computer models
demonstrating that one possible outcome of a planetary collision is that it creates a synestia,
a mass of vaporized rock and metal which form a torus extending beyond the lunar orbit. The
synestia will eventually shrink and cool to create the satellite and reform the impacted
planet.[16]
Another possibility is that before the giant impact, Earth had one or more normal satellites
that shared its composition. Following the impact, the Moon formed closer to Earth than
these satellites, and then spiraled outward, colliding with them. (If the Moon was more
massive than the other satellites, its tidal effect on Earth would have been greater, making it
spiral outward faster.) This led to the Moon being covered with material with the same
composition as the satellites, and so Earth.
In 2017, planetary researchers at Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel offered a
new theory that suggests the moon was forged in a brutal rain of cosmic debris that
repeatedly hammered the fledgling Earth over millions of years. They determined that a
series of smaller impacts, which were likely more common in the early solar system, could
blast enough Earth rocks and dirt into orbit to form a small moonlet. As repeated impacts
created more balls of debris, the moonlets could merge over time into one large moon.[17]
Moon – Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms")
Ancient rift valleys – rectangular structure (visible – topography – GRAIL gravity gradients) (October 1,
2014).
Ancient rift valleys– context.

Ancient rift valleys – closeup (artist's concept).
Zipf’s law
Zipf's law (/zɪf/) is an empirical law formulated using mathematical statistics that refers to the
fact that many types of data studied in the physical and social sciences can be approximated
with a Zipfian distribution, one of a family of related discrete power law probability
distributions. Zipf distribution is related to the zeta distribution, but is not identical.
For example, Zipf's law states that given some corpus of natural language utterances, the
frequency of any word is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. Thus the
most frequent word will occur approximately twice as often as the second most frequent
word, three times as often as the third most frequent word, etc.: the rank-frequency
distribution is an inverse relation. For example, in the Brown Corpus of American English
text, the word the is the most frequently occurring word, and by itself accounts for nearly 7%
of all word occurrences (69,971 out of slightly over 1 million). True to Zipf's Law, the second-
place word of accounts for slightly over 3.5% of words (36,411 occurrences), followed
by and (28,852). Only 135 vocabulary items are needed to account for half the Brown
Corpus.[1]
The law is named after the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf (1902–1950), who
popularized it and sought to explain it (Zipf 1935, 1949), though he did not claim to have
originated it.[2] The French stenographer Jean-Baptiste Estoup (1868–1950) appears to have
noticed the regularity before Zipf.] It was also noted in 1913 by German physicist Felix
Auerbach[4] (1856–1933).
Other datasets
The same relationship occurs in many other rankings unrelated to language, such as the
population ranks of cities in various countries, corporation sizes, income rankings, ranks of
number of people watching the same TV channel,[5] and so on. The appearance of the
distribution in rankings of cities by population was first noticed by Felix Auerbach in
1913.[4] Empirically, a data set can be tested to see whether Zipf's law applies by checking the
goodness of fit of an empirical distribution to the hypothesized power law distribution with
a Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, and then comparing the (log) likelihood ratio of the power law
distribution to alternative distributions like an exponential distribution or lognormal
distribution.[6] When Zipf's law is checked for cities, a better fit has been found with
exponent s = 1.07; i.e. the largest settlement is the size of the largest settlement.
Zipf's law
Probability mass function
Zipf PMF for N = 10 on a log–log scale. The horizontal axis is
the index k . (Note that the function is only defined at integer
values of k. The connecting lines do not indicate continuity.)
Cumulative distribution function
Zipf CDF for N = 10. The horizontal axis is the index k . (Note
that the function is only defined at integer values of k. The
connecting lines do not indicate continuity.)

File:Zipf distribution PMF.png
F
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ns
curre 21:59, 2 October 1,300 × Cmdrjameson (talk | contribs) Compress

nt 2016 975 (96 ed with
KB) pngout.
Reduced
by 57kB
(37%
decrease).
01:07, 2 May 2005 1,300 × PAR~commonswiki (talk | con Fixed axis

975 (154 tribs) labels
KB)
01:16, 23 April 1,300 × PAR~commonswiki (talk | con Log-log

2005 975 (154 tribs) plot of the
KB) probabilit
y mass
function
for the
Zipf
distributio
n, N=10
and
s=1,2,3
and 4.
 You cannot overwrite this file.

Source;From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.
Theoretical review
Zipf's law is most easily observed by plotting the data on a log-log graph, with the axes
being log (rank order) and log (frequency). For example, the word "the" (as described above)
would appear at x = log(1), y = log(69971). It is also possible to plot reciprocal rank against
frequency or reciprocal frequency or interword interval against rank.[2] The data conform to
Zipf's law to the extent that the plot is linear.
Formally, let:
 N be the number of elements;

 k be their rank;
 s be the value of the exponent characterizing the distribution.
Zipf's law then predicts that out of a population of N elements, the normalized frequency of
elements of rank k, f(k;s,N), is:
Zipf's law holds if the number of elements with a given frequency is a random variable with
power law distribution [7]
It has been claimed that this representation of Zipf's law is more suitable for statistical
testing, and in this way it has been analyzed in more than 30,000 English texts. The
goodness-of-fit tests yield that only about 15% of the texts are statistically compatible with
this form of Zipf's law. Slight variations in the definition of Zipf's law can increase this
percentage up to close to 50%.[8]
In the example of the frequency of words in the English language, N is the number of words
in the English language and, if we use the classic version of Zipf's law, the exponent s is
1. f(k; s,N) will then be the fraction of the time the kth most common word occurs.
The law may also be written:
where HN,s is the Nth generalized harmonic number.

The simplest case of Zipf's law is a "1⁄f function." Given a set of Zipfian distributed
frequencies, sorted from most common to least common, the second most common
frequency will occur ½ as often as the first. The third most common frequency will occur ⅓
as often as the first. The fourth most common frequency will occur ¼ as often as the first.
The nth most common frequency will occur 1⁄n as often as the first. However, this cannot hold
exactly, because items must occur an integer number of times; there cannot be 2.5
occurrences of a word. Nevertheless, over fairly wide ranges, and to a fairly good
approximation, many natural phenomena obey Zipf's law.
In human languages, word frequencies have a very heavy-tailed distribution, and can
therefore be modeled reasonably well by a Zipf distribution with an s close to 1.
As long as the exponent s exceeds 1, it is possible for such a law to hold with infinitely many
words, since if s > 1 then
where ζ is Riemann's zeta function.
Statistical explanation
Although Zipf’s Law holds for all languages, even non-natural ones like Esperanto,[9] the
reason is still not well understood.[10]However, it may be partially explained by the statistical
analysis of randomly generated texts. Wentian Li has shown that in a document in which
each character has been chosen randomly from a uniform distribution of all letters (plus a
space character), the "words" follow the general trend of Zipf's law (appearing approximately
linear on log-log plot).[11] Vitold Belevitch in a paper, On the Statistical Laws of Linguistic
Distribution offered a mathematical derivation. He took a large class of well-
behaved statistical distributions (not only the normal distribution) and expressed them in
terms of rank. He then expanded each expression into a Taylor series. In every case
Belevitch obtained the remarkable result that a first-order truncation of the series resulted in
Zipf's law. Further, a second-order truncation of the Taylor series resulted in Mandelbrot's
law.[12][13]
The principle of least effort is another possible explanation: Zipf himself proposed that
neither speakers nor hearers using a given language want to work any harder than necessary
to reach understanding, and the process that results in approximately equal distribution of
effort leads to the observed Zipf distribution.[14] [15]
Similarly, preferential attachment (intuitively, "the rich get richer" or "success breeds
success") that results in the Yule–Simon distribution has been shown to fit word frequency
versus rank in language[16] and population versus city rank[17] better than Zipf's law. It was
originally derived to explain population versus rank in species by Yule, and applied to cities
by Simon.
A PLOT OF THE RANK VERSUS FREQUENCY FOR THE FIRST 10 MILLION WORDS
IN 30 WIKIPEDIAS (DUMPS FROM OCTOBER 2015) IN A LOG-LOG SCALE.
A plot of the rank versus frequency for the first 10 million words in 30 Wikipedias (dumps from October
2015) in a log-log scale.
Source;SergioJimenez - Own work
Related laws.
Zipf's law in fact refers more generally to frequency distributions of "rank data," in which the
relative frequency of the nth-ranked item is given by the Zeta distribution, 1/(nsζ(s)), where the
parameter s > 1 indexes the members of this family of probability distributions. Indeed, Zipf's
law is sometimes synonymous with "zeta distribution," since probability distributions are
sometimes called "laws". This distribution is sometimes called the Zipfian distribution.
A generalization of Zipf's law is the Zipf–Mandelbrot law, proposed by Benoît Mandelbrot,
whose frequencies are:
The "constant" is the reciprocal of the Hurwitz zeta function evaluated at s. In practice, as
easily observable in distribution plots for large corpora, the observed distribution can be
modelled more accurately as a sum of separate distributions for different subsets or
subtypes of words that follow different parameterizations of the Zipf–Mandelbrot distribution,
in particular the closed class of functional words exhibit s lower than 1, while open-ended
vocabulary growth with document size and corpus size require s greater than 1 for
convergence of the Generalized Harmonic Series.[2]
Zipfian distributions can be obtained from Pareto distributions by an exchange of variables.[7]
The Zipf distribution is sometimes called the discrete Paretodistribution[18] because it is
analogous to the continuous Pareto distribution in the same way that the discrete uniform
distribution is analogous to the continuous uniform distribution.
The tail frequencies of the Yule–Simon distribution are approximately
for any choice of ρ > 0.

In the parabolic fractal distribution, the logarithm of the frequency is a quadratic polynomial
of the logarithm of the rank. This can markedly improve the fit over a simple power-law
relationship.[19] Like fractal dimension, it is possible to calculate Zipf dimension, which is a
useful parameter in the analysis of texts.[20]
It has been argued that Benford's law is a special bounded case of Zipf's law,[19] with the
connection between these two laws being explained by their both originating from scale
invariant functional relations from statistical physics and critical phenomena.[21] The ratios of
probabilities in Benford's law are not constant. The leading digits of data satisfying Zipf's law
with s = 1 satisfy Benford's law.
PLOT OF WORD FREQUENCY IN WIKIPEDIA-DUMP 2006-11-27. THE PLOT IS MADE

IN LOG-LOG COORDINATES. X IS RANK OF A WORD IN THE FREQUENCY TABLE; Y
IS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF THE WORD’S OCCURENCES. MOST POPULAR WORDS
ARE “THE”, “OF” AND “AND”, AS EXPECTED :)
A plot of word frequency in Wikipedia (November 27, 2006). The plot is in log-log coordinates. x is rank
of a word in the frequency table; y is the total number of the word’s occurrences. Most popular words
are "the", "of" and "and", as expected. Zipf's law corresponds to the middle linear portion of the curve,
roughly following the green (1/x) line, while the early part is closer to the magenta (1/x0.5) line while the
later part is closer to the cyan (1/(k + x)2.0) line. These lines correspond to three distinct
parameterizations of the Zipf–Mandelbrot distribution, overall a broken power law with three segments:
a head, middle, and tail.
Source;Victor Grishchenko - Victor Grishchenko [1]
Permision details LPG.

Other hypotheses
Capture
This hypothesis states that the Moon was captured by the Earth.[19] This was popular until the
1980s, and some things in favor of this model include the Moon's size, orbit, and tidal
locking.[19]
One problem is understanding the capture mechanism.[19] A close encounter with Earth
typically results in either collision or altered trajectories. For this hypothesis to function,
there might have been a large atmosphere around the primitive Earth, which would slow the
movement of the Moon by natural aerobraking before it could escape. That hypothesis may
also explain the irregular satellite orbits of Jupiter and Saturn.[20] This hypothesis also has
difficulty explaining the essentially identical oxygen isotope ratios of the two bodies.[4]
Density[18]
Body Density
5.4
Mercury
g/cm3
5.2
Venus
g/cm3
5.5
Earth
g/cm3
the 3.3
Moon g/cm3
Earth and Moon to scale, 500 km per pixel
Fission
This is the now discredited hypothesis that an ancient, rapidly spinning Earth expelled a
piece of its mass.[19] This was proposed by George Darwin (son of the famous
biologist Charles Darwin) in the 1800s and retained some popularity until Apollo.[19] The
Austrian geologist Otto Ampherer in 1925 also suggested the emerging of the Moon as cause
for continental drift.[21]
It was proposed that the Pacific Ocean represented the scar of this event.[19] Today it is known
that the oceanic crust that makes up this ocean basin is relatively young, about 200 million
years old or less, whereas the Moon is much older. The Moon does not consist of oceanic
crust but of mantle material, which originated inside the proto-Earth in the Precambrian.[7]
Thorium concentrations on the Moon, as mapped by Lunar Prospector
Accretion
The hypothesis of accretion suggests that the Earth and the Moon formed together as a
double system from the primordial accretion disk of the Solar System.[22] The problem with
this hypothesis is that it does not explain the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system
or why the Moon has a relatively small iron core compared to the Earth (25% of its radius
compared to 50% for the Earth).[22]
Additional theories and studies
Evolution of the Moon video by NASA circa 2012.[23]
2011
In 2011, it was theorized that a second moon existed 4.5 billion years ago, and later had an
impact with the Moon, as a part of the accretion process in the formation of the Moon.[24]
2013
One hypothesis, presented only as a possibility, was that the Earth took the Moon from
Venus.[25]
2017
Uranium–lead dating of Apollo 14 zircon fragments shows the age of the moon to be about
4.51 billion years.
Claimed moons of Earth

Claims of the existence of other moons of Eart that is, of one or more natural satellites other
than the Moon that orbit Earth have existed for some time. Several candidates have been
proposed, but none has been confirmed. Since the 19th century, scientists have made
[1]
genuine searches for more moons, but the possibility has also been the subject of a number
of dubious non-scientific speculations as well as a number of likely hoaxes. [2]
Although the Moon is Earth's only natural satellite, there are a number of near-Earth
objects (NEOs) with orbits that are in resonance with Earth. These have been called,
inaccurately, "second", "third" or "other" moons of Earth. Marco mentioned a meteor with a
[3]
satellite stuck to a meteor gravitating to earth, early January 2019.

2016 HO3, an asteroid discovered on 27 April 2016, is possibly the most stable quasi-
satellite of Earth. As it orbits the Sun, 2016 HO appears to circle around Earthas well. It is
[4]
3
too distant to be a true satellite of Earth, but is the best and most stable example of a quasi-
satellite, a type of near-Earth object. They appear to orbit a point other than Earth itself, such
as the orbital path of the NEO asteroid 3753 Cruithne. Earth trojans, such as 2010 TK7, are
NEOs that orbit the Sun (not Earth) on the same orbital path as Earth, and appear to lead or
follow Earth along the same orbital path.
Other small natural objects in orbit around the Sun may enter orbit around Earth for a short
amount of time, becoming temporary natural satellites. To date, the only confirmed example
has been 2006 RH120 in Earth orbit during 2006 and 2007, though further instances are already
predicted.
Petit's moon
The first major claim of another moon of Earth was made by French astronomer Frédéric Petit, director of
the Toulouse Observatory, who in 1846 announced that he had discovered a second moon in an elliptical
orbit around Earth.
It was claimed to have also been reported by Lebon and Dassier at Toulouse, and by Larivière at Artenac
Observatory, during the early evening of March 21, 1846. [5]
Petit proposed that this second moon had an elliptical orbit, a period of 2 hours 44 minutes, with 3,570 km
(2,220 mi) apogee and 11.4 km (7.1 mi) perigee.[5] This claim was soon dismissed by his peers.[6] The 11.4 km
(37,000 ft) perigee is similar to the cruising altitude of most modern airliners, and within Earth's atmosphere. Petit
published another paper on his 1846 observations in 1861, basing the second moon's existence on perturbations in
movements of the actual Moon.[5] This second moon hypothesis was not confirmed either.
Petit's proposed moon became a plot point in Jules Verne's 1870 science fiction novel Around the Moon.[7]
Waltemath's moons
In 1898 Hamburg scientist Dr. Georg Waltemath announced that he had located a system of tiny moons orbiting
Earth.[8][9] He had begun his search for secondary moons based on the hypothesis that something was
gravitationally affecting the Moon's orbit.[10]
Waltemath described one of the proposed moons as being 1,030,000 km (640,000 mi) from Earth, with a diameter of
700 km (430 mi), a 119-day orbital period, and a 177-day synodic period.[5] He also said it did not reflect enough
sunlight to be observed without a telescope, unless viewed at certain times, and made several predictions of its
next appearances.[10] "Sometimes, it shines at night like the sun but only for an hour or so." [10][11]
E. Stone Wiggins, a Canadian weather expert, ascribed the cold spring of 1907 to the effect of a second moon,
which he said he had first seen in 1882 and had publicized the find in 1884 in the New York Tribune when he put it
forward as probable cause of an anomalous solar eclipse of May of that year. He said it was also probably the
"green crescent moon" seen in New Zealand and later in North America in 1886, for periods of less than a half-hour
each time. He said this was the "second moon" seen by Waltemath in 1898. Wiggins hypothesized that the second
moon had a high carbon atmosphere but could be seen occasionally by its reflected light. [12]
The existence of these objects put forward by Waltemath (and Wiggins) was discredited after the absence of
corroborating observation by other members of the scientific community. Especially problematic was a failed
prediction that they would be seen in February 1898.[5]
The August 1898 issue of Science mentioned that Waltemath had sent the journal "an announcement of a third
moon", which he termed a wahrhafter Wetter und Magnet Mond ("real weather and magnet moon").[13] It was
supposedly 746 km (464 mi) in diameter, and closer than the "second moon" that he had seen previously.[14]
Other claims
In 1918, astrologer Walter Gornold, also known as Sepharial, claimed to have confirmed the existence of
Waltemath's moon. He named it Lilith. Sepharial claimed that Lilith was a 'dark' moon invisible for most of the time,
but he claimed to be the first person in history to view it as it crossed the Sun. [15]
In 1926 the science journal Die Sterne published the findings of amateur German astronomer W. Spill, who claimed
to have successfully viewed a second moon orbiting Earth.[11]
In the late 1960s John Bargby claimed to have observed over ten small natural satellites of Earth, but this was not
confirmed.[5]
General surveys
William Henry Pickering (1858–1938) studied the possibility of a second moon and made a general search ruling out
the possibility of many types of objects by 1903.[16] His 1922 article "A Meteoritic Satellite" in Popular
Astronomy resulted in increased searches for small natural satellites by amateur astronomers. [5] Pickering had also
proposed the Moon itself had broken off from Earth.[17]
In early 1954 the United States Army's Office of Ordnance Research commissioned Clyde Tombaugh, discoverer
of Pluto, to search for near-Earth asteroids. The Army issued a public statement to explain the rationale for this
survey.[18] Donald Keyhoe, who was later director of the National Investigations Committee on Aerial
Phenomena (NICAP), a UFO research group, said that his Pentagon source had told him that the actual reason for
the quickly initiated search was that two near-Earth objects had been picked up on new long-range radar in mid-
1953. In May 1954, Keyhoe asserted that the search had been successful, and either one or two objects had been
found.[19] At The Pentagon, a general who heard the news reportedly asked whether the satellites were natural or
artificial. Tombaugh denied the alleged discovery in a letter to Willy Ley,[7] and the October 1955 issue of Popular
Mechanics magazine reported:
Professor Tombaugh is closemouthed about his results. He won't say whether or not any small natural satellites
have been discovered. He does say, however, that newspaper reports of 18 months ago announcing the discovery
of natural satellites at 400 and 600 miles out are not correct. He adds that there is no connection between the
search program and the reports of so-called flying saucers.[20]
At a meteor conference in Los Angeles in 1957, Tombaugh reiterated that his four-year search for natural satellites
had been unsuccessful.[21] In 1959, he issued a final report stating that nothing had been found in his search.
Modern status
2010 TK7 has a helical path (green) relative to Earth and its orbit (blue dots)
It was discovered that small bodies can be temporarily captured, as shown by 2006 RH120, which was in Earth orbit
in 2006–2007.[1]
In 2010, the first known Earth trojan was discovered in data from Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), and is
currently called 2010 TK7.
In 2011, planetary scientists Erik Asphaug and Martin Jutzi proposed a model in which a second moon would have
existed 4.5 billion years ago, and later impacted the Moon, as a part of the accretion process in the formation of the
Moon.[22]
Quasi-satellites and trojans
The orbits of Earth and the quasi-satellite Cruithne
When observed from Earth, Cruithne follows the yellow path which does not appear to circle the Sun.
Although no other moons of Earth have been found to date, there are various types of near-Earth objects in 1:1
resonance with it, which are known as quasi-satellites. Quasi-satellites orbit the Sun from the same distance as a
planet, rather than the planet itself. Their orbits are unstable, and will fall into other resonances or be kicked into
other orbits over thousands of years.[3] Quasi-satellites of Earth include 2010 SO16, (164207) 2004 GU9,[23] (277810)
2006 FV35,[24] 2002 AA29,[25] 2014 OL339, 2013 LX28, 2016 HO3 and 3753 Cruithne. Cruithne, discovered in 1986, orbits
the Sun in an elliptical orbit but appears to have a horseshoe orbit when viewed from Earth.[3][26] Some went as far to
nickname Cruithne "Earth's second moon".[26]
The key difference between a satellite and a quasi-satellite is that the orbit of a satellite of Earth fundamentally
depends on the gravity of the Earth–Moon system, whereas the orbit of a quasi-satellite would negligibly change if
Earth and the Moon were suddenly removed because a quasi-satellite is orbiting the Sun on an Earth-like orbit in
the vicinity of Earth.[27]
Earth possesses one known trojan, a small Solar System body caught in the planet's gravitationally
stable L4 Lagrangian point. This object, 2010 TK7 is roughly 300 metres across. Like quasi-satellites, it orbits the
Sun in a 1:1 resonance with Earth, rather than Earth itself.
Temporary satellites
On 14 September 2006, an object estimated at 5 meters in diameter was discovered in near-polar orbit around
Earth. Originally thought to be a third-stage Saturn S-IVB booster from Apollo 12, it was later determined to be
an asteroid and designated as 2006 RH120. The asteroid re-entered Solar orbit after 13 months and is expected to
return to Earth orbit after 21 years.[28]
Computer models by astrophysicists Mikael Granvik, Jeremie Vaubaillon, and Robert Jedicke suggest that these
"temporary satellites" should be quite common; and that "At any given time, there should be at least one natural
Earth satellite of 1-meter diameter orbiting the Earth."[29] Such objects would remain in orbit for ten months on
average, before returning to solar orbit once more, and so would make relatively easy targets for manned space
exploration.[29] "Mini-moons" were further examined in a study published in the journal Icarus.[30]
The earliest known mention[27] in the scientific literature of a temporarily captured orbiter is by Clarence Chant about
the Meteor procession of February 9, 1913:
"It would seem that the bodies had been traveling through space, probably in an orbit about the sun, and that on
coming near the earth they were promptly captured by it and caused to move about it as a satellite."[31]
And later in 1916, William Frederick Denning surmised:
"The large meteors which passed over Northern America on February 9, 1913, presented some unique features. The
length of their observed flight was about 2600 miles [4,200 km], and they must have been moving in paths
concentric, or nearly concentric, with the earth's surface, so that they temporarily formed new terrestrial
satellites.”[32]
It has been proposed that NASA search for temporary natural satellites, and use them for a sample return
mission.[1][33]
In April 2015, an object was discovered orbiting the Earth, and initially designated 2015 HP116, but more detailed
investigation quickly showed the object to be the Gaia spacecraft, and the object's discovery soon was retracted.[34]
On October 3, 2015, a small object, temporarily designated WT1190F, was found to be orbiting the Earth every ~23
days, and had been orbiting since at least late 2009. It impacted the Earth on November 13, 2015 at 06:18:34.3 (±1.3
seconds) UTC.
On February 8, 2016 a 0.5-meter object was discovered orbiting the Earth with a period of 5 days and given the
temporary designation XC83E0D, and most likely lost. The object was later identified with the lost artificial satellite
SR-11A, or possibly its companion SR-11B, which were launched in 1976 and lost in 1979.
On April 8, 2016, an object, given the temporary designation S509356, was discovered with an orbital period of 3.58
days. Although it has the typical area-to-mass ratio (m^2/kg) of satellites, it has a color typical of S-type asteroids.
It was later identified as the Yuanzheng-1 stage from the launch of Chinese navigation satellites.[35]
On December 8, 2017, the object YX205B9 was discovered with an orbital period of 21 days, on an eccentric orbit
taking it from slightly beyond the geocentric satellite ring to almost twice the distance of the Moon. It was later
identified as the booster stage from the Chang'e 2 mission
LITERATURE REVIEW .
Planetary science
Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study
of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar
System) and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size
from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics,
formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing
from astronomy and earth science, but which now incorporates many disciplines,
[1]
including planetary geology (together

with geochemistryand geophysics), cosmochemistry, atmospheric
science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology,
and exoplanetology. Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the
[1]
effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology.
There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science.
Observational research can involve a combination of space exploration, predominantly
with robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing, and comparative, experimental work
in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical component involves considerable computer
simulation and mathematical modelling.
Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences
departments of universities or research centres, though there are several purely planetary
science institutes worldwide. There are several major conferences each year, and a wide
range of peer-reviewed journals. In the case of some exclusive planetary scientists, many of
whom are in relation to the study of dark matter, they will seek a private research centre and
often initiate partnership research tasks.
Photograph from Apollo 15 orbital unit of the rillesin the vicinity of the crater Aristarchus on the Moon.
Source; NASA
Apollo-15 image about the vicinity of Prinz crater
whole.[1]
Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions of celestial objects.
Historically, celestial mechanics applies principles of physics(classical mechanics) to astronomical
objects, such as stars and planets, to produce ephemeris data. As an astronomical field of study,
celestial mechanics includes the sub-fields of orbital mechanics (astrodynamics), which deals with
the orbit of an artificial satellite, and lunar theory, which deals with the orbit of the Moon. Modern
analytic celestial mechanics started with Isaac
Newton's 3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"Principia of 1687. The name "celestial mechanics"
is more recent than that. Newton wrote that the field should be called "rational mechanics." The term
"dynamics" came in a little later with Gottfried Leibniz, and over a century after Newton, Pierre-Simon
Laplace introduced the term "celestial mechanics." Prior to Kepler there was little connection
between exact, quantitative prediction of planetary positions,
using geometrical or arithmetical techniques, and contemporary discussions of the physical causes of
the planets' motion many laws written by Astronomers, Astrologers, Chemists,
Mathematicians,Physicists,Physicians.
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei (Italian: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564[3] – 8 January 1642) was
an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath.[4] Galileo has been called the
"father of observational astronomy",[5] the "father of modern physics",[6][7] the "father of the scientific method",[8] and
the "father of modern science".[9][10]
Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also
worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances",
inventing the thermoscope and various military compasses, and using the telescope for scientific observations of
celestial objects. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of
Venus, the observation of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, the observation of Saturn and the analysis
of sunspots.
Galileo's championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most
subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[11] He met with opposition from astronomers, who
doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[11] The matter was investigated by
the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and
formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." [11][12][13] Galileo later
defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack
Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[11] He
was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his
life under house arrest.[14][15] While under house arrest, he wrote Two New Sciences, in which he summarized work
he had done some forty years earlier on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.[16][17]
Galileo Galilei
Portrait of Galileo Galilei (1636), by Justus Sustermans
In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to
swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the
same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set
up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found
that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that
the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece. [35] Up to this point,
Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a
mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into
letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead of medicine.[35] He created a thermoscope, a
forerunner of the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had
invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied disegno, a term
encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in
Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of
the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began
a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli, who included Galileo's lunar observations in one of his
paintings.[36][37]
In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with
the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught
geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610.[38] During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both
pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied
science (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study
of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy. [39]
Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides
Galileo Galilei, portrait by Tintoretto.
Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a
true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun". [40] Galileo
considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of the motion of the earth. This theory was
so important to him that he originally intended to entitle his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue
on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[41] The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition.
For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's
surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He
circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. [42] His theory gave the first insight into
the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance,
for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the
cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.
If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of
this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about twelve hours apart. Galileo
dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and
other factors.[43] Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert
Einstein expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically
out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth. [44] Galileo dismissed the idea, held by his
contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides.[45](Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical
orbits of the planets.)[46][47]
Controversy over comets and The Assayer

Main article: The Assayer
In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the
Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The
Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very
nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes Galileo as philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of
the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been
referred to as his scientific manifesto.[48] Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An
Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618,[49] which discussed the nature of a comet that had
appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had
moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, [50] and since it moved in the sky more
slowly than the moon, it must be farther away than the moon.
Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, Discourse on Comets,[51] published
under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been
largely written by Galileo himself.[52] Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of
comets[53] although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. In its opening
passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discoursegratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christopher Scheiner,[54] and various
uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work. [55] The
Jesuits were offended,[56] and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and
Philosophical Balance,[57] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,[58] purporting to be one of his own
pupils.
The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.[59] It has been widely recognized as a
masterpiece of polemical literature,[60] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn. [61] It was
greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated.[62] In
Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of Galileo and
the Lincean Academy.[63]
Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been sympathetic to
his ideas,[64] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for bringing about his
later condemnation.[65] The evidence for this is at best equivocal, however.[66]
Controversy over heliocentrism

Galileo affair
Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition
In the whole world prior to Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed either to
the Aristotelian geocentric view that the earth was the center of the universe and that all heavenly bodies revolved
around the Earth,[67] or the Tychonic system that blended geocentrism with heliocentrism.[68] Nevertheless, following
the death of Copernicus and before Galileo, heliocentrism was relatively uncontroversial; [68] Copernicus's work was
used by Pope Gregory XIII to reform the calendar in 1582.[a]
Opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's writings combined religious and scientific objections. Scientific
opposition came from Tycho Brahe and others and arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an
annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was. Copernicus and Aristarchus had correctly postulated
that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Brahe had countered that, since stars
appeared to have measurable size, if the stars were that distant, they would be gigantic, and in fact far larger than
the Sun or any other celestial body. In Brahe's system, by contrast, the stars were a little more distant than Saturn,
and the Sun and stars were comparable in size.[69]
Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from Biblical references such as Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1
Chronicles 16:30 which include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same
manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved."
Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place."[70]
Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609 (Sidereus Nuncius 1610). In
December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of Galileo's friends and
followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the earth. According to Maurice Finocchiaro,
this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity. Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a letter
to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the bible was
an authority on faith and morals, not on science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely. [71]
By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini,
who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, which was seen as a violation
of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism.[72] Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to
Castelli.[73] Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his Copernican and biblical ideas. At the start of 1616,
Monsignor Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system.
Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that
followed.[74] According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write
an expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis" for the Inquisition's
actions.[75] The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed
primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned Brahe's argument that heliocentrism
required the stars to be much larger than the Sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the
heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the
orbit circle of the Earth itself."[76] The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo
focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas. [77] In February
1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally
heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." The Inquisition found that the
idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and... in regard to theological truth it is
at least erroneous in faith".[78] (The original document from the Inquisitorial commission was made widely available
in 2014.[79])
Pope Paul V instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to Galileo, and to order him to abandon the
opinion that heliocentrism was physically true. On 26 February, Galileo was called to Bellarmine's residence and
ordered:
... to abandon completely... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the earth moves, and
henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing.[80]
The decree of the Congregation of the Index banned Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works
until correction.[80] Bellarmine's instructions did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a
mathematical and philosophic idea, so long as he did not advocate for its physical truth. [11][81]
For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the
subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend
and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. Galileo's resulting book, Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from
the Inquisition and papal permission.[82]
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book,
and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be
included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo.
Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a
fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous
Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the
connotation of "simpleton".[83] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory.
Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio.
Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[b] However,
the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.
Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend
his writings[84] in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo
Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept
his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he
was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have
obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather
implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in
the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell
the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.[85]
The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:
 Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies
motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold
and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required
to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[86]
 He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. [87] On the following day, this was
commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life.
 His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his
works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[88]
Portrait, attributed to Murillo, of Galileo gazing at the words "E pur si muove" (And yet it moves) (not legible in this image)
scratched on the wall of his prison cell
According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly
muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". A 1640s painting by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban
Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an
imprisoned Galileo apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest
known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death, but Stillman Drake writes "there is no doubt
now that the famous words were already attributed to Galileo before his death".[89]
After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his
villa at Arcetrinear Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read
the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved
him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.[90]
It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New
Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now
called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book has received high
praise from Albert Einstein.[91] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He
went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful herniaand insomnia, so he was permitted to travel
to Florence for medical advice.[16][17]
Dava Sobel argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become
preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state, and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In
this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of
Galileo. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and
fear
Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler (/ˈkɛplər/;[1] German: [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ, -nɛs -];[2][3] December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a
German astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer. He is a key figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution, best
known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome
Astronomiae Copernicanae. These works also provided one of the foundations for Newton's theory of universal
gravitation.
Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans
Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the
imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He also taught
mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field
of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian telescope), and was mentioned in
the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia
dei Lincei in Rome.[4]
Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong
division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural
philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious
conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the
natural light of reason.[5]Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics", [6] as "an excursion
into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[7] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[8] transforming the ancient
tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics. [9]
Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was the first to closely integrate the predictive geometrical
astronomy, which had been dominant from Ptolemy in the 2nd century to Copernicus, with
physical concepts to produce a New Astronomy, Based upon Causes, or Celestial Physics in
1609. His work led to the modern laws of planetary orbits, which he developed using his
physical principles and the planetary observations made by Tycho Brahe. Kepler's model
greatly improved the accuracy of predictions of planetary motion, years before Isaac
Newton developed his law of gravitation in 1686.
Early years.
Kepler was born on December 27, the feast day of St John the Evangelist, 1571, in the Free Imperial City of Weil der
Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's
center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had
two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a
precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have
died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother, Katharina Guldenmann, an innkeeper's daughter, was
a healer and herbalist. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless,
he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty. [10]
He was introduced to astronomy at an early age, and developed a love for it that would span his entire life. At age
six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at
it."[11] In 1580, at age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a lunar eclipse, recording that he remembered
being "called outdoors" to see it and that the moon "appeared quite red".[11] However, childhood smallpox left him
with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.[12]
As a child, Kepler witnessed the Great Comet of 1577, which attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe.
In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and seminary at Maulbronn, Kepler attended Tübinger
Stift at the University of Tübingen. There, he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller[13] and theology under Jacob
Heerbrand (a student of Philipp Melanchthonat Wittenberg), who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a
student, until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590.[14] He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and
earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael
Maestlin, Tübingen's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631, [14] he learned both the Ptolemaic system and
the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he
defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the
principal source of motive power in the universe.[15] Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his
studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school
in Graz. He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 23. [16]
Graz (1594–1600)
Mysterium Cosmographicum
Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar System, from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596)
Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery, 1596), was the
first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19, 1595, while
teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized
that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned,
might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known
astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-
dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by
spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers,
corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids
selectively—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be
placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun.
Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to
outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later
rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.[17]
As he indicated in the title, Kepler thought he had revealed God's geometrical plan for the universe. Much of
Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection
between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the
Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript
of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to
support geocentrism.[18]
Close-up of an inner section of Kepler's model
With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate
to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more
understandable description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler's new ideas. Mysterium was published late
in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in
1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive
dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial
doorway into the patronage system.[19]
Though the details would be modified in light of his later work, Kepler never relinquished the Platonist polyhedral-
spherist cosmology of Mysterium Cosmographicum. His subsequent main astronomical works were in some sense
only further developments of it, concerned with finding more precise inner and outer dimensions for the spheres by
calculating the eccentricities of the planetary orbits within it. In 1621, Kepler published an expanded second edition
of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had
achieved in the 25 years since its first publication.[20]
In terms of the impact of Mysterium, it can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed
by Nicolaus Copernicus in his "De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium". Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a
heliocentric system in this book, he resorted to Ptolemaic devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to
explain the change in planets' orbital speed, and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the
earth's orbit rather than that of the sun "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging
too much from Ptolemy." Modern astronomy owes much to Mysterium Cosmographicum, despite flaws in its main
thesis, "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic
theory still clinging to it." [21]
Portraits of Kepler and his wife
House of Kepler and Barbara Müller in Gössendorf, near Graz (1597–1599)
Marriage to Barbara Müller

In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young
daughter, Regina Lorenz, and he began courting her. Müller, an heiress to the estates of her late husbands, was
also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage. Even though Kepler had
inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler
completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of
publication. However, Protestant officials—who had helped set up the match—pressured the Müllers to honor their
agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on April 27, 1597. [22]
In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in
infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig). [23]
Other research
Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an
ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary
aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical
nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects
of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology, and astrology.[24]
He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus
Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers Bär)—the imperial mathematician to Rudolph II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus
did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now
called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler,
starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with
the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a
broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its
theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to
address many of these issues.[25]
Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among
music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrologicalconsequences. By assuming the Earth to
possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the sun causes the motion of planets), he
established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other
earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data—just as
growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho
invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on January 1, 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in
the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones. [26]
Prague (1600–1612)
Tycho Brahe
On February 4, 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benátky
nad Jizerou(35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two
months, he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely,
but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his
theory[27] from Mysterium Cosmographicumbased on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to
two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius,
Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in
an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on April 6. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached
an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family. [28]
Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe; in hopes of
continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as a mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To
that end, Kepler composed an essay—dedicated to Ferdinand—in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar
motion: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to
move").[29] Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring
lunar eclipses, which he applied during the July 10 eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his
explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica.[30]
On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz. Several
months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was
supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against
Tycho's (by then deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the
new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prutenic
Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on October 24, 1601, Kepler was appointed
his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. The next 11
years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life. [31]
Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II

Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though
Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific
events, he had been casting well-received detailed horoscopes for friends, family, and patrons since his time as a
student in Tübingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in
times of political trouble. Rudolph was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including
numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well. [32]
Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the
imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample
income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of
enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life
at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought
Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost
Bürgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work
proceeded rapidly.[33]
Astronomiae Pars Optica
A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes of various species.
As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and
began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of
optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as
unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total
solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of
1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor
on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler
described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and
principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent
sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by
neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto
the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining
to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the
"activity of the Soul."[34] Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics
(though the law of refractionis conspicuously absent).[35] With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry,
Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of
a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or
degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and
when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one
another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to
infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.[36]
Supernova of 1604
: Kepler's Supernova
Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604
In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it
himself. Kepler began systematically observing the nova. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of
a fiery trigon, the start of the about 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous
such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (c. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (c. 1600 years earlier), and
thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor. It was in this context, as the imperial
mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella
Nova. In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many
astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used
the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of
the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and
unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. In an appendix, Kepler also discussed
the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct
that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem—analogous to the present new star—
would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle.[37]
The location of the stella nova, in the foot of Ophiuchus, is marked with an N (8 grid squares down, 4 over from the left).
Astronomia nova
The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy)—including the first two laws
of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of Mars' orbit. Kepler calculated and
recalculated various approximations of Mars' orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had
eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within
two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly
inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of
traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the
data.[38]
In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the
solar system. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the
Earth from De Magnete (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or
motive species)[39] radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move
closer or farther from it.[40][a] Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore
astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a
formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this
relationship throughout the orbital cycle, however, required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late
1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal times—
Kepler's second law of planetary motion.[42]
Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of apparent retrograde motion(Astronomia nova, Chapter 1,
1609)
He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-
shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in early 1605 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse,
which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked.[43] Finding
that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data, he immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at
one focus—Kepler's first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, however, he did
not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript
for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's
observations, the property of his heirs.[44]
Dioptrice, Somnium manuscript, and other work

In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations
for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star
positions) based on the table (though neither would be completed for many years). He also attempted
(unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini. Some of his other work
dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus, and with astrology, especially criticism of
dramatic predictions of catastrophe such as those of Helisaeus Roeslin.[45]
Kepler and Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks, while physician Philip Feselius
published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular). In response to what Kepler
saw as the excesses of astrology on the one hand and overzealous rejection of it on the other, Kepler
prepared Tertius Interveniens [Third-party Interventions]. Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of
Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars, but it also set out Kepler's general
views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and
individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling
dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold
nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer. [46] Conversely, Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler
was somewhat disdainful of astrology, as Kepler was "continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology, but
it was the only thing for which people would pay him, and on it after a fashion he lived." [47]
Karlova street in Old Town, Prague – house where Kepler lived. Now a museum [1]
In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting
Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of
Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short
published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's
observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and
telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler
published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support
of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia
Nova.[48]
After hearing of Galileo's telescopic discoveries, Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of
telescopic optics using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne.[49] The resulting manuscript was
completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis
of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses—and how they are combined to
produce a Galilean telescope—as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and
the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known
as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope—in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than
Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.[50]
One of the diagrams from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating the Kepler conjecture
Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously)
as Somnium [The Dream]. Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be
like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript,
which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the moon; it was part allegory,
part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of
science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his
mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual
acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained
the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography)
hidden within the text.[51]
Work in mathematics and physics

As a New Year's gift that year (1611), he also composed for his friend and some-time patron, Baron Wackher von
Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In
this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the
discussion into a hypothetical atomisticphysical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as
the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres. [52][53]
Personal and political troubles

In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolph—whose health was
failing—was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological
advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in
general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court
of Matthias were dim.[54]
Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was
recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler
sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua. At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg,
concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of
Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought
Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead
travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed
into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return.[55]
Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolph's death in early 1612, though between
political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler
could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from
correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position
(and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz. [56]
Linz and elsewhere (1612–1630)
A statue of Kepler in Linz
In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district
school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security
and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church
over his theological scruples. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and
ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother Katharina in the Protestant town of Leonberg. That blow,
happening only a few years after Kepler’s excommunication, is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the
full-fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler.[57]
His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth; he also
participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German
lands; that year he also wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum, on
measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, published in 1615.[58]
Second marriage
On October 30, 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife
Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years (a decision process formalized later as
the marriage problem).[59] He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with
love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren." [60] The first three
children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into
adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler's biographers,
this was a much happier marriage than his first.[61]
Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, calendars, and the witch trial of

his mother
Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae
Kepler's Figure 'M' from the Epitome, showing the world as belonging to just one of any number of similar stars.
Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.[62] In 1615, he
completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy);
the first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621.
Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based
system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and
attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes. [63]Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of
planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean
satellites of Jupiter,[b] it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data. [66]
As a spin-off from the Rudolphine Tables and the related Ephemerides, Kepler published astrological calendars,
which were very popular and helped offset the costs of producing his other work—especially when support from
the Imperial treasury was withheld. In his calendars—six between 1617 and 1624—Kepler forecast planetary
positions and weather as well as political events; the latter were often cannily accurate, thanks to his keen grasp of
contemporary political and theological tensions. By 1624, however, the escalation of those tensions and the
ambiguity of the prophecies meant political trouble for Kepler himself; his final calendar was publicly burned in
Graz.[67]
Geometrical harmonies in the perfect solids from Harmonices Mundi(1619)
In 1615, Ursula Reingold, a woman in a financial dispute with Kepler's brother Christoph, claimed Kepler's mother
Katharina had made her sick with an evil brew. The dispute escalated, and in 1617 Katharina was accused
of witchcraft; witchcraft trials were relatively common in central Europe at this time. Beginning in August 1620, she
was imprisoned for fourteen months. She was released in October 1621, thanks in part to the extensive legal
defense drawn up by Kepler. The accusers had no stronger evidence than rumors. Katharina was subjected
to territio verbalis, a graphic description of the torture awaiting her as a witch, in a final attempt to make her
confess. Throughout the trial, Kepler postponed his other work to focus on his "harmonic theory". The result,
published in 1619, was Harmonices Mundi ("Harmony of the World").[68]
Harmonices Mundi
Harmonices Mundi
Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the
whole world".[69]In Harmony, he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the
astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music.[70] The central set of "harmonies" was the musica
universalis or "music of the spheres", which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and many others before
Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonices Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert
Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.[71]
Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known
as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony
resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction
between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary
motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships
had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated
them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them. [72]
Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He
then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to
each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he
does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. [73] However, the wider significance for planetary
dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens'
newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher
Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun
and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them. [74] This refuted the traditional assumption
of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied
between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that
gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics. [75]
Rudolphine Tables and his last years
Name "Copernicus" in a manuscript report by Kepler concerning the Rudolphine Tables (1616).
Title page of the Tabulae Rudolphinae, Ulm, 1627
Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein
In 1623, Kepler at last completed the Rudolphine Tables, which at the time was considered his major work.
However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not
be printed until 1627. In the meantime, religious tension — the root of the ongoing Thirty Years' War — once again
put Kepler and his family in jeopardy. In 1625, agents of the Catholic Counter-Reformation placed most of Kepler's
library under seal, and in 1626 the city of Linz was besieged. Kepler moved to Ulm, where he arranged for the
printing of the Tables at his own expense.[76]
In 1628, following the military successes of the Emperor Ferdinand's armies under General Wallenstein, Kepler
became an official advisor to Wallenstein. Though not the general's court astrologer per se, Kepler provided
astronomical calculations for Wallenstein's astrologers and occasionally wrote horoscopes himself. In his final
years, Kepler spent much of his time traveling, from the imperial court in Prague to Linz and Ulm to a temporary
home in Sagan, and finally to Regensburg. Soon after arriving in Regensburg, Kepler fell ill. He died on November
15, 1630, and was buried there; his burial site was lost after the Swedish army destroyed the churchyard. [77] Only
Kepler's self-authored poetic epitaph survived the times:
Mensus eram coelos, nunc terrae metior umbras
Mens coelestis erat, corporis umbra iacet.
I measured the skies, now the shadows I measure
Skybound was the mind, earthbound the body rests.[78]
Christianity
Kepler's belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and
comprehend the laws that govern the natural world, most profoundly in astronomy.[79][80] The phrase "I am merely
thinking God's thoughts after Him" has been attributed to him, although this is probably a capsulized version of a
writing from his hand:
Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us
after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts.[81]
Reception of his astronomy

Kepler's laws of planetary motion were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René
Descartescompletely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael
Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise
positions. Ismaël Bullialdus accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect
to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.[82][83][84]
Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two
transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under
circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631,
Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit
the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a
confirmation of Kepler's prediction.[85] This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to
observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables.
Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris. [86]Jeremiah Horrocks, who
observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model,
predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian
model.[87][88][89]
Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it
was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630 - 1650, this book was the most widely used
astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.[63] However, few adopted his ideas on the
physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from
Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces
(though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia.[90] This
culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary
motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation.[91]
Historical and cultural legacy
Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic

The GDR stamp featuring Kepler
History of science
Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in
the philosophyand historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of
astronomy such as Jean-Étienne Montucla's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's
1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective
treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era
natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.William Whewell, in his influential History of
the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in
his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced
forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts,
after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt,
who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of
thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work. [92]
Alexandre Koyré's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's
cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of
professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of
science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather
than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since
the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and
meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical
methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an
historian of science.[93]
Philosophers of science—such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl
Popper—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification,
and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used
Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific
investigation.[94]
Editions and translations

Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries,
the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st
century).
An edition in eight volumes, Kepleri Opera omnia, was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to
1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday. Frisch's edition only included Kepler's Latin, with a Latin
commentary.
A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's
unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the
manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by
Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of
Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.
Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923. Both
Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill (1842–1935).
Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the Kepler-
Kommission in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1979), Caspar
continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948. [95] The
commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and Ulrich Grigull (during 1984–1999)
and Roland Bulirsch (1998–2014).[96][97]
Popular science and historical fiction

Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science
popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer".[98]
The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and
popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers, in which Kepler is
unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.[99]
A well-received, if fanciful, historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed
in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.[100] Somewhat more fanciful is a recent work of
nonfiction, Heavenly Intrigue (2004), suggesting that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data. [101]
Veneration and eponymy

In Austria, Kepler left behind such a historical legacy that he was one of the motifs of a silver collector's coin:
the 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin, minted on September 10, 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait
of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince
Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif
of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra
from Mysterium Cosmographicum.[102]
The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled Die Harmonie der Welt, and a
symphony of the same name was derived from music for the opera. Philip Glass wrote an opera
called Kepler based on Kepler's life (2009).
Kepler is honored together with Nicolaus Copernicus with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal
Church (USA) on May 23.[103]
List of things named after Johannes Kepler
Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are Kepler's laws of planetary motion, Kepler's
Supernova (Supernova 1604, which he observed and described) and the Kepler Solids, a set of geometrical
constructions, two of which were described by him, and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing.
The Kepler crater as photographed by Apollo 12 in 1969

 In astronomy: The lunar crater Kepler (Keplerus, named by Giovanni Riccioli, 1651), the
asteroid 1134 Kepler (1929), Kepler (crater on Mars) (1973), Kepler Launch Site for model
rockets (2001), the Kepler Mission, a space photometerlaunched by NASA in
2009,[104] Johannes Kepler ATV (Automated Transfer Vehicle launched to resupply the ISS in
2011).
 Educational institutions: Johannes Kepler University Linz (1975), Kepler College (Seattle,
Washington), besides several institutions of primary and secondary education, such as
Johannes Kepler Grammar School,[105] at the site where Kepler lived in Prague, and Kepler
Gymnasium, Tübingen
 Streets or squares named after him: Keplerplatz Vienna (station of Vienna U-Bahn),
Keplerstraße in Hanau near Frankfurt am Main, Keplerstraße in Munich, Germany,
Keplerstraße and Keplerbrücke in Graz, Austria, Keplerova ulice in Prague.
 The Kepler Mountains and Kepler Track in Fiordland National Park, South Island, New
Zealand; Kepler Challenge (1988).
 Kepler, a high end graphics processing microarchitecture introduced by Nvidia in 2012.
Works
 Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596)
 De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology; 1601)
 Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) (1604)
 De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1606)
 Astronomia nova (New Astronomy) (1609)
 Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610)
 Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610)
 Dioptrice (1611)
 De nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake) (1611) (English translation on Google
Books preview)
 De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis
Mariae assumpsit (1614)[106]
 Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo)
 Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615)
 Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium (1617-30)
 Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) (published in three
parts from 1618 to 1621)
Epitome astronomiae copernicanae, 1618
 Harmonices Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds) (1619) (English translation on Google Books)
 Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos), 2nd edition (1621)
 Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) (1627)
 Somnium (The Dream) (1634) (English translation on Google Books preview)
A critical edition of Kepler's collected works (Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke, KGW) in 22
volumes is being edited by the Kepler-Kommission (founded 1935) on behalf of the Bayerische
Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Vol. 1: Mysterium Cosmographicum. De Stella Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1938, 2nd ed. 1993. Paperback ISBN 3-
406-01639-1.
Vol. 2: Astronomiae pars optica. Ed. F. Hammer. 1939, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01641-3.
Vol. 3: Astronomia Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1937. IV, 487 p. 2. ed. 1990. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01643-X. Semi-
parchment ISBN 3-406-01642-1.
Vol. 4: Kleinere Schriften 1602–1611. Dioptrice. Ed. M. Caspar, F. Hammer. 1941. ISBN 3-406-01644-8.
Vol. 5: Chronologische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1953. Out-of-print.
Vol. 6: Harmonice Mundi. Ed. M. Caspar. 1940, 2nd ed. 1981, ISBN 3-406-01648-0.
Vol. 7: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. Ed. M. Caspar. 1953, 2nd ed. 1991. ISBN 3-406-01650-2,
Paperback ISBN 3-406-01651-0.
Vol. 8: Mysterium Cosmographicum. Editio altera cum notis. De Cometis. Hyperaspistes. Commentary F.
Hammer. 1955. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01653-7.
Vol 9: Mathematische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1955, 2nd ed. 1999. Out-of-print.
Vol. 10: Tabulae Rudolphinae. Ed. F. Hammer. 1969. ISBN 3-406-01656-1.
Vol. 11,1: Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium. Commentary V. Bialas. 1983. ISBN 3-406-01658-8,
Vol. 11,2: Calendaria et Prognostica. Astronomica minora. Somnium. Commentary V. Bialas, H. Grössing.
1993. ISBN 3-406-37510-3, Paperback ISBN 3-406-37511-1.
Vol. 12: Theologica. Hexenprozeß. Tacitus-Übersetzung. Gedichte. Commentary J. Hübner, H. Grössing, F.
Boockmann, F. Seck. Directed by V. Bialas. 1990. ISBN 3-406-01660-X, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01661-8.
 Vols. 13–18: Letters:
Vol. 13: Briefe 1590–1599. Ed. M. Caspar. 1945. 432 p. ISBN 3-406-01663-4.
Vol. 14: Briefe 1599–1603. Ed. M. Caspar. 1949. Out-of-print. 2nd ed. in preparation.
Vol 15: Briefe 1604–1607. Ed. M. Caspar. 1951. 2nd ed. 1995. ISBN 3-406-01667-7.
Vol. 16: Briefe 1607–1611. Ed. M. Caspar. 1954. ISBN 3-406-01668-5.
Vol. 19: Dokumente zu Leben und Werk. Commentary M. List. 1975. ISBN 978-3-406-01674-5.
Vols. 20–21: manuscripts
Vol. 20,1: Manuscripta astronomica (I). Apologia, De motu Terrae, Hipparchus etc. Commentary V. Bialas.
1988. ISBN 3-406-31501-1. Paperback ISBN 3-406-31502-X.
Vol. 20,2: Manuscripta astronomica (II). Commentaria in Theoriam Martis. Commentary V. Bialas. 1998.
Vol. 21,1: Manuscripta astronomica (III) et mathematica. De Calendario Gregoriano. In preparation.
Vol. 21,2: Manuscripta varia. In preparation.
Vol. 22: General index, in preparation.
The Kepler-Kommission also publishes Bibliographia Kepleriana (2nd ed. List, 1968), a complete bibliography of
editions of Kepler's works, with a supplementary volume to the second edition (ed. Hamel 1998).
Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton FRS PRS (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27[1]) was an
English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and author (described in his own day as a "natural
philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in
the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made
seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnizfor developing the
infinitesimal calculus.
In Principia, Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that formed the dominant scientific
viewpoint until it was superseded by the theory of relativity. Newton used his mathematical description of gravity to
prove Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for tides, the trajectories of comets, the precession of the
equinoxes and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the Solar System's heliocentricity. He demonstrated that
the motion of objects on Earth and celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's
inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La
Condamine, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over
earlier systems.
Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the
observation that a prism separates white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. His work on light was
collected in his highly influential book Opticks, published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling,
made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In
addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised
the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and
classified most of the cubic plane curves.
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of
Cambridge. He was a devout, but unorthodox, Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Unusually
for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day, he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England. Beyond
his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical
chronology, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and
personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of
Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and spent the last three decades of
his life in London, serving as Warden (1696–1700) and Master (1700–1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as president of
the Royal Society (1703–1727
Sir
Isaac Newton
FRS PRS
Isaac Newton (25 December 1642–31 March 1727) is credited with introducing the idea that
the motion of objects in the heavens, such as planets, the Sun, and the Moon, and the motion
of objects on the ground, like cannon balls and falling apples, could be described by the
same set of physical laws. In this sense he unified celestial and terrestrial dynamics.
Using Newton's law of universal gravitation, proving Kepler's Laws for the case of a circular
orbit is simple. Elliptical orbits involve more complex calculations, which Newton included in
his Principia.
Early life of sir Isaac Newton.
Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar, in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25
December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643[1]) "an hour or two after midnight",[6] at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-
Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months
before. Born prematurely, Newton was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could
have fit inside a quartmug.[7] When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband,
the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. Newton
disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry
in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the
house over them."[8] Newton's mother had three children from her second marriage.[9]
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham, which
taught Latin and Greek and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics.[10] He was removed from
school, and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659. His mother, widowed for the second time,
attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated.[11] Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded
his mother to send him back to school. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he
became the top-ranked student,[12] distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills.[13]
In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, on the recommendation of his uncle Rev William
Ayscough, who had studied there. He started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valet's duties—until he
was awarded a scholarship in 1664, guaranteeing him four more years until he could get his MA.[14] At that time, the
college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers such
as Descartes, and astronomers such as Galileo and Thomas Street, through whom he learned of Kepler's work. He
set down in his notebook a series of "Quaestiones" about mechanical philosophy as he found it. In 1665, he
discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later
became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his BA degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed
as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge
student,[15] Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the
development of his theories on calculus,[16] optics, and the law of gravitation.
In April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. [17][18] Fellows were required
to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an assertion of conformity
to the Church of England was sufficient. However, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his
unconventional views stood in the way.[19] Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special
permission from Charles II.
His studies had impressed the Lucasian professor Isaac Barrow, who was more anxious to develop his own
religious and administrative potential (he became master of Trinity two years later); in 1669 Newton succeeded him,
only one year after receiving his MA. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672.[2]
Middle years
Mathematics
Sir Isaac Newton[20]
Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied." [21] His work on the
subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among
Newton's mathematical papers.[22] The author of the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum
infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in
August of that year as "[...] of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things." [23]
Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus (the Leibniz–
Newton calculus controversy). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus
independently, although with very different mathematical notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that
Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began
publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays
recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after
1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.[citation needed]
Such a suggestion fails to account for the calculus in Book 1 of Newton's Principia itself and in its forerunner
manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684; this content has been pointed out by critics[Like whom?] of
both Newton's time and modern times.[citation needed]
His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small
quantities: in the Principia itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and last
ratios"[24] and explained why he put his expositions in this form,[25]remarking also that "hereby the same thing is
performed as by the method of indivisibles."[
Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal
calculus" in modern times[26] and in Newton's time "nearly all of it is of this calculus." [27] His use of methods
involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of
1684[28] and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684". [29]
Newton in 1702 by Godfrey Kneller
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism. [30] He was close to
the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of
Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz.[31] In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton
deteriorated and the book was never completed.[
Starting in 1699, other members[who?] of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism.[citation needed] The dispute then
broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true
discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on
Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's
death in 1716.[32]
Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He
discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in
two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional
indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He
approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula) and
was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was
inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.[33]
When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the "College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity" in 1667, he
made the commitment that "I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the
time prescribed by these statutes [7 years] arrives, or I will resign from the college."[34] Up until this point he had not
thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the thirty-nine articles, the basis of Church of
England doctrine.
He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669, on Barrow's recommendation. During that time, any
Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take holy orders and become an
ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active
in the church – presumably[weasel words] so as to have more time for science. Newton argued that this should exempt him
from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a
conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.[35]
Optics
Replica of Newton's second reflecting telescope, which he presented to the Royal Society in 1672[36]
In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is
oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours
by different angles.[37][38]This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light—a point which had been
debated in prior years.
From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.[39] During this period he investigated the refraction of light,
demonstrating that the multicoloured spectrum produced by a prism could be recomposed into white light by
a lens and a second prism.[40]Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light
owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy.[41]
He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on
various objects, and that regardless of whether reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same
colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than
objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour.[42]
Illustration of a dispersive prismseparating white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton
From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into
colours (chromatic aberration). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors
instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem.[43][44] Building the design, the first known functional
reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope,[44] involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror
material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly
reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late
1668,[45] he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer
and larger image. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. [46]Their interest
encouraged him to publish his notes, Of Colours,[47] which he later expanded into the work Opticks. When Robert
Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton
and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's
correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society
transactions,[48] which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary
orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. But the two
men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.[49]
Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Isaac Newton to Dr William Briggs, commenting on Briggs' A New Theory of Vision.
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a
denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by
thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or
transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for
the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons, and
the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles.
The contact with the Cambridge Platonist philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy.[50] He replaced
the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard
Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of
reason: He was the last of the magicians."[51] Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions
to science.[50] This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not
relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of
gravity.
In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to
be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated
that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...
and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their
Composition?"[52] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass
globe.[53]
In an article entitled "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers" [54] it is indicated that Newton in his
book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander. In the same book he describes,
via diagrams, the use of multiple-prism arrays. Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam
expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic
beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.[54]
Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. Young and Fresnel combined Newton's particle theory
with Huygens' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also
slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet
and scientist, Goethe, could not shake the Newtonian foundation but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's
armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He
therefore thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must for ever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction
being incompatible. This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong."[55]
Engraving of a Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton by John Vanderbank
Mechanics and gravitation

Further information: Writing of Principia Mathematica
Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition, in the Wren Library at Trinity College,
Cambridge.
, In 1679, Newton returned to his work on celestial mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits
of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of
letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who
opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions. [48] Newton's
reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter
of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.[56] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked
out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to
the square of the radius vector. Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De
motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register
Book in December 1684.[57] This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form
the Principia.
The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this
work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion. Together, these laws describe the relationship between any
object, the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for classical mechanics. They
contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon
for more than 200 years. Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic
technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known
as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation.[
In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis using 'first and last ratios',
gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness
of Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational
attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon,
provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more. [citation needed]
Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System—developed in a somewhat modern way, because
already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar
System.[58] For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest,
but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of
the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted
the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[59]
Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing
"occult agencies" into science.[60] Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such
criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational
attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to
frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous
expression "hypotheses non-fingo"[61]).
With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[62] He acquired a circle of admirers, including the
Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier.[63]
Classification of cubics
Main article: Cubic plane curve
Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorized them into four types. [when?] In 1717, and
probably with Newton's help, James Stirling proved that every cubic was one of these four types. Newton also
claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731,
four years after his death.[64]
Later life
Later life of Isaac Newton
In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the
Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7—the Johannine
Comma—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785. [65]
Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the Trinity. His first biographer, Sir David Brewster,
who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support
the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such. [66] In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts
written by Newton and bought by John Maynard Keynes (among others) were deciphered[51] and it became known
that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism.[67]
Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by Sir James Thornhill
Later works—The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of
Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733)—were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time
to alchemy.
Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 and 1701, but according
to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the
window be closed.[68] He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist Abraham de la Pryme to have rebuked students
who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted.[69]
Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained
through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of
England's great recoining, trodden on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of
deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley. Newton became perhaps the best-
known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of
his life.[70][71] These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously. He retired from his
Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his authority to reform the currency and punish clippers and
counterfeiters.
As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 per cent of the coins taken in
during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon
being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely
difficult, however, Newton proved equal to the task.[72]
Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.[73] For all the barriers placed
to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs
of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties. A draft letter regarding the
matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which he must
have been amending at the time.[74]Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers,
and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.[75]
Coat of arms of the Newton family of Great Gonerby, Lincolnshire, afterwards used by Sir Isaac.[76]
As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's
Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22
December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.[77] This inadvertently
resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold,
effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a matter of debate as to whether he
intended to do this or not.[78] It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of
his alchemical work.[79]
Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In
his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by
prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies.[80]
In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is
likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705,
rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint. [81] Newton was the second
scientist to be knighted, after Sir Francis Bacon.[82]
Newton was one of many people who lost heavily when the South Sea Company collapsed. Their most significant
trade was slaves, and according to his niece, he lost around £20,000.[83]
Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his niece and her
husband, until his death in 1727.[84] His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt,[85] served as his hostess in social
affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",[86] according to his letter to her
when she was recovering from smallpox.
Death
Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31 March 1727).[1] His body was buried
in Westminster Abbey.[87] Voltaire may have been present at his funeral.[88] A bachelor, he had divested much of his
estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate.[89] His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine
Barton.[90] After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his
alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoningcould explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.[89]
Personal relations
Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,[91] Newton never married. The French writer and
philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "was never sensible to any
passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a circumstance
which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments".[92] The widespread
belief that he died a virgin has been commented on by writers such as mathematician Charles
Hutton,[93] economist John Maynard Keynes,[94] and physicist Carl Sagan.[95]
Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, whom he met in London
around 1689[63]—some of their correspondence has survived.[96][97] Their relationship came to an abrupt and
unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown[98] which included sending
wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke—his note to the latter included the charge that
Locke "endeavoured to embroil me with woemen".[99]
After death
Isaac Newton in popular culture
Fame
Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey
The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once
added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to
establish."[100] English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:
Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said "Let Newton be" and all was light.
Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676:
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.[101]
Two writers think that the above quotation, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical
discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than—or in
addition to—a statement of modesty.[102][103]On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the
shoulders of giants, published among others by seventeenth-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the
University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a
dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself
rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
In a later memoir, Newton wrote:
I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-
shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the
great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.[104]
In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730[105] (US$3,633) in London to an aristocrat who had
it set in a ring.[106] The Guinness World Records2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth, which would value
approximately £25,000 (US$35,700) in late 2001.[106] Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.
Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk
Maxwell.[107] Newton remains influential to today's scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of
Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science,
Newton or Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution. [108] In
1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever;" with Newton
the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to
Newton.[109]
Commemorations
Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the
choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey
marble with design by the architect William Kent. The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a
sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a
mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of
the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.[110] The Latin
inscription on the base translates as:
Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles
peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the
dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours
thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he
vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in
his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born
on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.—Translation from G.L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St.
Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–4.[110]
From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D
£1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was
shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar
System.[111]
Eduardo Paolozzi's Newton, after William Blake (1995), outside the British Library
A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. A large bronze statue, Newton, after William Blake, by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired
by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London.
Religious views
Religious views of Isaac Newton
Although born into an Anglican family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public,
would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity; [112] in recent times he has been described as
a heretic.[67]
By 1672 he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which
have only recently been examined. They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early church writings and show
that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who
rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and
man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him."[113] He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him,
"the great apostasy was trinitarianism."[114]
Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination
requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all
future holders of the Lucasian chair.[115]
In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin. [116] Historian Stephen D.
Snobelen says, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which
the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his
personal beliefs."[67] Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had
thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian.[67]
In a minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox view on the Trinity.[117] However,
this type of view 'has lost support of late with the availability of Newton's theological papers', [118] and now most
scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist.[67][119]
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned
against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains
the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows
all that is or can be done."[120]
Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy.
Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of
Scripture and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John.[121] He placed the
crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date. [122]
He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza.
The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active
reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as
might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".[123] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world:
"Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted
that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of
instabilities.[124] For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time:
otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion." [125]
Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century
later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work "Celestial Mechanics" had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not
require periodic divine intervention.[126]
Effect on religious thought
Newton, by William Blake; here, Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer". This copy of the work is currently held by
the Tate Collection.[127]
Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a
viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as
dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[128] The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the
emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[129] and at the
same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a
"Natural Religion".
The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were
given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the Universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their
completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising
them.[130]
Occult
Isaac Newton's occult studies and eschatology
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 (never intended to be published) he mentions the date of 2060, but it is not given
as a date for the end of days. It has been falsely reported as a prediction. [131] The passage is clear, when the date is
read in context. He was against date setting for the end of days, concerned that this would put Christianity into
disrepute.
"So then the time times & half a time [sic] are 42 months or 1260 days or three years & an half, recconing twelve
months to a year & 30 days to a month as was done in the Calender [sic] of the primitive year. And the days of short
lived Beasts being put for the years of [long-]lived kingdoms the period of 1260 days, if dated from the complete
conquest of the three kings A.C. 800, will end 2060. It may end later, but I see no reason for its ending sooner." [132]
"This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful
men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit
as often as their predictions fail. Christ comes as a thief in the night, and it is not for us to know the times and
seasons which God hath put into his own breast."[133][131]
Alchemy
In the character of Morton Opperly in "Poor Superman" (1951), speculative fiction author Fritz Leiber says of
Newton, "Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist. Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with
alchemy, looking for the philosopher's stone. That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find." [134]
Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of
Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations.[90] Alchemical texts mix
artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery
to protect craft secrets.[135] Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical
by the church.[90]
In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloging Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and
returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.[136] The
collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.[137] John Maynard Keynes was one of about three
dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of
Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946. [90][136][138]
All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana
University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton".[139]
Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery
that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is
another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty
years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's
involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry."[139]
Enlightenment philosophers
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton
principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to
every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon
it could be discarded.[140]
It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became
one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[141] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of natural law to political
systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions
of psychologyand self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying
to fit history into natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work,
but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
Apple incident
Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree (from top to bottom) at Trinity College, Cambridge, the Cambridge University Botanic
Garden, and the Instituto Balseiro library garden in Argentina.
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall
of an apple from a tree.[142][143] Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his
theory of gravity in any single moment,[144] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript
account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the
apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac
Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726: [145][146][147]
we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other
discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his
mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by
the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but
constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in
matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the
earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in
proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."
John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when
he wrote about Newton's life:[148]
In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively
meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the
ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was
usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps
retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.
In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had
the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity
extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged
theory.[149] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also
be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the
distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same
force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".
Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham claims that
the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The
staff of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their
gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree[150] can be seen growing outside the main
gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit
Collection at Brogdale in Kent[151] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a
coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[152]
Works
Writing of Principia Mathematica
Published in his lifetime
 De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (1669, published 1711)[153]
 Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[154]
 De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)[155]
 Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)[156]
 Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa (1701)[157]
 Opticks (1704)[158]
 Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725)[159]
 Arithmetica Universalis (1707)[159]
Published posthumously
 De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728)[159]
 Optical Lectures (1728)[159]
 The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)[159]
 Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)[159]
 Method of Fluxions (1671, published 1736)[160]
 An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754
Sir Isaac Newton and solar perturbation of lunar

motion
A first gravitational period for lunar theory started with the work of Newton. He was the first
to define the problem of the perturbed motion of the Moon in recognisably modern terms. His
groundbreaking work is shown for example in the 36Principia[22] in all versions including the
first edition published in 1687.
Solar perturbation of lunar motion

Newton identified how to evaluate the perturbing effect on the relative motion of the Earth
and Moon, arising from their gravity towards the Sun, in Book 1, Proposition 66,[23] and in
Book 3, Proposition 25.[24] The starting-point for this approach is Corollary VI to the laws of
motion.[25] This shows that if the external accelerative forces from some massive body
happens to act equally and in parallel on some different other bodies considered, then those
bodies would be affected equally, and in that case their motions (relative to each other) would
continue as if there were no such external accelerative forces at all. It is only in the case that
the external forces (e.g. in Book 1, Prop. 66, and Book 3, Prop. 25, the gravitational
attractions towards the Sun) are different in size or in direction in their accelerative effects on
the different bodies considered (e.g. on the Earth and Moon), that consequent effects are
appreciable on the relative motions of the latter bodies. (Newton referred to accelerative
forces or accelerative gravity due to some external massive attractor such as the Sun. The
measure he used was the acceleration that the force tends to produce (in modern terms,
force per unit mass), rather than what we would now call the force itself.)
Thus Newton concluded that it is only the difference between the Sun's accelerative
attraction on the Moon and the Sun's attraction on the Earth that perturbs the motion of the
Moon relative to the Earth.
Newton then in effect used vector decomposition of forces,[26] to carry out this analysis. In
Book 1, Proposition 66 and in Book 3, Proposition 25,[27] he showed by a geometrical
construction, starting from the total gravitational attraction of the Sun on the Earth, and of
the Sun on the Moon, the difference that represents the perturbing effect on the motion of the
Moon relative to the Earth. In summary, line LS in Newton's diagram as shown below
represents the size and direction of the perturbing acceleration acting on the Moon in the
Moon's current position P (line LS does not pass through point P, but the text shows that this
is not intended to be significant, it is a result of the scale factors and the way the diagram has
been built up).
Newton's diagram 'to find the force of the Sun to perturb the Moon' accompanying Book 3,
Proposition 25 of the 36Principia
Shown here is Newton's diagram from the first (1687) Latin edition of the Principia(Book 3,
Proposition 25, at p. 434). Here he introduced his analysis of perturbing accelerations on the
Moon in the Sun-Earth-Moon system. Q represents the Sun, S the Earth, and P the Moon.
Parts of this diagram represent distances, other parts gravitational accelerations (attractive
forces per unit mass). In a dual significance, SQ represents the Earth-Sun distance, and then
it also represents the size and direction of the Earth-Sun gravitational acceleration. Other
distances in the diagram are then in proportion to distance SQ. Other attractions are in
proportion to attraction SQ.
The Sun's attractions are SQ (on the Earth) and LQ (on the Moon). The size of LQ is drawn so
that the ratio of attractions LQ:SQ is the inverse square of the ratio of distances PQ:SQ.
(Newton constructs KQ=SQ, giving an easier view of the proportions.) The Earth's attraction
on the Moon acts along direction PS. (But line PS signifies only distance and direction so far,
nothing has been defined about the scale factor between solar and terrestrial attractions).
After showing solar attractions LQ on the Moon and SQ on the Earth, on the same scale,
Newton then makes a vector decomposition of LQ into components LM and MQ. Then he
identifies the perturbing acceleration on the Moon as the difference of this from SQ. SQ and
MQ are parallel to each other, so SQ can be directly subtracted from MQ, leaving MS. The
resulting difference, after subtracting SQ from LQ, is therefore the vector sum of LM and MS:
these add up to a perturbing acceleration LS.
Later Newton identified another resolution of the perturbing acceleration LM+MS = LS, into
orthogonal components: a transverse component parallel to LE, and a radial component,
effectively ES.
Alternative depiction of solar perturbations, vectors LS1 and LS2, like LS in Newton's diagram above,
for 2 positions of the Moon P in its orbit around the Earth S
Newton's diagrammatic scheme, since his time, has been re-presented in other and perhaps
visually clearer ways. Shown here is a vector presentation[28] indicating, for two different
positions, P1 and P2, of the Moon in its orbit around the Earth, the respective vectors LS1
and LS2 for the perturbing acceleration due to the Sun. The Moon's position at P1 is fairly
close to what it was at P in Newton's diagram; corresponding perturbation LS1 is like
Newton's LS in size and direction. At another position P2, the Moon is farther away from the
Sun than the Earth is, the Sun's attraction LQ2 on the Moon is weaker than the Sun's
attraction SQ=SQ2 on the Earth, and then the resulting perturbation LS2 points obliquely
away from the Sun.
Solar perturbation vectors (arrows) analogous to LS at many positions of the Moon in its orbit around
the Earth
Constructions like those in Newton's diagram can be repeated for many different positions of
the Moon in its orbit. For each position, the result is a perturbation vector like LS1 or LS2 in
the second diagram. Shown here is an often-presented form of the diagram that summarises
sizes and directions of the perturbation vectors for many different positions of the Moon in
its orbit. Each small arrow is a perturbation vector like LS, applicable to the Moon in the
particular position around the orbit from which the arrow begins. The perturbations on the
Moon when it is nearly in line along the Earth-Sun axis, i.e. near new or full moon, point
outwards, away from the Earth. When the Moon-Earth line is 90° from the Earth-Sun axis they
point inwards, towards the Earth, with a size that is only half the maximum size of the axial
(outwards) perturbations. (Newton gave a rather good quantitative estimate for the size of the
solar perturbing force: at quadrature where it adds to the Earth's attraction he put it at
1
⁄178.725 of the mean terrestrial attraction, and twice as much as that at the new and full moons
where it opposes and diminishes the Earth's attraction.)[27]
Newton also showed that the same pattern of perturbation applies, not only to the Moon, in
its relation to the Earth as disturbed by the Sun, but also to other particles more generally in
their relation to the solid Earth as disturbed by the Sun (or by the Moon); for example
different portions of the tidal waters at the Earth's surface.[29] The study of the common
pattern of these perturbing accelerations grew out of Newton's initial study of the
perturbations of the Moon, which he also applied to the forces moving tidal waters.
Nowadays this common pattern itself has become often known as a tidal force whether it is
being applied to the disturbances of the motions of the Moon, or of the Earth's tidal waters –
or of the motions of any other object that suffers perturbations of analogous pattern.
After introducing his diagram 'to find the force of the Sun to perturb the Moon' in Book 3,
Proposition 25, Newton developed a first approximation to the solar perturbing force,
showing in further detail how its components vary as the Moon follows its monthly path
around the Earth. He also took the first steps in investigating how the perturbing force shows
its effects by producing irregularities in the lunar motions. (In this part of the enterprise,
Newton's success was more limited: it is relatively uncomplicated to define the perturbing
forces, but heavy complexities soon arise in the problem of working out the resulting
motions, and these were to challenge mathematical astronomers for two centuries after
Newton's initial definition of the problem and indication of the directions to take in solving it.)
For a selected few of the lunar inequalities, Newton showed in some quantitative detail how
they arise from the solar perturbing force.
Much of this lunar work of Newton's was done in the 1680s, and the extent and accuracy of
his first steps in the gravitational analysis was limited by several factors, including his own
choice to develop and present the work in what was, on the whole, a difficult geometrical
way, and by the limited accuracy and uncertainty of many astronomical measurements in his
time.
Classical gravitational period after Newton

The main aim of Newton's successors, from Leonhard Euler, Alexis Clairaut and Jean
d'Alembert in the mid-eighteenth century, down to E.W. Brown in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth century, was to account completely and much more precisely for the moon's
motions on the basis of Newton's laws, i.e. the laws of motion and of universal gravitation by
attractions inversely proportional to the squares of the distances between the attracting
bodies. They also wished to put the inverse-square law of gravitation to the test, and for a
time in the 1740s it was seriously doubted, on account of what was then thought to be a large
discrepancy between the Newton-theoretical and the observed rates in the motion of the
lunar apogee. However Clairaut showed shortly afterwards (1749–50) that at least the major
cause of the discrepancy lay not in the lunar theory based on Newton's laws, but in excessive
approximations that he and others had relied on to evaluate it.
Most of the improvements in theory after Newton were made in algebraic form: they involved
voluminous and highly laborious amounts of infinitesimal calculus and trigonometry. It also
remained necessary, for completing the theories of this period, to refer to observational
measurements.[30][31][32][33]
Results of the theories

The lunar theorists used (and invented) many different mathematical approaches to analyse
the gravitational problem. Not surprisingly, their results tended to converge. From the time of
the earliest gravitational analysts among Newton's
successors, Euler, Clairaut and d'Alembert, it was recognized that nearly all of the main lunar
perturbations could be expressed in terms of just a few angular arguments and coefficients.
These can be represented by:[33]
• the mean motions or positions of the Moon and the Sun, together with three coefficients
and three angular positions, which together define the shape and location of their
apparent orbits:
• the two eccentricities ( , about 0.0549, and , about 0.01675) of the ellipses that
approximate to the apparent orbits of the Moon and the Sun;
• the angular direction of the perigees ( ) (or their opposite points the apogees) of
the two orbits; and
• the angle of inclination ( ,mean value about 18523") between the planes of the two
orbits, together with the direction ( ) of the line of nodes in which those two planes
intersect. The ascending node () is the node passed by the Moon when it is tending
northwards relative to the ecliptic.
From these basic parameters, just four basic differential angular arguments are enough to
express, in their different combinations, nearly all of the most significant perturbations of the
lunar motions. They are given here with their conventional symbols due to 38Delaunay; they
are sometimes known as the Delaunay arguments:
• the Moon's mean anomaly (distance of the mean longitude of the Moon from the mean
longitude of its perigee );
• the Sun's mean anomaly (distance of the mean longitude of the Sun from the mean
• the Moon's mean argument of latitude (distance of the mean longitude of the Moon
from the mean longitude of its ascending (northward-bound) node );
• the Moon's mean (solar) elongation (distance of the mean longitude of the Moon from
the mean longitude of the Sun).
This work culminated into Brown's lunar theory (1897-1908)[34][35][36][37][38] and Tables of the
Motion of the Moon (1919).[32]These were used in the American Ephemeris and Nautical
Almanac until 1968, and in a modified form until 1984.
Largest or named lunar inequalities

Several of the largest lunar perturbations in longitude (contributions to the difference in its
true ecliptic longitude relative to its mean longitude) have been named. In terms of the
differential arguments, they can be expressed in the following way, with coefficients rounded
to the nearest second of arc ("):[39]
Equation of the center
Equation of the center
• The Moon's equation of the center, or elliptic inequality, was known at least in
approximation, to the ancients from the Babylonians and Hipparchus onwards.
Knowledge of more recent date is that it corresponds to the approximate application
of Kepler's law of equal areas in an elliptical orbit, and represents the speeding-up of the
Moon as its distance from the Earth decreases while it moves towards its perigee, and
then its slowing down as its distance from the Earth increases while it moves towards its
apogee. The effect on the Moon's longitude can be approximated by a series of terms, of
which the first three are .
Evection
See also: Evection
• The evection (or its approximation) was known to Ptolemy, but its name and knowledge
of its cause dates from the 17th century. Its effect on the Moon's longitude has an odd-
appearing period of about 31.8 days. This can be represented in a number of ways, for
example as the result of an approximate 6-monthly libration in the position of perigee,
with an accompanying 6-monthly pulsation in the size of the Moon's orbital
eccentricity.[40] Its principal term is .
Variation
Variation (astronomy)
• The Variation, discovered by Tycho Brahe, is a speeding-up of the Moon as it approaches

new-moon and full-moon, and a slowing-down as it approaches first and last quarter. Its
gravitational explanation with a quantitative estimate was first given by Newton. Its
principal term is .
Annual equation
• The annual equation, also discovered by Brahe, was qualitatively explained by Newton in
terms that the Moon's orbit becomes slightly expanded in size, and longer in period,
when the Earth is at perihelion closest to the Sun at the beginning of January, and the
Sun's perturbing effect is strongest, and then slightly contracted in size and shorter in
period when the Sun is most distant in early July, so that its perturbing effect is weaker:
the modern value for the principal term due to this effect is .
Parallacticinequality
• The parallactic inequality, first found by Newton, makes Brahe's Variation a little
asymmetric as a result of the finite distance and non-zero parallax of the Sun. Its effect is
that the Moon is a little behind at first quarter, and a little ahead at last quarter. Its
principal term is .
Reduction to the Ecliptic
The reduction to the ecliptic represents the geometric effect of expressing the Moon's motion
in terms of a longitude in the plane of the ecliptic, although its motion is really taking place in
a plane that is inclined by about 5 degrees. Its principal term is .
The analysts of the mid-18th century expressed the perturbations of the Moon's position in
longitude using about 25-30 trigonometrical terms. However, work in the nineteenth and
twentieth century led to very different formulations of the theory so these terms are no longer
current. The number of terms needed to express the Moon's position with the accuracy
sought at the beginning of the twentieth century was over 1400; and the number of terms
needed to emulate the accuracy of modern numerical integrations based on laser-ranging
observations is in the tens of thousands: there is no limit to the increase in number of terms
needed as requirements of accuracy increase.[41]
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban,[a] PC QC (/ˈbeɪkən/;[5] 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626)
was an English philosopher and statesman, who served as Attorney General, and as Lord
Chancellor of England. His works are credited with developing the scientific method, and
remained influential through the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the father of empiricism.[6] His works argued for the possibility
of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of
events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical
and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. While his
own practical ideas about such a method, the Baconian method, did not have a long-lasting
influence, the general idea of the importance and possibility of a sceptical methodology
makes Bacon the father of the scientific method. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and
theoretical framework for science, the practical details of which are still central in debates
about science and methodology today. In addition to his work in the sciences, Bacon was
also a venerable patron of libraries and developed a functional system for the cataloging of
books by dividing them into three categories—history, poetry, and philosophy—which could
further be divided into more specific subjects and subheadings. Bacon was educated
at Trinity College, Cambridge where he rigorously followed the medieval curriculum, largely
in Latin.
Bacon is the first recipient of the Queen's counsel designation, which was conferred in 1597
when Queen Elizabethreserved Bacon as her legal advisor. After the accession of King
James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618[4] and
Viscount St. Alban in 1621.[3][b] Because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his
death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John
Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on
the preservation of meat. He is buried at St Michael's Church, St Albans, Hertfordshire.[7]
The Right Honourable
The Viscount St. Alban
PC QC
Portrait of Bacon by Frans Pourbus (1617),
Palace on the Water in Warsaw
Somer Francis Bacon

Paul van Somer I - pl.pinterest.com
Early life
Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the
son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his second wife, Anne (Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of the
noted humanist Anthony Cooke. His mother's sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron
Burghley, making Burghley Bacon's uncle.[8]
Biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor
health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a
graduate of Oxford with a strong leaning toward Puritanism. He went up to Trinity College at
the University of Cambridge on 5 April 1573 at the age of 12,[9] living for three years there,
together with his older brother Anthony Bacon under the personal tutelage of Dr John
Whitgift, future Archbishop of Canterbury. Bacon's education was conducted largely in Latin
and followed the medieval curriculum. He was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It
was also at Cambridge that Bacon first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his
precocious intellect, and was accustomed to calling him "The young lord keeper".[10]
His studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then
practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection
of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed to him barren, disputatious and wrong in its
objectives.
The young Francis Bacon. Inscription around his head reads: Si tabula daretur digna animum
mallem, Latin for "If one could but paint his mind". National Portrait Gallery, London
The Italianate York Water Gate – the entry to York House, built about 1626, the year of Bacon's death
On 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Gray's Inn. A few
months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris,
while Anthony continued his studies at home. The state of government and society in France
under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction.[11] For the next three years he
visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain.[12] During his travels, Bacon studied language,
statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion
he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, and Leicester, as well
as for the queen.[12]
The sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir
Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest
son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that
money.[11] Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt. To support himself, he took up his
residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579,[11] his income being supplemented by a grant from his
mother Lady Anne of the manor of Marks near Romford in Essex, which generated a rent of
£46.[13]
Parliamentarian
Francis Bacon's statue at Gray's Inn, South Square, London
Bacon stated that he had three goals: to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his
church. He sought to further these ends by seeking a prestigious post. In 1580, through his
uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a post at court that might enable him to pursue a life of
learning, but his application failed. For two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn, until he was
admitted as an outer barrister in 1582.[14]
His parliamentary career began when he was elected MP for Bossiney, Cornwall, in a by-
election in 1581. In 1584 he took his seat in parliament for Melcombe in Dorset, and in 1586
for Taunton. At this time, he began to write on the condition of parties in the church, as well
as on the topic of philosophical reform in the lost tract Temporis Partus Maximus. Yet he
failed to gain a position that he thought would lead him to success.[11] He showed signs of
sympathy to Puritanism, attending the sermons of the Puritan chaplain of Gray's Inn and
accompanying his mother to the Temple Church to hear Walter Travers. This led to the
publication of his earliest surviving tract, which criticised the English church's suppression
of the Puritan clergy. In the Parliament of 1586, he openly urged execution for the
Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots.
About this time, he again approached his powerful uncle for help; this move was followed by
his rapid progress at the bar. He became a bencher in 1586 and was elected a Reader in 1587,
delivering his first set of lectures in Lent the following year. In 1589, he received the valuable
appointment of reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, although he did not formally
take office until 1608; the post was worth £1,600 a year.[11][3]
In 1588 he became MP for Liverpool and then for Middlesex in 1593. He later sat three times
for Ipswich (1597, 1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614).[15]
He became known as a liberal-minded reformer, eager to amend and simplify the law. Though
a friend of the crown, he opposed feudal privileges and dictatorial powers. He spoke against
religious persecution. He struck at the House of Lords in its usurpation of the Money Bills. He
advocated for the union of England and Scotland, which made him a significant influence
toward the consolidation of the United Kingdom; and he later would advocate for the
integration of Ireland into the Union. Closer constitutional ties, he believed, would bring
greater peace and strength to these countries.[16][17]
Final years of the Queen's reign

Bacon soon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's
favourite.[18] By 1591 he acted as the earl's confidential adviser.[11][18]
In 1592 he was commissioned to write a tract in response to the Jesuit Robert Parson's anti-
government polemic, which he titled Certain observations made upon a libel, identifying
England with the ideals of democratic Athens against the belligerence of Spain.[19]
Bacon took his third parliamentary seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth
summoned Parliament to investigate a Roman Catholic plot against her. Bacon's opposition
to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time offended the Queen: opponents
accused him of seeking popularity, and for a time the Court excluded him from favour.[20]
Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge
When the office of Attorney General fell vacant in 1594, Lord Essex's influence was not
enough to secure the position for Bacon and it was given to Sir Edward Coke. Likewise,
Bacon failed to secure the lesser office of Solicitor General in 1595, the Queen pointedly
snubbing him by appointing Sir Thomas Fleming instead.[3] To console him for these
disappointments, Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which Bacon
subsequently sold for £1,800.[21]
In 1597 Bacon became the first Queen's Counsel designate, when Queen Elizabeth reserved
him as her legal counsel.[22] In 1597, he was also given a patent, giving him precedence at the
Bar.[23] Despite his designations, he was unable to gain the status and notoriety of others. In a
plan to revive his position he unsuccessfully courted the wealthy and young widow
Lady Elizabeth Hatton.[24] His courtship failed after she broke off their relationship upon
accepting marriage to Sir Edward Coke, a further spark of enmity between the men.[25] In 1598
Bacon was arrested for debt. Afterward, however, his standing in the Queen's eyes improved.
Gradually, Bacon earned the standing of one of the learned counsels.[26] His relationship with
the Queen further improved when he severed ties with Essex—a shrewd move, as Essex
would be executed for treason in 1601.[27]
With others, Bacon was appointed to investigate the charges against Essex. A number of
Essex's followers confessed that Essex had planned a rebellion against the Queen.[28] Bacon
was subsequently a part of the legal team headed by the Attorney General Sir Edward Coke at
Essex's treason trial.[28] After the execution, the Queen ordered Bacon to write the official
government account of the trial, which was later published as A DECLARATION of the
Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert late Earle of Essex and his
Complices, against her Majestie and her Kingdoms ... after Bacon's first draft was heavily
edited by the Queen and her ministers.[29][30]
According to his personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, as a judge Bacon was
always tender-hearted, "looking upon the examples with the eye of severity, but upon the
person with the eye of pity and compassion". And also that "he was free from malice", "no
revenger of injuries", and "no defamer of any man".[31]
James I comes to the throne

The succession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour. He was knighted in 1603. In
another shrewd move, Bacon wrote his Apologies in defence of his proceedings in the case
of Essex, as Essex had favoured James to succeed to the throne.
The following year, during the course of the uneventful first parliament session, Bacon
married Alice Barnham.[32] In June 1607 he was at last rewarded with the office of solicitor
general.[3] The following year, he began working as the Clerkship of the Star Chamber.
Despite a generous income, old debts still could not be paid. He sought further promotion
and wealth by supporting King James and his arbitrary policies.
Sir Francis Bacon, c. 1618
In 1610 the fourth session of James's first parliament met. Despite Bacon's advice to him,
James and the Commons found themselves at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's
embarrassing extravagance. The House was finally dissolved in February 1611. Throughout
this period Bacon managed to stay in the favour of the king while retaining the confidence of
the Commons.
In 1613 Bacon was finally appointed attorney general, after advising the king to shuffle
judicial appointments. As attorney general, Bacon, by his zealous efforts—which included
torture—to obtain the conviction of Edmund Peacham for treason, raised legal controversies
of high constitutional importance;[33] and successfully prosecuted Robert Carr, 1st Earl of
Somerset, and his wife, Frances Howard, Countess of Somerset, for murder in 1616. The so-
called Prince's Parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat
for Cambridge and to the various royal plans that Bacon had supported. Although he was
allowed to stay, parliament passed a law that forbade the attorney general to sit in parliament.
His influence over the king had evidently inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his
peers. Bacon, however, continued to receive the King's favour, which led to his appointment
in March 1617 as temporary Regent of England (for a period of a month), and in 1618 as Lord
Chancellor. On 12 July 1618 the king created Bacon Baron Verulam, of Verulam, in
the Peerage of England; he then became known as Francis, Lord Verulam.[3]
Bacon continued to use his influence with the king to mediate between the throne and
Parliament, and in this capacity he was further elevated in the same peerage, as Viscount St
Alban, on 27 January 1621.
Lord Chancellor and public disgrace
Francis Bacon and the members of the Parliament on the day of his political fall
Bacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621. After he fell into debt, a parliamentary
committee on the administration of the law charged him with 23 separate counts of
corruption. His lifelong enemy, Sir Edward Coke, who had instigated these
accusations,[34] was one of those appointed to prepare the charges against the
chancellor.[35] To the lords, who sent a committee to enquire whether a confession was really
his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be
merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000 and committed to the Tower
of Londonat the king's pleasure; the imprisonment lasted only a few days and the fine was
remitted by the king.[36] More seriously, parliament declared Bacon incapable of holding future
office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped undergoing degradation, which would
have stripped him of his titles of nobility. Subsequently, the disgraced viscount devoted
himself to study and writing.
There seems little doubt that Bacon had accepted gifts from litigants, but this was an
accepted custom of the time and not necessarily evidence of deeply corrupt
behaviour.[37] While acknowledging that his conduct had been lax, he countered that he had
never allowed gifts to influence his judgement and, indeed, he had on occasion given a
verdict against those who had paid him. He even had an interview with King James in which
he assured:
The law of nature teaches me to speak in my own defence: With respect to this charge of
bribery I am as innocent as any man born on St. Innocents Day. I never had a bribe or reward
in my eye or thought when pronouncing judgment or order... I am ready to make an oblation
of myself to the King
— 17 April 1621[38]

He also wrote the following to Buckingham:
My mind is calm, for my fortune is not my felicity. I know I have clean hands and a clean
heart, and I hope a clean house for friends or servants; but Job himself, or whoever was the
justest judge, by such hunting for matters against him as hath been used against me, may for
a time seem foul, especially in a time when greatness is the mark and accusation is the
game.[39]
The true reason for his acknowledgement of guilt is the subject of debate, but some authors
speculate that it may have been prompted by his sickness, or by a view that through his fame
and the greatness of his office he would be spared harsh punishment. He may even have
been blackmailed, with a threat to charge him with sodomy, into confession.[37][40]
The British jurist Basil Montagu wrote in Bacon's defence, concerning the episode of his
public disgrace:
Bacon has been accused of servility, of dissimulation, of various base motives, and their
filthy brood of base actions, all unworthy of his high birth, and incompatible with his great
wisdom, and the estimation in which he was held by the noblest spirits of the age. It is true
that there were men in his own time, and will be men in all times, who are better pleased to
count spots in the sun than to rejoice in its glorious brightness. Such men have openly
libelled him, like Dewes and Weldon, whose falsehoods were detected as soon as uttered, or
have fastened upon certain ceremonious compliments and dedications, the fashion of his
day, as a sample of his servility, passing over his noble letters to the Queen, his lofty
contempt for the Lord Keeper Puckering, his open dealing with Sir Robert Cecil, and with
others, who, powerful when he was nothing, might have blighted his opening fortunes for
ever, forgetting his advocacy of the rights of the people in the face of the court, and the true
and honest counsels, always given by him, in times of great difficulty, both to Elizabeth and
her successor. When was a "base sycophant" loved and honoured by piety such as that of
Herbert, Tennison, and Rawley, by noble spirits like Hobbes, Ben Jonson, and Selden, or
followed to the grave, and beyond it, with devoted affection such as that of Sir Thomas
Meautys.[41]
Personal life
Religious beliefs
Bacon was a devout Anglican. He believed that philosophy and the natural world must be
studied inductively, but argued that we can only study arguments for the existence of God.
Information on His attributes (such as nature, action, and purposes) can only come from
special revelation. But Bacon also held that knowledge was cumulative, that study
encompassed more than a simple preservation of the past. "Knowledge is the rich
storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate," he wrote. In his
Essays, he affirms that "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in
philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion."[42]
Bacon's idea of idols of the mind may have self-consciously represented an attempt to
Christianize science at the same time as developing a new, reliable scientific method; Bacon
gave worship of Neptune as an example of the idola tribus fallacy, hinting at the religious
dimensions of his critique of the idols.[43]
Marriage to Alice Barnham
When he was 36, Bacon courted Elizabeth Hatton, a young widow of 20. Reportedly, she
broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man, Bacon's rival,
Sir Edward Coke. Years later, Bacon still wrote of his regret that the marriage to Hatton had
not taken place.[44]
At the age of 45, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the 14-year-old daughter of a well-connected
London alderman and MP. Bacon wrote two sonnets proclaiming his love for Alice. The first
was written during his courtship and the second on his wedding day, 10 May 1606. When
Bacon was appointed lord chancellor, "by special Warrant of the King", Lady Bacon was
given precedence over all other Court ladies. Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain,
William Rawley, wrote in his biography of Bacon that his marriage was one of "much
conjugal love and respect", mentioning a robe of honour that he gave to Alice and which "she
wore unto her dying day, being twenty years and more after his death".[31]
Engraving of Alice Barnham
However, an increasing number of reports circulated about friction in the marriage, with
speculation that this may have been due to Alice's making do with less money than she had
once been accustomed to. It was said that she was strongly interested in fame and fortune,
and when household finances dwindled, she complained bitterly. Bunten wrote in her Life of
Alice Barnham[45] that, upon their descent into debt, she went on trips to ask for financial
favours and assistance from their circle of friends. Bacon disinherited her upon discovering
her secret romantic relationship with Sir John Underhill. He subsequently rewrote his will,
which had previously been very generous—leaving her lands, goods, and income—and
instead revoked it all.
Homosexuality
Several authors believe that despite his marriage Bacon was primarily attracted to the same
sex.[46][47] Forker,[48] for example, has explored the "historically documentable sexual
preferences" of both Francis Bacon and King James I and concluded they were both
orientated to "masculine love", a contemporary term that "seems to have been used
exclusively to refer to the sexual preference of men for members of their own gender."[49] The
well-connected antiquary John Aubrey noted in his Brief Livesconcerning Bacon, "He was
a Pederast. His Ganimeds and Favourites tooke Bribes".[50] The Jacobean antiquarian,
Sir Simonds D'Ewes implied there had been a question of bringing him to trial for
buggery,[51] which his brother Anthony Bacon had also been charged with.[52]
This conclusion has been disputed by others, who point to lack of consistent evidence, and
consider the sources to be more open to interpretation.[28][53][54][55][56]Publicly, at least, Bacon
distanced himself from the idea of homosexuality. In his New Atlantis, he described
his utopian island as being "the chastest nation under heaven", and "as for masculine love,
they have no touch of it".[57]
Death
Monument to Bacon at his burial place, St Michael's Church in St Albans
On 9 April 1626, Francis Bacon died of pneumonia while at Arundel mansion

at Highgate outside London.[58] An influential account of the circumstances of his death was
given by John Aubrey's Brief Lives.[58] Aubrey's vivid account, which portrays Bacon as a
martyr to experimental scientific method, had him journeying to Highgate through the snow
with the King's physician when he is suddenly inspired by the possibility of using the snow
to preserve meat:
They were resolved they would try the experiment presently. They alighted out of the coach
and went into a poor woman's house at the bottom of Highgate hill, and bought a fowl, and
made the woman exenterate it.
After stuffing the fowl with snow, Bacon contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. Some people,
including Aubrey, consider these two contiguous, possibly coincidental events as related
and causative of his death:
The Snow so chilled him that he immediately fell so extremely ill, that he could not return to
his Lodging … but went to the Earle of Arundel's house at Highgate, where they put him into
… a damp bed that had not been layn-in … which gave him such a cold that in 2 or 3 days as I
remember Mr Hobbes told me, he died of Suffocation.[59]
Aubrey has been criticised for his evident credulousness in this and other works; on the
other hand, he knew Thomas Hobbes, Bacon's fellow-philosopher and friend. Being
unwittingly on his deathbed, the philosopher wrote his last letter to his absent host and
friend Lord Arundel:
My very good Lord,—I was likely to have had the fortune of Caius Plinius the elder, who lost
his life by trying an experiment about the burning of Mount Vesuvius; for I was also desirous
to try an experiment or two touching the conservation and induration of bodies. As for the
experiment itself, it succeeded excellently well; but in the journey between London and
Highgate, I was taken with such a fit of casting as I know not whether it were the Stone, or
some surfeit or cold, or indeed a touch of them all three. But when I came to your Lordship's
House, I was not able to go back, and therefore was forced to take up my lodging here, where
your housekeeper is very careful and diligent about me, which I assure myself your Lordship
will not only pardon towards him, but think the better of him for it. For indeed your Lordship's
House was happy to me, and I kiss your noble hands for the welcome which I am sure you
give me to it. I know how unfit it is for me to write with any other hand than mine own, but by
my troth my fingers are so disjointed with sickness that I cannot steadily hold a pen.[60]
Another account appears in a biography by William Rawley, Bacon's personal secretary and
chaplain:
He died on the ninth day of April in the year 1626, in the early morning of the day then
celebrated for our Saviour's resurrection, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, at the Earl of
Arundel's house in Highgate, near London, to which place he casually repaired about a week
before; God so ordaining that he should die there of a gentle fever, accidentally accompanied
with a great cold, whereby the defluxion of rheum fell so plentifully upon his breast, that he
died by suffocation.[61]
He was buried in St Michael's church in St Albans. At the news of his death, over 30 great
minds collected together their eulogies of him, which were then later published in Latin.[62] He
left personal assets of about £7,000 and lands that realised £6,000 when sold.[63] His debts
amounted to more than £23,000, equivalent to more than £3m at current value.[63][64]
Philosophy and works

Works by Francis Bacon
Bacon, Sylva sylvarum
Francis Bacon's philosophy is displayed in the vast and varied writings he left, which might
be divided into three great branches:
 Scientific works – in which his ideas for a universal reform of knowledge into scientific
methodology and the improvement of mankind's state using the Scientific method are
presented.
 Religious and literary works – in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological
meditations.
 Juridical works – in which his reforms in English Law are proposed.
Influence
Frontispiece to 'The History of Royal-Society of London', picturing Bacon (in the right) among the
founding influences of the Society. National Portrait Gallery, London
Science
Bacon's seminal work Novum Organum was influential in the 1630s and 1650s among
scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia Pseudodoxia
Epidemica (1646–72) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach to his scientific enquiries.
This book entails the basis of the Scientific Method as a means of observation and induction.
During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal
Society founded under Charles II in 1660.[65][66]During the 18th-century French Enlightenment,
Bacon's non-metaphysical approach to science became more influential than the dualism of
his French contemporary Descartes, and was associated with criticism of the ancien regime.
In 1733 Voltaireintroduced him to a French audience as the "father" of the scientific method,
an understanding which had become widespread by the 1750s.[67] In the 19th century his
emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among others. He
has been reputed as the "Father of Experimental Philosophy".[68]
He also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death,[69] with natural and
experimental observations for the prolongation of life.
One of his biographers, the historian William Hepworth Dixon, states: "Bacon's influence in
the modern world is so great that every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows
a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner,
enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him
something."[70]
In 1902 Hugo von Hofmannsthal published a fictional letter, known as The Lord Chandos
Letter, addressed to Bacon and dated 1603, about a writer who is experiencing a crisis of
language.
North America
A Newfoundland stamp, which reads "Lord Bacon – the guiding spirit in colonization scheme"
Bacon played a leading role in establishing the British colonies in North America, especially
in Virginia, the Carolinas and Newfoundland in northeastern Canada. His government report
on "The Virginia Colony" was submitted in 1609. In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a
charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of
the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland, and
sent John Guy to found a colony there.[71]Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United
States, wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton. I consider them as the three greatest men that
have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those
superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences".[72]
In 1910 Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing
the colony. The stamp describes Bacon as "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in
1610".[44] Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible for the drafting, in 1609
and 1612, of two charters of government for the Virginia Colony.[73] William Hepworth Dixon
considered that Bacon's name could be included in the list of Founders of the United
States.[74]
Law
Although few of his proposals for law reform were adopted during his lifetime, Bacon's legal
legacy was considered by the magazine New Scientist in 1961 as having influenced the
drafting of the Napoleonic Code as well as the law reforms introduced by 19th-century British
Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel.[75] The historian William Hepworth Dixon referred to the
Napoleonic Code as "the sole embodiment of Bacon's thought", saying that Bacon's legal
work "has had more success abroad than it has found at home", and that in France "it has
blossomed and come into fruit".[76]
Harvey Wheeler attributed to Bacon, in Francis Bacon's Verulamium—the Common Law
Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture, the creation of these distinguishing
features of the modern common law system:
 using cases as repositories of evidence about the "unwritten law";

 determining the relevance of precedents by exclusionary principles of evidence and
logic;
 treating opposing legal briefs as adversarial hypotheses about the application of the
"unwritten law" to a new set of facts.
Statue of Francis Bacon in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
As late as the 18th century some juries still declared the law rather than the facts, but already
before the end of the 17th century Sir Matthew Hale explained modern common law
adjudication procedure and acknowledged Bacon as the inventor of the process of
discovering unwritten laws from the evidences of their applications. The method combined
empiricism and inductivism in a new way that was to imprint its signature on many of the
distinctive features of modern English society.[77] Paul H. Kocher writes that Bacon is
considered by some jurists to be the father of modern Jurisprudence.[78]
Bacon is commemorated with a statue in Gray's Inn, South Square in London where he
received his legal training, and where he was elected Treasurer of the Inn in 1608.[79] James
McClellan, a political scientist from the University of Virginia, considered Bacon to have had
"a great following" in the American colonies.[80]
More recent scholarship on Bacon's jurisprudence has focused on his advocating torture as
a legal recourse for the crown.[81]Bacon himself was not a stranger to the torture chamber: in
his various legal capacities in both Elizabeth I's and James I's reigns, Bacon was listed as a
commissioner on five torture warrants. In 1613(?), in a letter addressed to King James I on
the question of torture's place within English law, Bacon identifies the scope of torture as a
means to further the investigation of threats to the state: "In the cases of treasons, torture is
used for discovery, and not for evidence."[82] For Bacon, torture was not a punitive measure,
an intended form of state repression, but instead offered a modus operandi for the
government agent tasked with uncovering acts of treason.
Organization of knowledge
Francis Bacon developed the idea that a classification of knowledge must be universal while
handling all possible resources. In his progressive view, humanity would be better if the
access to educational resources were provided to the public. Hence the need to organize it.
His approach to learning reshaped the Western view of our knowledge theory from an
individual to a social interest.
The original classification proposed by Bacon organized all types of knowledge in three
general groups: history, poetry, and philosophy. He did that based on his understanding of
how we process information: Memory, Imagination, and Reason, respectively. His methodical
approach to the categorization of knowledge goes hand in hand with his principles of
scientific methods.
We owe Bacon, not only his inductive approach to science, but his efforts to bring his
meticulous and systematic vision to the organization of information which was the platform
for further research and advancement for centuries after him.
Bacon’s writings were the starting point for William Torrey Harris classification system for
libraries in the United States by the second half of the 1800s.
Historical debates
Bacon and Shakespeare
Baconian theory and Bacon's cipher
The Baconian hypothesis of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th
century, contends that Francis Bacon wrote some or even all of the plays conventionally
attributed to William Shakespeare.[83]
Occult theories
Occult theories about Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy,
and to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing.[84] Bacon's alleged
connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by authors
and scholars in many books.[54] However, others, including Daphne du Maurier in her
biography of Bacon, have argued that there is no substantive evidence to support claims of
involvement with the Rosicrucians.[85] Frances Yates[86]does not make the claim that Bacon
was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that he was nevertheless involved in some of the
more closed intellectual movements of his day. She argues that Bacon's movement for the
advancement of learning was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement,
while Bacon's New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own
movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals.[87]
An old volume of Francis Bacon and a rose
The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians' ideals which Yates allegedly found was
the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian Manifestos and Bacon's plan of
a "Great Instauration",[87] for the two were calling for a reformation of both "divine and human
understanding",[c][88] as well as both had in view the purpose of mankind's return to the "state
before the Fall".[d][e]
Another major link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's New Atlantis and the
German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's Description of the Republic of
Christianopolis (1619).[89] Andreae describes a utopic island in which Christian theosophy and
applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual fulfilment and intellectual activity constituted
the primary goals of each individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual
calling—linked to the achievement of spiritual perfection. Andreae's island also depicts a
great advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones which
supplied the population's needs—which shows great resemblance to Bacon's scientific
methods and purposes.[90][91]
While rejecting occult conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and the claim Bacon
personally identified as a Rosicrucian, intellectual historian Paolo Rossi has argued for an
occult influence on Bacon's scientific and religious writing. He argues that Bacon was
familiar with early modern alchemical texts and that Bacon's ideas about the application of
science had roots in Renaissance magical ideas about science and magic facilitating
humanity's domination of nature.[92] Rossi further interprets Bacon's search for hidden
meanings in myth and fables in such texts as The Wisdom of the Ancients as succeeding
earlier occultist and Neoplatonic attempts to locate hidden wisdom in pre-Christian
myths.[93] As indicated by the title of his study, however, Rossi claims Bacon ultimately
rejected the philosophical foundations of occultism as he came to develop a form of modern
science.[92]
Rossi's analysis and claims have been extended by Jason Josephson-Storm in his
study, The Myth of Disenchantment. Josephson-Storm also rejects conspiracy theories
surrounding Bacon and does not make the claim that Bacon was an active Rosicrucian.
However, he argues that Bacon's "rejection" of magic actually constituted an attempt to
purify magic of Catholic, demonic, and esoteric influences and to establish magic as a field of
study and application paralleling Bacon's vision of science. Furthermore, Josephson-Storm
argues that Bacon drew on magical ideas when developing his experimental
method.[94] Josephson-Storm finds evidence that Bacon considered nature a living entity,
populated by spirits, and argues Bacon's views on the human domination and application of
nature actually depend on his spiritualism and personification of nature.[95]
The Rosicrucian organisation AMORC claims that Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the
Rosicrucian Order in both England and the European continent, and would have directed it
during his lifetime.[96]
Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on
groups that have utilised his writings in their own belief systems
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (/ləˈɡrɑːndʒ/[1] or /ləˈɡreɪndʒ/;[2] French: [lagʁɑ̃ʒ]; born Giuseppe Luigi
Lagrangia[3] or Giuseppe Ludovico De la Grange Tournier,[4] 25 January 1736 – 10 April 1813; also reported
as Giuseppe Luigi Lagrange[5] or Lagrangia[6]) was an Italian Enlightenment Era mathematician and astronomer. He
made significant contributions to the fields of analysis, number theory, and both classical and celestial mechanics.
In 1766, on the recommendation of Euler and d'Alembert, Lagrange succeeded Euler as the director of mathematics
at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Prussia, where he stayed for over twenty years, producing volumes
of work and winning several prizes of the French Academy of Sciences. Lagrange's treatise on analytical
mechanics (Mécanique analytique, 4. ed., 2 vols. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1788–89), written in Berlin and first
published in 1788, offered the most comprehensive treatment of classical mechanics since Newton and formed a
basis for the development of mathematical physics in the nineteenth century.
In 1787, at age 51, he moved from Berlin to Paris and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He
remained in France until the end of his life. He was significantly involved in the decimalisation in Revolutionary
France, became the first professor of analysis at the École Polytechnique upon its opening in 1794, was a founding
member of the Bureau des Longitudes, and became Senator in 1799.
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
After Newton, Lagrange (25 January 1736–10 April 1813) attempted to solve the three-body
problem, analyzed the stability of planetary orbits, and discovered the existence of
the Lagrangian points. Lagrange also reformulated the principles of classical mechanics,
emphasizing energy more than force and developing a method to use a single polar
coordinate equation to describe any orbit, even those that are parabolic and hyperbolic. This
is useful for calculating the behaviour of planets and comets and such. More recently, it has
also become useful to calculate spacecraft trajectories.
Scientific contribution
Lagrange was one of the creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the Euler–Lagrange equations for extrema
of functionals. He also extended the method to take into account possible constraints, arriving at the method
of Lagrange multipliers. Lagrange invented the method of solving differential equations known as variation of
parameters, applied differential calculus to the theory of probabilities and attained notable work on the solution
of equations. He proved that every natural number is a sum of four squares. His treatise Theorie des fonctions
analytiques laid some of the foundations of group theory, anticipating Galois. In calculus, Lagrange developed a
novel approach to interpolation and Taylor series. He studied the three-body problem for the Earth, Sun and Moon
(1764) and the movement of Jupiter's satellites (1766), and in 1772 found the special-case solutions to this problem
that yield what are now known as Lagrangian points. But above all, he is best known for his work on mechanics,
where he transformed Newtonian mechanics into a branch of analysis, Lagrangian mechanics as it is now called,
and presented the so-called mechanical "principles" as simple results of the variational calculus.
Biography
In appearance he was of medium height, and slightly formed, with pale blue eyes and a colourless complexion. In character he was
nervous and timid, he detested controversy, and to avoid it willingly allowed others to take the credit for what he had himself done.
He always thought out the subject of his papers before he began to compose them, and usually wrote them straight off without a
single erasure or correction.
W.W. Rouse Ball[7]
Early years
Born as Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, Lagrange was of Italian and French descent. His paternal great-grandfather
was a Frencharmy officer who had moved to Turin, the de facto capital of the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia at
Lagrange's time, and married an Italian; so did his grandfather and his father. His mother was from the countryside
of Turin.[8] He was raised as a Roman Catholic(but later on became an agnostic).[9]
His father, who had charge of the king's military chest and was Treasurer of the Office of Public Works and
Fortifications in Turin, should have maintained a good social position and wealth, but before his son grew up he
had lost most of his property in speculations. A career as a lawyer was planned out for Lagrange by his father, and
certainly Lagrange seems to have accepted this willingly. He studied at the University of Turin and his favourite
subject was classical Latin. At first he had no great enthusiasm for mathematics, finding Greek geometry rather
dull.
It was not until he was seventeen that he showed any taste for mathematics – his interest in the subject being first
excited by a paper by Edmond Halley which he came across by accident. Alone and unaided he threw himself into
mathematical studies; at the end of a year's incessant toil he was already an accomplished mathematician. Charles
Emmanuel III appointed Lagrange to serve as the "Sostituto del Maestro di Matematica" (mathematics assistant
professor) at the Royal Military Academy of the Theory and Practice of Artillery in 1755, where he taught courses in
calculus and mechanics to support the Piedmontese army's early adoption of the ballistics theories of Benjamin
Robins and Leonhard Euler. In that capacity, Lagrange was the first to teach calculus in an engineering school.
According to Alessandro Papacino D'Antoni, the academy's military commander and famous artillery theorist,
Lagrange unfortunately proved to be a problematic professor with his oblivious teaching style, abstract reasoning,
and impatience with artillery and fortification-engineering applications.[10] In this Academy one of his students
was François Daviet de Foncenex.[11]
Variational calculus
Lagrange is one of the founders of the calculus of variations. Starting in 1754, he worked on the problem
of tautochrone, discovering a method of maximising and minimising functionals in a way similar to finding extrema
of functions. Lagrange wrote several letters to Leonhard Euler between 1754 and 1756 describing his results. He
outlined his "δ-algorithm", leading to the Euler–Lagrange equations of variational calculus and considerably
simplifying Euler's earlier analysis.[12] Lagrange also applied his ideas to problems of classical mechanics,
generalising the results of Euler and Maupertuis.
Euler was very impressed with Lagrange's results. It has been stated that "with characteristic courtesy he withheld
a paper he had previously written, which covered some of the same ground, in order that the young Italian might
have time to complete his work, and claim the undisputed invention of the new calculus"; however, this chivalric
view has been disputed.[13] Lagrange published his method in two memoirs of the Turin Society in 1762 and 1773.
Miscellanea Taurinensia
In 1758, with the aid of his pupils (mainly Daviet de Foncenex), Lagrange established a society, which was
subsequently incorporated as the Turin Academy of Sciences, and most of his early writings are to be found in the
five volumes of its transactions, usually known as the Miscellanea Taurinensia. Many of these are elaborate papers.
The first volume contains a paper on the theory of the propagation of sound; in this he indicates a mistake made
by Newton, obtains the general differential equation for the motion, and integrates it for motion in a straight line.
This volume also contains the complete solution of the problem of a string vibrating transversely; in this paper he
points out a lack of generality in the solutions previously given by Brook Taylor, D'Alembert, and Euler, and arrives
at the conclusion that the form of the curve at any time t is given by the equation .
The article concludes with a masterly discussion of echoes, beats, and compound sounds. Other articles in this
volume are on recurring series, probabilities, and the calculus of variations.
The second volume contains a long paper embodying the results of several papers in the first volume on the theory
and notation of the calculus of variations; and he illustrates its use by deducing the principle of least action, and by
solutions of various problems in dynamics.
The third volume includes the solution of several dynamical problems by means of the calculus of variations; some
papers on the integral calculus; a solution of Fermat's problem mentioned above: given an integer n which is not
a perfect square, to find a number x such that x2n + 1 is a perfect square; and the general differential equations
of motion for three bodies moving under their mutual attractions.
The next work he produced was in 1764 on the libration of the Moon, and an explanation as to why the same face
was always turned to the earth, a problem which he treated by the aid of virtual work. His solution is especially
interesting as containing the germ of the idea of generalised equations of motion, equations which he first formally
proved in 1780.
Berlin
Already in 1756, Euler and Maupertuis, seeing his mathematical talent, tried to persuade him to come to Berlin, but
Lagrange had no such intention and shyly refused the offer. In 1765, d'Alembert interceded on Lagrange's behalf
with Frederick of Prussia and by letter, asked him to leave Turin for a considerably more prestigious position in
Berlin. Lagrange again turned down the offer, responding that[14]:361
It seems to me that Berlin would not be at all suitable for me while M.Euler is there.
In 1766, Euler left Berlin for Saint Petersburg, and Frederick himself wrote to Lagrange expressing the wish of "the
greatest king in Europe" to have "the greatest mathematician in Europe" resident at his court. Lagrange was finally
persuaded and he spent the next twenty years in Prussia, where he produced not only the long series of papers
published in the Berlin and Turin transactions, but also his monumental work, the Mécanique analytique. In 1767,
he married his cousin Vittoria Conti.
Lagrange was a favourite of the king, who used frequently to discourse to him on the advantages of perfect
regularity of life. The lesson went home, and thenceforth Lagrange studied his mind and body as though they were
machines, and found by experiment the exact amount of work which he was able to do without breaking down.
Every night he set himself a definite task for the next day, and on completing any branch of a subject he wrote a
short analysis to see what points in the demonstrations or in the subject-matter were capable of improvement. He
always thought out the subject of his papers before he began to compose them, and usually wrote them straight off
without a single erasure or correction.
Nonetheless, during his years in Berlin, Lagrange's health was rather poor on many occasions, and that of his wife
Vittoria was even worse. She died in 1783 after years of illness and Lagrange was very depressed. In 1786,
Frederick II died, and the climate of Berlin became rather trying for Lagrange. [8]
Paris
In 1786, following Frederick's death, Lagrange received similar invitations from states including Spain and Naples,
and he accepted the offer of Louis XVI to move to Paris. In France he was received with every mark of distinction
and special apartments in the Louvre were prepared for his reception, and he became a member of the French
Academy of Sciences, which later became part of the Institut de France (1795). At the beginning of his residence in
Paris he was seized with an attack of melancholy, and even the printed copy of his Mécanique on which he had
worked for a quarter of a century lay for more than two years unopened on his desk. Curiosity as to the results of
the French revolution first stirred him out of his lethargy, a curiosity which soon turned to alarm as the revolution
developed.
It was about the same time, 1792, that the unaccountable sadness of his life and his timidity moved the compassion
of 24-year-old Renée-Françoise-Adélaïde Le Monnier, daughter of his friend, the astronomer Pierre Charles Le
Monnier. She insisted on marrying him, and proved a devoted wife to whom he became warmly attached.
In September 1793, the Reign of Terror began. Under intervention of Antoine Lavoisier, who himself was by then
already thrown out of the Academy along with many other scholars, Lagrange was specifically exempted by name
in the decree of October 1793 that ordered all foreigners to leave France. On 4 May 1794, Lavoisier and 27 other tax
farmers were arrested and sentenced to death and guillotined on the afternoon after the trial. Lagrange said on the
death of Lavoisier:
It took only a moment to cause this head to fall and a hundred years will not suffice to produce its like. [8]
Though Lagrange had been preparing to escape from France while there was yet time, he was never in any danger;
different revolutionary governments (and at a later time, Napoleon) loaded him with honours and distinctions. This
luckiness or safety may to some extent be due to his life attitude he expressed many years before: "I believe that, in
general, one of the first principles of every wise man is to conform strictly to the laws of the country in which he is
living, even when they are unreasonable".[8] A striking testimony to the respect in which he was held was shown in
1796 when the French commissary in Italy was ordered to attend in full state on Lagrange's father, and tender the
congratulations of the republic on the achievements of his son, who "had done honor to all mankind by his genius,
and whom it was the special glory of Piedmont to have produced." It may be added that Napoleon, when he attained
power, warmly encouraged scientific studies in France, and was a liberal benefactor of them. Appointed senator in
1799, he was the first signer of the Sénatus-consulte which in 1802 annexed his fatherland Piedmont to France.[5] He
acquired French citizenship in consequence.[5] The French claimed he was a French mathematician, but the Italians
continued to claim him as Italian.[8]
Units of measurement
Lagrange was considerably involved in the process of making new standard units of measurement in
the 1790s. He was offered the presidency of the Commission for the reform of weights and measures
(la Commission des Poids et Mesures) when he was preparing to escape. And after Lavoisier's death in
1794, it was largely owing to Lagrange's influence that the final choice of the unit system of metre and
kilogram was settled and the decimal subdivision was finally accepted by the commission of 1799.
Lagrange was also one of the founding members of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1795.
École Normale
In 1795, Lagrange was appointed to a mathematical chair at the newly established École Normale, which enjoyed
only a brief existence of four months. His lectures there were quite elementary, and contain nothing of any special
importance, but they were published because the professors had to "pledge themselves to the representatives of
the people and to each other neither to read nor to repeat from memory," and the discourses were ordered to be
taken down in shorthand to enable the deputies to see how the professors acquitted themselves.
École Polytechnique
In 1794, Lagrange was appointed professor of the École Polytechnique; and his lectures there, described by
mathematicians who had the good fortune to be able to attend them, were almost perfect both in form and matter.[
Beginning with the merest elements, he led his hearers on until, almost unknown to themselves, they were
themselves extending the bounds of the subject: above all he impressed on his pupils the advantage of always
using general methods expressed in a symmetrical notation.
But Lagrange does not seem to have been a successful teacher. Fourier, who attended his lectures in 1795, wrote:
his voice is very feeble, at least in that he does not become heated; he has a very marked Italian accent and
pronounces the s like z [...] The students, of whom the majority are incapable of appreciating him, give him little
welcome, but the professeurs make amends for it.[15]
Late years
Lagrange's tomb in the crypt of the Panthéon
In 1810, Lagrange commenced a thorough revision of the Mécanique analytique, but he was able to complete only
about two-thirds of it before his death at Paris in 1813, in 128 rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré. Napoleon honoured
him with the Grand Croix of the Ordre Impérial de la Réunion just two days before he died. He was buried that same
year in the Panthéon in Paris. The inscription on his tomb reads in translation:
JOSEPH LOUIS LAGRANGE. Senator. Count of the Empire. Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. Grand Cross of
the Imperial Order of the Reunion. Member of the Institute and the Bureau of Longitude. Born in Turin on
25 January 1736. Died in Paris on 10 April 1813.
Work in Berlin
Lagrange was extremely active scientifically during twenty years he spent in Berlin. Not only did he produce
his Mécanique analytique, but he contributed between one and two hundred papers to the Academy of Turin, the
Berlin Academy, and the French Academy. Some of these are really treatises, and all without exception are of a
high order of excellence. Except for a short time when he was ill he produced on average about one paper a month.
Of these, note the following as amongst the most important.
First, his contributions to the fourth and fifth volumes, 1766–1773, of the Miscellanea Taurinensia; of which the
most important was the one in 1771, in which he discussed how numerous astronomical observations should be
combined so as to give the most probable result. And later, his contributions to the first two volumes, 1784–1785,
of the transactions of the Turin Academy; to the first of which he contributed a paper on the pressure exerted by
fluids in motion, and to the second an article on integration by infinite series, and the kind of problems for which it
is suitable.
Most of the papers sent to Paris were on astronomical questions, and among these including his paper on
the Jovian system in 1766, his essay on the problem of three bodies in 1772, his work on the secular equation of
the Moon in 1773, and his treatise on cometary perturbations in 1778. These were all written on subjects proposed
by the Académie française, and in each case the prize was awarded to him.
Lagrangian mechanics
Between 1772 and 1788, Lagrange re-formulated Classical/Newtonian mechanics to simplify formulas and ease
calculations. These mechanics are called Lagrangian mechanics.
Algebra
The greater number of his papers during this time were, however, contributed to the Prussian Academy of
Sciences. Several of them deal with questions in algebra.
 His discussion of representations of integers by quadratic forms (1769) and by more general
algebraic forms (1770).
 His tract on the Theory of Elimination, 1770.
 Lagrange's theorem that the order of a subgroup H of a group G must divide the order of G.
 His papers of 1770 and 1771 on the general process for solving an algebraic equation of any
degree via the Lagrange resolvents. This method fails to give a general formula for solutions of
an equation of degree five and higher, because the auxiliary equation involved has higher
degree than the original one. The significance of this method is that it exhibits the already
known formulas for solving equations of second, third, and fourth degrees as manifestations of
a single principle, and was foundational in Galois theory. The complete solution of a binomial
equation of any degree is also treated in these papers.
 In 1773, Lagrange considered a functional determinant of order 3, a special case of a Jacobian.
He also proved the expression for the volume of a tetrahedron with one of the vertices at the
origin as the one sixth of the absolute valueof the determinant formed by the coordinates of the
other three vertices.
Number theory
Several of his early papers also deal with questions of number theory.
 Lagrange (1766–1769) was the first European to prove that Pell's equation x2 − ny2 = 1 has a
nontrivial solution in the integers for any non-square natural number n.[16]
 He proved the theorem, stated by Bachet without justification, that every positive integer is the
sum of four squares, 1770.
 He proved Wilson's theorem that (for any integer n > 1): n is a prime if and only if (n − 1)! + 1 is a
multiple of n, 1771.
 His papers of 1773, 1775, and 1777 gave demonstrations of several results enunciated by
Fermat, and not previously proved.
 His Recherches d'Arithmétique of 1775 developed a general theory of binary quadratic forms to
handle the general problem of when an integer is representable by the form ax2 + by2 + cxy.
 He made contributions to the theory of continued fractions.
Other mathematical work

There are also numerous articles on various points of analytical geometry. In two of them, written rather later, in
1792 and 1793, he reduced the equations of the quadrics (or conicoids) to their canonical forms.
During the years from 1772 to 1785, he contributed a long series of papers which created the science of partial
differential equations. A large part of these results were collected in the second edition of Euler's integral calculus
which was published in 1794.
Astronomy
Lastly, there are numerous papers on problems in astronomy. Of these the most important are the following:
 Attempting to solve the general three-body problem, with the consequent discovery of the two
constant-pattern solutions, collinear and equilateral, 1772. Those solutions were later seen to
explain what are now known as the Lagrangian points.
 On the attraction of ellipsoids, 1773: this is founded on Maclaurin's work.
 On the secular equation of the Moon, 1773; also noticeable for the earliest introduction of the
idea of the potential. The potential of a body at any point is the sum of the mass of every
element of the body when divided by its distance from the point. Lagrange showed that if the
potential of a body at an external point were known, the attraction in any direction could be at
once found. The theory of the potential was elaborated in a paper sent to Berlin in 1777.
 On the motion of the nodes of a planet's orbit, 1774.
 On the stability of the planetary orbits, 1776.
 Two papers in which the method of determining the orbit of a comet from three observations is
completely worked out, 1778 and 1783: this has not indeed proved practically available, but his
system of calculating the perturbations by means of mechanical quadratures has formed the
basis of most subsequent researches on the subject.
 His determination of the secular and periodic variations of the elements of the planets, 1781–
1784: the upper limits assigned for these agree closely with those obtained later by Le Verrier,
and Lagrange proceeded as far as the knowledge then possessed of the masses of the planets
permitted.
 Three papers on the method of interpolation, 1783, 1792 and 1793: the part of finite differences
dealing therewith is now in the same stage as that in which Lagrange left it.
Mécanique analytique
Over and above these various papers he composed his great treatise, the Mécanique analytique. In this he lays
down the law of virtual work, and from that one fundamental principle, by the aid of the calculus of variations,
deduces the whole of mechanics, both of solids and fluids.
The object of the book is to show that the subject is implicitly included in a single principle, and to give general
formulae from which any particular result can be obtained. The method of generalised co-ordinates by which he
obtained this result is perhaps the most brilliant result of his analysis. Instead of following the motion of each
individual part of a material system, as D'Alembert and Euler had done, he showed that, if we determine its
configuration by a sufficient number of variables whose number is the same as that of the degrees of freedom
possessed by the system, then the kinetic and potential energies of the system can be expressed in terms of those
variables, and the differential equations of motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. For example, in
dynamics of a rigid system he replaces the consideration of the particular problem by the general equation, which
is now usually written in the form
where T represents the kinetic energy and V represents the potential energy of the system. He then presented what
we now know as the method of Lagrange multipliers—though this is not the first time that method was published—
as a means to solve this equation.[17] Amongst other minor theorems here given it may suffice to mention the
proposition that the kinetic energy imparted by the given impulses to a material system under given constraints is
a maximum, and the principle of least action. All the analysis is so elegant that Sir William Rowan Hamilton said the
work could be described only as a scientific poem. Lagrange remarked that mechanics was really a branch of pure
mathematics analogous to a geometry of four dimensions, namely, the time and the three coordinates of the point
in space; and it is said that he prided himself that from the beginning to the end of the work there was not a single
diagram. At first no printer could be found who would publish the book; but Legendre at last persuaded a Paris firm
to undertake it, and it was issued under the supervision of Laplace, Cousin, Legendre (editor) and Condorcet in
1788.[8]
Work in France
Differential calculus and calculus of variations
Lagrange's lectures on the differential calculus at École Polytechnique form the basis of his treatise Théorie des
fonctions analytiques, which was published in 1797. This work is the extension of an idea contained in a paper he
had sent to the Berlin papers in 1772, and its object is to substitute for the differential calculus a group of theorems
based on the development of algebraic functions in series, relying in particular on the principle of the generality of
algebra.
A somewhat similar method had been previously used by John Landen in the Residual Analysis, published in
London in 1758. Lagrange believed that he could thus get rid of those difficulties, connected with the use of
infinitely large and infinitely small quantities, to which philosophers objected in the usual treatment of the
differential calculus. The book is divided into three parts: of these, the first treats of the general theory of functions,
and gives an algebraic proof of Taylor's theorem, the validity of which is, however, open to question; the second
deals with applications to geometry; and the third with applications to mechanics.
Another treatise on the same lines was his Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions, issued in 1804, with the second
edition in 1806. It is in this book that Lagrange formulated his celebrated method of Lagrange multipliers, in the
context of problems of variational calculus with integral constraints. These works devoted to differential calculus
and calculus of variations may be considered as the starting point for the researches of Cauchy, Jacobi,
and Weierstrass.
Infinitesimals
At a later period Lagrange fully embraced the use of infinitesimals in preference to founding the differential
calculus on the study of algebraic forms; and in the preface to the second edition of the Mécanique Analytique,
which was issued in 1811, he justifies the employment of infinitesimals, and concludes by saying that:
When we have grasped the spirit of the infinitesimal method, and have verified the exactness of its results either by
the geometrical method of prime and ultimate ratios, or by the analytical method of derived functions, we may
employ infinitely small quantities as a sure and valuable means of shortening and simplifying our proofs.
Number theory
His Résolution des équations numériques, published in 1798, was also the fruit of his lectures at École
Polytechnique. There he gives the method of approximating to the real roots of an equation by means of continued
fractions, and enunciates several other theorems. In a note at the end he shows how Fermat's little theorem, that is
where p is a prime and a is prime to p, may be applied to give the complete algebraic solution of any binomial
equation. He also here explains how the equation whose roots are the squares of the differences of the roots of the
original equation may be used so as to give considerable information as to the position and nature of those roots.
Celestial mechanics
The theory of the planetary motions had formed the subject of some of the most remarkable of Lagrange's Berlin
papers. In 1806 the subject was reopened by Poisson, who, in a paper read before the French Academy, showed
that Lagrange's formulae led to certain limits for the stability of the orbits. Lagrange, who was present, now
discussed the whole subject afresh, and in a letter communicated to the Academy in 1808 explained how, by the
variation of arbitrary constants, the periodical and secular inequalities of any system of mutually interacting bodies
could be determined.
Prizes and distinctions

Euler proposed Lagrange for election to the Berlin Academy and he was elected on 2 September 1756. He was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1790, a Fellow of the Royal Society and a foreign member of
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806. In 1808, Napoleon made Lagrange a Grand Officer of the Legion
of Honour and a Count of the Empire. He was awarded the Grand Croix of the Ordre Impérial de la Réunion in 1813,
a week before his death in Paris.
Lagrange was awarded the 1764 prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his memoir on the libration of the
Moon. In 1766 the Academy proposed a problem of the motion of the satellites of Jupiter, and the prize again was
awarded to Lagrange. He also shared or won the prizes of 1772, 1774, and 1778.
Lagrange is one of the 72 prominent French scientists who were commemorated on plaques at the first stage of
the Eiffel Tower when it first opened. Rue Lagrange in the 5th Arrondissement in Paris is named after him. In Turin,
the street where the house of his birth still stands is named via Lagrange. The lunar crater Lagrange also bears his
name.
Simon Newcomb
Simon Newcomb (March 12, 1835 – July 11, 1909) was a Canadian–American astronomer, applied
mathematician and autodidactic polymath, who was Professor of Mathematics in the U.S. Navy and at Johns
Hopkins.[1]
Though he had little conventional schooling, he made important contributions to timekeeping as well as other
fields in applied mathematics such as economics and statistics in addition to writing a science fiction novel
Simon Newcomb
Simon Newcomb (12 March 1835–11 July 1909) was a Canadian-American astronomer who
revised Peter Andreas Hansen's table of lunar positions. In 1877, assisted by George William
Hill, he recalculated all the major astronomical constants. After 1884, he conceived with A. M.
W. Downing a plan to resolve much international confusion on the subject. By the time he
attended a standardisation conference in Paris, France in May 1886, the international
consensus was that all ephemerides should be based on Newcomb's calculations. A further
conference as late as 1950 confirmed Newcomb's constants as the international standard.
Biography
Early life
Simon Newcomb was born in the town of Wallace, Nova Scotia. His parents were Emily Prince, the daughter of a
New Brunswick magistrate, and itinerant school teacher John Burton Newcomb. John moved around teaching in
different parts of Canada, particularly in different villages in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. Emily was a
daughter of Thomas Prince and Miriam Steeves, making Simon a great-great-grandson of Heinrich Stief, and a not-
too-distant cousin of William Henry Steeves, a Canadian Father of Confederation.
Newcomb seems to have had little conventional schooling other than from his father and from a
short apprenticeship to Dr. Foshay, a charlatan herbalist, in New Brunswick in 1851. Nevertheless, his father
provided him with an excellent foundation for his future studies. Newcomb's apprenticeship with Dr. Foshay
occurred when he was only 16. They entered an agreement that Newcomb would serve a five-year apprenticeship
during which time Foshay would train him in using herbs to treat illnesses. For two years he was an apprentice but
became increasingly unhappy and disillusioned with his apprenticeship and about Foshay's unscientific approach,
realizing that the man was a charlatan. He made the decision to walk out on Foshay and break their agreement. He
walked the 120 miles (190 km) to the port of Calais in Maine where he met the captain of a ship who agreed to take
him to Salem, Massachusetts so that he could join his father.[2] In about 1854, he joined his father in Salem (John
Newcomb had moved earlier to the United States), and the two journeyed together to Maryland.
After arriving in Maryland, Newcomb taught for two years from 1854 to 1856; for the first year in a country school in
Massey's Cross Roads, Kent County, MD, then for a year at a school not far south in Sudlersville in Queen Anne's
County, MD. In his spare time he studied a variety of subjects such as political economy and religion, but his
deepest studies were made in mathematics and astronomy. In particular he read Newton's Principia at this time. In
1856 he took up a position as a private tutor close to Washington and he often travelled to that city to study
mathematics in the libraries there. He was able to borrow a copy of Bowditch's translation of Laplace'sTraité de
mécanique céleste from the library of the Smithsonian Institution but found the mathematics beyond him. [3]
Newcomb studied mathematics and physics privately and supported himself by teaching before becoming a human
computer (a functionary in charge of calculations) at the Nautical Almanac Office in Cambridge, Massachusetts in
1857. At around the same time, he enrolled at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University,
graduating BSc in 1858.[3]
Peirce family
Newcomb studied mathematics under Benjamin Peirce and the impecunious Newcomb was often a welcome guest
at the Peirce home.[4] However, he later was said to develop a dislike of Peirce's son, Charles Sanders Peirce and
has been accused of a "successful destruction" of C. S. Peirce's career. [5] In particular, Daniel Coit Gilman,
president of Johns Hopkins University, is alleged to have been on the point of awarding tenure to C. S. Peirce,
before Newcomb intervened behind the scenes to dissuade him.[6] About 20 years later, Newcomb allegedly
influenced the Carnegie Institution Trustees, to prevent C. S. Peirce's last chance to publish his life's work, through
a denial of a Carnegie grant to Peirce, even though Andrew Carnegie himself, Theodore Roosevelt, William
James and others, wrote to support it.[7]
Career in astronomy
In the prelude to the American Civil War, many US Navy staff of Confederate sympathies left the service and, in
1861, Newcomb took advantage of one of the ensuing vacancies to become professor
of mathematics and astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory, Washington D.C.. Newcomb set to work on
the measurement of the position of the planets as an aid to navigation, becoming increasingly interested in
theories of planetary motion.[3]
By the time Newcomb visited Paris, France in 1870, he was already aware that the table of lunar positions
calculated by Peter Andreas Hansen was in error. While in Paris, he realised that, in addition to the data from 1750
to 1838 that Hansen had used, there was further data stretching as far back as 1672. His visit allowed little serenity
for analysis as he witnessed the defeat of French emperor Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War and the coup
that ended the Second French Empire. Newcomb managed to escape from the city during the ensuing rioting that
led up to the formation of the Paris Commune and which engulfed the Paris Observatory. Newcomb was able to use
the "new" data to revise Hansen's tables.[3]
He was offered the post of director of the Harvard College Observatory in 1875 but declined, having by now settled
that his interests lay in mathematics rather than observation.[3]
Director of the Nautical Almanac Office

In 1877 he became director of the Nautical Almanac Office where, ably assisted by George William Hill, he
embarked on a program of recalculation of all the major astronomical constants. Despite fulfilling a further
demanding role as professor of mathematics and astronomy at Johns Hopkins University from 1884, he conceived
with A. M. W. Downing a plan to resolve much international confusion on the subject. By the time he attended a
standardisation conference in Paris, France, in May 1896, the international consensus was that
all ephemerides should be based on Newcomb's calculations—Newcomb's Tables of the Sun. A further conference
as late as 1950 confirmed Newcomb's constants as the international standard.[3]
Personal life
Grave of Simon Newcomb in Arlington National Cemetery

Newcomb married Mary Caroline Hassler on August 4, 1863 and had four daughters with her.[8] Mary Caroline
Hassler's father was United States Navy Surgeon Dr. Charles Augustus Hassler and her grandfather was Ferdinand
Hassler, the first Superintendent of the Coast Survey.[9] Newcomb died in Washington, DC of bladder cancer and
was buried with military honors in Arlington National Cemetery with President William Howard Taft in attendance.[3]
Newcomb's daughter Anita Newcomb McGee was an MD and founder of the Army Nurse Corps. She received
the Spanish War Service Medal for her services during the Spanish–American War. For her work in Japan she was
awarded the Japanese Imperial Order of the Precious Crown, The Japanese Red Cross decoration and two Russo–
Japanese War medals from the Japanese government. She is buried next to him with full military honors. [10]
Newcomb's daughter Anna Josepha studied at the Art Students' League in New York.[11] She was active in the
suffrage movement. In 1912, she organized the first Cornwall meeting in support of voting rights for
women.[11] Josepha Newcomb married Assistant US Attorney General Edward Baldwin Whitney, who was the son of
Professor William Dwight Whitney and the grandson of US Senator and Connecticut Governor Roger Sherman
Baldwin. He was also the grandfather of mathematician and Professor Hassler Whitney.[12]
Work
Speed of light
In 1878, Newcomb had started planning for a new and precise measurement of the speed of light that was needed
to account for exact values of many astronomical constants. He had already started developing a refinement of the
method of Léon Foucault when he received a letter from the young naval officer and physicist Albert Abraham
Michelson who was also planning such a measurement. Thus began a long collaboration and friendship. In 1880,
Michelson assisted at Newcomb's initial measurement with instruments located at Fort Myer and the United States
Naval Observatory, then situated on the Potomac River. However, Michelson had left to start his own project by the
time of the second set of measurements between the observatory and the Washington Monument.
Though Michelson published his first measurement in 1880, Newcomb's measurement was substantially different.
In 1883, Michelson revised his measurement to a value closer to Newcomb's. [3]
Benford's law
In 1881, Newcomb discovered the statistical principle now known as Benford's law, when he observed that the
earlier pages of logarithm books, used at that time to carry out logarithmic calculations, were far more worn than
the later pages. This led him to formulate the principle that, in any list of numbers taken from an arbitrary set of
data, more numbers will tend to begin with "1" than with any other digit.[13]
Chandler wobble
In 1891, within months of Seth Carlo Chandler's discovery of the 14-month variation of latitude, now referred to as
the Chandler wobble, Newcomb explained the apparent conflict between the observed motion and predicted period
of the wobble. The theory was based on a perfectly rigid body, but Earth is slightly elastic. Newcomb used the
variation of latitude observations to estimate the elasticity of Earth, finding it to be slightly more rigid than steel.[14]
Other work
Newcomb was an autodidact and polymath. He wrote on economics and his Principles of political economy (1885)
was described by John Maynard Keynes as "one of those original works which a fresh scientific mind, not
perverted by having read too much of the orthodox stuff, is able to produce from time to time in a half-formed
subject like economics." He was credited by Irving Fisher with the first-known enunciation of the equation of
exchange between money and goods used in the quantity theory of money.[15] He spoke French, German, Italian
and Swedish; was an active mountaineer; widely read; and authored a number of popular science books and
a science fiction novel, His Wisdom the Defender (1900).[3]
On the state of astronomy

In 1888 Simon Newcomb wrote: "We are probably nearing the limit of all we can know about astronomy."
By 1903, however, his view had changed. In an article in Science he wrote: "What lies before us is an illimitable
field, the existence of which was scarcely suspected ten years ago, the exploration of which may well absorb the
activities of our physical laboratories, and of the great mass of our astronomical observers and investigators for as
many generations as were required to bring electrical science to its present state." [16]
On the impossibility of a flying machine
Newcomb is famously quoted as having believed it impossible to build a "flying machine". He begins an article
titled "Is the Airship Possible?" with the remark, "That depends, first of all, on whether we are to make the requisite
scientific discoveries." He ends with the remark "the construction of an aerial vehicle ... which could carry even a
single man from place-to-place at pleasure requires the discovery of some new metal or some new force." [17]
In the October 22, 1903, issue of The Independent, Newcomb made the well-known remark that "May not our
mechanicians . . . be ultimately forced to admit that aerial flight is one of the great class of problems with which
man can never cope, and give up all attempts to grapple with it?", [18][19] completed by the motivation that even if a
man flew he could not stop. "Once he slackens his speed, down he begins to fall. Once he stops, he falls as a dead
mass." He had no concept of an airfoil. His "aeroplane" was an inclined "thin flat board". He therefore concluded
that it could never carry the weight of a man.
Newcomb was specifically critical of the work of Samuel Pierpont Langley, who claimed that he could build a flying
machine powered by a steam engine and whose initial efforts at flight were public failures. [20] In 1903, however,
Newcomb was also saying, "Quite likely the 20th century is destined to see the natural forces which will enable us
to fly from continent to continent with a speed far exceeding that of a bird. But when we inquire whether aerial flight
is possible in the present state of our knowledge; whether, with such materials as we possess, a combination of
steel, cloth and wire can be made which, moved by the power of electricity or steam, shall form a successful flying
machine, the outlook may be altogether different."[21]
Newcomb was clearly unaware of the Wright Brothers' efforts whose work was done in relative obscurity and
apparently unaware of the internal combustion engine's better power-to-weight ratio. When he heard about the
Wrights' flight in 1908 he was quick to accept it.[22] Newcomb favored the development of rotating wing (helicopters)
and airships that would float in the air (blimps). Within a few decades, Zeppelins regularly transported passengers
between Europe and the United States, and the Graf Zeppelin circumnavigated the Earth.[23]
Psychical research
Newcomb was the first president of the American Society for Psychical Research.[24] Although skeptical
of extrasensory perception and alleged paranormal phenomena he believed the subject was worthy of
investigation. By 1889 his investigations were negative and his skepticism increased. Biographer Albert E. Moyer
has noted that Newcomb "convinced and hoped to convince others that, on methodological grounds, psychical
research was a scientific dead end."[25]
Awards and honours

 Member, and holder of several offices, of the National Academy of Sciences (1869);
 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1874);
 Elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1875);.
 Fellow of the Royal Society (1877);
 Huygens Medal of the Haarlem Academy of Sciences (1878);
 Editor of the American Journal of Mathematics (1885–1900);
 Copley Medal of the Royal Society (1890);
 Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur (1893);
 President of the American Mathematical Society (1897–1898);
 Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1898); and
 Founding member and first president of the American Astronomical Society (1899–1905).
 Foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1898);[26]
 Inductee of the Hall of Fame for Great Americans.
Legacy
 Asteroid 855 Newcombia is named after him.
 The crater Newcomb on the Moon is named after him.
 The Royal Astronomical Society of Canada has a writing award named after him.
 The Time Service Building at the US Naval Observatory is named The Simon Newcomb Laboratory.
 The U.S. Navy minesweeper Simon Newcomb (YMS 263) was launched in 1942, served in the Pacific Theater
during World War II, and was decommissioned in 1949.
 Mt. Newcomb (13,418 ft/4,090 m) appears on USGS topographic maps at coordinates 36.5399° N, 118.2934° W
in the Sierra Nevada mountains.
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein (/ˈaɪnstaɪn/;[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐ̯t ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born
theoretical physicist[5] who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics
(alongside quantum mechanics).[3][6]:274 His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. [7][8] He is
best known to the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which has been dubbed "the
world's most famous equation".[9] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical
physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[10] a pivotal step in the development
of quantum theory.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile
the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his special
theory of relativityduring his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern (1902–1909), Switzerland. However, he realized
that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and he published a paper on general
relativity in 1916 with his theory of gravitation. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and
quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated
the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, he applied the
general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. [11][12]
Except for one year in Prague, Einstein lived in Switzerland between 1895 and 1914, during which time he
renounced his German citizenship in 1896, then received his academic diploma from the Swiss federal polytechnic
school (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich in 1900. After being stateless for more
than five years, he acquired Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1905, he was awarded
a PhD by the University of Zurich. The same year, he published four groundbreaking papers during his
renowned annus mirabilis (miracle year) which brought him to the notice of the academic world at the age of 26.
Einstein taught theoretical physics at Zurich between 1912 and 1914 before he left for Berlin, where he was elected
to the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein in 1921
In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power. Because of
his Jewish background, Einstein did not return to Germany.[13] He settled in the United States and became an
American citizen in 1940.[14] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and
recommending that the US begin similar research. This eventually led to the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported
the Allies, but he generally denounced the idea of using nuclear fission as a weapon. He signed the Russell–
Einstein Manifesto with British philosopher Bertrand Russell, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. He
was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.
Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers and more than 150 non-scientific works.[11][15] His intellectual
achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius". [16] Eugene Wigner wrote of
Einstein in comparison to his contemporaries that "Einstein's understanding was deeper even than Jancsi von
Neumann's. His mind was both more penetrating and more original than von Neumann's. And that is a very
remarkable statement."[17]
Early life and education

Einstein family
Einstein at the age of 3 in 1882
Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)

Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian cantonal school (Aargauische
Kantonsschule, on a scale of 1–6, with 6 being the highest possible mark). He scored: German 5; French 3; Italian 5; History 6;
Geography 4; Algebra 6; Geometry 6; Descriptive Geometry 6; Physics 6; Chemistry 5; Natural History 5; Art and Technical
Drawing 4.
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.[5] His
parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich,
where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that
manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[5]
The Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich,
from the age of 5, for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the
Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left
the German Empire seven years later.[18]
In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they
lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating
current (AC) standard.[19] The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family
moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15,
stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical
engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later
wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894,
he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[20] During
his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic
Field".[21][22]
Einstein always excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his
peers. The twelve year old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer. Einstein
also independently discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean theorem at age 12.[23] A family tutor Max
Talmud says that after he had given the 12 year old Einstein a geometry textbook, after a short time "[Einstein] had
worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics... Soon the flight of his
mathematical genius was so high I could not follow."[24] His passion for geometry and algebra led the twelve year
old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure". [24] Einstein started
teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14 year old he says he had "mastered integral and differential calculus".[25]
At age 13, Einstein was introduced to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, and Kant became his favorite philosopher,
his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to
ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."[24]
In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich (later
the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of
the examination,[26] but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.[27] On the advice of the principal of
the Polytechnic, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to
complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with
Winteler's daughter, Marie. Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul.[28] In January 1896, with his father's
approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service.[29] In
September 1896, he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and
mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6.[30] At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching
diploma program at the Zürich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland,
for a teaching post.
Einstein's future wife, a 20-year old Serbian woman Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that year. She
was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma
course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books
together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein passed
the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded the Federal Polytechnic teaching diploma. [31] There have been
claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his 1905 papers, [32][33] known as the Annus Mirabilispapers, but
historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive
contributions.[34][35][36][37]
Marriages and children
Albert Einstein in 1904 (age 25)
An early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that
the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl", born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her
parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of
Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in
infancy.[38][39]
Einstein with his second wife Elsa, 1921
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern,
Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić
returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that Einstein's chief romantic attraction was his first and second
cousin Elsa.[40] They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.[41] Eduard had a breakdown at
about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[42] His mother cared for him and he was also committed to
asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death.[43]
In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings
for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every
spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be". He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life"
regarding his love for Marie.[44]
Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919,[45][46] after having a relationship with her since 1912.[47] She was a first
cousin maternally and a second cousin paternally.[47] They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was
diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. [48]
Friends
Among Einstein's well-known friends were Michele Besso, Paul Ehrenfest, Marcel Grossmann, János
Plesch, Daniel Q. Posin, Maurice Solovine, and Stephen Wise.[49]
Patent office
Olympia Academy founders: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein.
After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He
acquired Swisscitizenship in February 1901,[50] but for medical reasons was not conscripted. With the help of Marcel
Grossmann's father, he secured a job in Bern at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office,[51][52] as
an assistant examiner – level III.[53][54]
Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical
typewriter.[54]In 1903, his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for
promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[55]:370
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical–
mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought
experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental
connection between space and time.[55]:377
With a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named
"The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the
works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.[56]
First scientific papers
Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics
In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity
Phenomena") was published in the journal Annalen der Physik.[57][58] On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his
thesis,[59] with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. As a result, Einstein
was awarded a PhD by the University of Zürich, with his dissertation "A New Determination of Molecular
Dimensions".[59][60]
In that same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four
groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of
mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.
Academic career
By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The
following year, after giving a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of
Zürich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics.
Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909.[61]
Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911,
accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so.[62][63] During his Prague stay, he wrote 11
scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he
returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was professor of theoretical physics at the ETH
Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the
molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel
Grossmann.[64]
On 3 July 1913, he was voted for membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max
Planck and Walther Nernst visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally
offering him the post of director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be
established.[65](Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at
the Humboldt University of Berlin.) He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he accepted to move to
the German Empire the next year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near
his cousin Elsa, with whom he had developed a romantic affair. He joined the academy and thus the Berlin
University on 1 April 1914.[66] As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics
was aborted. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director. [67] In 1916, Einstein was
elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[68]
Based on calculations Einstein made in 1911, about his new theory of general relativity, light from another star
should be bent by the Sun's gravity. In 1919, that prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar
eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-
famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read:
"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[69]
In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[70] In 1922, he was
awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery
of the law of the photoelectric effect".[10] While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat
controversial, the citation also does not treat the cited work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law,
as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924
derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society
(ForMemRS) in 1921.[3] He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.[3]
1921–1922: Travels abroad
Albert Einstein at a session of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (League of Nations) of which he was a
member from 1922 to 1932.
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by
Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several
lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of
the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the
British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific,
intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London.[71][72]
He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.," in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe
some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions
in Democracy in America(1835).[73] For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a
visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without
envy."[74]:20
In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as
he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his
first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In a
letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and
having a true feel for art.[75] In his own travel diaries from his 1922-23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the
Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they
were rediscovered in 2018.[76]
Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the
Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was held by a German diplomat,
who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist. [77]
On his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. He was
greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the
home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by
people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish
people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. [78]
Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met Santiago Ramón y Cajal and also received a
diploma from King Alfonso XIII naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.[79]
From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League
of Nations in Geneva (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924),[80] a body created to promote international
exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists and intellectuals. [81] Originally slated to serve as the
Swiss delegate, Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar
Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing Gonzague de
Reynold to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values. [82] Einstein’s former physics
professor Hendrik Lorentz and the French chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee.
1930–1931: Travel to the US

In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as
a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first
trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations
to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all. [83]
After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with
the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered
by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy
Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the
mind".[84] Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and
showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. [84] Also during his stay in
New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.[84]
Einstein (left) and Charlie Chaplin at the Hollywoodpremiere of City Lights, January 1931
Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate, Robert A. Millikan. His
friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism," where Einstein was a
pronounced pacifist.[85] During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to
do more harm than good.[86]
This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for
their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to
Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner.
Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament,"
from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy".[87]:320
Chaplin's film, City Lights, was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to
join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most
memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity".[86] Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin, and
recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it
was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis."[87]:322
1933: Emigration to the US
Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace". He is rolling up his
sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness" (by Charles R. Macauley, c. 1933).
In February 1933 while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to
power of the Nazisunder Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[88][89]
While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at
the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March, and
during the trip they learned that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon
landing in Antwerp on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport,
formally renouncing his German citizenship.[90] The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler
Youth camp.[91]
Refugee status
Albert Einstein's landing card (26 May 1933), when he landed in Dover(United Kingdom) from Ostende(Belgium) to visit Oxford.
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding
any official positions, including teaching at universities.[90] Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no
audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up
their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.[74]
A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book
burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[90] One
German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged",
offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.[90][92] In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already
emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and
cowardice came as something of a surprise."[90] After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a
"spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment," and "more than anything else in
the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence." [93]
Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the
fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few
months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer
Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. To protect
Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London, with a photo
of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.[94][95]
Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former
Prime Minister Lloyd George.[96] Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British
historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick
Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. [97] Churchill later
observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and
put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.[97]
Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote
in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter,
Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals". [98]
Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period
Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. [99] In one of his speeches he
denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship
in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. [100] In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of
the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK. [note 2][101] Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then
accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident
scholar.[99]
Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study
Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at Princeton
In October 1933 Einstein returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study,[99][102] noted
for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. [103] At the time, most American universities,
including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish
quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s.[103]
Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ
Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year
studentship,[104][105] but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for
citizenship.[99][106]
Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. [107] He was one of the
four first selected (two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon
developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria
Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field
theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.
World War II and the Manhattan Project
Einstein–Szilárd letter
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington
to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with
other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to
the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be
more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[108][109] To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a
few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the
possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. [110] He was asked to lend his
support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in
its own nuclear weapons research.
The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear
weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".[111] In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections
with the Belgian Royal Family[112] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White
House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered
the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate
the Manhattan Project.
For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some
argue he went against his pacifist principles.[113] In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old
friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt
recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would
make them ..."[114]
US citizenship
Einstein accepting US citizenshipcertificate from judge Phillip Forman
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced
Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when
compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social
barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own
early education.[115]
Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he
campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease,"[92] seeing it
as "handed down from one generation to the next".[116] As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights
activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. [117]:565 When Einstein
offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. [118]
In 1946 Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an
honorary degree. (Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African
Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall.) Einstein gave a speech about racism in
America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."[119] A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid
the college tuition for a black student.[118]
Personal life
Einstein in 1947
Assisting Zionist causes
Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925,
and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of
the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.[120] He also
submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs.
Among those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That
should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various
ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's
development.[121]:161 Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and
Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important.[121]:158
Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the
urging of Ezriel Carlebach, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a
mostly ceremonial post.[122][123] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who
explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its
sons".[124] Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and
ashamed" that he could not accept it.[124]
Love of music
Einstein (right) with writer, musician and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, 1930
Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age, and later wrote: "If I were not a physicist, I would
probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get
most joy in life out of music."[125][126]
His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love
of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein
began playing when he was 5, although he did not enjoy it at that age. [127]
When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon "Einstein fell in love" with Mozart's
music and studied music more willingly. He taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically", he said,
deciding that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty."[127] At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in
Aarau as he played Beethoven's violin sonatas, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was "remarkable
and revealing of 'great insight'." What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep
love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this
student."[127]
Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a
professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber
music were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also
become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck
and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel
catalogue of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation.[128][129]
In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family
conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of
the Zoellner Quartet.[130][131] Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he
played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation". [127]
Political and religious views
Albert Einstein's political views and Albert Einstein's religious views
Albert Einstein with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Vera
Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921
Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as
"Why Socialism?".[132][133] Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often
unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.[99] He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global
government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.[134] The FBI created
a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long. [135]
Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi. He exchanged written letters with Gandhi, and called him "a
role model for the generations to come" in a letter writing about him. [136]
Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. [137] Einstein stated that he
had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy.[138] He did not believe in
a personal God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as
naïve.[139] He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist",[140] preferring to call himself an agnostic,[141] or a "deeply
religious nonbeliever."[139] When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for
me."[142]
Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He
served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York,[143] and was an honorary associate of
the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in Britain. For the seventy-fifth anniversary of the New
York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of
what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no
salvation for humanity."[144]
Death
On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm,
which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[145] He took the draft of a speech he was
preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the
hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[146]
Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my
share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[147] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76,
having continued to work until near the end.[148]
During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for
preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to
discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[149] Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an
undisclosed location.[150][151]
In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965, at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert
Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication
and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly
stubborn."[152]
Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. [15][5] He published more than 300 scientific
papers and 150 non-scientific ones.[11][15] On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of
Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.[153][154] Einstein's intellectual achievements and
originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius."[16] In addition to the work he did by himself he
also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein
refrigerator and others.[155]
1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers

Main articles: Annus Mirabilis papers, Photoelectric effect, Special theory of relativity, Mass–energy equivalence,
and Brownian motion
The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum
theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der
Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern
physicsand changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:
Title (translated) Area of focus Received Published Significance
On a Heuristic Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting

Viewpoint Concerning Photoelectric that energy is exchanged only in discrete
18 March 9 June
the Production and effect amounts (quanta).[156] This idea was pivotal to
Transformation of Light the early development of quantum theory.[157]
On the Motion of Small

Particles Suspended in
Explained empirical evidence for the atomic
a Stationary Liquid, as Brownian
11 May 18 July theory, supporting the application
Required by the motion
of statistical physics.
Molecular Kinetic
Theory of Heat
Reconciled Maxwell's equations for

electricity and magnetism with the laws of
On the Electrodynamics Special 26 mechanics by introducing changes to
30 June
of Moving Bodies relativity September mechanics, resulting from analysis based on
empirical evidence that the speed of light is
independent of the motion of the
observer.[158] Discredited the concept of a
"luminiferous ether".[159]
Equivalence of matter and

Does the Inertia of a Matter– energy, E = mc2 (and by implication, the
27 21
Body Depend Upon Its energy ability of gravity to "bend" light), the
September November
Energy Content? equivalence existence of "rest energy", and the basis of
nuclear energy.
Statistical mechanics
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Main articles: Statistical mechanics, thermal fluctuations, and statistical physics
Einstein's first paper[160] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in
1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the
capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to
interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper
on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules
exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion
phenomena.[160]
Theory of critical opalescence
Critical opalescence
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a
fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free
energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The
effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein
relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the
wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[161] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a
treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the
atomistic constitution of matter.
Special relativity
History of special relativity
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper"[162] ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on
30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's
equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to
the laws of mechanics.[163] Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where
objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known
as Einstein's special theory of relativity.
This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving
body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also
argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was
superfluous.[note 3]
In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 as a consequence of his special relativity
equations.[164] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading
physicists, starting with Max Planck.[165][166]
Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann
Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted
Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity.[167]
General relativity
General relativity and the equivalence principle
History of general relativity
See also: Equivalence principle, Theory of relativity, and Einstein field equations
Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse
General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According
to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and
time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides
the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so
strong that not even light can escape.
As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial
motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion
(even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. [168] Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on
acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special
relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted
the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational red shift and deflection of light.[169][170]
In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding
on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical
prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. [171]
Gravitational waves
In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves,[172][173] ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate
as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of
gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a
finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot
exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at
infinite speed.
The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely
orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.[174] The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were
emitting gravitational waves.[174][175] Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers
at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves,[176] detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, exactly
one hundred years after the prediction.[174][177][178][179][180]
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
Hole argument
While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He
formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up
looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under
general linear transformations only.
In June 1913, the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a
sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion
supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized
that the hole argument was mistaken[181] and abandoned the theory in November 1915.
Physical cosmology
Physical cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. [182] He discovered
that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As
observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term,
the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The
modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's
understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's
static universe.[183][184]
Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static
model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of
1931[185][186] and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.[187][188] In each of these models, Einstein discarded the
cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory". [185][186][189]
In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his
"biggest blunder". The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be
exaggerated.[190]
In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning
of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the
universe.[191][192]In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the
expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a
process he associated with the cosmological constant.[193][194] As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like
to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is
constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving
it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from
space."
It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle,
Bondi and Gold.[195][196] However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly
abandoned the idea.[193][194][197]
Energy momentum pseudotensor
Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor
General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and
momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation
invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy
and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this
reason.
Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish
by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the
best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed
by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.
The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and
others.
Wormholes
Wormhole
In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen
bridges.[198][199] His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field
equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the
Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a
bridge between two patches.[200]
If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led
Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.
Einstein–Cartan theory
Einstein–Cartan theory
Einstein at his office, University of Berlin, 1920
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be
generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan
in the 1920s.
Equations of motion
Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations
The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the Einstein equations which describe how space curves,
the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.
Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a
black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new
law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a
geodesic from general relativity itself.
This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and
by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.
Old quantum theory

Old quantum theory
Photons and energy quanta
The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the
right.
Main articles: Photon and Quantum
In a 1905 paper,[201] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light
quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only
became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and
with the measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each,
where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to
the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric
effect.[201]
Quantized atomic vibrations
Einstein solid
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic
oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states
for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he
nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could
solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.[202]
Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
Adiabatic invariant
Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest
Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that
the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the
discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien
had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody
curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911
that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an
adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeldidentified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical
mechanics.
Bose–Einstein statistics
Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on
a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein
noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his
translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the
model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should
appear at very low temperatures.[203] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced
experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–
JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[204]Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the
behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in
the library of the Leiden University.[155]
Wave–particle duality
Einstein during his visit to the United States
Wave–particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on
academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern.[205] In "Über die Entwicklung unserer
Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the
Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed
that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-
like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert
N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–
particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.
Zero-point energy
Zero-point energy
In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the
idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his
assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then
compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely.
However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had
confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.[206]
Stimulated emission
Stimulated emission
In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that
proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and
the laser.[207] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with
Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically
compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later
development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions
had simple laws.
Matter waves
Matter wave
Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In
another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested
was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Quantum mechanics
Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics
Newspaper headline on 4 May 1935
Einstein was displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925. Contrary to popular belief,
his doubts were not due to a conviction that God "is not playing at dice." [208] Indeed, it was Einstein himself, in his
1917 paper that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission,[207] who first proposed the fundamental role of
chance in explaining quantum processes.[209] Rather, he objected to what quantum mechanics implies about the
nature of reality. Einstein believed that a physical reality exists independent of our ability to observe it. In contrast,
Bohr and his followers maintained that all we can know are the results of measurements and observations, and that
it makes no sense to speculate about an ultimate reality that exists beyond our perceptions.[210]
Bohr versus Einstein
Bohr–Einstein debates
Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925
The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels
Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy
of science.[211][212][213]Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
EPR paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in the "EPR
paper".[213] In a thought experiment, he considered two particles which had interacted such that their properties were
strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one
particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise a precise
momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other
particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way.[214]
Given Einstein's concept of local realism, there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these
properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality
of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called
"spooky action at a distance").[214]
Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in
question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when
the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The results of
these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the
picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one
being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated." [215]
Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its
opposite, entangled quantum states, has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the top ten papers published
in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory.[216]
Unified field theory
Classical unified field theories
Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric
theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his
"unified field theory" in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". [217]Although
he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were
ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some
mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well
understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to
unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of
everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical
setting.
Other investigations
Einstein's unsuccessful investigations
Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain
to force, superconductivity, and other research.
Collaboration with other scientists
The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.
In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had
some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein–de Haas experiment
Einstein–de Haas effect
Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be
the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum.
They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the
magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with
electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.
Schrödinger gas model
Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein
gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent
harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be
the number of particles in it.
This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger
applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add
his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[218]
Einstein refrigerator
Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator.
This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an
input.[219] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.
Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were
acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.[220]
Non-scientific legacy
While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were
included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be
made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in
1986[221]). Einstein had expressed his interest in the plumbing profession and was made an honorary member of the
Plumbers and Steamfitters Union.[222][223]Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told
the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. [224]
Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent
for the university.[225]
In popular culture
Albert Einstein in popular culture
In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature
saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to
explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon
me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein." [226]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. [227] He is a favorite
model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle
have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's
dream come true".[228]
Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him.[229][230]
Awards and honors

Einstein's awards and honors
Einstein received numerous awards and honors and in 1922 he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for
his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of
the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to
Einstein in 1922
Albert Einstein (14 March 1879–18 April 1955) explained the anomalous precession of
Mercury's perihelion in his 1916 paper The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity.
This led astronomers to recognize that Newtonian mechanics did not provide the highest
accuracy. Binary pulsars have been observed, the first in 1974, whose orbits not only require
the use of General Relativity for their explanation, but whose evolution proves the existence
of gravitational radiation, a discovery that led to the 1993 Nobel Physics Prize.
Ariny Amos(Astronomer , Astrologer)

Astronomer,Astrologer Ariny Amos.6/May/1982- present. Work on lunar theory.(work
continues)
Lunar theory attempts to account for the motions of the Moon. There are many irregularities
(or perturbations) in the Moon's motion, and many attempts have been made to account for
them. After centuries of being problematic, lunar motion is now modeled to a very high
degree of accuracy (see section Modern developments).
Lunar theory includes:
• the background of general theory; including mathematical techniques used to analyze the
Moon's motion and to generate formulae and algorithms for predicting its movements;
and also
• quantitative formulae, algorithms, and geometrical diagrams that may be used to
compute the Moon's position for a given time; often by the help of tables based on the
algorithms.
Lunar theory has a history of over 2000 years of investigation. Its more modern
developments have been used over the last three centuries for fundamental scientific and
technological purposes, and are still being used in that way.
The Moon has been observed for millennia. Over these ages, various levels of care and
precision have been possible, according to the techniques of observation available at any
time. There is a correspondingly long history of lunar theories: it stretches from the times of
the Babylonian and Greek astronomers, down to modern lunar laser ranging.
Among notable astronomers and mathematicians down the ages, whose names are
associated with lunar theories,
Naburimannu
Nabu-ri-man-nu (also spelled Nabu-rimanni; Greek sources called him Ναβουριανός, Nabourianos,
Latin Naburianus) (fl. c. 6th – 3rd century BC) was a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician.
Classical and ancient cuneiform sources mention an astronomer with this name:
 The Greek geographer Strabo of Amaseia, in Geography 16.1–.6, writes: "In Babylon a settlement is set apart
for the local philosophers, the Chaldaeans, as they are called, who are concerned mostly with astronomy; but
some of these, who are not approved of by the others, profess to be writers of horoscopes. (There is also a
tribe of the Chaldaeans, and a territory inhabited by them, in the neighborhood of the Arabs and of the Persian
Gulf, as it is called.) There are also several tribes of the Chaldaean astronomers. For example, some are called
Orcheni [those from Uruk], others Borsippeni [those from Borsippa], and several others by different names, as
though divided into different sects which hold to various dogmas about the same subjects. And the
mathematicians make mention of some of these men; as, for example, Kidenas, Nabourianos and Soudines".
 The damaged colophon of a cuneiform clay tablet (VAT 209; see ACT 18) with a Babylonian System
A lunar ephemeris for the years 49–48 BC states that it is the [tersit]u of Nabu-[ri]-man-nu. This is similar to the
colophons of two System B clay tablets that say that they are the tersitu of Kidinnu.
The following is an excerpt of a century of scholarship discussed in the sources referenced below. The meaning
of tersitu is not known definitively. Already Franz Xaver Kugler proposed that tersitu can be interpreted as "table"
here; in another context it seems to mean something like "tool", but in yet another the word refers to a blue enamel
paste. P. Schnabel, in a series of papers (1923–27), interpreted the phrase as an assignment of authorship. Based
on this, he argued that Naburimannu developed the Babylonian System A of calculating solar system ephemerides,
and that Kidinnu later developed Babylonian System B. Otto E. Neugebauer has remained reserved to this
conclusion and disputed Schnabel's further inferences about Naburimannu's life and work. The mathematician B.L.
van der Waerden later (1963, 1968, 1974) concluded that System A was developed during the reign of Darius I (521–
485 BC). System A, which uses step functions, appears to be somewhat more primitive than System B, which
uses zigzag linear functions, although System A is more consistent than System B. While it thus appears that
System A preceded System B, both systems remained in use at least until the 1st century BC.
The earliest preserved System A clay tablets (BM 36651, 36719, 37032, 37053) calculate an ephemeris for
the planet Mercury from 424–401 BC. The oldest preserved lunar tablets date from 306 BC in the Hellenistic period.
If Naburimannu was the originator of System A, then we can on that basis place him in Babylonia sometime
between the Persian and Macedonian conquests.
Kidinnu
Kidinnu (also Kidunnu) (fl. 4th century BC? possibly died 14 August 330 BC) was a Chaldean
astronomer and mathematician. Strabo of Amaseia called him Kidenas, Pliny the Elder Cidenas, and Vettius
Valens Kidynas.
Some cuneiform and classical Greek and Latin texts mention an astronomer with this name, but it is not clear if
they all refer to the same individual:
 The Greek geographer Strabo of Amaseia, in Geography 16.1–.6, writes: "In Babylon a settlement is set apart
for the local philosophers, the Chaldaeans, as they are called, who are concerned mostly with astronomy; but
some of these, who are not approved of by the others, profess to be writers of horoscopes. (There is also a
tribe of the Chaldaeans, and a territory inhabited by them, in the neighborhood of the Arabs and of the Persian
Gulf, as it is called.) There are also several tribes of the Chaldaean astronomers. For example, some are called
Orcheni [those from Uruk], others Borsippeni [those from Borsippa], and several others by different names, as
though divided into different sects which hold to various dogmas about the same subjects. And the
mathematicians make mention of some of these men; as, for example, Kidenas, Nabourianos and Soudines".
 The Roman encyclopaedist Pliny the Elder, in Natural History II.vi.39, writes that the planet Mercury can be
viewed "sometimes before sunrise and sometimes after sunset, but according to Cidenas
and Sosigenes never more than 22 degrees away from the sun".
 The Roman astrologer Vettius Valens, in Anthology, says that he used Hipparchus for the Sun, Sudines and
Kidynas and Apollonius for the Moon, and again Apollonius for both types (of eclipses, i.e. solar and lunar).
 The Hellenistic astronomer Ptolemy, in Almagest IV 2, discusses the duration and ratios of several periods
related to the Moon, as known to "ancient astronomers" and "the Chaldeans" and improved by Hipparchus. He
mentions the equality of 251 (synodic) months to 269 returns in anomaly. In a preserved classical manuscript
of the excerpt known as Handy Tables, an anonymous reader in the third century wrote the comment
(a scholium) that Kidenas discovered this relation.
 The colophon of two Babylonian System B lunar ephemerides from Babylon (see ACT 122 for 104–101 BC, and
ACT 123a for an unknown year) say that they are the tersitu of Kidinnu.
 A damaged cuneiform astronomical diary tablet from Babylon (Babylonian Chronicle 8: the Alexander
Chronicle, BM 36304) mentions that "ki-di-nu was killed by the sword" on day 15 of probably the 5th month of
that year, which has been dated as 14 August 330 BC, less than a year after Alexander the Great conquered
Babylon.
The following information is an excerpt of the overview of a century of scholarship in the sources referenced
below.
The meaning of tersitu is not known definitively. Already Franz Xaver Kugler proposed that the word can be
interpreted here as "table"; in another context it seems to mean something like "tool", but in yet another it refers to
a blue enamel paste. P. Schnabel, in a series of papers (1923–27), interpreted the phrase as an assignment of
authorship. He argued that Naburimannu developed the Babylonian System A of calculating solar
system ephemerides, and that later Kidinnu developed the Babylonian System B. A Greco-Roman tradition,
mentioned above, attributes to Kidinnu the discovery that 251 synodic months equals 269 anomalistic months. This
relationship is implicit in System B, and is therefore another reason to believe that Kidinnu was involved in
developing the lunar theory of System B. However, the conclusion that Kidinnu is the main creator of System B is
uncertain. Babylonian astronomers before Kidinnu's time apparently already knew the Saros cycle (old eclipse
observations were collected in tables organised according to the Saros cycle since the late 5th century BC) and
the Metonic cycle (the dates of the lunar calendar in the Saros tables follow a regular 19-year pattern of embolismic
months at least since 498 BC); both cycles are also used in System B. Schnabel computed specific years (first 314
BC and later 379 BC) for the origin of the System B lunar theory, but Franz Xaver Kugler and Otto E.
Neugebauer later disproved Schnabel's calculations. Schnabel also asserted that Kidinnu
discovered precession when distinguishing between sidereal and tropical years; Neugebauer contested this and
current scholarship considers this conclusion to be unfounded.
The lunation length used in System B has also been attributed to Kidinnu. It is 29 days + 191 time degrees + 1/72 of
a time degree ("barley corn") = 29d 31:50:8:20 (sexagesimal) = 29d + 12h + 793/1080h (Hebrew chelek) =
29.53059414...d. Being a rounded value in the archaic unit of "barley corns" it may be even more ancient. In any
case, it is very accurate, within about ⅓ of a second per month. Hipparchus confirmed this value for the lunation
length. Ptolemy accepted and used it, as mentioned above. Hillel first used it in the Hebrew calendar, and it has
been used for that purpose ever since.
The existing evidence makes it difficult to put Kidinnu at a time and place. Schnabel placed Kidinnu in Sippar,
but Otto E. Neugebauer showed that Schnabel based this conclusion on a misreading of the cuneiform tablet.
Classical sources like Strabo mention different "schools" and "doctrines" followed in different places (Babylon,
Borsippa, Sippar, Uruk). System A and B have been used contemporaneously, and tablets for both systems have
been found in both Babylon and Uruk. Tablets based on System B, associated with Kidinnu, have been found
mostly in Uruk, but the earlier tablets came predominantly from Babylon. The oldest preserved tablet using System
B comes from Babylon and dates from 258-257 BC. This is in the Seleucid era, but it is plausible that the traditional
Chaldean astronomical systems had been developed before the Hellenistic period. The Alexander chronicle
mentioned above suggests that the famous astronomer Kidinnu died in Babylon in 330 BC, if it refers to the same
Kidinnu who was mentioned on the ephemeris tablets centuries later.
William Gilbert (stronomer)

Gilbert was born in Colchester to Jerome Gilberd, a borough recorder. He was educated at St John's College,
Cambridge.[3] After gaining his MD from Cambridge in 1569, and a short spell as bursar of St John's College, he left
to practice medicine in London and travelled on the continent. In 1573, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians. In 1600 he was elected President of the College.[4] He was Elizabeth I's own physician from 1601 until
her death in 1603, and James VI and I renewed his appointment.[5]:30
His primary scientific work—much inspired by earlier works of Robert Norman[6][7]—was De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth)
published in 1600. In this work, he describes many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. From
these experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses point
north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that
attracted the compass). He was the first to argue, correctly, that the centre of the Earth was iron, and he considered
an important and related property of magnets was that they can be cut, each forming a new magnet with north and
south poles.
William Gilbert
William Gilbert
In Book 6, Chapter 3, he argues in support of diurnal rotation, though he does not talk about heliocentrism, stating
that it is an absurdity to think that the immense celestial spheres (doubting even that they exist) rotate daily, as
opposed to the diurnal rotation of the much smaller Earth. He also posits that the "fixed" stars are at remote
variable distances rather than fixed to an imaginary sphere. He states that situated "in thinnest aether, or in the
most subtle fifth essence, or in vacuity – how shall the stars keep their places in the mighty swirl of these
enormous spheres composed of a substance of which no one knows aught?"
The English word "electricity" was first used in 1646 by Sir Thomas Browne, derived from Gilbert's 1600 New
Latinelectricus, meaning "like amber". The term had been in use since the 13th century, but Gilbert was the first to
use it to mean "like amber in its attractive properties". He recognized that friction with these objects removed a so-
called "effluvium", which would cause the attraction effect in returning to the object, though he did not realize that
this substance (electric charge) was universal to all materials.[8]
The electric effluvia differ much from air, and as air is the earth's effluvium, so electric bodies have their own
distinctive effluvia; and each peculiar effluvium has its own individual power of leading to union, its own movement
to its origin, to its fount, and to the body emitting the effluvium.
— Gilbert 1893
In his book, he also studied static electricity using amber; amber is called elektron in Greek, so Gilbert decided to
call its effect the electric force. He invented the first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope, in the form
of a pivoted needle he called the versorium.[9]
Like others of his day, he believed that crystal (quartz) was an especially hard form of water, formed from
compressed ice:
Lucid gems are made of water; just as Crystal, which has been concreted from clear water, not always by a very
great cold, as some used to judge, and by very hard frost, but sometimes by a less severe one, the nature of the
soil fashioning it, the humour or juices being shut up in definite cavities, in the way in which spars are produced in
mines.
— De Magnete, English translation by Silvanus Phillips Thompson, 1900
Gilbert argued that electricity and magnetism were not the same thing. For evidence, he (incorrectly) pointed out
that, while electrical attraction disappeared with heat, magnetic attraction did not (although it is proven that
magnetism does in fact become damaged and weakened with heat). Hans Christian Ørsted and James Clerk
Maxwell showed that both effects were aspects of a single force: electromagnetism. Maxwell surmised this in his A
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism after much analysis.
Gilbert's magnetism was the invisible force that many other natural philosophers, such as Kepler, seized upon,
incorrectly, as governing the motions that they observed. While not attributing magnetism to attraction among the
stars, Gilbert pointed out the motion of the skies was due to earth's rotation, and not the rotation of the spheres, 20
years before Galileo (but 57 years after Copernicus who stated it openly in his work "De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium" published in 1543 ) (see external reference below). Gilbert made the first attempt to map the surface
markings on the Moon in the 1590s. His chart, made without the use of a telescope, showed outlines of dark and
light patches on the moon's face. Contrary to most of his contemporaries, Gilbert believed that the light spots on
the Moon were water, and the dark spots land.[10]
Diagram of the universe appearing on p202 of De Mundo
Besides Gilbert's De Magnete, there appeared at Amsterdam in 1651 a quarto volume of 316 pages entitled De
Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova (New Philosophy about our Sublunary World), edited—some say by his
brother William Gilbert Junior, and others say, by the eminent English scholar and critic John Gruter—from two
manuscripts found in the library of Sir William Boswell. According to Dr. John Davy, "this work of Gilbert's, which
is so little known, is a very remarkable one both in style and matter; and there is a vigor and energy of expression
belonging to it very suitable to its originality. Possessed of a more minute and practical knowledge of natural
philosophy than Bacon, his opposition to the philosophy of the schools was more searching and particular, and at
the same time probably little less efficient." In the opinion of Prof. John Robison, De Mundo consists of an attempt
to establish a new system of natural philosophy upon the ruins of the Aristotelian doctrine.[4]
Dr. William Whewell says in his History of the Inductive Sciences (1859):[11]
Soudines
Sudines (or Soudines) (Greek: Σουδινες) (fl. c. 240 BC): Babylonian sage. He is mentioned as one of the
famous Chaldean mathematicians and astronomer-astrologers by later Roman writers like Strabo (Geografia 16:1–
6).
Like his predecessor Berossos, he moved from Babylonia and established himself among the Greeks; he was an
advisor to King Attalus I (Attalos Soter) of Pergamon. He is said (e.g. by Roman astronomer/astrologer Vettius
Valens) to have published tables to compute the motion of the Moon; said to have been used by the Greeks, until
superseded by the work of Hipparchus and later by Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaios). Soudines may have been
important in transmitting the astronomical knowledge of the Babylonians to the Greeks, but little is known about
his work and nothing about his life. He is also said to have been one of the first to assign astrologicalmeaning
to gemstones.
Nicholas lemery.
Nicolas Lémery (or Lemery as his name appeared in his international publications) (17 November 1645 – 19 June
1715), French chemist, was born at Rouen. He was one of the first to develop theories on acid-base chemistry
Nicolas Lemery
After learning pharmacy in his native town he became a pupil of Christophe Glaser in Paris, and then went
to Montpellier, where he began to lecture on chemistry. He next established a pharmacy in Paris, still continuing his
lectures, but following 1683, being a Calvinist, he was obliged to retire to England. In the following year he returned
to France, and turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and resume his lectures. He died in Paris on 19
June 1715.[1]
Lemery did not concern himself much with theoretical speculations, but holding chemistry to be a demonstrative
science, confined himself to the straightforward exposition of facts and experiments. In consequence, his lecture-
room was thronged with people of all sorts, anxious to hear a man who shunned the barren obscurities of
the alchemists, and did not regard the quest of the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life as the sole end of his
science. Of his Cours de chymie(1675) he lived to see 13 editions, and for a century it maintained its reputation as a
standard work.[1]
In 1680, using the corpuscular theory as a basis, Lemery stipulated that the acidity of any substance consisted in
its pointed particles, while alkalis were endowed with pores of various sizes.[2] A molecule, according to this view,
consisted of corpuscles united through a geometric locking of points and pores.
Mock-up of Nicolas Lemery's 1680 acid-base bonding model.
Illustration of laboratory apparatus, Cours de chymie, 1683
Cours de chymie in English
His other publications included Pharmacopée universelle (1697), Traité universel des drogues simples (1698), Traité
de l'antimoine (1707), together with a number of papers contributed to the French Academy, one of which offered a
chemical and physical explanation of underground fires, earthquakes, lightning and thunder. He discovered that
heat is evolved when iron filings and sulphur are rubbed together to a paste with water, and the artificial volcan de
Lemery was produced by burying underground a considerable quantity of this mixture, which he regarded as a
potent agent in the causation of volcanic action.
His son Louis Lémery (1677–1743) was appointed physician at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris in 1710, and became
demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in 1731. He was the author of a Traité des aliments (1702), and of
a Dissertation sur la nature des os (1704), as well as of a number of papers on chemical topics
Works
 Cours de chymie : contenant la maniere de faire les operations qui sont en usage dans la medecine, par un
methode facile ; avec des raisonnements sur chaque operation, pour l'instruction de ceux qui veulent
s'appliquer a cette science. - 6. ed. - Paris : Michallet, 1687. Digital edition /1730 Digital 11th edition /
1744 Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 Het philosoophze laboratorium, oft' der chymisten stook-huis. - Amsterdam : ten Hoorn, 1691. Digital edition of
the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 Nouveau recueil de[s] curiositez, les plus rares & admirables de tous les effects, que l'art & la nature sont
capables de produire. Volume 1-2. Dernière édition augmentée, corrigée & enrichie de tailles-douces. Leyde :
van der Aa, 1688. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf
 Nouveau recueil de[s] secrets et curiositez, les plus rares & admirables de tous les effects, que l'art & la nature
sont capables de produire. - 5. ed. - Amsterdam : Mortier, 1697. Digital edition of the University and State
Library Düsseldorf.
 1
 2
 A course of chymistry : containing an easie method of preparing those chymical medicins which are used in
physick ; with curious remarks and useful discourses upon each preparation, for the benefit of such a desire
to be instructed in the knowledge of this art. - The 3rd. ed., transl. from the 8th ed. in the French. - London :
Kettilby, 1698. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 Cours de chymie, oder der vollkommene Chymist : welcher die in der Medicin gebräuchlichen chymischen
Processe auff die leichteste und heilsamste Art machen lernt... Aus der 9. frantzösischen Edition des 1697sten
Jahres ins Teutsche übersetzet. Winckler, Dresden 1698 Digital edition of the University and State Library
Düsseldorf.
 A compleat history of druggs : written in French by Monsieur Pomet, chief druggist to the present French
king ; to which is added what is further observable on the same subject, from Messrs. Lemery and Tournefort,
divided into 3 classes, vegetable, animal and mineral, with their use in physick, chymistry, pharmacy and
several other arts ; done into English from the originals. London, 1712.Digital edition of the University and
State Library Düsseldorf.
 Farmacopea universale che contiene tutte le composizioni di farmacia le qualisono in uso nella medicina :
tanto in Francia, quanto per tutta l'europa, ... e di piu un vocabolario farmaceutico, molte nuove osservazioni,
ed alcuni ragionamenti sopra ogni operazione. Venezia : Gio. Gabriel Hertz, 1720 Digital edition of
the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 Dictionaire, ou traité universel des drogues simples ou l’on trouve leurs differens noms, leur origine, leur
choix, les principes qu’elles renferment, leurs qualitez, leur etymologie, & tout ce qu’il ya de particulier dans
les animaux, dans les vegetaux, & dans les mineraux ; ouvrage dependant de la Pharmacopee universelle .
Hofhout, Rotterdam 4.ed. 1727 Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 Pharmacopée universelle : contenant toutes les compositions de pharmacie qui sont en usage dans la
medicine, tant en France que par toute l'Europe, leurs vertus, leurs doses, les manieres d'operer les plus
simples & les meilleures ; avec un lexicon pharmaceutique, plusieurs remarques nouvelles, et des
raisonnemens sur chaque operation. d’Houry, Paris 3.ed. 1728 Digital edition of the University and State
Library Düsseldorf.
Pharmacopée universelle
methode facile ; avec des raisonnemens sur chaque operation, pour l'instruction de ceux qui veulent
s'appliquer a cette science. - 11. ed. - Paris : Delespine, 1730. Digital edition of the University and State Library
Düsseldorf.
 Traité universel des drogues simples : mises en ordre alphabetique, ou l'on trouve leurs differens noms, leur
origine, leur choix, les principes qu'elles renferment, leurs qualitez, leur etimologie, & tout ce qu'il ya de
particulier dans les animaux, dans les vegetaux, & dans les mineraux ; ouvrage dependant de la Pharmacopee
universelle. d’Houry, Paris 4.ed. 1732 Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
Cours de chymie in English
Source;Kitty8 - Own work
Title page of English translation of Cours de chymie (1675) by Nicholas Lemery.
methode facile ; avec des raisonnemens sur chaque operation, pour l'instruction de ceux qui veulent
s'appliquer a cette science. - Bruxelles : Leonard, 1744. Digital edition of the University and State Library
Düsseldorf.
 Nicolai Lemeri cursus chymicus, oder vollkommener Chymist : welcher die in der Medicin vorkommenden
chymischen Praeparata und Processus auf die vernünfftigste, leichteste und sicherste Art zu verfertigen
lehret ; aus dem Frantzösischen übersetzet. - ... Bey dieser 5. Aufl. aufs neue durchgesehen, corrigirt und
vermehret von Johann Christian Zimmermann. - Dresden : Walther, 1754. Digital edition of the University and
State Library Düsseldorf.
Jeremiah Horrocks
Jeremiah Horrocks (1618 – 3 January 1641), sometimes given as Jeremiah Horrox (the Latinised version that he
used on the Emmanuel College register and in his Latin manuscripts),[1] was an English astronomer. He was the first
person to demonstrate that the Moon moved around the Earth in an elliptical orbit; and he was the only person to
predict the transit of Venus of 1639, an event which he and his friend William Crabtree were the only two people to
observe and record.
Jeremiah Horrocks
Making the first observation of
the transit of Venus in 1639
His early death and the chaos of the English Civil War nearly resulted in the loss to science of his treatise on the
transit, Venus in sole visa; but for this and his other work he is acknowledged as one of the founding fathers of
British astronomy.
In 1632 Horrocks matriculated at Emmanuel College at the University of Cambridge as a sizar. At Cambridge he
associated with the mathematician John Wallis and the platonist John Worthington. At that time he was one of only
a few at Cambridge to accept Copernicus's revolutionary heliocentric theory, and he studied the works of Johannes
Kepler, Tycho Brahe and others.[6]
In 1635, for reasons not clear, Horrocks left Cambridge without graduating. [7] Marston suggests that he may have
needed to defer the extra cost this entailed until he was employed, [1] whilst Aughton speculates that he may have
failed his exams due to concentrating too much on his own interests, or that he did not want to take Anglican
orders, and so a degree was of limited use to him.[8]
Astronomical observations
Now committed to the study of astronomy, Horrocks began to collect astronomical books and equipment; by 1638
he owned the best telescope he could find. Liverpool was a seafaring town so navigational instruments such as
the astrolabe and cross staff were easy to find. But there was no market for the very specialised astronomical
instruments he needed, so his only option was to make his own. He was well placed to do this; his father and
uncles were watchmakers with expertise in creating precise instruments. Apparently he helped with the family
business by day and, in return, the watchmakers in his family supported his vocation by assisting in the design and
construction of instruments to study the stars at night.[9]
Horrocks owned a three-foot radius astronomicus – a cross staff with movable sights used to measure the angle
between two stars – but by January 1637 he had reached the limitations of this instrument and so built a larger and
higher precision version.[10] While a youth he read most of the astronomical treatises of his day and marked their
weaknesses; by the age of seventeen he was suggesting new lines of research.
Tradition has it that after he left home he supported himself by holding a curacy in Much Hoole, near Preston in
Lancashire, but there is little evidence for this.[1]According to local tradition in Much Hoole, he lived at Carr House,
within the Bank Hall Estate, Bretherton. Carr House was a substantial property owned by the Stones family who
were prosperous farmers and merchants, and Horrocks was probably a tutor for the Stones' children.[11]
Lunar research
Horrocks was the first to demonstrate that the Moon moved in an elliptical path around the Earth, and he posited
that comets followed elliptical orbits. He supported his theories by analogy to the motions of a conical pendulum,
noting that after a plumb bob was drawn back and released it followed an elliptical path, and that its major axis
rotated in the direction of revolution as did the apsides of the moon's orbit.[12] He anticipated Isaac Newton in
suggesting the influence of the Sun as well as the Earth on the moon's orbit. In the Principia[13] Newton
acknowledged Horrocks's work in relation to his theory of lunar motion. In the final months of his life Horrocks
made detailed studies of tides in attempting to explain the nature of lunar causation of tidal movements. [14]
Transit of Venus
Transit of Venus, 1639
A representation of Horrocks' recording of the transit published in 1662 by Johannes Hevelius

The title page of Jeremiah Horrocks' Opera Posthuma, published by the Royal Society in 1672.
In 1627, Johannes Kepler had published his Rudolphine Tables and two years later he published extracts from the
tables in his pamphlet De raris mirisque Anni 1631 which included an admonitio ad astronomos (warning to
astronomers) concerning a transit of Mercury in 1631 and transits of Venus in 1631 and 1761.[15] Horrocks' own
observations, combined with those of his friend and correspondent William Crabtree, had convinced him that
Kepler's Rudolphine tables, although more accurate than the commonly used tables produced by Philip Van
Lansberg, were still in need of some correction. Kepler's tables had predicted a near-miss of a transit of Venus in
1639 but, having made his own observations of Venus for years, Horrocks predicted a transit would indeed occur.[16]
Horrocks made a simple helioscope by focusing the image of the Sun through a telescope onto a plane surface,
whereby an image of the Sun could be safely observed. From his location in Much Hoole he calculated the transit
would begin at approximately 3:00 pm on 24 November 1639, Julian calendar (or 4 December in the Gregorian
calendar). The weather was cloudy but he first observed the tiny black shadow of Venus crossing the Sun at about
3:15 pm; and he continued to observe for half an hour until the sun set. The 1639 transit was also observed by
William Crabtree from his home in Broughton near Manchester.
Horrocks' observations allowed him to make a well-informed guess as to the size of Venus—previously thought to
be larger and closer to Earth—and to estimate of the distance between the Earth and the Sun, now known as
the astronomical unit (AU). His figure of 95 million kilometres (59 million miles, 0.63 AU) was far from the 150
million kilometres (93 million miles) known today, but it was more accurate than any suggested up to that time.
A treatise by Horrocks on the study of the transit, Venus in sole visa (Venus seen on the Sun), was later published
by the Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius at his own expense; it caused great excitement when revealed to
members of the Royal Society in 1662, some 20 years after it was written. It presented Horrocks' enthusiastic and
romantic nature, including humorous comments and passages of original poetry. When speaking of the century
separating Venusian transits, he rhapsodised:
" ...Thy return
Posterity shall witness; years must roll
Away, but then at length the splendid sight
Again shall greet our distant children's eyes."
It was a time of great uncertainty in astronomy, when the world's astronomers could not agree amongst themselves
and theologians fulminated against claims that contradicted Scripture. Horrocks, although a pious young man,
came down firmly on the side of scientific determinism.[17]
It is wrong to hold the most noble Science of the Stars guilty of uncertainty on account of some people's uncertain
observations. Through no fault of its own it suffers these complaints which arise from the uncertainty and error not
of the celestial motions but of human observations . . . I do not consider that any imperfections in the motions of
the stars have so far been detected, nor do I believe that they are ever to be found. Far be it from me to allow that
God has created the heavenly bodies more imperfectly than man has observed them. – Jeremiah Horrocks[17]
IsmaëlBullialdus
Ismaël Boulliau, pronounced [buljo]; Latin: Bullialdus (28 September 1605 – 25 November 1694) was a 17th-
century French astronomer and mathematician who was also interested in history, theology, classical studies,
and philology.[1] He was an active member of the Republic of Letters, an intellectual community that exchanged
ideas. An early defender of the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo, Ismael Bullialdus has been called "the
most noted astronomer of his generation". One of his books is Astronomia Philolaica (1645).[2
Ismaël Bullialdus
Bullialdus published his first work "De Natura Lucis" in 1638, which he followed with many more published works,
ranging from books to published correspondence during his time involved with the Republic of Letters. He was one
of the earliest members to be elected as a foreign associate into the Royal Society of London on April 4, 1667, only
seven years after the Society was founded. He spent the last five years of his life as a priest, the same occupation
in which he started his career.
He retired to the Abbey St. Victor in Paris, where he died at the age of 89.
Involvement in the Republic of Letters

Bullialdus was an active member of the Republic of Letters, the long-distance intellectual correspondence network
that had emerged as an international community of self-proclaimed scholars and literary figures. Bullialdus was a
prolific correspondent, with around 5,000 letters that have survived to this day. His letters demonstrate the
geographic reach of the Republic of Letters; he corresponded with scholars not only in nearby countries like
Holland and Italy, but also in Scandinavia, Poland, and the Near East. Around 4,200 of them are in the Collection
Boulliau of the Bibliothèque nationale de France (formerly the "Bibliothèque du Roi") with another 800 to or from
him that are outside the collection in 45 different archives in nearly a dozen countries. Unfortunately, many of his
manuscripts are lost; shortly after his death, his entire library—books, manuscripts and correspondence—was
dispersed.[3]
The most famous of the known letters included in the original Archive Boulliau include correspondence with
notable luminaries, including Galileo, Marin Mersenne, Henry Oldenburg, Christiaan Huygens, and Fermat. In
addition to his own letters, Bullialdus contributed to "The Archives of the Scientific Revolution". Among Bullialdus'
papers were notes and examinations of rare manuscripts. Also found among his letters were copies of his
contemporaries' manuscripts which he had preserved. Arguably most notable were the ten volumes of original
autographs addressed to Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc.
Principal works
Opus novum ad arithmeticam infinitorum libris sex comprehensum, 1682
 De natura lucis (1638)

 Philolaus (1639)
 Expositio rerum mathematicarum ad legendum Platonem utilium, translation of Theon of Smyrna (1644)
 Astronomia philolaica (1645) e-rara.ch
 De lineis spiralibus (1657)
 Opus novum ad arithmeticam infinitorum (1682)
 Ad astronomos monita duo (1667)
Ismael Bullialdus' most famous work is Astronomia Philolaica. Published in 1645, the book is considered by some
modern-day historians of science to be the most important book in astronomy between Kepler and Newton. [citation
needed]
The book widened the awareness of Kepler's planetary ellipses, however, whereas Kepler used a physical
cause to explain planetary motion, and called on math and science to support his theory, Bullialdus offered an
entirely new cosmology, the "Conical Hypothesis".[4]
Assumptions of Philolaic Astronomy

Bullialdus' Philolaic Astronomy consists of 14 main assumptions:
1. Planets have a simple motion in a simple line.

2. Planetary revolutions are equal, perpetual, uniform.
3. They should be regular revolutions or composed of regular revolutions.
4. They can only be circular.
5. Or composed of circles.
6. Motions should have a principle of equality.
7. Since they admit of a certain inequality, the center of the zodiac must be the reference point of inequality.
8. This point is in the sun.
9. Half of the inequality is attributed to eccentricity, the other to another cause which makes the planet
slower at aphelion, less slow at perihelion, without disturbing the equality of motion or transposing it to
some other place, whether the circle or the surface.
10. When the planet, moving from aphelion, comes to quadrature on the same surface, with equal motion, it
should differ from the apparent motion of the first inequality completely or nearly so; but because the
other half [of the inequality] is due to the distance [between] the circles, the center of planetary motion
must be between the points of true and apparent motion.
11. Since the equal motion in the first quadrant is greater than the apparent motion, that part of apparent
motion must be greater, hence from the first quadrant to perihelion the arc described going to perihelion
must be larger than the first.
12. All revolution is composed of circular parts; the same is true of each part.
13. Equal motion is uniform; thus, the motion in coming from aphelion corresponds to the larger parallel
circles, which increase from aphelion to perihelion. This equal motion does not correspond to a single
circle, but to several unequal circles to which the apparent motion also corresponds; the apparent motion
includes all the circles on the same surface. The motion must [also] be eccentric and inclined.
14. These circles follow one another in a continuous series and are all parallel among themselves; they do not
overlap or enclose one another; the apparent motion forms a solid surface containing larger and smaller
circles.
Boulliau's Conical Hypothesis [RA Hatch]
Source (WP:NFCC#4)
Image of Ismael Bullialdus' Conical Hypothesis
Bullialdus' hypothesis, not for economists

 Conical Hypothesis: "The Planets, according to that astronomer [Boulliau], always revolve in circles; for that
being the most perfect figure, it is impossible they should revolve in any other. No one of them, however,
continues to move in any one circle, but is perpetually passing from one to another, through an infinite
number of circles, in the course of each revolution; for an ellipse, said he, is an oblique section of a cone, and
in a cone, betwixt the vertices of the ellipse there is an infinite number of circles, out of the infinitely small
portions of which the elliptical line is compounded. The Planet, therefore, which moves in this line, is, in every
point of it, moving in an infinitely small portion of a certain circle. The motion of each Planet, too, according to
him, was necessarily, for the same reason, perfectly equable. An equable motion being the most perfect of all
motions. It was not, however, in the elliptical line, that it was equable, but in any one of the circles that were
parallel to the base of that cone, by whose section this elliptical line had been formed: for, if a ray was
extended from the Planet to any one of those circles, and carried along by its periodical motion, it would cut
off equal portions of that circle in equal times; another most fantastical equalizing circle, supported by no
other foundation besides the frivolous connection betwixt a cone and an ellipse, and recommended by nothing
but the natural passion for circular orbits and equable motions," (Adam Smith, History of Astronomy, IV.55-57).
John Flamsteed
John Flamsteed FRS (19 August 1646 – 31 December 1719) was an English astronomer and the first Astronomer
Royal. His main achievements were the preparation of a 3,000-star catalogue, Catalogus Britannicus, and a star
atlas called Atlas Coelestis, both published posthumously. He also made the first recorded observations of Uranus,
although he mistakenly catalogued it as a star, and he laid the foundation stone for the Royal Greenwich
Observatory.
John Flamsteed
John Flamsteed by Godfrey Kneller, 1702
Scientific work
Bust of John Flamsteed in the Museum of the Royal Greenwich Observatory
Honours
 Fellow of the Royal Society (1677)[15]
 The Flamsteed Astronomy Society is named in his honour, and is based at The Royal Observatory
Greenwich.[16]
 The crater Flamsteed on the Moon is named after him.[17]
 The asteroid 4987 Flamsteed is named in his honour.[18]
 He is commemorated in several Derbyshire schools.[19] The science block at John Port School is named
Flamsteed, John Flamsteed Community School in Denbycarries his name.[19] Flamsteed House at
the Ecclesbourne School in Duffield is also named after him.[20]
 Derby City Council erected a Blue Plaque in his honour at the Queen Street former Clock Works in Derby,
which also honours Joseph Wright of Derby who lived in the house formerly owned by Flamsteed.[21]
Flamsteed accurately calculated the solar eclipses of 1666 and 1668. He was responsible for several of the earliest
recorded sightings of the planet Uranus, which he mistook for a star and catalogued as '34 Tauri'. The first of these
was in December 1690, which remains the earliest known sighting of Uranus by an astronomer.
On 16 August 1680 Flamsteed catalogued a star, 3 Cassiopeiae, that later astronomers were unable to corroborate.
Three hundred years later, the American astronomical historian William Ashworth suggested that what Flamsteed
may have seen was the most recent supernova in the galaxy's history, an event which would leave as its remnant
the strongest radio source outside of the solar system, known in the third Cambridge (3C) catalogue as 3C 461 and
commonly called Cassiopeia A by astronomers. Because the position of "3 Cassiopeiae" does not precisely match
that of Cassiopeia A, and because the expansion wave associated with the explosion has been worked backward to
the year 1667 and not 1680, some historians feel that all Flamsteed may have done was incorrectly note the
position of a star already known.[10]
In 1681 Flamsteed proposed that the two great comets observed in November and December 1680 were not
separate bodies, but rather a single comet travelling first towards the Sun and then away from it. Although Isaac
Newton first disagreed with Flamsteed, he later came to agree with him and theorized that comets, like planets,
moved around the Sun in large, closed elliptical orbits. Flamsteed later learned that Newton had gained access to
his observations and data through Edmund Halley,[11] his former assistant with whom he previously had a cordial
relationship.[12]
As Astronomer Royal, Flamsteed spent some forty years observing and making meticulous records for his star
catalogue, which would eventually triple the number of entries in Tycho Brahe's sky atlas. Unwilling to risk his
reputation by releasing unverified data, he kept the incomplete records under seal at Greenwich. In 1712, Isaac
Newton, then President of the Royal Society, and Edmund Halley again obtained Flamsteed's data and published a
pirated star catalogue.[11] Flamsteed managed to gather three hundred of the four hundred printings and burned
them. "If Sir I.N. would be sensible of it, I have done both him and Dr. Halley a great kindness," he wrote to his
assistant Abraham Sharp.[13]
In 1725 Flamsteed's own version of Historia Coelestis Britannica was published posthumously, edited by his wife,
Margaret. This contained Flamsteed's observations, and included a catalogue of 2,935 stars to much greater
accuracy than any prior work. It was considered the first significant contribution of the Greenwich Observatory,
and the numerical Flamsteed designations for stars that were added subsequently to a French edition are still in
use.[14] In 1729 his wife published his Atlas Coelestis, assisted by Joseph Crosthwait and Abraham Sharp, who were
responsible for the technical side.
Svante August Arrhenius

Svante August Arrhenius (/ɑːˈreɪniʊs/;[1] 19 February 1859 – 2 October 1927) was a Swedish scientist.
Originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, Arrhenius was one of the founders of the
science of physical chemistry. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903, becoming the
first Swedish Nobel laureate, and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained
until his death.[2]
He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to
which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase the Earth's surface temperature, leading David
Keeling to conclude, and demonstrate in the 1960s, that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are
large enough to cause global warming.
[
Svante Arrhenius
3]
His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius
equation, Arrhenius definition of an acid, lunar crater Arrhenius, the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet, and
the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University.
Ionic disassociation
At the University of Uppsala, he was dissatisfied with the chief instructor of physics and the only
faculty member who could have supervised him in chemistry, Per Teodor Cleve, so he left to study at
the Physical Institute of the Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm under the physicist Erik
Edlund in 1881.[citation needed]
His work focused on the conductivities of electrolytes. In 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-
page dissertation on electrolytic conductivity to Uppsala for the doctorate. It did not impress the
professors, among whom was Cleve, and he received a fourth-class degree, but upon his defense it
was reclassified as third-class. Later, extensions of this very work would earn him the 1903 Nobel Prize
in Chemistry.[4]
Arrhenius put forth 56 theses in his 1884 dissertation, most of which would still be accepted today
unchanged or with minor modifications. The most important idea in the dissertation was his
explanation of the fact that solid crystalline salts disassociate into paired charged particles when
dissolved, for which he would win the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius's explanation was that
in forming a solution, the salt disassociates into charged particles, to which Michael Faraday had given
the name ions many years earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process
of electrolysis, that is, an external direct current source of electricity was necessary to form ions.
Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current, aqueous solutions of salts
contained ions. He thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.[5][6][7]
The dissertation did not impress the professors at Uppsala, but Arrhenius sent it to a number of
scientists in Europe who were developing the new science of physical chemistry, such as Rudolf
Clausius, Wilhelm Ostwald, and J. H. van 't Hoff. They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even
came to Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team. Arrhenius declined, however, as he
preferred to stay in Sweden for a while (his father was very ill and would die in 1885) and had received
an appointment at Uppsala.[5][6][7]
In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He
believed that acids were substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were
substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution.
Leonhard Euler
Leonhard Euler (/ˈɔɪlər/ OY-lər;[2] German: [ˈɔɪlər] ( listen); 15 April 1707 – 18 September 1783) was a
Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, logician and engineer, who made important and influential
discoveries in many branches of mathematics, such as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory, while also making
pioneering contributions to several branches such as topology and analytic number theory. He also introduced
much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the
notion of a mathematical function.[3] He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy,
and music theory
Leonhard Euler
Portrait by Jakob Emanuel Handmann (1753
.[4]
Euler was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century and is held to be one of the greatest in
history. He is also widely considered to be the most prolific mathematician of all time. His collected works fill 60 to
80 quartovolumes,[5] more than anybody in the field. He spent most of his adult life in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and
in Berlin, then the capital of Prussia.
A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read
Euler, he is the master of us all.
Contribution to mathematics and physics
Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics, such as geometry, infinitesimal calculus, trigonometry, algebra,
and number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in
the history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between
60 and 80 quartovolumes.[5] Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics.
Euler is the only mathematician to have two numbers named after him: the important Euler's number in calculus, e,
approximately equal to 2.71828, and the Euler–Mascheroni constant γ (gamma) sometimes referred to as just
"Euler's constant", approximately equal to 0.57721. It is not known whether γ is rational or irrational.[32]
Mathematical notation
Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated
textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function[3] and was the first to write f(x) to denote the
function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the
letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter Σ for summations
and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit.[33] The use of the Greek letter π to denote the ratio of a circle's
circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it originated
with Welsh mathematician William Jones.[34]
Analysis
The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of 18th-century mathematical research, and
the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to
their influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not
acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour[35] (in particular his reliance on the principle of
the generality of algebra), his ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well known in analysis for his frequent use
and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as
Notably, Euler directly proved the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. (Indirect proof
via the inverse power series technique was given by Newton and Leibniz between 1670 and 1680.) His daring use of
power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 (he provided a more elaborate argument in
1741):[35]
A geometric interpretation of Euler's formula
Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to
express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative
and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms.[33] He also
defined the exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions.
For any real number φ (taken to be radians), Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies
A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,
called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard P. Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of
addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0,
1, e, i and π.[36] In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula
Ever".[37] In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll. [37]
De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula.
In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and
introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex
limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis. He also invented the calculus of
variations including its best-known result, the Euler–Lagrange equation.
Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two
disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground
for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric
functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the
divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime
numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.[38]
Number theory
Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the St.
Petersburg Academy. A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat.
Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas and disproved some of his conjectures.
Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the
primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and the prime
numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.
Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and he made
distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function φ(n), the number of
positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n. Using properties of this function, he
generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem. He contributed significantly to the
theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. He proved that the relationship
shown between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes earlier proved by Euclid was one-to-one, a result
otherwise known as the Euclid–Euler theorem. Euler also conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The concept
is regarded as a fundamental theorem of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich
Gauss.[39] By 1772 Euler had proved that 231 − 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained
the largest known prime until 1867.[40]
Graph theory
Map of Königsberg in Euler's time showing the actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the bridges.
Source;
Bogdan Giuşcă - Public domain (PD), based on the image
English: The problem of the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.
In 1735, Euler presented a solution to the problem known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.[41] The city
of Königsberg, Prussia was set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands that were connected to each
other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem is to decide whether it is possible to follow a path that
crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point. It is not possible: there is no Eulerian circuit.
This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory, specifically of planar graph theory.[41]
Euler also discovered the formula relating the number of vertices, edges and faces of
a convex polyhedron,[42] and hence of a planar graph. The constant in this formula is now known as the Euler
characteristicfor the graph (or other mathematical object), and is related to the genus of the object.[43] The study and
generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy[44] and L'Huilier,[45] is at the origin of topology.
Applied mathematics
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in describing numerous
applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Euler numbers, the constants e and π, continued fractions
and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed tools
that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical
approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these
approximations are Euler's method and the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential
equations, in particular introducing the Euler–Mascheroni constant:
One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote
the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics.
This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for
musicians and too musical for mathematicians.[46]
Physics and astronomy

Euler helped develop the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from
successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to
celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of
his career. His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial
bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the sun. His calculations also
contributed to the development of accurate longitude tables.[47]
In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in
the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory
of lightproposed by Christiaan Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the
development of the quantum theory of light.[48]
In 1757 he published an important set of equations for inviscid flow, that are now known as the Euler
equations.[49] In differential form, the equations are:
where
 ρ is the fluid mass density,

 u is the fluid velocity vector, with components u, v, and w,
 E = ρ e + ½ ρ (u2 + v2 + w2) is the total energy per unit volume, with e being
the internal energy per unit mass for the fluid,
 p is the pressure,
 ⊗ denotes the tensor product, and
 0 being the zero vector.
Euler is also well known in structural engineering for his formula giving the critical buckling load of an ideal strut,
which depends only on its length and flexural stiffness:[50]
where
 F = maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),

 E = modulus of elasticity,
 I = area moment of inertia,
 L = unsupported length of column,
 K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of
end support of the column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = 0.699…
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.
 K L is the effective length of the column.
Logic
Euler is also credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic reasoning (1768). These diagrams have
become known as Euler diagrams.
.
[51]
Euler's diagram
Source; User:Stannered - en:Image:Euler Diagram.JPG

Espionage against country of citizenship and Sedition are both forms of Treason
An Euler diagram is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and their relationships. Euler diagrams consist of
simple closed curves (usually circles) in the plane that depict sets. Each Euler curve divides the plane into two
regions or "zones": the interior, which symbolically represents the elements of the set, and the exterior, which
represents all elements that are not members of the set. The sizes or shapes of the curves are not important; the
significance of the diagram is in how they overlap. The spatial relationships between the regions bounded by each
curve (overlap, containment or neither) corresponds to set-theoretic relationships
(intersection, subset and disjointness). Curves whose interior zones do not intersect represent disjoint sets. Two
curves whose interior zones intersect represent sets that have common elements; the zone inside both curves
represents the set of elements common to both sets (the intersection of the sets). A curve that is contained
completely within the interior zone of another represents a subset of it. Euler diagrams (and their generalization
in Venn diagrams) were incorporated as part of instruction in set theory as part of the new mathmovement in the
1960s. Since then, they have also been adopted by other curriculum fields such as reading.[52]
Music
Even when dealing with music, Euler's approach is mainly mathematical. His writings on music are not particularly
numerous (a few hundred pages, in his total production of about thirty thousand pages), but they reflect an early
preoccupation and one that did not leave him throughout his life.[53]
A first point of Euler's musical theory is the definition of "genres", i.e. of possible divisions of the octave using the
prime numbers 3 and 5. Euler describes 18 such genres, with the general definition 2mA, where A is the "exponent"
of the genre (i.e. the sum of the exponents of 3 and 5) and 2m (where "m is an indefinite number, small or large, so
long as the sounds are perceptible"[54]), expresses that the relation holds independently of the number of octaves
concerned. The first genre, with A = 1, is the octave itself (or its duplicates); the second genre, 2 m.3, is the octave
divided by the fifth (fifth + fourth, C–G–C); the third genre is 2m.5, major third + minor sixth (C–E–C); the fourth is
2m.32, two fourths and a tone (C–F–B♭–C); the fifth is 2m.3.5 (C–E–G–B–C); etc. Genres 12 (2m.33.5), 13 (2m.32.52) and 14
(2m.3.53) are corrected versions of the diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic, respectively, of the Ancients. Genre 18
(2m.33.52) is the "diatonico-chromatic", "used generally in all compositions",[55] and which turns out to be identical
with the system described by Johann Mattheson.[56] Euler later envisaged the possibility of describing genres
including the prime number 7.[57]
Euler devised a specific graph, the Speculum musicum,[58] to illustrate the diatonico-chromatic genre, and
discussed paths in this graph for specific intervals, recalling his interest in the Seven Bridges of Königsberg
(see above). The device drew renewed interest as the Tonnetz in neo-Riemannian theory (see also Lattice
(music)).[59]
Euler further used the principle of the "exponent" to propose a derivation of the gradus suavitatis (degree of
suavity, of agreeableness) of intervals and chords from their prime factors – one must keep in mind that he
considered just intonation, i.e. 1 and the prime numbers 3 and 5 only. [60] Formulas have been proposed extending
this system to any number of prime numbers, e.g. in the form
ds = Σ (kipi – ki) + 1
where pi are prime numbers and ki their exponents.[61]
Personal philosophy and religiousbeliefs

Euler and his friend Daniel Bernoulli were opponents of Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff.
Euler insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the basis of precise quantitative laws, something that
monadism and Wolffian science were unable to provide. Euler's religious leanings might also have had a bearing
on his dislike of the doctrine; he went so far as to label Wolff's ideas as "heathen and atheistic". [62]
Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be deduced from his Letters to a German Princess and an
earlier work, Rettung der Göttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwürfe der Freygeister (Defense of the Divine
Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers). These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who
believed the Bible to be inspired; the Rettung was primarily an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture.[63]
There is a famous legend[64] inspired by Euler's arguments with secular philosophers over religion, which is set
during Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg Academy. The French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting
Russia on Catherine the Great's invitation. However, the Empress was alarmed that the philosopher's arguments
for atheism were influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked to confront the Frenchman. Diderot
was informed that a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the existence of God: he agreed to view the
proof as it was presented in court. Euler appeared, advanced toward Diderot, and in a tone of perfect conviction
announced this non-sequitur: "Sir, a+bn/n =x, hence God exists—reply!" Diderot, to whom (says the story) all
mathematics was gibberish, stood dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court. Embarrassed, he asked
to leave Russia, a request that was graciously granted by the Empress. However amusing the anecdote may be, it
is apocryphal, given that Diderot himself did research in mathematics. [65] The legend was apparently first told
by Dieudonné Thiébault[66] with significant embellishment by Augustus De Morgan
Alexis Clairaut
Alexis Claude Clairaut (French: [klɛʁo]; 13 May 1713 – 17 May 1765) was a French mathematician, astronomer,
and geophysicist. He was a prominent Newtonian whose work helped to establish the validity of the principles
and results that Sir Isaac Newton had outlined in the Principia of 1687. Clairaut was one of the key figures in
the expedition to Laplandthat helped to confirm Newton's theory for the figure of the Earth. In that context,
Clairaut worked out a mathematical result now known as "Clairaut's theorem". He also tackled the
gravitational three-body problem, being the first to obtain a satisfactory result for the apsidal precession of the
Moon's orbit. In mathematics he is also credited with Clairaut's equation and Clairaut's relation.
Alexis Claude Clairaut
Alexis Claude Clairaut
Clairaut Personal life and death.

Clairaut was unmarried, and known for leading an active social life.[2] His growing popularity in society hindered his
scientific work: "He was focused," says Bossut, "with dining and with evenings, coupled with a lively taste for
women, and seeking to make his pleasures into his day to day work, he lost rest, health, and finally life at the age of
fifty-two." Though he led a fulfilling social life, he was very prominent in the advancement of learning in young
mathematicians.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London on 27 October 1737.[3]
Clairaut died in Paris in 1765.
Mathematical and Scientific Works

The shape of the Earth
In 1736, together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the expedition to Lapland, which was undertaken for
the purpose of estimating a degree of the meridian arc.[4] The goal of the excursion was to geometrically calculate
the shape of the Earth, which Sir Isaac Newton theorised in his book Principia was an ellipsoid shape. They sought
to prove if Newton's theory and calculations were correct or not. Before the expedition team returned to Paris,
Clairaut sent his calculations to the Royal Society of London. The writing was later published by the society in the
1736–37 volume of Philosophical Transactions.[5] Initially, Clairaut disagrees with Newton's theory on the shape of
the Earth. In the article, he outlines several key problems that effectively disprove Newton's calculations, and
provides some solutions to the complications. The issues addressed include calculating gravitational attraction,
the rotation of an ellipsoid on its axis, and the difference in density of an ellipsoid on its axes.[5] At the end of his
letter, Clairaut writes that:
"It appears even Sir Isaac Newton was of the opinion, that it was necessary the Earth should be more dense toward
the center, in order to be so much the flatter at the poles: and that it followed from this greater flatness, that gravity
increased so much the more from the equator towards the Pole." [5]
This conclusion suggests not only that the Earth is of an oblate ellipsoid shape, but it is flattened more at the poles
and is wider at the centre.
His article in Philosophical Transactions created much controversy, as he addressed the problems of Newton's
theory, but provided few solutions to how to fix the calculations. After his return, he published his treatise Théorie
de la figure de la terre (1743). In this work he promulgated the theorem, known as Clairaut's theorem, which
connects the gravity at points on the surface of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the centrifugal force
at the equator. This hydrostatic model of the shape of the Earth was founded on a paper by Colin Maclaurin, which
had shown that a mass of homogeneous fluid set in rotation about a line through its centre of mass would, under
the mutual attraction of its particles, take the form of an ellipsoid. Under the assumption that the Earth was
composed of concentric ellipsoidal shells of uniform density, Clairaut's theorem could be applied to it, and allowed
the ellipticity of the Earth to be calculated from surface measurements of gravity. This proved Sir Isaac Newton's
theory that the shape of the Earth was an oblate ellipsoid.[2] In 1849 Stokes showed that Clairaut's result was true
whatever the interior constitution or density of the Earth, provided the surface was a spheroid of equilibrium of
small ellipticity.
Geometry
In 1741, Alexis Clairaut wrote a book called Èléments de Géométrie. The book outlines the basic concepts
of geometry. Geometry in the 1700s was complex to the average learner. It was considered to be a dry subject.
Clairaut saw this trend, and wrote the book in an attempt to make the subject more interesting for the average
learner. He believed that instead of having students repeatedly work problems that they did not fully understand, it
was imperative for them to make discoveries themselves in a form of active, experiential learning.[6] He begins the
book by comparing geometric shapes to measurements of land, as it was a subject that most anyone could relate
to. He covers topics from lines, shapes, and even some three dimensional objects. Throughout the book, he
continuously relates different concepts such as physics, astrology, and other branches of mathematics to
geometry. Some of the theories and learning methods outlined in the book are still used by teachers today, in
geometry and other topics.[7]
Focus on astronomical motion

One of most controversial issues of the 18th century was the problem of three bodies, or how the Earth, moon, and
Sun are attracted to one another. With the use of the recently founded Leibnizian calculus, Clairaut was able to
solve the problem using four differential equations.[8] He was also able to incorporate Newton's inverse-square
law and law of attraction into his solution, with minor edits to it. However, these equations only offered
approximate measurement, and no exact calculations. Another issue still remained with the three body problem;
how the moon rotates on its apsides. Even Newton could account for only half of the motion of the apsides.[8]This
issue had puzzled astronomers. In fact, Clairaut had at first deemed the dilemma so inexplicable, that he was on the
point of publishing a new hypothesis as to the law of attraction.
The question of the apsides was a heated debate topic in Europe. Along with Clairaut, there were two other
mathematicians who were racing to provide the first explanation for the three body problem; Leonhard
Euler and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.[8] Euler and d'Alembert were arguing against the use of Newtonian laws to solve
the three body problem. Euler in particular believed that the inverse square law needed revision to accurately
calculate the apsides of the moon.
Despite the hectic competition to come up with the correct solution, Clairaut obtained an ingenious approximate
solution of the problem of the three bodies. In 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy for his
essay Théorie de la lune; the team made up of Clairaut, Jérome Lalande and Nicole Reine Lepaute successfully
computed the date of the 1759 return of Halley's comet.[9] The Théorie de la lune is strictly Newtonian in character.
This contains the explanation of the motion of the apsis. It occurred to him to carry the approximation to the third
order, and he thereupon found that the result was in accordance with the observations. This was followed in 1754
by some lunar tables, which he computed using a form of the discrete Fourier transform.[10]
The new found solution to the problem of three bodies ended up meaning more than proving Newton's laws
correct. The unravelling of the problem of three bodies also had practical importance. It allowed sailors to
determine the longitudinal direction of their ships, which was crucial not only in sailing to a location, but finding
their way home as well.[8] This held economic implications as well, because sailors were able to more easily find
destinations of trade based on the longitudinal measures.
Clairaut subsequently wrote various papers on the orbit of the Moon, and on the motion of comets as affected by
the perturbation of the planets, particularly on the path of Halley's comet. He also used applied mathematics to
study Venus, taking accurate measurements of the planet's size and distance from the Earth. This was the first
precise reckoning of the planet's size.
Jean d'Alembert
Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert[1] (/ˌdæləmˈbɛər/;[2] French: [ʒɑ̃ batist lə ʁɔ̃ dalɑ̃bɛːʁ]; 16 November 1717 – 29
October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until
1759 he was co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopédie. D'Alembert's formula for obtaining solutions to
the wave equation is named after him.[3][4][5] The wave equation is sometimes referred to as d'Alembert's
equation.
Jean le Rond d'Alembert
Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert, pastel by Maurice Quentin de La
Tour
Early years
Born in Paris, d'Alembert was the natural son of the writer Claudine Guérin de Tencin and the chevalier Louis-
Camus Destouches, an artillery officer. Destouches was abroad at the time of d'Alembert's birth. Days after birth
his mother left him on the steps of the Saint-Jean-le-Rond de Paris [fr] church. According to custom, he was named
after the patron saintof the church. D'Alembert was placed in an orphanage for foundling children, but his father
found him and placed him with the wife of a glazier, Madame Rousseau, with whom he lived for nearly 50
years.[6] She gave him little encouragement. When he told her of some discovery he had made or something he had
written she generally replied,
You will never be anything but a philosopher - and what is that but an ass who plagues himself all his life, that he
may be talked about after he is dead.[7]
Destouches secretly paid for the education of Jean le Rond, but did not want his paternity officially recognised.
Studies and adult life

D'Alembert first attended a private school. The chevalier Destouches left d'Alembert an annuity of 1200 livres on his
death in 1726. Under the influence of the Destouches family, at the age of twelve d'Alembert entered
the Jansenist Collège des Quatre-Nations (the institution was also known under the name "Collège Mazarin"). Here
he studied philosophy, law, and the arts, graduating as baccalauréat en arts in 1735.
In his later life, d'Alembert scorned the Cartesian principles he had been taught by the Jansenists: "physical
promotion, innate ideas and the vortices". The Jansenists steered d'Alembert toward an ecclesiastical career,
attempting to deter him from pursuits such as poetry and mathematics. Theology was, however, "rather
unsubstantial fodder" for d'Alembert. He entered law school for two years, and was nominated avocat in 1738.
He was also interested in medicine and mathematics. Jean was first registered under the name "Daremberg", but
later changed it to "d'Alembert". The name "d'Alembert" was proposed by Frederick the Great of Prussia for a
suspected (but non-existent) moon of Venus
Career.
. In July 1739 he made his first contribution to the field of mathematics, pointing out the errors he had detected
in Analyse démontrée (published 1708 by Charles-René Reynaud) in a communication addressed to the Académie
des Sciences. At the time L'analyse démontrée was a standard work, which d'Alembert himself had used to study
the foundations of mathematics. D'Alembert was also a Latin scholar of some note and worked in the latter part of
his life on a superb translation of Tacitus, for which he received wide praise including that of Denis Diderot.
[8]
Nouvelles expériences sur la résistance des fluide
Source; Alembert : d' - Available in the BEIC digital library and uploaded in partnership with BEIC
Foundation.
Nouvelles expériences sur la résistance des fluides, par MM. d'Alembert, ... Condorcet & l'Abbé Bossut ... . -
A Paris : rue Dauphine, chez Claude-Antoine Jombert, fils aîné, libraire du Roi pour le Génie & l'Artillerie,
1777 (De l'imprimerie de Chardon, rue Galande, 1777). - [4], 232 p., V c. di tav. ripiegate ; 8º .
In 1740, he submitted his second scientific work from the field of fluid mechanics Mémoire sur la réfraction des
corps solides, which was recognised by Clairaut. In this work d'Alembert theoretically explained refraction.
In 1741, after several failed attempts, d'Alembert was elected into the Académie des Sciences. He was later elected
to the Berlin Academy in 1746[9] and a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1748.[10]
In 1743, he published his most famous work, Traité de dynamique, in which he developed his own laws of motion.[11]
When the Encyclopédie was organised in the late 1740s, d'Alembert was engaged as co-editor (for mathematics
and science) with Diderot, and served until a series of crises temporarily interrupted the publication in 1757. He
authored over a thousand articles for it, including the famous Preliminary Discourse. D'Alembert "abandoned the
foundation of Materialism"[12] when he "doubted whether there exists outside us anything corresponding to what we
suppose we see."[12] In this way, d'Alembert agreed with the Idealist Berkeley and anticipated the transcendental
idealism of Kant.
In 1752, he wrote about what is now called D'Alembert's paradox: that the drag on a body immersed in
an inviscid, incompressible fluid is zero.
In 1754, d'Alembert was elected a member of the Académie des sciences, of which he became Permanent Secretary
on 9 April 1772.[13]
In 1757, an article by d'Alembert in the seventh volume of the Encyclopedia suggested that the Geneva clergymen
had moved from Calvinism to pure Socinianism, basing this on information provided by Voltaire. The Pastors of
Geneva were indignant, and appointed a committee to answer these charges. Under pressure from Jacob
Vernes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and others, d'Alembert eventually made the excuse that he considered anyone
who did not accept the Church of Rome to be a Socinianist, and that was all he meant, and he abstained from
further work on the encyclopaedia following his response to the critique.[14]
He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1781.[15]
Music theories
D'Alembert's first exposure to music theory was in 1749 when he was called upon to review a Mémoire submitted to
the Académie by Jean-Philippe Rameau. This article, written in conjunction with Diderot, would later form the basis
of Rameau's 1750 treatise Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie. D'Alembert wrote a glowing review praising the
author's deductive character as an ideal scientific model. He saw in Rameau's music theories support for his own
scientific ideas, a fully systematic method with a strongly deductive synthetic structure.
Two years later, in 1752, d'Alembert attempted a fully comprehensive survey of Rameau's works in his Eléments de
musique théorique et pratique suivant les principes de M. Rameau.[16] Emphasizing Rameau's main claim that music
was a mathematical science that had a single principle from which could be deduced all the elements and rules of
musical practice as well as the explicit Cartesian methodology employed, d'Alembert helped to popularise the work
of the composer and advertise his own theories.[16] He claims to have "clarified, developed, and simplified" the
principles of Rameau, arguing that the single idea of the corps sonore [fr] was not sufficient to derive the entirety of
music.[17] D'Alembert instead claimed that three principles would be necessary to generate the major musical mode,
the minor mode, and the identity of octaves. Because he was not a musician, however, d'Alembert misconstrued
the finer points of Rameau's thinking, changing and removing concepts that would not fit neatly into his
understanding of music.
Although initially grateful, Rameau eventually turned on d'Alembert while voicing his increasing dissatisfaction
with J. J. Rousseau's Encyclopédie articles on music.[18]This led to a series of bitter exchanges between the men
and contributed to the end of d'Alembert and Rameau's friendship. A long preliminary discourse d'Alembert wrote
for the 1762 edition of his Elémens attempted to summarise the dispute and act as a final rebuttal.
D'Alembert also discussed various aspects of the state of music in his celebrated Discours
préliminaire of Diderot's Encyclopédie. D'Alembert claims that, compared to the other arts, music, "which speaks
simultaneously to the imagination and the senses," has not been able to represent or imitate as much of reality
because of the "lack of sufficient inventiveness and resourcefulness of those who cultivate it." [19] He wanted
musical expression to deal with all physical sensations rather than merely the passions alone. D'Alembert believed
that modern (Baroque) music had only achieved perfection in his age, as there existed no classical Greek models
to study and imitate. He claimed that "time destroyed all models which the ancients may have left us in this
genre."[20] He praises Rameau as "that manly, courageous, and fruitful genius" who picked up the slack left by Jean-
Baptiste Lully in the French musical arts.[21]
Personal life
D'Alembert was a participant in several Parisian salons, particularly those of Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin, of
the marquise du Deffand and of Julie de Lespinasse. D'Alembert became infatuated with Mlle de Lespinasse, and
eventually took up residence with her.
Death
He suffered bad health for many years and his death was as the result of a urinary bladder illness. As a
known unbeliever,[22][23][24] D'Alembert was buried in a common unmarked grave.
Legacy
In France, the fundamental theorem of algebra is known as the d'Alembert/Gauss theorem, as an error in
d'Alembert's proof was caught by Gauss.
He also created his ratio test, a test to see if a series converges.
The D'Alembert operator, which first arose in D'Alembert's analysis of vibrating strings, plays an important role in
modern theoretical physics.
While he made great strides in mathematics and physics, d'Alembert is also famously known for incorrectly
arguing in Croix ou Pile that the probability of a coin landing heads increased for every time that it came up tails. In
gambling, the strategy of decreasing one's bet the more one wins and increasing one's bet the more one loses is
therefore called the D'Alembert system, a type of martingale.
In South Australia, a small inshore island in south-western Spencer Gulf was named Ile d'Alembert by the French
explorer, Nicolas Baudin during his expedition to New Holland. The island is better known by the alternative
English name of Lipson Island. The island is a conservation park and seabird rookery.
Fictional portrayal
Diderot portrayed d'Alembert in "Le rêve de D'Alembert" ("D'Alembert's Dream"), written after the two men had
become estranged. It depicts d'Alembert ill in bed, conducting a debate on materialist philosophy in his sleep.
D'Alembert's Principle, a novel by Andrew Crumey (1996), takes its title from D'Alembert's principle in physics. Its
first part describes d'Alembert's life and his infatuation with Julie de Lespinasse.
List of works
 D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond (1743). Traité de dynamique (2nd ed.). Gabay (1990 reprint).
 D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond (1747a). "Recherches sur la courbe que forme une corde tenduë mise en vibration
(Researches on the curve that a tense cord forms [when] set into vibration)". Histoire de l'académie royale des
sciences et belles lettres de Berlin. 3. pp. 214–219.
 D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond (1747b). "Suite des recherches sur la courbe que forme une corde tenduë mise en
vibration (Further researches on the curve that a tense cord forms [when] set into vibration)". Histoire de
l'académie royale des sciences et belles lettres de Berlin. 3. pp. 220–249.
 D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond (1750). "Addition au mémoire sur la courbe que forme une corde tenduë mise en
vibration". Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles lettres de Berlin. 6. pp. 355–60.
 D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond (1995). Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot. Translated by
Schwab, Richard N.; Rex, Walter E. University of Chicago Press.
 Mémoire sur le calcul intégral (1739), prima opera pubblicata
 Traité de l'équilibre et du mouvement des fluides[ (1744)
 Réflexions sur la cause générale des vents (1746)
 Recherches sur les cordes vibrantes (1747)
 Recherches sur la précession des equinoxes, et sur la mutation de l'axe de la terre, dans le systême
newtonien. A Paris: Jean Baptiste Coignard. 1749.
 Éléments de musique, théorique et pratique. Lyon: Jombert, Charles Antoine ; Bruyset, Jean-Marie (1.). 1759.
 Essai d'une nouvelle théorie de la résistance des fluides (1752)
 Essai sur les éléments de philosophie (1759)
 Éloges lus dans les séances publiques de l'Académie française (1779)
 Opuscules mathématiques (8 tomi 1761-1780)
 Œuvres complètes, Éditions CNRS, 2002. ISBN 2-271-06013-3
 Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Flammarion, 1993. ISBN 2-08-
070426-5
 Nouvelles expériences sur la résistance des fluides, par mm. D'Alembert ... & l'Abbé Bossut ... A Paris: rue
Dauphine, chez Claude-Antoine Jombert, fils ainé, libraire du Roi pour le Génie & l'Artillerie. 1777.
 Mélanges de littérature, de philosophie et d'histoire. London: printed for C. Henderson : and sold by T. Becket
and P. A. De Hondt, in the Strand. 1764.
Tobias Mayer
Tobias Mayer (17 February 1723 – 20 February 1762) was a German astronomer famous for his studies of the Moon.
He was born at Marbach, in Württemberg, and brought up at Esslingen in poor circumstances. A self-
taught mathematician, he earned a living by teaching mathematics while still a youth. He had already published two
original geometrical works when, in 1746, he entered J.B. Homann's cartographic establishment at Nuremberg.
Here he introduced many improvements in mapmaking, and gained a scientific reputation which led (in 1751) to his
election to the chair of economy and mathematics at the University of Göttingen. In 1754 he became superintendent
of the observatory, where he worked until his death in 1762.
obias Mayer
Career
His first important astronomical work was a careful investigation of the libration of the moon (Kosmographische
Nachrichten, Nuremberg, 1750), and his chart of the full moon (published in 1775) was unsurpassed for half a
century. But his fame rests chiefly on his lunar tables, communicated in 1752, with new solar tables to
the Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen (Royal Society of Sciences and Humanities at
Göttingen), and published in their transactions. In 1755 he submitted to the British government an amended body
of manuscript tables, which James Bradley compared with the Greenwich observations. He found these to be
sufficiently accurate to determine the moon's position to 5", and consequently the longitude at sea to about half a
degree. An improved set was later published in London (1770), as also the theory (Theoria lunae juxta systema
Newtonianum, 1767) upon which the tables are based. His widow, with whom they were sent to England, received in
consideration from the British government a grant of £3,000 (equivalent to £382,000 in 2016). Appended to the
London edition of the solar and lunar tables are two short tracts, one on determining longitude by lunar distances,
together with a description of the reflecting circle (invented by Mayer in 1752), the other on a formula
for atmospheric refraction, which applies a remarkably accurate correction for temperature.
Legacy
Mayer left behind him a considerable quantity of manuscript material, part of which was collected by G. C.
Lichtenberg and published in one volume (Opera inedita, Göttingen, 1775). It contains an easy and accurate method
for calculating eclipses, an essay on colour, in which three primary colours are recognized, a catalogue of
998 zodiacal stars, and a memoir, the earliest of any real value, on the proper motion of eighty stars, originally
communicated to the Göttingen Royal Society in 1760. The remaining manuscripts included papers on atmospheric
refraction from 1755, on the motion of Mars as affected by the perturbations of Jupiter and the Earth(1756), and
on terrestrial magnetism (1760 and 1762). In these last Mayer sought to explain the magnetic action of the earth by
a modification of Euler's hypothesis, and made the first really definite attempt to establish a mathematical theory of
magnetic action (C. Hansteen, Magnetismus der Erde, I, 283). In 1881 Ernst Klinkerfuespublished photo-lithographic
reproductions of Mayer's local charts and general map of the moon. His star catalogue was re-edited by Francis
Baily in 1830 (Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society IV, 391) and by Arthur Auwers in 1894.
Honors: Lunar crater T. Mayer (Southwest of crater Copernicus).
Johann Tobias Bürg
Johann Tobias Bürg (December 24, 1766 – November 15, 1835),[1] sometimes known as Johannes Burg,[1] was
an Austrianastronomer.
Early life.
Born in Vienna, Bürg worked as astronomical assistant to Franz Xaver von Zach at the Gotha Observatory. From
1791 he served as a professor of physics at the Gymnasium in Klagenfurt, Carinthia. He subsequently became
assistant at the Vienna Observatory, where in 1817 he succeeded as director after the death of Franz de Paula
Triesnecker.
In 1799 he published astronomical tables on the Orbit of the Moon based on about 3,000 observations, that were
praised for their accuracy. For these astronomical tables, Bürg was made a member of the French Academy of
Sciences. He also was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the
Hanoverian Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1801, of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1812,
as well as of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.
He died at Wiesenau Castle, near Sankt Leonhard in Carinthia, where he is also buried. In 1834 the crater Bürg on
the Moon was named by Johann Heinrich von Mädler in his honour.
Pierre-Simon Laplace
Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace (/ləˈplɑːs/; French: [pjɛʁ simɔ̃ laplas]; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French
scholar whose work was important to the development
of engineering, mathematics, statistics, physics and astronomy. He summarized and extended the work of his
predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique Céleste (Celestial Mechanics) (1799–1825). This work translated the
geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems. In
statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace.[2]
Laplace formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches
of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role in forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely
used in mathematics, is also named after him. He restated and developed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of
the Solar System and was one of the first scientists to postulate the existence of black holes and the notion
of gravitational collapse.
Pierre-Simon Laplace
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827). Posthumous portrait by
Jean-Baptiste Paulin Guérin, 1838.
Early years
Some records of Laplace's life were burned in 1925 with the family château in Saint Julien de Mailloc, near Lisieux,
the home of his great-great-grandson the Comte de Colbert-Laplace. Others had been destroyed earlier, when his
house at Arcueil near Paris was looted by house breakers in 1871.[4]
Laplace was born in Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of Pont l'Eveque.
According to W.W. Rouse Ball,[5] his father, Pierre de Laplace, owned and farmed the small estates of Maarquis. His
great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he
became an usher in the school at Beaumont; but, having procured a letter of introduction to d'Alembert, he went to
Paris to advance his fortune. However, Karl Pearson[4] is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Ball's account
and states:
Indeed Caen was probably in Laplace's day the most intellectually active of all the towns of Normandy. It was here
that Laplace was educated and was provisionally a professor. It was here he wrote his first paper published in
the Mélanges of the Royal Society of Turin, Tome iv. 1766–1769, at least two years before he went at 22 or 23 to
Paris in 1771. Thus before he was 20 he was in touch with Lagrange in Turin. He did not go to Paris a raw self-
taught country lad with only a peasant background! In 1765 at the age of sixteen Laplace left the "School of the
Duke of Orleans" in Beaumont and went to the University of Caen, where he appears to have studied for five years
and was a member of the Sphinx. The 'École Militaire' of Beaumont did not replace the old school until 1776.
His parents were from comfortable families. His father was Pierre Laplace, and his mother was Marie-Anne Sochon.
The Laplace family was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, but Pierre Laplace senior was also
a cider merchant and syndic of the town of Beaumont.
Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a Benedictine priory, his father intending that he be
ordained in the Roman Catholic Church. At sixteen, to further his father's intention, he was sent to the University of
Caen to read theology.[6]
At the university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, Christophe Gadbled and Pierre Le
Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplace's brilliance as a mathematician was quickly recognised and
while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences
finies. This provided the first intercourse between Laplace and Lagrange. Lagrange was the senior by thirteen
years, and had recently founded in his native city Turin a journal named Miscellanea Taurinensia, in which many of
his early works were printed and it was in the fourth volume of this series that Laplace's paper appeared. About this
time, recognising that he had no vocation for the priesthood, he determined to become a professional
mathematician. Some sources state that he then broke with the church and became an atheist. [citation needed] Laplace did
not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to Jean le Rond d'Alembert who
at that time was supreme in scientific circles.[6][7]
According to his great-great-grandson,[4] d'Alembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a
thick mathematics book, saying to come back when he had read it. When Laplace came back a few days later,
d'Alembert was even less friendly and did not hide his opinion that it was impossible that Laplace could have read
and understood the book. But upon questioning him, he realised that it was true, and from that time he took
Laplace under his care.
Another account is that Laplace solved overnight a problem that d'Alembert set him for submission the following
week, then solved a harder problem the following night. D'Alembert was impressed and recommended him for a
teaching place in the École Militaire.[8]
With a secure income and undemanding teaching, Laplace now threw himself into original research and for the
next seventeen years, 1771–1787, he produced much of his original work in astronomy.[9]
From 1780–1784, Laplace and French chemist Antoine Lavoisier collaborated on several experimental
investigations, designing their own equipment for the task.[citation needed] In 1783 they published their joint paper, Memoir
on Heat, in which they discussed the kinetic theory of molecular motion. In their experiments they measured
the specific heat of various bodies, and the expansion of metals with increasing temperature. They also measured
the boiling points of ethanol and etherunder pressure
Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes referred to as
the French Newton or Newton of France, he has been described as possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical
faculty superior to that of any of his contemporaries.[3] He was Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon attended
the Ecole Militaire in Paris in 1784. Laplace became a count of the Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in
1817, after the Bourbon Restoration.
From 1780–1784, Laplace and French chemist Antoine Lavoisier collaborated on several experimental
investigations, designing their own equipment for the task.[citation needed] In 1783 they published their joint paper, Memoir
on Heat, in which they discussed the kinetic theory of molecular motion. In their experiments they measured
the specific heat of various bodies, and the expansion of metals with increasing temperature. They also measured
the boiling points of ethanol and etherunder pressure.[citation needed]
Laplace further impressed the Marquis de Condorcet, and already by 1771 Laplace felt entitled to membership in
the French Academy of Sciences. However, that year admission went to Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde and in
1772 to Jacques Antoine Joseph Cousin. Laplace was disgruntled, and early in 1773 d'Alembert wrote
to Lagrange in Berlin to ask if a position could be found for Laplace there. However, Condorcet became permanent
secretary of the Académie in February and Laplace was elected associate member on 31 March, at age 24.[10] In 1773
Laplace read his paper on the invariability of planetary motion in front of the Academy des Sciences. That March he
was elected to the academy, a place where he conducted the majority of his science. [11]
On 15 March 1788,[12][4] at the age of thirty-nine, Laplace married Marie-Charlotte de Courty de Romanges, an
eighteen-year-old woman from a 'good' family in Besançon.[13] The wedding was celebrated at Saint-Sulpice, Paris.
The couple had a son, Charles-Émile (1789–1874), and a daughter, Sophie-Suzanne (1792–1813).[14][15]
Analysis, probability, and astronomical stability

Laplace's early published work in 1771 started with differential equations and finite differences but he was already
starting to think about the mathematical and philosophical concepts of probability and statistics. [16] However, before
his election to the Académie in 1773, he had already drafted two papers that would establish his reputation. The
first, Mémoire sur la probabilité des causes par les événements was ultimately published in 1774 while the second
paper, published in 1776, further elaborated his statistical thinking and also began his systematic work on celestial
mechanics and the stability of the Solar System. The two disciplines would always be interlinked in his mind.
"Laplace took probability as an instrument for repairing defects in knowledge." [17] Laplace's work on probability and
statistics is discussed below with his mature work on the analytic theory of probabilities.
Stability of the Solar System

Sir Isaac Newton had published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 in which he gave a
derivation of Kepler's laws, which describe the motion of the planets, from his laws of motion and his law of
universal gravitation. However, though Newton had privately developed the methods of calculus, all his published
work used cumbersome geometric reasoning, unsuitable to account for the more subtle higher-order effects of
interactions between the planets. Newton himself had doubted the possibility of a mathematical solution to the
whole, even concluding that periodic divine intervention was necessary to guarantee the stability of the Solar
System. Dispensing with the hypothesis of divine intervention would be a major activity of Laplace's scientific
life.[18] It is now generally regarded that Laplace's methods on their own, though vital to the development of the
theory, are not sufficiently precise to demonstrate the stability of the Solar System,[19] and indeed, the Solar System
is understood to be chaotic, although it happens to be fairly stable.
One particular problem from observational astronomy was the apparent instability whereby Jupiter's orbit appeared
to be shrinking while that of Saturn was expanding. The problem had been tackled by Leonhard Euler in 1748
and Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1763 but without success.[20] In 1776, Laplace published a memoir in which he first
explored the possible influences of a purported luminiferous ether or of a law of gravitation that did not act
instantaneously. He ultimately returned to an intellectual investment in Newtonian gravity. [21] Euler and Lagrange
had made a practical approximation by ignoring small terms in the equations of motion. Laplace noted that though
the terms themselves were small, when integrated over time they could become important. Laplace carried his
analysis into the higher-order terms, up to and including the cubic. Using this more exact analysis, Laplace
concluded that any two planets and the sun must be in mutual equilibrium and thereby launched his work on the
stability of the Solar System.[22] Gerald James Whitrow described the achievement as "the most important advance
in physical astronomy since Newton".[18]
Laplace had a wide knowledge of all sciences and dominated all discussions in the Académie.[23] Laplace seems to
have regarded analysis merely as a means of attacking physical problems, though the ability with which he
invented the necessary analysis is almost phenomenal. As long as his results were true he took but little trouble to
explain the steps by which he arrived at them; he never studied elegance or symmetry in his processes, and it was
sufficient for him if he could by any means solve the particular question he was discussing. [9]
Tidal dynamics
Dynamic theory of tides
While Newton explained the tides by describing the tide-generating forces and Bernoulli gave a description of the
static reaction of the waters on Earth to the tidal potential, the dynamic theory of tides, developed by Laplace in
1775,[24] describes the ocean's real reaction to tidal forces.[25] Laplace's theory of ocean tides took into
account friction, resonance and natural periods of ocean basins. It predicted the large amphidromic systems in the
world's ocean basins and explains the oceanic tides that are actually observed. [26][27]
The equilibrium theory, based on the gravitational gradient from the Sun and Moon but ignoring the Earth's
rotation, the effects of continents, and other important effects, could not explain the real ocean
tides.[28][29][30][26][31][32][33][34][35]
Since measurements have confirmed the theory, many things have possible explanations now, like how the tides
interact with deep sea ridges and chains of seamounts give rise to deep eddies that transport nutrients from the
deep to the surface.[36] The equilibrium tide theory calculates the height of the tide wave of less than half a meter,
while the dynamic theory explains why tides are up to 15 meters. [37] Satellite observations confirm the accuracy of
the dynamic theory, and the tides worldwide are now measured to within a few centimeters. [38][39] Measurements from
the CHAMP satellite closely match the models based on the TOPEX data.[40][41][42] Accurate models of tides worldwide
are essential for research since the variations due to tides must be removed from measurements when calculating
gravity and changes in sea levels.[43]
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution; French: [ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje];
26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794)[1] was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical
revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology.[2] He is widely
considered in popular literature as the "father of modern chemistry".[3][4]
It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry largely stem from his changing the
science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays
in combustion. He recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and opposed the phlogiston theory.
Lavoisier helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to
reform chemical nomenclature. He predicted the existence of silicon (1787)[5] and was also the first to establish
that sulfur was an element (1777) rather than a compound.[6] He discovered that, although matter may change its
form or shape, its mass always remains the same.
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien
Leopold Boilly
Lavoisier was a powerful member of a number of aristocratic councils, and an administrator of the Ferme générale.
The Ferme générale was one of the most hated components of the Ancien Régime because of the profits it took at
the expense of the state, the secrecy of the terms of its contracts, and the violence of its armed agents. [7] All of
these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French
Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and selling adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined.
Biography
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a wealthy family of the nobility in Paris on 26 August 1743. The son of an
attorney at the Parliament of Paris, he inherited a large fortune at the age of five upon the death of his
mother.[8] Lavoisier began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as the
Collège Mazarin) in Paris in 1754 at the age of 11. In his last two years (1760–1761) at the school, his scientific
interests were aroused, and he studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. In the philosophy class he
came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational
astronomer who imbued the young Lavoisier with an interest in meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which
never left him. Lavoisier entered the school of law, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1763 and a licentiate in
1764. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced as a lawyer. However, he
continued his scientific education in his spare time.
Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time, and he was fascinated
by Pierre Macquer's dictionary of chemistry. He attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and
passion for chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th
century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne
Guettard. In collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767.
In 1764 he read his first paper to the French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite scientific society, on the
chemical and physical properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal
by the King for an essay on the problems of urban street lighting. In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional
appointment to the Academy of Sciences.[9] In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France.
Lavoisier as a social reformer

Research benefitting the public good
While Lavoisier is commonly known for his contributions to the sciences, he also dedicated a significant portion of
his fortune and work toward benefitting the public.[10][11][12][13] Lavoisier was a humanitarian – he cared deeply about
the people in his country and often concerned himself with improving the livelihood of the population by
agriculture, industry, and the sciences.[11] The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted an essay
on improving urban street lighting to the French Academy of Sciences.[11][12][13]
Three years later in 1768, he focused on a new project to design an aqueduct. The goal was to bring in water from
the river Yvette into Paris so that the citizens could have clean drinking water. But, since the construction never
commenced, he instead turned his focus to purifying the water from the Seine. This was the project that interested
Lavoisier in the chemistry of water and public sanitation duties. [13]
He additionally was interested in air quality, and spent some time studying the health risks associated with
gunpowder's effect on the air.[12] In 1772, he performed a study on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it
had been damaged by fire, in a way that would allow proper ventilation and clean air throughout. [13]
At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to be largely unlivable and the prisoners’ treatment
inhumane.[10] Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons and had
made suggestions to improve living conditions, which were largely ignored. [10][13]
Once a part of the Academy, Lavoisier also held his own competitions to push the direction of research towards
bettering the public and his own work.[12] One such project he proposed in 1793 was to better public health on the
“insalubrious arts.”
Sponsorship of the sciences
Lavoisier had a vision of public education having roots in “scientific sociability” and philanthropy. [12]
Lavoisier gained a vast majority of his income through buying stock in the General Farm, which allowed him to
work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him to contribute financially to better the community. [13] (It
would also contribute to his demise during the Reign of Terror many years later.[14])
It was very difficult to secure public funding for the sciences at the time, and additionally not very financially
profitable for the average scientist, so Lavoisier used his wealth to open a very expensive and sophisticated
laboratory in France so that aspiring scientists could study without the barriers of securing funding for their
research.[10][13]
He also pushed for public education in the sciences. He founded two organizations, Lycée and Musée des Arts et
Métiers, which were created to serve as educational tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and noble, the
Lycée regularly taught courses to the public beginning in 1793. [12]
Ferme générale and marriage
Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife by Jacques-Louis David, ca. 1788
At the age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a share in the Ferme
générale, a tax farming financial company which advanced the estimated tax revenue to the royal government in
return for the right to collect the taxes. On behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the building of
a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and out of the
city.[15] His participation in the collection of its taxes did not help his reputation when the Reign of Terror began in
France, as taxes and poor government reform were the primary motivators during the French Revolution.
Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette
Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the Ferme générale.[1] She was to play an important part in
Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated English documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay
on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created
many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues for their
scientific works. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations of
those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed
ideas and problems related to chemistry.[16]
A portrait of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David. Completed in
1788 on the eve of the Revolution, the painting was denied a customary public display at the Paris Salon for fear
that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.[17]
For 3 years following his entry into the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific activity diminished somewhat, for
much of his time was taken up with official Ferme générale business. He did, however, present one important
memoir to the Academy of Sciences during this period, on the supposed conversion of water into earth by
evaporation. By a very precise quantitative experiment Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced after
long-continued reflux heating of water in a glass vessel was not due to a conversion of the water into earth but
rather to the gradual disintegration of the inside of the glass vessel produced by the boiling water. He also
attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants.
Adulteration of tobacco
The Farmers General held a monopoly of the production, import and sale of tobacco in France, and the taxes they
levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres a year. However this revenue began to fall because of a
growing black market in tobacco that was smuggled and adulterated, most commonly with ash and water. Lavoisier
devised a method of checking whether ash had been mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or
some other acid solution is poured on ash, there is an immediate very intense effervescent reaction, accompanied
by an easily detected noise." Lavoisier also noticed that the addition of a small amount of ash improved the flavour
of tobacco. Of one vendor selling adulterated goods he wrote "His tobacco enjoys a very good reputation in the
province... the very small proportion of ash that is added gives it a particularly pungent flavour that consumers
look for. Perhaps the Farm could gain some advantage by adding a bit of this liquid mixture when the tobacco is
fabricated." Lavoisier also found that while adding a lot of water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment
and smell bad, the addition of a very small amount improved the product. Thereafter the factories of the Farmers
General added, as he recommended, a consistent 6.3% of water by volume to the tobacco they processed.[18] To
allow for this addition, the Farmers General delivered to retailers seventeen ounces of tobacco while only charging
for sixteen.[19] To ensure that only these authorised amounts were added, and to exclude the black market, Lavoisier
saw to it that a watertight system of checks, accounts, supervision and testing made it very difficult for retailers to
source contraband tobacco or to improve their profits by bulking it up. He was energetic and rigorous in
implementing this, and the systems he introduced were deeply unpopular with the tobacco retailers across the
country. This unpopularity was to have consequences for him during the French Revolution. [20]
Royal Commission on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged the establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. He then served as its Secretary and
spent considerable sums of his own money in order to improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne, an area
where farmland was of poor quality. The humidity of the region often led to a blight of the rye harvest, causing
outbreaks of ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to the Commission detailing ten
years of efforts on his experimental farm to introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that
despite the possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with so little that it was
unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional practices. [21]
Gunpowder Commission
Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst of a very busy schedule of public and private
duties, especially in connection with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees
of the Academy of Sciences to investigate specific problems on order of the royal government. Lavoisier, whose
organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed the task of writing up such official reports. In 1775 he was
made one of four commissioners of gunpowder appointed to replace a private company, similar to the Ferme
générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying France with its munitions requirements. As a result of his
efforts, both the quantity and quality of French gunpowder greatly improved, and it became a source of revenue for
the government. His appointment to the Gunpowder Commission brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific
career as well. As a commissioner, he enjoyed both a house and a laboratory in the Royal Arsenal. Here he lived
and worked between 1775 and 1792.
Lavoisier was a formative influence in the formation of the Du Pont gunpowder business because he
trained Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, its founder, on gunpowder making in France; the latter said that the Du Pont
gunpowder mills "would never have been started but for his kindness to me." [22]:40
During the Revolution

In June 1791 Lavoisier made a loan of 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours to buy a printing works
so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for this to include both
reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly as well as papers from the Academy of Sciences.[23] The
revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first newspaper, but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le
Republicain and published Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts.[22]:15 Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to
establish a uniform system of weights and measures[24][25] which in March 1791[26]recommended the adoption of
the metric system. The new system of weights and measures was adopted by the Convention on 1 August
1793.[27] Lavoisier himself was removed from the commission on weights and measures on 23 December 1793,
together with Laplace and several other members, for political reasons. [25] One of his last major works was a
proposal to the National Convention for the reform of French education. He also intervened on behalf of a number
of foreign-born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, which helped to exempt them from a
mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.[28]
Final days and execution

As the French Revolution gained momentum, attacks mounted on the deeply unpopular Ferme Générale, and it was
eventually abolished in March 1791.[29] In 1792 Lavoisier was forced to resign from his post on the Gunpowder
Commission and to move from his house and laboratory at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned
societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire.[27]
On 24 November 1793, the arrest of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the other Farmers General
faced nine accusations of defrauding the state of money owed to it, and of adding water to tobacco before selling it.
Lavoisier drafted their defence, refuting the financial accusations, reminding the court of how they had maintained
a consistently high quality of tobacco. The court was however inclined to believe that by condemning them and
seizing their goods, it would recover huge sums for the state. [19] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined on 8 May
1794 in Paris, at the age of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants.[30]
According to a (probably apocryphal) story, the appeal to spare his life so that he could continue his experiments
was cut short by the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni de chimistes; le cours de la
justice ne peut être suspendu." ("The Republic has no need of scientists or chemists; the course of justice cannot
be delayed.")[31][32] Lavoisier was convicted with summary justice of having plundered the people and the treasury of
France, of having adulterated the nation's tobacco with water, and of having supplied the enemies of France with
huge sums of money from the national treasury.
Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a
fallu qu’un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une
semblable." ("It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not suffice to
reproduce its like.")[33][34]
Post-mortem
A year and a half after his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. During the White Terror, his
belongings were delivered to his widow. A brief note was included, reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was
falsely convicted".[35]
About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor
had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the Marquis de Condorcet, the
Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. [citation needed] Lack of money prevented alterations
from being made. The statue was melted down during the Second World War and has not been replaced. However,
one of the main "lycées" (high schools) in Paris and a street in the 8th arrondissement are named after Lavoisier,
and statues of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville and on the façade of the Cour Napoléon of the Louvre. His name
is one of the 72 names of eminent French scientists, engineers and mathematicians inscribed on the Eiffel
Tower as well as on buildings around Killian Court at MIT in Cambridge, MA US.
Contributions to chemistry
Oxygen theory of combustion
Antoine Lavoisier's phlogiston experiment. Engraving by Mme Lavoisier in the 1780s taken from Traité élémentaire de
chimie(Elementary treatise on chemistry)
During late 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention to the phenomenon of combustion, the topic on which he was to
make his most significant contribution to science. He reported the results of his first experiments on combustion in
a note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported that when phosphorus burned, it combined with a large
quantity of air to produce acid spirit of phosphorus, and that the phosphorus increased in weight on burning. In a
second sealed note deposited with the Academy a few weeks later (1 November) Lavoisier extended his
observations and conclusions to the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what is observed in the combustion
of sulfur and phosphorus may well take place in the case of all substances that gain in weight by combustion and
calcination: and I am persuaded that the increase in weight of metallic calces is due to the same cause."
Joseph Black's "fixed air"
During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review thoroughly the literature on air, particularly "fixed air," and to repeat
many of the experiments of other workers in the field. He published an account of this review in 1774 in a book
entitled Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). In the course of this review he made
his first full study of the work of Joseph Black, the Scottish chemist who had carried out a series of classic
quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the difference between a mild
alkali, for example, chalk (CaCO3), and the caustic form, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay in the fact that the former
contained "fixed air," not common air fixed in the chalk, but a distinct chemical species, now understood to
be carbon dioxide (CO2), which was a constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier recognized that Black's fixed air was
identical with the air evolved when metal calces were reduced with charcoal and even suggested that the air which
combined with metals on calcination and increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO2.
Joseph Priestley
Joseph Priestley, an English chemist known for isolating oxygen, which he termed "dephlogisticated air."
In the spring of 1774 Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin and lead in sealed vessels which
conclusively confirmed that the increase in weight of metals in combustion was due to combination with air. But
the question remained about whether it was combination with common atmospheric air or with only a part of
atmospheric air. In October the English chemist Joseph Priestley visited Paris, where he met Lavoisier and told him
of the air which he had produced by heating the red calx of mercury with a burning glass and which had supported
combustion with extreme vigor. Priestley at this time was unsure of the nature of this gas, but he felt that it was an
especially pure form of common air. Lavoisier carried out his own researches on this peculiar substance. The
result was his memoir On the Nature of the Principle Which Combines with Metals during Their Calcination and
Increases Their Weight, read to the Academy on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). In the
original memoir Lavoisier showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx in that it could be reduced
with charcoal, giving off Black's fixed air in the process.[36] When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which
supported respiration and combustion in an enhanced way. He concluded that this was just a pure form of common
air, and that it was the air itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which combined with metals
on calcination.
After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation of the air from mercury calx. His results
now showed that this air was not just an especially pure form of common air but was "five or six times better than
common air, for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of common air." He called the air
dephlogisticated air, as he thought it was common air deprived of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to
absorb a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies and respiring animals, the greatly
enhanced combustion of substances and the greater ease of breathing in this air were explained.
Pioneer of stoichiometry
Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed the
reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a
crucial step in the advancement of chemistry.[37] In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in a
chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change.
Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants
and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass. In France it is
taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his "Traité Élémentaire de Chimie" to "Rien ne se
perd, rien ne se crée, tout se transforme." ("Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed."). Mikhail
Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others
whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry
Cavendish(1731–1810). (See An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass)
Chemical nomenclature
Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François de
Fourcroy, submitted a new program for the reforms of chemical nomenclature to the Academy in 1787, for there
was virtually no rational system of chemical nomenclature at this time. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature
chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new system which was tied inextricably to
Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry.[38] The Classical elements of earth, air, fire, and water were discarded,
and instead some 55 substances which could not be decomposed into simpler substances by any known chemical
means were provisionally listed as elements. The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the principles of
oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet unknown "radicals" of muriatic acid
(hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides of yet unknown metals such
as magnesia, barite, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic
acids. The acids, regarded in the new system as compounds of various elements with oxygen, were given names
which indicated the element involved together with the degree of oxygenation of that element, for example sulfuric
and sulfurous acids, phosphoric and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitrous acids, the "ic" termination indicating
acids with a higher proportion of oxygen than those with the "ous" ending. Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were
given the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas the salts of the "ous" acids terminated with the suffix
"ite," as in copper sulfite. The total effect of the new nomenclature can be gauged by comparing the new name
"copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread throughout Europe and
to the United States and became common use in the field of chemistry. This marked the beginning of the anti-
phlogistic approach to the field.
Chemical revolution and opposition

Antoine Lavoisier is commonly cited as a central contributor to the chemical revolution. His precise measurements
and meticulous keeping of balance sheets throughout his experiment were vital to the wide spread acceptance of
the law of conservation of mass. His introduction of new terminology, a binomial system modeled after that
of Linnaeus, also helps to mark the dramatic changes in the field which are referred to generally as the chemical
revolution. However, Lavoisier encountered much opposition in trying to change the field, especially from British
phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued
that quantification of substances did not imply conservation of mass.[39] Rather than reporting factual evidence,
opposition claimed Lavoisier was misinterpreting the implications of his research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Jean
Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, "one felt the necessity of linking accuracy in experiments to rigor
of reasoning."[39] His opposition, however, argued that precision in experimentation did not imply precision in
inferences and reasoning. Despite opposition, Lavoisier continued to use precise instrumentation to convince
other chemists of his conclusions, often results to five to eight decimal places. Nicholson, who estimated that only
three of these decimal places were meaningful, stated:
If it be denied that these results are pretended to be true in the last figures, I must beg leave to observe, that these
long rows of figures, which in some instances extend to a thousand times the nicety of experiment, serve only to
exhibit a parade which true science has no need of: and, more than this, that when the real degree of accuracy in
experiments is thus hidden from our contemplation, we are somewhat disposed to doubt whether the exactitude
scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed such as to render the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.[40]
Notable works
Easter memoir
Antoine Lavoisier portrait
The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir appeared in 1778. In the intervening period Lavoisier had ample
time to repeat some of Priestley's latest experiments and perform some new ones of his own. In addition to
studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he studied more thoroughly the residual air after metals had been
calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that approximately five
volumes of this air added to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air
was then a mixture of two distinct chemical species with quite different properties. Thus when the revised version
of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no longer stated that the principle which combined with
metals on calcination was just common air but "nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air" or the
"eminently respirable part of the air". The same year he coined the name oxygen for this constituent of the air, from
the Greek words meaning "acid former".[36][41] He was struck by the fact that the combustion products of such
nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He held that all acids contained oxygen and
that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.
Dismantling phlogiston theory

Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 and 1778 was largely concerned with developing his own new theory
of combustion. In 1783 he read to the academy his paper entitled Réflexions sur le phlogistique (Reflections on
Phlogiston), a full-scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Lavoisier also began a
series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove an important capstone to his combustion
theory and win many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the combination of Henry
Cavendish's inflammable air, which Lavoisier termed hydrogen (Greek for "water-former"), with dephlogisticated air
(oxygen) by electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted the production of water, but all
interpreted the reaction in varying ways within the framework of the phlogiston theory. In cooperation with
mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by burning jets of hydrogen and oxygen in a
bell jar over mercury. The quantitative results were good enough to support the contention that water was not an
element, as had been thought for over 2,000 years, but a compound of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The
interpretation of water as a compound explained the inflammable air generated from dissolving metals in acids
(hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces by inflammable air (combination of gas
from calx with oxygen to form water).[39]
Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic approach remained unaccepted by many other chemists.
Lavoisier labored to provide definitive proof of the composition of water, attempting to use this in support of his
theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a red-hot iron gun barrel, allowing
the oxygen to form an oxide with the iron and the hydrogen to emerge from the end of the pipe. He submitted his
findings of the composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, reporting his figures to eight
decimal places.[39] Opposition responded to this further experimentation by stating that Lavoisier continued to draw
the incorrect conclusions, and that his experiment demonstrated the displacement of phlogiston from iron by the
combination of water with the metal. Lavoisier developed a new apparatus which utilized a pneumatic trough, a set
of balances, a thermometer, and a barometer, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the
decomposition and synthesis of water using this apparatus, convincing many who attended of the correctness of
Lavoisier's theories. This demonstration established water as a compound of oxygen and hydrogen with great
certainty for those who viewed it. The dissemination of the experiment, however, proved subpar, as it lacked the
details to properly display the amount of precision taken in the measurements. The paper ended with a hasty
statement that the experiment was "more than sufficient to lay hold of the certainty of the proposition" of the
composition of water and stated that the methods used in the experiment would unite chemistry with the other
physical sciences and advance discoveries.[42]
Lavoisier and Berthollet, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat CompanyTrading Card, 1929
Elementary Treatise of Chemistry

Lavoisier employed the new nomenclature in his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry),
published in 1789. This work represents the synthesis of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry and can be
considered the first modern textbook on the subject. The core of the work was the oxygen theory, and the work
became a most effective vehicle for the transmission of the new doctrines. It presented a unified view of new
theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence of
phlogiston. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any
known method of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds
from elements. It remains a classic in the history of science. While many leading chemists of the time refused to
accept Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for Traité élémentaire as a textbook in Edinburgh was sufficient to merit
translation into English within about a year of its French publication.[43] In any event, the Traité élémentaire was
sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.
Lavoisier's Laboratory, Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.

Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s
Physiological work
Constant-pressure calorimeter, engraving made by madame Lavoisier for thermochemistryexperiments
Lavoisier (wearing goggles) operates his solar furnace to prevent contamination from combustion products
The relationship between combustion and respiration had long been recognized from the essential role which air
played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend his new theory of combustion to
include the area of respiration physiology. His first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in
1777, but his most significant contribution to this field was made in the winter of 1782/1783 in association
with Laplace. The result of this work was published in a memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Laplace designed an
ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or respiration. The outer
shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an
inner shell filled with ice. By measuring the quantity of carbon dioxide and heat produced by confining a live guinea
pig in this apparatus, and by comparing the amount of heat produced when sufficient carbon was burned in the ice
calorimeter to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they concluded
that respiration was in fact a slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la respiration est donc une
combustion," that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning. [44]
This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to
maintain its body temperature above that of its surroundings, thus accounting for the puzzling phenomenon of
animal heat. Lavoisier continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand Seguin.
They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process of body metabolism and respiration
using Seguin as a human guinea pig in the experiments. Their work was only partially completed and published
because of the disruption of the Revolution; but Lavoisier's pioneering work in this field served to inspire similar
research on physiological processes for generations to come.
Legacy
The work of Lavoisier was translated in Japan in the 1840s, through the process of Rangaku. Page from Udagawa Yōan's
1840 Seimi Kaisō
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the
framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow
the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an
essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous).
Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace.
They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the
same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.
Statue of Lavoisier, at Hôtel de Ville, Paris
Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory,
believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions.
He also introduced the possibility of allotropyin chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is
a crystalline form of carbon.
He was also responsible for the construction of the gasometer, an expensive instrument he used at his
demonstrations. While he used his gasometer exclusively for these, he also created smaller, cheaper, more
practical gasometers that worked with a sufficient degree of precision that more chemists could recreate. [45]
He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in his capacity to take over experimental work that others had
carried out—without always adequately recognizing their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced
by his own quantitative experiments, expounding the true explanation of the results. [citation needed] He completed the work
of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments.
Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics
and mathematics during the 18th century.[46]
Awards and honours

During his lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a gold medal by the King of France for his work on urban street
lighting (1766), and was appointed to the French Academy of Sciences (1768).[9]
Lavoisier's work was recognized as an International Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical
Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and the Société Chimique de France in 1999.[47] Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published with
colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de
Fourcroy,[48] was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry
of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015. [49][50]
A number of Lavoisier Medals have been named and given in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations including
the Société chimique de France, the International Society for Biological Calorimetry, and the DuPont company.[citation
needed]
Selected writings
 Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801)
 L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres &
Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
 Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux,
Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le
31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing
the subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction on the means of providing for the food shortage with
fodder, published by order of King on 31 May 1785).
 (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode de nomenclature
chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
 (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne
et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
 Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris:
Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented
in a new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
 (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire sur la chaleur[permanent dead link]," Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences (1780),
pp. 355–408.
 Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace &
A. K. Lavoisier[permanent dead link] (1792)
 Mémoires de physique et de chimie (1805: posthumous)
In translation
 Essays Physical and Chemical (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd.,
1970) translation by Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques et chimiques
 The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, and
approved by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos[51] of L'art de fabriquer le salin
et la potasse
 (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir on Heat: Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, 28 June 1783, by
Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Place of the same Academy.(New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982)
trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire sur la chaleur
 Essays, on the Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To An
Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these
essays:
1. "Experiments on the Respiration of Animals, and on the Changes effected on the Air in passing through
their Lungs." (Read to the Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the
Académie des Sciences, 1777)
3. "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
4. "On the Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, and on the Means of decomposing and recomposing that
Acid."
5. "On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
6. "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogistic Substances, and on the Changes effected on Air
in which the Pyrophorus was burned."
7. "On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites."
8. "General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they are composed."
9. "On the Combination of the Matter of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation of Elastic Aëriform
Fluids."
 “Reflections on Phlogiston”, translation by Nicholas W. Best of “Réflexions sur le phlogistique, pour servir de
suite à la théorie de la combustion et de la calcination” (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two
nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Published in two parts:
1. Best, Nicholas W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Against phlogiston

theory". Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5.
2. Best, Nicholas W. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature of heat". Foundations
of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x.
 Method of chymical nomenclature: proposed by Messrs. De Moreau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and De

Fourcroy (1788) Dictionary
 Elements of Chemistry, in a New Systematic Order, Containing All the Modern Discoveries (Edinburgh: William
Creech, 1790; New York: Dover, 1965) translation by Robert Kerr of Traité élémentaire de chimie. ISBN 978-
0486646244 (Dover).
 1799 edition
 1802 edition: volume 1, volume 2
 Some illustrations from 1793 edition
 Some more illustrations from the Science History Institute
 More illustrations (from Collected Works) from the Science History Institute
Ernest William Brown

Ernest William Brown FRS (29 November 1866 – 22 July 1938) was an English mathematician and astronomer, who
spent the majority of his career working in the United States and became a naturalised American citizen in 1923.[1][2]
His life's work was the study of the Moon's motion (lunar theory) and the compilation of extremely accurate lunar
tables. He also studied the motion of the planets and calculated the orbits of Trojan asteroids.
Ernest William Brown
Ernest William Brown, from the American Mathematical Society

Life and career
Brown was born in Hull, England, the second of four children of William and Emma Brown (née Martin). His father
was originally a farmer and later became a timber merchant. His mother and younger brother died of scarlet fever in
1870, when Brown was not quite 4 years old. He and his two sisters were then looked after by a maiden aunt, until
his father remarried five years later.[1][3]
Education and early career

Brown was educated at Totteridge Park School, Hertfordshire (now part of Dorset House School) and Hull and East
Riding College. After leaving school, he entered Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated with first-class
honours as sixth Wrangler in mathematics in 1887.[4][5] He continued with post-graduate studies at Cambridge and
worked under the direction of George Howard Darwin. In the summer of 1888, Darwin suggested that he study the
papers of George William Hill on the lunar theory. As it turned out, this idea for a line of research was to have a
major impact on the remainder of Brown's life.
Brown was made a fellow of Christ's College in 1889 and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical
Society in the same year. He received his master's degree in 1891 and then left Cambridge to take up a place as a
mathematics instructor at Haverford College, Pennsylvania. There, he rose rapidly to the position of Professor of
Mathematics in 1893. However, he continued most years to return to Cambridge during the summer, often staying
with his old tutor, Darwin.[6]
Work on the motion of the Moon

At Haverford, Brown continued with his studies of the lunar theory, and made a thorough review of the work of
earlier researchers, such as Hill, de Pontécoulant, Delaunay and Hansen. His mastery of the field was shown by the
publication of his first great work, An Introductory Treatise on the Lunar Theory, in 1896, when Brown was still less
than 30 years of age. The following year, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society.[6]
As Brown's work progressed, he gradually evolved a plan to create a completely new lunar theory. This was
eventually published as a series of papers in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society between 1897 and
1908. In 1907, he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at Yale University, with which he secured an agreement
for funding the massive task of calculating detailed tables of the Moon's motion, based on his lunar theory. After a
period of 12 years and a cost of over $34,000, Brown's magnum opus, Tables of the Motion of the Moon, was
published in 1919.
Discrepancies between theory and observation

Brown's objective had been to produce an accurate ephemeris of the Moon, based purely on gravitational theory.
For the 'main problem' of the Earth-Moon-Sun system, he calculated terms in longitude and latitude down to an
uncertainty of 0.001 arcseconds. He also included perturbations due to the other planets
(principally Jupiterand Venus) and also accounted for the more difficult problem of the non-spherical nature of
the Earth and Moon.
Observations showed that Brown's tables were indeed superior to those of Hansen, which had been in use since
1857, but there was still a large unexplained fluctuation in the Moon's mean longitude of the order of 10
arcseconds. A 'great empirical term', of magnitude 10.71 arcseconds and period 257 years, was introduced to
eliminate this as far as possible. Given the precision of Brown's calculations, it must have come as a great
disappointment to have to introduce this arbitrary adjustment.
It had been discovered by Edmond Halley over two centuries previously that the Moon's motion appeared to be
gradually speeding up. This 'secular acceleration' could not be explained by gravitational theory alone, and it had
been suggested by Simon Newcomb that it was in fact due to a gradual deceleration of the Earth's rate of rotation,
due to friction generated by the tides. The implication of this was that it was not the Moon that was speeding up – it
was time (as measured in terms of Earth's increasingly long day) that appeared to be slowing down.
Brown devoted much study to this problem and proposed it should be attacked observationally, using
lunar occultations to map the Moon's path more precisely. He also reasoned that, if the discrepancies were caused
by variations in the Earth's rotation, it implied that observations of other objects would be similarly affected. This
was partially verified by observations of transits of Mercury, but Brown was initially not convinced. However, he
eventually concluded that Newcomb was right, and not only was the Earth's rate of rotation slowing, but also there
were random, unpredictable fluctuations, and he published these findings in a paper in 1926. [4][6] Later work has
shown this to be true, and astronomers now make a distinction between Universal Time, which is based on the
Earth's rotation, and Terrestrial Time (formerly Ephemeris time), which is a uniform measure of the passage of time
(see also ΔT).
Later work and collaborations

Brown was an active member of the American Mathematical Society and served as its President from 1915 to
1916.[7]
He retained his professorship at Yale until he retired in 1932. As well as continuing his work on the Moon, he also
worked on the motion of the planets around the Sun. In 1933, he published the book, Planetary Theory, co-authored
with Clarence Shook, which contained a detailed exposition of resonance in planetary orbits and examined the
special case of the Trojan asteroids. In 1937, he was awarded the Watson Medal by the US National Academy of
Sciences.
One of Brown's post-graduate pupils was Wallace John Eckert, who became an instructor at Columbia
University while finishing his doctorate. Eckert would improve the pace of astronomical calculations by automating
them with digital computers
• Wallace John Eckert

• Jean Chapront& Michelle Chapront-Touzé
and other notable mathematical astronomers also made significant contributions,
including: Edmond Halley; 39Philippe Gustave le Doulcet, Comte de Pontécoulant; John
Couch Adams; George William Hill; and Simon Newcomb.
The history can be considered to fall into three parts: from ancient times to Newton; the
period of classical (Newtonian) physics; and modern developments.
Ancient times to Newton

Babylon
Pliny the Elder.
Pliny the Elder (/ˈplɪni/; born Gaius Plinius Secundus, AD 23–79) was a Roman author, naturalist and natural
philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and friend of emperor Vespasian.
Spending most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the
field, Pliny wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model
for encyclopedias. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:
For my part I deem those blessed to whom, by favour of the gods, it has been granted either to do what is worth
writing of, or to write what is worth reading; above measure blessed those on whom both gifts have been
conferred. In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. [1]
Pliny the Younger refers to Tacitus’s reliance upon his uncle's book, the History of the German Wars. Pliny the
Elder died in AD 79 in Stabiae while attempting the rescue of a friend and his family by ship from the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius, which already had destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.[2] The wind caused by the
sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the volcano’s eruption did not allow his ship to leave port, and Pliny probably
died during that event
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus
Of Babylonian astronomy, practically nothing was known to historians of science before the
1880s.[3] Surviving ancient writings of Pliny had made bare mention of three astronomical
schools in Mesopotamia – at Babylon, Uruk, and 'Hipparenum' (possibly 'Sippar').[4] But
definite modern knowledge of any details only began when Joseph Epping deciphered
cuneiform texts on clay tablets from a Babylonian archive: in these texts he identified an
ephemeris of positions of the Moon.[5] Since then, knowledge of the subject, still fragmentary,
has had to be built up by painstaking analysis of deciphered texts, mainly in numerical form,
on tablets from Babylon and Uruk (no trace has yet been found of anything from the third
school mentioned by Pliny).
To the Babylonian astronomer Kidinnu (in Greek or Latin, Kidenas or Cidenas) has been
attributed the invention (5th or 4th century BC) of what is now called “System B” for
predicting the position of the moon, taking account that the moon continually changes its
speed along its path relative to the background of fixed stars. This system involved
calculating daily stepwise changes of lunar speed, up or down, with a minimum and a
maximum approximately each month.[6] The basis of these systems appears to have been
arithmetical rather than geometrical, but they did approximately account for the main lunar
inequality now known as the equation of the center.
The Babylonians kept very accurate records for hundreds of years of new moons and
eclipses.[7] Some time between the years 500 BC and 400 BC they identified and began to use
the 19 year cyclic relation between lunar months and solar years now known as the Metonic
cycle.[8]
This helped them built up a numerical theory of the main irregularities in the Moon's motion,
reaching remarkably good estimates for the (different) periods of the three most prominent
features of the Moon's motion:
• The synodic month, i.e. the mean period for the phases of the Moon. Now called
“System B”, it reckons the synodic month as 29 days and (sexagesimally) 3,11;0,50 “time
degrees”. Each time degree is one degree of the apparent motion of the stars, or
4 minutes of time, and the sexagesimal values after the semicolon are fractions of a time
degree. This converts to 29.530594 days = 29ᵈ 12ʰ 44ᵐ 3.33ˢ,[9] to compare with a modern
value (as at 1900 Jan 0) of 29.530589 days, or 29ᵈ 12ʰ 44ᵐ 2.9ˢ.[10] This same value was
used by Hipparchos and Ptolemy, was used throughout the Middle Ages, and still forms
the basis of the Hebrew calendar.
• The mean lunar velocity relative to the stars they estimated at 13° 10′ 35″ per day, giving
a corresponding month of 27.321598 days,[11] to compare with modern values of
13° 10′ 35.0275″ and 27.321582 days.[10]
• The anomalistic month, i.e. the mean period for the Moon's approximately monthly
accelerations and decelerations in its rate of movement against the stars, had a
Babylonian estimate of 27.5545833 days,[12] to compare with a modern value
27.554551 days.[10]
• The draconitic month, i.e. the mean period with which the path of the Moon against the
stars deviates first north and then south in ecliptic latitude by comparison with the
ecliptic path of the Sun, was indicated by a number of different parameters leading to
various estimates, e.g. of 27.212204 days,[13] to compare with a modern value of
27.212221,[10] but the Babylonians also had a numerical relationship that 5458 synodic
months were equal to 5923 draconitic months,[13] which when compared with their
accurate value for the synodic month leads to practically exactly the modern figure for
the draconitic month.
The Babylonian estimate for the synodic month was adopted for the greater part of two
millennia by Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and medieval writers (and it is still in use as part of the
basis for the calculated Hebrew (Jewish) calendar).
Greece and Hellenistic Egypt

Thereafter, from Hipparchus and Ptolemy in the Bithynian and Ptolemaic epochs down to the
time of Newton's work in the seventeenth century, lunar theories were composed mainly with
the help of geometrical ideas, inspired more or less directly by long series of positional
observations of the moon. Prominent in these geometrical lunar theories were combinations
of circular motions – applications of the theory of epicycles.[14]
Hipparchus
Hipparchus: Orbit of the Moon
Hipparchus of Nicaea (/hɪˈpɑːrkəs/; Greek: Ἵππαρχος, Hipparkhos; c. 190 – c. 120 BC) was a Greek
astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry[1] but is most famous for
his incidental discovery of precession of the equinoxes.[2]
Hipparchus was born in Nicaea, Bithynia (now İznik, Turkey), and probably died on the island of Rhodes. He is
known to have been a working astronomer at least from 162 to 127 BC.[3] Hipparchus is considered the greatest
ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose
quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of the
observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Babylonians and
by Meton of Athens (5th century BC), Timocharis, Aristyllus, Aristarchus of Samos and Eratosthenes, among
others.[4] He developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he solved several problems
of spherical trigonometry. With his solar and lunartheories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to
develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses.
His other reputed achievements include the discovery and measurement of Earth's precession, the compilation of
the first comprehensive star catalog of the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, also of
the armillary sphere, which he used during the creation of much of the star catalogue.
Hipparchus
Hipparchus, whose works are mostly lost and known mainly from quotations by other
authors, assumed that the Moon moved in a circle inclined at 5° to the ecliptic, rotating in a
retrograde direction (i.e. opposite to the direction of annual and monthly apparent
movements of the Sun and Moon relative to the fixed stars) once in 182⁄3 years. The circle
acted as a deferent, carrying an epicycle along which the Moon was assumed to move in a
retrograde direction. The center of the epicycle moved at a rate corresponding to the mean
change in Moon's longitude, while the period of the Moon around the epicycle was an
anomalistic month. This epicycle approximately provided for what was later recognized as
the elliptical inequality, the equation of the center, and its size approximated to an equation
of the center of about 5° 1'. This figure is much smaller than the modern value: but it is close
to the difference between the modern coefficients of the equation of the center (1st term) and
that of the evection: the difference is accounted for by the fact that the ancient
measurements were taken at times of eclipses, and the effect of the evection (which
subtracts under those conditions from the equation of the center) was at that time unknown
and overlooked. For further information see also separate article Evection.
Life and work
There is a strong tradition that Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (Greek Νίκαια), in the ancient district
of Bithynia (modern-day Iznik in province Bursa), in what today is the country Turkey. The exact dates of his life are
not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him in the period from 147–127 BC, and some of
these are stated as made in Rhodes; earlier observations since 162 BC might also have been made by him. His birth
date (c. 190 BC) was calculated by Delambre based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time
after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his observations from that year. Hipparchus obtained information
from Alexandria as well as Babylon, but it is not known when or if he visited these places. He is believed to have
died on the island of Rhodes, where he seems to have spent most of his later life.
It is not known what Hipparchus's economic means were nor how he supported his scientific activities. His
appearance is likewise unknown: there are no contemporary portraits. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were
made in his honour in Bithyniathat bear his name and show him with a globe; this supports the tradition that he
was born there.
Relatively little of Hipparchus's direct work survives into modern times. Although he wrote at least fourteen books,
only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by Aratus was preserved by later copyists. Most of what is
known about Hipparchus comes from Strabo's Geography and Pliny's Natural History in the 1st century; Ptolemy's
2nd-century Almagest; and additional references to him in the 4th century by Pappus and Theon of Alexandria in
their commentaries on the Almagest.[5]
Hipparchus was amongst the first to calculate a heliocentric system,[6] but he abandoned his work because the
calculations showed the orbits were not perfectly circular as believed to be mandatory by the science of the time.
As an astronomer of antiquity, his influence, supported by ideas from Aristotle, held sway for nearly 2000 years,
until the heliocentric model of Copernicus.
Hipparchus's only preserved work is Τῶν Ἀράτου καὶ Εὐδόξου φαινομένων ἐξήγησις ("Commentary on the
Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus"). This is a highly critical commentary in the form of two books on a
popular poem by Aratus based on the work by Eudoxus.[7] Hipparchus also made a list of his major works, which
apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous
star catalog was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy, and may be almost perfectly reconstructed by subtraction
of two and two thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's stars. The first trigonometric table was apparently
compiled by Hipparchus, who is consequently now known as "the father of trigonometry".
Illustrated depiction of Hipparchus observing the sky from Alexandria
Modern speculation
Hipparchus was in the international news in 2005, when it was again proposed (as in 1898) that the data on
the celestial globe of Hipparchus or in his star catalog may have been preserved in the only surviving large ancient
celestial globe which depicts the constellations with moderate accuracy, the globe carried by the Farnese Atlas.
There are a variety of mis-steps[8] in the more ambitious 2005 paper, thus no specialists in the area accept its widely
publicized speculation.[9]
Lucio Russo has said that Plutarch, in his work On the Face in the Moon, was reporting some physical theories that
we consider to be Newtonian and that these may have come originally from Hipparchus;[10] he goes on to say that
Newton may have been influenced by them.[11] According to one book review, both of these claims have been
rejected by other scholars.[12]
A line in Plutarch's Table Talk states that Hipparchus counted 103049 compound propositions that can be formed
from ten simple propositions. 103049 is the tenth Schröder–Hipparchus number, which counts the number of ways
of adding one or more pairs of parentheses around consecutive subsequences of two or more items in any
sequence of ten symbols. This has led to speculation that Hipparchus knew about enumerative combinatorics, a
field of mathematics that developed independently in modern mathematics. [13][14]
Babylonian sources
Babylonian astronomy
Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to some extent, for
instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources (see
"Babylonian astronomical diaries"). Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical
knowledge and techniques systematically.[15] Except for Timocharis and Aristillus, he was the first Greek known to
divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes (Eratosthenes before him used a simpler sexagesimal system
dividing a circle into 60 parts). He also used the Babylonian unit pechus ("cubit") of about 2° or 2.5°.
Hipparchus probably compiled a list of Babylonian astronomical observations; G. J. Toomer, a historian of
astronomy, has suggested that Ptolemy's knowledge of eclipse records and other Babylonian observations in
the Almagest came from a list made by Hipparchus. Hipparchus's use of Babylonian sources has always been
known in a general way, because of Ptolemy's statements. However, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that the
synodic and anomalistic periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in
Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B" (sometimes attributed
to Kidinnu).[16]
Hipparchus's long draconitic lunar period (5,458 months = 5,923 lunar nodal periods) also appears a few times
in Babylonian records.[17] But the only such tablet explicitly dated is post-Hipparchus so the direction of
transmission is not settled by the tablets.
Hipparchus's draconitic lunar motion cannot be solved by the lunar-four arguments that are sometimes proposed
to explain his anomalistic motion. A solution that has produced the exact 5,458⁄5,923 ratio is rejected by most historians
though it uses the only anciently attested method of determining such ratios, and it automatically delivers the
ratio's four-digit numerator and denominator. Hipparchus initially used (Almagest 6.9) his 141 BC eclipse with a
Babylonian eclipse of 720 BC to find the less accurate ratio 7,160 synodic months = 7,770 draconitic months,
simplified by him to 716 = 777 through division by 10. (He similarly found from the 345-year cycle the ratio 4267
synodic months = 4573 anomalistic months and divided by 17 to obtain the standard ratio 251 synodic months =
269 anomalistic months.) If he sought a longer time base for this draconitic investigation he could use his same 141
BC eclipse with a moonrise 1245 BC eclipse from Babylon, an interval of 13,645 synodic months =
14,8807 1⁄2 draconitic months ≈ 14,623 1⁄2 anomalistic months. Dividing by 5⁄2 produces 5458 synodic months = 5923
precisely.[18] The obvious main objection is that the early eclipse is unattested though that is not surprising in itself
and there is no consensus on whether Babylonian observations were recorded this remotely. Though Hipparchus's
tables formally went back only to 747 BC, 600 years before his era, the tables were actually good back to before the
eclipse in question because as only recently noted[19] their use in reverse is no more difficult than forwards.
Geometry, trigonometry, and other mathematical

techniques
Hipparchus was recognized as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometric table, which he
needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbitsof the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for
the chord function, which gives the length of the chord for each angle. He did this for a circle with a circumference
of 21,600 and a radius (rounded) of 3438 units: this circle has a unit length of 1 arc minute along its perimeter. He
tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord of an angle equals the radius
times twice the sine of half of the angle, i.e.:
He described the chord table in a work, now lost, called Tōn en kuklōi eutheiōn (Of Lines Inside a Circle) by Theon
of Alexandria in his 4th-century commentary on the Almagest I.10; some claim his table may have survived in
astronomical treatises in India, for instance the Surya Siddhanta. Trigonometry was a significant innovation,
because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative
astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. [20]
For his chord table Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for π than the one from Archimedes of
between 3 1⁄7 and 3 10⁄71; perhaps he had the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8,30 (sexagesimal) (Almagest VI.7); but it is
not known if he computed an improved value himself.
But some scholars do not believe Āryabhaṭa's sine table has anything to do with Hipparchus's chord table which
does not exist today. Some scholars do not agree with this hypothesis that Hipparchus constructed a chord table.
Bo C. Klintberg states "With mathematical reconstructions and philosophical arguments I show that Toomer's 1973
paper never contained any conclusive evidence for his claims that Hipparchus had a 3438′-based chord table, and
that the Indians used that table to compute their sine tables. Recalculating Toomer's reconstructions with a 3600′
radius – i.e. the radius of the chord table in Ptolemy's Almagest, expressed in 'minutes' instead of 'degrees' –
generates Hipparchan-like ratios similar to those produced by a 3438′ radius. It is therefore possible that the radius
of Hipparchus's chord table was 3600′, and that the Indians independently constructed their 3438′-based sine
table."[21]
Hipparchus could construct his chord table using the Pythagorean theorem and a theorem known to Archimedes.
He also might have developed and used the theorem in plane geometry called Ptolemy's theorem, because it was
proved by Ptolemy in his Almagest (I.10) (later elaborated on by Carnot).
Hipparchus was the first to show that the stereographic projection is conformal, and that it transforms circles on
the sphere that do not pass through the center of projection to circles on the plane. This was the basis for
the astrolabe.
Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used arithmetic techniques developed by the Chaldeans. He was one of the
first Greek mathematicians to do this, and in this way expanded the techniques available to astronomers and
geographers.
There are several indications that Hipparchus knew spherical trigonometry, but the first surviving text of it is that
of Menelaus of Alexandria in the 1st century, who on that basis is now commonly credited with its discovery.
(Previous to the finding of the proofs of Menelaus a century ago, Ptolemy was credited with the invention of
spherical trigonometry.) Ptolemy later used spherical trigonometry to compute things like the rising and setting
points of the ecliptic, or to take account of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus may have used a globe for these tasks,
reading values off coordinate grids drawn on it, or he may have made approximations from planar geometry, or
perhaps used arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans. He might have used spherical
trigonometry.
Aubrey Diller has shown that the clima calculations which Strabo preserved from Hipparchus were performed by
spherical trigonometry with the sole accurate obliquity known to have been used by ancient astronomers, 23°40'.
All thirteen clima figures agree with Diller's proposal.[22] Further confirming his contention is the finding that the big
errors in Hipparchus's longitude of Regulus and both longitudes of Spica agree to a few minutes in all three
instances with a theory that he took the wrong sign for his correction for parallax when using eclipses for
determining stars' positions.[23]
Lunar and solar theory
Geometric construction used by Hipparchus in his determination of the distances to the Sun and Moon.
Motion of the Moon

Lunar theory and Orbit of the Moon
Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for two periods of its motion
that Chaldean astronomers are widely presumed[24] to have possessed before him, whatever their ultimate origin.
The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days; 31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal)
= 29.5305941... days. Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours + 793/1080 hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew
calendar. The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months ≈ 269 anomalistic months. Hipparchus used the
multiple of this period by a factor of 17, because that interval is also an eclipse period, and is also close to an
integer number of years (4267 moons : 4573 anomalistic periods : 4630.53 nodal periods : 4611.98 lunar orbits :
344.996 years : 344.982 solar orbits : 126,007.003 days : 126,351.985 rotations).[25] What was so exceptional and
useful about the cycle was that all 345-year-interval eclipse pairs occur slightly over 126,007 days apart within a
tight range of only about ±1⁄2 hour, guaranteeing (after division by 4267) an estimate of the synodic month correct to
one part in order of magnitude 10 million. The 345 year periodicity is why[26] the ancients could conceive of
a mean month and quantify it so accurately that it is even today correct to a fraction of a second of time.
Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably 27 January
141 BC and 26 November 139 BC according to [Toomer 1980]), with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years
earlier (Almagest IV.2; [A.Jones, 2001]). Already al-Biruni (Qanun VII.2.II) and Copernicus (de revolutionibusIV.4)
noted that the period of 4,267 moons is actually about 5 minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that
Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus. However, the timing methods of the Babylonians had an error of no less than 8
minutes.[27] Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to
confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than try to derive an improved value from his own observations.
From modern ephemerides[28] and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see ΔT) we estimate that
the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2 seconds in the 4th century BC and less than
0.1 seconds in Hipparchus's time.
Orbit of the Moon

It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called
its anomaly, and it repeats with its own period; the anomalistic month. The Chaldeans took account of this
arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. The
Greeks however preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. Apollonius of Perga had at the end of the 3rd
century BC proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion:
1. In the first, the Moon would move uniformly along a circle, but the Earth would be eccentric, i.e., at some
distance of the center of the circle. So the apparent angular speed of the Moon (and its distance) would
vary.
2. The Moon itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in anomaly) on a secondary circular orbit,
called an epicycle, that itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in longitude) over the main
circular orbit around the Earth, called deferent; see deferent and epicycle. Apollonius demonstrated that
these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent. However, all this was theory and had not been
put to practice. Hipparchus was the first astronomer we know attempted to determine the relative
proportions and actual sizes of these orbits.
Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon, at particular
phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes
the details in the Almagest IV.11. Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations, which he carefully
selected to satisfy the requirements. The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse
list: 22/23 December 383 BC, 18/19 June 382 BC, and 12/13 December 382 BC. The epicycle model he fitted to lunar
eclipse observations made in Alexandria at 22 September 201 BC, 19 March 200 BC, and 11 September 200 BC.
 For the eccentric model, Hipparchus found for the ratio between the radius of the eccenter and the distance
between the center of the eccenter and the center of the ecliptic (i.e., the observer on Earth): 3144 : 327 2⁄3 ;
 and for the epicycle model, the ratio between the radius of the deferent and the epicycle: 3122 1⁄2 : 247 1⁄2 .
The somewhat weird numbers are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table according to one group
of historians, who explain their reconstruction's inability to agree with these four numbers as partly due to some
sloppy rounding and calculation errors by Hipparchus, for which Ptolemy criticised him (he himself made rounding
errors too). A simpler alternate reconstruction[29] agrees with all four numbers. Anyway, Hipparchus found
inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model (3122 1⁄2 : 247 1⁄2), which is too small (60 : 4;45
sexagesimal). Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : 5 1⁄4.[30] (The maximum angular deviation producible by this
geometry is the arcsin of 5 1⁄4 divided by 60, or about 5° 1', a figure that is sometimes therefore quoted as the
equivalent of the Moon's equation of the center in the Hipparchan model.)
Apparent motion of the Sun

Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the
moment of the summer solstice) on 27 June 432 BC(proleptic Julian calendar). Aristarchus of Samos is said to have
done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. As shown in a 1991paper, in 158 BC
Hipparchus computed a very erroneous summer solstice from Callippus's calendar. He observed the summer
solstice in 146 and 135 BC both accurate to a few hours, but observations of the moment of equinox were simpler,
and he made twenty during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus's work on the length
of the year in the Almagest III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162–
128 BC. Analysis of Hipparchus's seventeen equinox observations made at Rhodes shows that the mean error in
declination is positive seven arc minutes, nearly agreeing with the sum of refraction by air and Swerdlow's parallax.
The random noise is two arc minutes or more nearly one arcminute if rounding is taken into account which
approximately agrees with the sharpness of the eye. Ptolemy quotes an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at 24 March
146 BC at dawn) that differs by 5 hours from the observation made on Alexandria's large public equatorial ring that
same day (at 1 hour before noon): Hipparchus may have visited Alexandria but he did not make his equinox
observations there; presumably he was on Rhodes (at nearly the same geographical longitude). He could have
used the equatorial ring of his armillary sphere or another equatorial ring for these observations, but Hipparchus
(and Ptolemy) knew that observations with these instruments are sensitive to a precise alignment with the equator,
so if he were restricted to an armillary, it would make more sense to use its meridian ring as a transit instrument.
The problem with an equatorial ring (if an observer is naive enough to trust it very near dawn or dusk) is that
atmospheric refraction lifts the Sun significantly above the horizon: so for a northern hemisphere observer its
apparent declination is too high, which changes the observed time when the Sun crosses the equator. (Worse, the
refraction decreases as the Sun rises and increases as it sets, so it may appear to move in the wrong direction with
respect to the equator in the course of the day – as Ptolemy mentions. Ptolemy and Hipparchus apparently did not
realize that refraction is the cause.) However, such details have doubtful relation to the data of either man, since
there is no textual, scientific, or statistical ground for believing that their equinoxes were taken on an equatorial
ring, which is useless for solstices in any case. Not one of two centuries of mathematical investigations of their
solar errors has claimed to have traced them to the effect of refraction on use of an equatorial ring. Ptolemy claims
his solar observations were on a transit instrument set in the meridian.
Recent expert translation and analysis by Anne Tihon of papyrus P. Fouad 267 A has confirmed the 1991 finding
cited above that Hipparchus obtained a summer solstice in 158 BC But the papyrus makes the date June 26, over a
day earlier than the 1991 paper's conclusion for June 28. The earlier study's §M found that Hipparchus did not
adopt June 26 solstices until 146 BC when he founded the orbit of the Sun which Ptolemy later adopted.
Dovetailing these data suggests Hipparchus extrapolated the 158 BC June 26 solstice from his 145 solstice 12
years later a procedure that would cause only minuscule error. The papyrus also confirmed that Hipparchus had
used Callippic solar motion in 158 BC, a new finding in 1991 but not attested directly until P. Fouad 267 A. Another
table on the papyrus is perhaps for sidereal motion and a third table is for Metonic tropical motion, using a
previously unknown year of 365 1⁄4 – 1⁄309 days. This was presumably found[31] by dividing the 274 years from 432 to
158 BC, into the corresponding interval of 100077 days and 14 3⁄4 hours between Meton's sunrise and Hipparchus's
sunset solstices.
At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book called Peri eniausíou megéthous ("On the Length of the Year")
about his results. The established value for the tropical year, introduced by Callippus in or before 330 BC was
365 1⁄4 days.[32] Speculating a Babylonian origin for the Callippic year is hard to defend, since Babylon did not
observe solstices thus the only extant System B year length was based on Greek solstices (see below).
Hipparchus's equinox observations gave varying results, but he himself points out (quoted in Almagest III.1(H195))
that the observation errors by himself and his predecessors may have been as large as 1⁄4 day. He used old solstice
observations, and determined a difference of about one day in about 300 years. So he set the length of the tropical
year to 365 1⁄4 − 1⁄300 days (= 365.24666... days = 365 days 5 hours 55 min, which differs from the actual value (modern
estimate, including earth spin acceleration) in his time of about 365.2425 days, an error of about 6 min per year, an
hour per decade, 10 hours per century.
Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days. D. Rawlins
noted that this implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365 days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365 days
+ 14/60 + 44/602 + 51/603 ) and that this exact year length has been found on one of the few Babylonian clay tablets
which explicitly specifies the System B month. This is an indication that Hipparchus's work was known to
Chaldeans.[33]
Another value for the year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the astrologer Vettius Valens in the 1st century) is
365 + 1/4 + 1/288 days (= 365.25347... days = 365 days 6 hours 5 min), but this may be a corruption of another value
attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + 1/4 + 1/144 days (= 365.25694... days = 365 days 6 hours 10 min). It is not
clear if this would be a value for the sidereal year (actual value at his time (modern estimate) about 365.2565 days),
but the difference with Hipparchus's value for the tropical year is consistent with his rate of precession (see below).
Orbit of the Sun

Before Hipparchus, astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus made
observations of equinox and solstice, and according to Ptolemy (Almagest III.4) determined that spring (from
spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94½ days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox)
92 1⁄2 days. This is inconsistent with a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed.
Hipparchus's solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the
center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well. It is known today that the planets,
including the Earth, move in approximate ellipses around the Sun, but this was not discovered until Johannes
Kepler published his first two laws of planetary motion in 1609. The value for the eccentricity attributed to
Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is 1⁄24 of the radius of the orbit (which is a little too large), and the direction
of the apogeewould be at longitude 65.5° from the vernal equinox. Hipparchus may also have used other sets of
observations, which would lead to different values. One of his two eclipse trios' solar longitudes are consistent
with his having initially adopted inaccurate lengths for spring and summer of 95 3⁄4 and 91 1⁄4 days.[34] His other triplet
of solar positions is consistent with 94 1⁄4 and 92 1⁄2 days,[35] an improvement on the results (94 1⁄2 and 92 1⁄2 days)
attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy, which a few scholars still question the authorship of. Ptolemy made no
change three centuries later, and expressed lengths for the autumn and winter seasons which were already implicit
(as shown, e.g., by A. Aaboe).
Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and the Sun

Hipparchus on sizes and distances
Diagram used in reconstructing one of Hipparchus's methods of determining the distance to the Moon. This represents the Earth–
Moon system during a partial solar eclipse at A (Alexandria) and a total solar eclipse at H (Hellespont).
Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He published his results in a
work of two books called Perí megethōn kaí apostēmátōn ("On Sizes and Distances") by Pappus in his commentary
on the Almagest V.11; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) mentions the work with the addition "of the Sun and Moon".
Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his diopter. Like others before and after
him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation
in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the meandistance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the
same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent
diameters are 360⁄650 = 0°33′14″.
Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears
displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or stars), and the difference is greater when closer to
the horizon. He knew that this is because in the then-current models the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but
the observer is at the surface—the Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the
time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth radii can be determined. For the
Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8", several times smaller than the
resolution of the unaided eye).
In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then
analyzed a solar eclipse, which Toomer (against the opinion of over a century of astronomers) presumes to be the
eclipse of 14 March 190 BC.[36] It was total in the region of the Hellespont (and in his birthplace, Nicaea); at the time
Toomer proposes the Romans were preparing for war with Antiochus III in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned
by Livy in his Ab Urbe Condita Libri VIII.2. It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be
obscured 4/5ths by the Moon. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North,
and the region of the Hellespont about 40° North. (It has been contended that authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had
fairly decent values for these geographical positions, so Hipparchus must have known them too. However, Strabo's
Hipparchus dependent latitudes for this region are at least 1° too high, and Ptolemy appears to copy them, placing
Byzantium 2° high in latitude.) Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from
simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse
occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the meridian, and it has been proposed that as a consequence the
distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least
distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 81 Earth radii.
In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to
the Sun of 490 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7′, which is apparently the greatest parallax that
Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about
2′; Tycho Brahe made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1′). In this case, the shadow of the Earth is
a cone rather than a cylinder as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the
mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is 2 1⁄2 lunar diameters. That apparent diameter is, as
he had observed, 360⁄650 degrees. With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean
distance; because it was computed for a minimum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible
for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of
the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of 67 1⁄3, and consequently a greatest
distance of 72 2⁄3 Earth radii. With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the
minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii – exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived.
Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his
maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized
that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters. (In fact,
modern calculations show that the size of the 189 BC solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to 9⁄10ths and
not the reported 4⁄5ths, a fraction more closely matched by the degree of totality at Alexandria of eclipses occurring
in 310 and 129 BC which were also nearly total in the Hellespont and are thought by many to be more likely
possibilities for the eclipse Hipparchus used for his computations.)
Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (Almagest V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus
with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (Almagest V.15). He criticizes Hipparchus for making
contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (Almagest V.11): but apparently he failed to
understand Hipparchus's strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for
the distance. His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his
limits from Hipparchus's second book.
Theon of Smyrna wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth
twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to volumes, not diameters. From the geometry of
book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is 60 1⁄2 radii.
Similarly, Cleomedes quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar
distance of 61 radii. Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that
he could use for predictions of solar eclipses.
Eclipses
Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart,
and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days,
but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in Almagest VI.6. The geometry,
and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained
in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one
month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the
other on the southern hemisphere – as Pliny indicates – and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek.
Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper
treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment
requires spherical trigonometry, thus those who remain certain that Hipparchus lacked it must speculate that he
may have made do with planar approximations. He may have discussed these things in Perí tēs katá plátos
mēniaías tēs selēnēs kinēseōs ("On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude"), a work mentioned in the Suda.
Pliny also remarks that "he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must
from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the Moon was eclipsed in the west while
both luminaries were visible above the earth" (translation H. Rackham (1938), Loeb Classical Library 330 p. 207).
Toomer (1980) argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of 26 November 139 BC, when over a clean
sea horizon as seen from Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast.
This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian
periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus's lunar theory. We do not know what "exact reason"
Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact opposition to the Sun. Parallax
lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered.
Astronomical instruments and astrometry

Hipparchus and his predecessors used various instruments for astronomical calculations and observations, such
as the gnomon, the astrolabe, and the armillary sphere.
Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for
a long time for naked-eye observations. According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the
first astrolabion: this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed,
in AlmagestV.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of
Alexandria). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by
observing fixed stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, by
recording the length of the longest day of the year or with the portable instrument known as a scaphe.
Equatorial ring of Hipparchus's time.
Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure the
apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the Almagest of
that chapter), as did Proclus (Hypotyposis IV). It was a 4-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a
wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon.
Hipparchus also observed solar equinoxes, which may be done with an equatorial ring: its shadow falls on itself
when the Sun is on the equator (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls above or
below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in Almagest III.1
(H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such
instruments present in Alexandria in his own time.
Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface.
Before him a grid system had been used by Dicaearchus of Messana, but Hipparchus was the first to apply
mathematical rigor to the determination of the latitude and longitude of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a
critique in three books on the work of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn
'Eratosthénous geografían ("Against the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is known to us from Strabo of Amaseia,
who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own Geografia. Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections
to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in
methods, but he did propose a means to determine the geographical longitudes of different cities at lunar
eclipses (Strabo Geografia 1 January 2012). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the
difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is
observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of
timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical.
Star catalog
Hipparchus holding his celestial globe, in Raphael's The School of Athens (c. 1510)
Late in his career (possibly about 135 BC) Hipparchus compiled his star catalog, the original of which does not
survive. He also constructed a celestial globe depicting the constellations, based on his observations. His interest
in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny), or by his
discovery of precession, according to Ptolemy, who says that Hipparchus could not reconcile his data with earlier
observations made by Timocharis and Aristillus. For more information see Discovery of precession. In Raphael's
painting The School of Athens, Hipparchus is depicted holding his celestial globe, as the representative figure for
astronomy.[37]
Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century BC had described the stars and constellations in two books
called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus wrote a poem called Phaenomena or Arateia based on Eudoxus's work.
Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the Arateia – his only preserved work – which contains many stellar positions
and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his
own measurements.
Hipparchus made his measurements with an armillary sphere, and obtained the positions of at least 850 stars. It is
disputed which coordinate system(s) he used. Ptolemy's catalog in the Almagest, which is derived from
Hipparchus's catalog, is given in ecliptic coordinates. However Delambre in his Histoire de l'Astronomie
Ancienne (1817) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used the equatorial coordinate system, a conclusion
challenged by Otto Neugebauer in his A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy (1975). Hipparchus seems to
have used a mix of ecliptic coordinatesand equatorial coordinates: in his commentary on Eudoxos he provides
stars' polar distance (equivalent to the declination in the equatorial system), right ascension (equatorial), longitude
(ecliptical), polar longitude (hybrid), but not celestial latitude.
As with most of his work, Hipparchus's star catalog was adopted and perhaps expanded by Ptolemy. Delambre, in
1817, cast doubt on Ptolemy's work. It was disputed whether the star catalog in the Almagest is due to Hipparchus,
but 1976–2002 statistical and spatial analyses (by R. R. Newton, Dennis Rawlins, Gerd Grasshoff,[38]Keith
Pickering[39] and Dennis Duke[40]) have shown conclusively that the Almagest star catalog is almost entirely
Hipparchan. Ptolemy has even (since Brahe, 1598) been accused by astronomers of fraud for stating (Syntaxis,
book 7, chapter 4) that he observed all 1025 stars: for almost every star he used Hipparchus's data and precessed it
to his own epoch 2 2⁄3 centuries later by adding 2°40′ to the longitude, using an erroneously small precession
constant of 1° per century.
In any case the work started by Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage, and was much later updated by Al Sufi (964)
and Copernicus (1543). Ulugh Beg reobserved all the Hipparchus stars he could see from Samarkand in 1437 to
about the same accuracy as Hipparchus's. The catalog was superseded only in the late 16th century by Brahe and
Wilhelm IV of Kassel via superior ruled instruments and spherical trigonometry, which improved accuracy by an
order of magnitude even before the invention of the telescope. Hipparchus is considered the greatest observational
astronomer from classical antiquity until Brahe.[41]
Stellar magnitude
Hipparchus is only conjectured to have ranked the apparent magnitudes of stars on a numerical scale from 1, the
brightest, to 6, the faintest.[42] Nevertheless, this system certainly precedes Ptolemy, who used it extensively
about AD 150.[42] This system was made more precise and extended by N. R. Pogson in 1856, who placed the
magnitudes on a logarithmic scale, making magnitude 1 stars 100 times brighter than magnitude 6 stars, thus each
magnitude is 5√100 or 2.512 times brighter than the next faintest magnitude. [43]
Precession of the equinoxes (146–127 BC)

Precession (astronomy)
Hipparchus is generally recognized as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes in 127 BC.[44] His two books on
precession, On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points and On the Length of the Year, are both
mentioned in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude
of Spica and Regulus and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his
predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox.
He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal
year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that
the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1°
in a century.
Geography
Hipparchus's treatise Against the Geography of Eratosthenes in three books is not preserved.[45] Most of our
knowledge of it comes from Strabo, according to whom Hipparchus thoroughly and often unfairly
criticized Eratosthenes, mainly for internal contradictions and inaccuracy in determining positions of geographical
localities. Hipparchus insists that a geographic map must be based only on astronomical measurements
of latitudes and longitudes and triangulation for finding unknown distances. In geographic theory and methods
Hipparchus introduced three main innovations.[46] He was the first to use the grade grid, to determine geographic
latitudefrom star observations, and not only from the sun’s altitude, a method known long before him, and to
suggest that geographic longitude could be determined by means of simultaneous observations of lunar eclipses
in distant places. In the practical part of his work, the so-called "table of climata", Hipparchus listed latitudes for
several tens of localities. In particular, he improved Eratosthenes' values for the latitudes of Athens, Sicily,
and southern extremity of India.[47] In calculating latitudes of climata(latitudes correlated with the length of the
longest solstitial day), Hipparchus used an unexpectedly accurate value for the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23°40′ (the
actual value in the second half of the 2nd century BC was approximately 23°43′), whereas all other ancient authors
knew only a roughly rounded value 24°, and even Ptolemyused a less accurate value, 23°51′.[48] Hipparchus opposed
the view generally accepted in the Hellenistic period that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the Caspian Sea are
parts of a single ocean. At the same time he extends the limits of the oikoumene, i.e. the inhabited part of the land,
up to the equator and the Arctic Circle.[49]Hipparchus’ ideas found their reflection in the Geography of Ptolemy. In
essence, Ptolemy's work is an extended attempt to realize Hipparchus’ vision of what geography ought to be.
Legacy
The rather cumbersome formal name for the ESA's Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission was High Precision
Parallax Collecting Satellite; it was deliberately named in this way to give an acronym, HiPParCoS, that echoed and
commemorated the name of Hipparchus. The lunar crater Hipparchus and the asteroid 4000 Hipparchus are more
directly named after him.
Monument
The Astronomer's Monument at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California, United States features a relief of
Hipparchus as one of six of the greatest astronomers of all time and the only one from Antiquity.
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (/ˈtɒləmi/; Koine Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaúdios Ptolemaîos [kláwdios
ptolɛmɛ́os]; Latin: Claudius Ptolemaeus; c. AD 100 – c. 170)[2] was a Greco-
Roman[3] mathematician, astronomer, geographer and astrologer. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman
province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, and held Roman citizenship.[4] The 14th-century astronomer Theodore
Meliteniotes gave his birthplace as the prominent Greek city Ptolemais Hermiou (Greek: Πτολεμαΐς ‘Ερμείου) in
the Thebaid (Greek: Θηβαΐδα [Θηβαΐς]). This attestation is quite late, however, and, according to Gerald Toomer,
the translator of his Almagest into English, there is no reason to suppose he ever lived anywhere other than
Alexandria.[5] He died there around AD 168.[6]
Ptolemy wrote several scientific treatises, three of which were of importance to
later Byzantine, Islamic and Europeanscience. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest,
although it was originally entitled the Mathematical Treatise (Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, Mathēmatikē Syntaxis) and then
known as the Great Treatise (Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, Hē Megálē Syntaxis). The second is the Geography, which is a
thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise
in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is
sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika(Ἀποτελεσματικά) but more commonly known as the Tetrabiblos from
the Greek (Τετράβιβλος) meaning "Four Books" or by the Latin Quadripartitum.
Ptolemy
Ptolemy's work the Almagest had wide and long-lasting acceptance and influence for over a
millennium. He gave a geometrical lunar theory that improved on that of Hipparchus by
providing for a second inequality of the Moon's motion, using a device that made the
apparent apogee oscillate a little – prosneusis of the epicycle. This second
inequality or second anomaly accounted rather approximately, not only for the equation of
the center, but also for what became known (much later) as the evection. But this theory,
applied to its logical conclusion, would make the distance (and apparent diameter) of the
Moon appear to vary by a factor of about 2, which is clearly not seen in reality.[15] (The
apparent angular diameter of the Moon does vary monthly, but only over a much narrower
range of about 0.49°–0.55°.[16]) This defect of the Ptolemaic theory led to proposed
replacements by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century[17] and by Copernicus in the 16th century.[18]
Background
Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy being guided by the muse of Astronomy, Urania, from Margarita Philosophica by Gregor Reisch,
1508. Although Abu Ma'shar believed Ptolemy to be one of the Ptolemieswho ruled Egypt after the conquest of Alexander the title
‘King Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated standing in science.
Ptolemaeus (Πτολεμαῖος Ptolemaios) is a Greek name. It occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric
form.[7] It was common among the Macedonian upper class at the time of Alexander the Great, and there were
several of this name among Alexander's army, one of whom made himself pharaoh in 323 BC: Ptolemy I Soter, the
first king of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. All male pharaohs after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC,
were also Ptolemies.
The name Claudius is a Roman nomen; the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of
Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of
Ptolemy's family to become a citizen (whether he or an ancestor) took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius
who was responsible for granting citizenship. If, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have
been granted between AD 41 and 68 (when Claudius, and then Nero, were Roman emperors). The astronomer would
also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown.
The ninth-century Persian astronomer Abu Maʿshar presents Ptolemy as a member of Egypt's royal lineage, stating
that the ten kings of Egypt who followed Alexander were wise "and included Ptolemy the Wise, who composed the
book of the Almagest". Abu Maʿshar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line "composed the
book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy". We can evidence historical confusion on this point from Abu
Maʿshar's subsequent remark "It is sometimes said that the very learned man who wrote the book of astrology also
wrote the book of the Almagest. The correct answer is not known."[8] There is little evidence on the subject of
Ptolemy's ancestry, apart from what can be drawn from the details of his name (see above); however, modern
scholars refer to Abu Maʿshar's account as erroneous,[9] and it is no longer doubted that the astronomer who wrote
the Almagest also wrote the Tetrabiblos as its astrological counterpart.[10]
Ptolemy wrote in Koine Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data.[11][12] He was a
Roman citizen, but was ethnically either a Greek[2][13][14] or a Hellenized Egyptian.[13][15][16] He was often known in
later Arabic sources as "the Upper Egyptian",[17] suggesting he may have had origins in
southern Egypt.[18] Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name
ْ َ‫ ب‬Baṭlumyus.[19]
in Arabic: ‫طلُ ْميوس‬
Astronomy
Almagest
Ptolemy with an armillary spheremodel, by Joos van Ghent and Pedro Berruguete, 1476, Louvre, Paris
Ptolemy's Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Babylonian
astronomers had developed arithmetical techniques for calculating astronomical phenomena; Greek astronomers
such as Hipparchus had produced geometric models for calculating celestial motions. Ptolemy, however, claimed
to have derived his geometrical models from selected astronomical observations by his predecessors spanning
more than 800 years, though astronomers have for centuries suspected that his models' parameters were adopted
independently of observations.[20] Ptolemy presented his astronomical models in convenient tables, which could be
used to compute the future or past position of the planets.[21] The Almagest also contains a star catalogue, which is
a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus. Its list of forty-eight constellations is ancestral to the modern
system of constellations, but unlike the modern system they did not cover the whole sky (only the sky Hipparchus
could see). Across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa in the Medieval period, it was the authoritative text on
astronomy, with its author becoming an almost mythical figure, called Ptolemy, King of
Alexandria.[22] The Almagest was preserved, like most of extant Classical Greek science, in Arabic manuscripts
(hence its familiar name). Because of its reputation, it was widely sought and was translated twice into Latin in the
12th century, once in Sicily and again in Spain.[23]Ptolemy's model, like those of his predecessors,
was geocentric and was almost universally accepted until the appearance of simpler heliocentric models during
the scientific revolution.
His Planetary Hypotheses went beyond the mathematical model of the Almagest to present a physical realization of
the universe as a set of nested spheres,[24] in which he used the epicycles of his planetary model to compute the
dimensions of the universe. He estimated the Sun was at an average distance of 1,210 Earth radii, while the radius
of the sphere of the fixed stars was 20,000 times the radius of the Earth. [25]
Ptolemy presented a useful tool for astronomical calculations in his Handy Tables, which tabulated all the data
needed to compute the positions of the Sun, Moon and planets, the rising and setting of the stars, and eclipses of
the Sun and Moon. Ptolemy's Handy Tables provided the model for later astronomical tables or zījes. In
the Phaseis (Risings of the Fixed Stars), Ptolemy gave a parapegma, a star calendar or almanac, based on the
appearances and disappearances of stars over the course of the solar year. [26]
The Geography
Geography (Ptolemy)
Geography by Ptolemy, Latin manuscript of the early 15th century
Ptolemy's other main work is his Geography (also called the Geographia), a compilation of geographical
coordinates of the part of the world known to the Roman Empire during his time. He relied somewhat on the work
of an earlier geographer, Marinos of Tyre, and on gazetteers of the Roman and ancient Persian Empire.[citation needed] He
also acknowledged ancient astronomer Hipparchus for having provided the elevation of the north celestial
pole[27] for a few cities.[28]
The first part of the Geography is a discussion of the data and of the methods he used. As with the model of the
solar system in the Almagest, Ptolemy put all this information into a grand scheme. Following Marinos, he
assigned coordinates to all the places and geographic features he knew, in a grid that spanned the
globe. Latitude was measured from the equator, as it is today, but Ptolemy preferred[29] to express it as climata, the
length of the longest day rather than degrees of arc: the length of the midsummer day increases from 12h to 24h as
one goes from the equator to the polar circle. In books 2 through 7, he used degrees and put the meridian of
0 longitude at the most western land he knew, the "Blessed Islands", often identified as the Canary Islands, as
suggested by the location of the six dots labelled the "FORTUNATA" islands near the left extreme of the blue sea of
Ptolemy's map here reproduced.
A 15th-century manuscript copy of the Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geography(circa AD 150), indicating the
countries of "Serica" and "Sinae" (China) at the extreme east, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the
"Aurea Chersonesus" (Malay Peninsula).
Prima Europe tabula. A 15th century copy of Ptolemy's map of Britain and Ireland.
Ptolemy also devised and provided instructions on how to create maps both of the whole inhabited world
(oikoumenè) and of the Roman provinces. In the second part of the Geography, he provided the
necessary topographic lists, and captions for the maps. His oikoumenèspanned 180 degrees of longitude from the
Blessed Islands in the Atlantic Ocean to the middle of China, and about 80 degrees of latitude from Shetland to
anti-Meroe (east coast of Africa); Ptolemy was well aware that he knew about only a quarter of the globe, and an
erroneous extension of China southward suggests his sources did not reach all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
The maps in surviving manuscripts of Ptolemy's Geography, however, only date from about 1300, after the text was
rediscovered by Maximus Planudes. It seems likely that the topographical tables in books 2–7 are cumulative texts
– texts which were altered and added to as new knowledge became available in the centuries after Ptolemy. [30] This
means that information contained in different parts of the Geography is likely to be of different dates.
A printed map from the 15th century depicting Ptolemy's description of the Ecumene, (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver).
Maps based on scientific principles had been made since the time of Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BC, but
Ptolemy improved map projections. It is known from a speech by Eumenius that a world map, an orbis pictus,
doubtless based on the Geography, was on display in a school in Augustodunum, Gaul in the third century.[31] In the
15th century, Ptolemy's Geography began to be printed with engraved maps; the earliest printed edition with
engraved maps was produced in Bologna in 1477, followed quickly by a Roman edition in 1478 (Campbell, 1987).
An edition printed at Ulm in 1482, including woodcut maps, was the first one printed north of the Alps. The maps
look distorted when compared to modern maps, because Ptolemy's data were inaccurate. One reason is that
Ptolemy estimated the size of the Earth as too small: while Eratosthenes found 700 stadiafor a great circle degree
on the globe, Ptolemy uses 500 stadia in the Geography. It is highly probable that these were the same stadion,
since Ptolemy switched from the former scale to the latter between the Syntaxis and the Geography, and severely
readjusted longitude degrees accordingly. See also Ancient Greek units of measurement and History of geodesy.
Because Ptolemy derived many of his key latitudes from crude longest day values, his latitudes are erroneous on
average by roughly a degree (2 degrees for Byzantium, 4 degrees for Carthage), though capable ancient
astronomers knew their latitudes to more like a minute. (Ptolemy's own latitude was in error by 14'.) He agreed
(Geography 1.4) that longitude was best determined by simultaneous observation of lunar eclipses, yet he was so
out of touch with the scientists of his day that he knew of no such data more recent than 500 years before (Arbela
eclipse). When switching from 700 stadia per degree to 500, he (or Marinos) expanded longitude differences
between cities accordingly (a point first realized by P. Gosselin in 1790), resulting in serious over-stretching of the
Earth's east-west scale in degrees, though not distance. Achieving highly precise longitude remained a problem in
geography until the application of Galileo's Jovian moon method in the 18th century. It must be added that his
original topographic list cannot be reconstructed: the long tables with numbers were transmitted to posterity
through copies containing many scribal errors, and people have always been adding or improving the topographic
data: this is a testimony to the persistent popularity of this influential work in the history of cartography.
Astrology
Tetrabiblos
The mathematician Claudius Ptolemy 'the Alexandrian', as depicted by a 16th-century engraving[1]
Ptolemy has been referred to as "a pro-astrological authority of the highest magnitude".[32] His astrological treatise,
a work in four parts, is known by the Greek term Tetrabiblos, or the Latin equivalent Quadripartitum: "Four Books".
Ptolemy's own title is unknown, but may have been the term found in some Greek manuscripts: Apotelesmatika,
roughly meaning "Astrological Outcomes", "Effects" or "Prognostics". [33][34]
As a source of reference, the Tetrabiblos is said to have "enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the
astrological writers of a thousand years or more".[35] It was first translated from Arabic into Latin by Plato of
Tivoli (Tiburtinus) in 1138, while he was in Spain.[36] The Tetrabiblos is an extensive and continually reprinted
treatise on the ancient principles of horoscopic astrology. That it did not quite attain the unrivaled status of
the Almagest was, perhaps, because it did not cover some popular areas of the subject, particularly electional
astrology (interpreting astrological charts for a particular moment to determine the outcome of a course of action
to be initiated at that time), and medical astrology, which were later adoptions.
The great popularity that the Tetrabiblos did possess might be attributed to its nature as an exposition of the art of
astrology, and as a compendium of astrological lore, rather than as a manual. It speaks in general terms, avoiding
illustrations and details of practice. Ptolemy was concerned to defend astrology by defining its limits, compiling
astronomical data that he believed was reliable and dismissing practices (such as considering
the numerological significance of names) that he believed to be without sound basis.
Much of the content of the Tetrabiblos was collected from earlier sources; Ptolemy's achievement was to order his
material in a systematic way, showing how the subject could, in his view, be rationalized. It is, indeed, presented as
the second part of the study of astronomy of which the Almagestwas the first, concerned with the influences of the
celestial bodies in the sublunary sphere. Thus explanations of a sort are provided for the astrological effects of
the planets, based upon their combined effects of heating, cooling, moistening, and drying.
Ptolemy's astrological outlook was quite practical: he thought that astrology was like medicine, that is conjectural,
because of the many variable factors to be taken into account: the race, country, and upbringing of a person affects
an individual's personality as much as, if not more than, the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the precise
moment of their birth, so Ptolemy saw astrology as something to be used in life but in no way relied on entirely.
A collection of one hundred aphorisms about astrology called the Centiloquium, ascribed to Ptolemy, was widely
reproduced and commented on by Arabic, Latin and Hebrew scholars, and often bound together in medieval
manuscripts after the Tetrabiblos as a kind of summation. It is now believed to be a much
later pseudepigraphical composition. The identity and date of the actual author of the work, referred to now
as Pseudo-Ptolemy, remains the subject of conjecture.[
Music
Ptolemy also wrote an influential work, Harmonics, on music theory and the mathematics of music.[37] After
criticizing the approaches of his predecessors, Ptolemy argued for basing musical intervals on mathematical ratios
(in contrast to the followers of Aristoxenus and in agreement with the followers of Pythagoras), backed up by
empirical observation (in contrast to the overly theoretical approach of the Pythagoreans). Ptolemy wrote about
how musical notes could be translated into mathematical equations and vice versa in Harmonics. This is called
Pythagorean tuning because it was first discovered by Pythagoras. However, Pythagoras believed that the
mathematics of music should be based on the specific ratio of 3:2, whereas Ptolemy merely believed that it should
just generally involve tetrachords and octaves. He presented his own divisions of the tetrachord and the octave,
which he derived with the help of a monochord. His Harmonics never had the influence of
his Almagest or Planetary Hypotheses, but a part of it (Book III) did encourage Kepler in his own musings on the
harmony of the world (Kepler, Harmonice Mundi, Appendix to Book V).[38] Ptolemy's astronomical interests also
appeared in a discussion of the "music of the spheres". See: Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale.
Optics
Optics (Ptolemy)
His Optics is a work that survives only in a poor Arabic translation and in about twenty manuscripts of a Latin
version of the Arabic, which was translated by Eugene of Palermo (c. 1154). In it, Ptolemy writes about properties
of light, including reflection, refraction, and colour. The work is a significant part of the early history of optics[39]and
influenced the more famous 11th-century Book of Optics by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham). It contains the earliest
surviving table of refraction from air to water, for which the values (with the exception of the 60° angle of
incidence), although historically praised as experimentally derived, appear to have been obtained from an
arithmetic progression.[40]
The work is also important for the early history of perception. Ptolemy combined the mathematical, philosophical
and physiological traditions. He held an extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye
formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and
conveyed information back to the observer’s intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. Size and
shape were determined by the visual angle subtended at the eye combined with perceived distance and orientation.
This was one of the early statements of size-distance invariance as a cause of perceptual size and shape
constancy, a view supported by the Stoics.[41] Ptolemy offered explanations for many phenomena concerning
illumination and colour, size, shape, movement and binocular vision. He also divided illusions into those caused by
physical or optical factors and those caused by judgmental factors. He offered an obscure explanation of the sun
or moon illusion (the enlarged apparent size on the horizon) based on the difficulty of looking upwards. [42][43]
Named after Ptolemy

There are several characters or items named after Ptolemy, including:
 The crater Ptolemaeus on the Moon;

 The crater Ptolemaeus[44] on Mars;
 The asteroid 4001 Ptolemaeus;
 The Ptolemy Stone used in the mathematics courses at both US St. John's College campuses.
 Ptolemy's theorem on distances in a cyclic quadrilateral, and its generalization, Ptolemy's inequality, to non-
cyclic quadrilaterals
 Ptolemaic graphs, the graphs whose distances obey Ptolemy's inequality
 Ptolemy Slocum, actor
Ibn al-Shatir
ʿAbu al-Ḥasan Alāʾ al‐Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ansari[1] known as Ibn al-Shatir or Ibn ash-Shatir (Arabic: ‫ ;ابن الشاطر‬1304–
1375) was a Syrian Arab astronomer, mathematician and engineer. He worked as muwaqqit (‫موقت‬, religious
timekeeper) in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and constructed a sundial for its minaret in 1371/72.
Ibn al-shatir,
Significant advances in lunar theory made by the Arab astronomer, Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375).
Drawing on the observation that the distance to the Moon did not change as drastically as
required by Ptolemy's lunar model, he produced a new lunar model that replaced Ptolemy's
crank mechanism with a double epicycle model that reduced the computed range of
distances of the Moon from the Earth.[17][19]
Work on Astronomy
Ibn al-Shatir most important astronomical treatise was kitab nihayat al-sul fi tashih al-usul ("The Final Quest
Concerning the Rectification of Principles"). In it he drastically reformed the Ptolemaic models of
the Sun, Moon and planets. His model incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by
introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was
mathematically identical to what Nicolaus Copernicus did in the 16th century.
Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles
of natural philosophy or Aristotelian cosmology, but rather to produce a model that was more consistent
with empirical observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him
to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic solar model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the
Ptolemaic lunar model. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical observations than any previous
model,[2] and was also the first that permitted empirical testing.[3]His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy,
which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". [2]
Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles in a Ptolemaic enterprise
Drawing on the observation that the distance to the Moon did not change as drastically as required by Ptolemy's
lunar model, Ibn al-Shatir produced a new lunar model that replaced Ptolemy's crank mechanism with a double
epicycle model that reduced the computed range of distances of the Moon from the Earth.[4] This was the first
accurate lunar model which matched physical observations.[5]
Possible influence on Nicolaus Copernicus

Although Ibn al-Shatir's system was firmly geocentric (he had eliminated the Ptolemaic eccentrics), the
mathematical details of his system were identical to those in Copernicus's De revolutionibus.[6] Furthermore, the
exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the Commentariolus paralleled the work of
Ibn al-Shatir one century earlier. [7] Ibn al-Shatir's lunar and Mercury models are also identical to those of
Copernicus.[8] This has led some scholars to argue that Copernicus must have had access to some yet to be
identified work on the ideas of ibn al-Shatir.[9] It is unknown whether Copernicus read ibn al-Shatir and the argument
is still debated.
Instruments
The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based
on earlier developments in trigonometry by al-Battānī. Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel
to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial
is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least
1446.[10][11]
Ibn al-Shatir also invented a timekeeping device called "ṣandūq al‐yawāqīt" (jewel box), which incorporates both a
universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of prayers.[12] Other
notable instruments invented by him include a reversed astrolabe and an astrolabic clock.
Nicolas Copernicus.
Nicolaus Copernicus (/koʊˈpɜːrnɪkəs, kə-/;[2][3][4] Polish: Mikołaj Kopernik;[b] German: Nikolaus Kopernikus; Niklas
Koppernigk; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer who
formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe, in all
likelihood independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated such a model some eighteen centuries
earlier.[c][d]
The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres), just before his death in 1543, was a major event in the history of science, triggering
the Copernican Revolution and making a pioneering contribution to the Scientific Revolution.[6]
Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, a region that had been part of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466.
A polyglot and polymath, he obtained a doctorate in canon law and was also
a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics scholar, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. In 1517
he derived a quantity theory of money – a key concept in economics – and in 1519 he formulated an economic
principle that later came to be called Gresham's law
Nicolaus Copernicus
A similar lunar theory, developed some 150 years later by

the Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, had the same advantage concerning the
lunar distances
Life
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the city of Thorn (modern Toruń), in the province of Royal
Prussia, in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.[8][9] His father was a merchant from Kraków and his mother was the
daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant.[10] Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas (Andrew)
became an Augustinian canon at Frombork (Frauenburg).[10] His sister Barbara, named after her mother, became
a Benedictine nunand, in her final years, prioress of a convent in Chełmno (Kulm); she died after 1517.[10] His sister
Katharina married the businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, whom
Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.[10] Copernicus never married and is not known to have had children,
but from at least 1531 until 1539 his relations with Anna Schilling, a live-in housekeeper, were seen as scandalous
by two bishops of Warmia who urged him over the years to break off relations with his "mistress". [11]
Father's family
Toruń birthplace (ul. Kopernika 15, left). Together with the house at no. 17 (right), it forms the Muzeum Mikołaja Kopernika.
Copernicus' father's family can be traced to a village in Silesia near Nysa (Neiße). The village's name has been
variously spelled Kopernik,[f] Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, and today Koperniki.[13] In the 14th century,
members of the family began moving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (1367), and to
Toruń (1400).[13] The father, Mikołaj the Elder, likely the son of Jan, came from the Kraków line.[13]
Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in
copper, selling it mostly in Danzig (Gdańsk).[14][15] He moved from Kraków to Toruń around 1458.[16] Toruń, situated on
the Vistula River, was at that time embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War, in which the Kingdom of Poland and
the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussiancities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Order over control
of the region. In this war, Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus's hometown, chose to
support the Polish King, Casimir IV Jagiellon, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence,
which the Teutonic Order had challenged. Nicolaus' father was actively engaged in the politics of the day and
supported Poland and the cities against the Teutonic Order.[17] In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Poland's
Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of war loans. [13] In the Second Peace of
Thorn (1466), the Teutonic Order formally relinquished all claims to its western province, which as Royal
Prussia remained a region of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland until the First (1772) and Second
(1793) Partitions of Poland.
Copernicus's father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomer's mother, between 1461 and 1464. [13] He died
about 1483.[10]
Mother's family
Nicolaus' mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of a wealthy Toruń patrician and city councillor, Lucas
Watzenrode the Elder(deceased 1462), and Katarzyna (widow of Jan Peckau), mentioned in other sources
as Katarzyna Rüdiger gente Modlibóg (deceased 1476).[10] The Modlibógs were a prominent Polish family who had
been well known in Poland's history since 1271.[18] The Watzenrode family, like the Kopernik family, had come from
Silesia from near Świdnica (Schweidnitz), and after 1360 had settled in Toruń. They soon became one of the
wealthiest and most influential patrician families.[10] Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by
marriage, Copernicus was related to wealthy families of Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig) and Elbląg (Elbing), and to
prominent Polish noble families of Prussia: the Czapskis, Działyńskis, Konopackis and Kościeleckis.[10] Lucas and
Katherine had three children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), who would become Bishop of
Warmia and Copernicus's patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother (deceased after 1495); and Christina (deceased
before 1502), who in 1459 married the Toruń merchant and mayor, Tiedeman von Allen. [10]
Copernicus' maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger
Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, a wealthy merchant and in 1439–62 president of the judicial bench, was a decided
opponent of the Teutonic Knights.[10] In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz)
conference that planned the uprising against them.[10] During the ensuing Thirteen Years' War (1454–66), he actively
supported the Prussian cities' war effort with substantial monetary subsidies (only part of which he later re-
claimed), with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by personally fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen)
and Malbork (Marienburg).[10] He died in 1462.[10]
Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle and patron, was educated at the University of
Kraków (now Jagiellonian University) and at the universities of Cologne and Bologna. He was a bitter opponent of
the Teutonic Order,[g] and its Grand Master once referred to him as "the devil incarnate". [h] In 1489 Watzenrode was
elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to install
his own son in that seat.[21] As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IV's death three years
later.[22] Watzenrode was then able to form close relations with three successive Polish monarchs: John I
Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each ruler, and his
influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper. [23] Watzenrode came to be considered
the most powerful man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus'
education and career as a canon at Frombork Cathedral.[21][i]
Languages
German-language letter from Copernicus to Duke Albert of Prussia, giving medical advice for George von Kunheim (1541)
Copernicus is postulated to have spoken Latin, German, and Polish with equal fluency; he also
spoke Greek and Italian, and had some knowledge of Hebrew.[j][k][l][m] The vast majority of Copernicus's extant
writings are in Latin, the language of European academia in his lifetime.
Arguments for German being Copernicus's native tongue are that he was born in a predominantly German-
speaking city and that, while studying canon law at Bologna in 1496, he signed into the German natio (Natio
Germanorum)—a student organization which, according to its 1497 by-laws, was open to students of all kingdoms
and states whose mother-tongue was German.[33] However, according to French philosopher Alexandre Koyré,
Copernicus's registration with the Natio Germanorum does not in itself imply that Copernicus considered himself
German, since students from Prussia and Silesia were routinely so categorized, which carried certain privileges
that made it a natural choice for German-speaking students, regardless of their ethnicity or self-identification.[33][n][o][36]
Name
The surname Kopernik, Copernik, Koppernigk is recorded in Kraków from c. 1350, in various spellings, apparently
given to people from the village of Koperniki (prior to 1845 rendered Kopernik, Copernik, Copirnik and Koppirnik) in
the Duchy of Nysa. Nicolas Copernicus' great-grandfather is recorded as having received citizenship in Kraków in
1386. The toponym Kopernik (modern Koperniki) has been variously tied to the Polish word for dill (koper) and
German for copper (Kupfer).[p] The suffix -nik (or plural -niki) denotes a Slavic and Polish agent noun, though.
As was common in the period, the spellings of both the toponym and the surname vary greatly. Copernicus "was
rather indifferent about orthography".[37] During his childhood, about 1480, the name of his father (and thus of the
future astronomer) was recorded in Thorn as Niclas Koppernigk.[38] At Kraków he signed himself, in Latin, Nicolaus
Nicolai de Torunia (Nicolaus, son of Nicolaus, of Toruń).[q] At Bologna, in 1496, he registered in the Matricula
Nobilissimi Germanorum Collegii, resp. Annales Clarissimae Nacionis Germanorum, of the Natio Germanica
Bononiae, as Dominus Nicolaus Kopperlingk de Thorn – IX grosseti.[40][41] At Padua he signed himself "Nicolaus
Copernik", later "Coppernicus".[37] The astronomer thus Latinized his name to Coppernicus, generally with two "p"s
(in 23 of 31 documents studied),[42] but later in life he used a single "p". On the title page of De
revolutionibus, Rheticus published the name (in the genitive, or possessive, case) as "Nicolai Copernici".[r]
Education
In Poland
Upon his father's death, young Nicolaus' maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), took the boy
under his wing and saw to his education and career.[10] Watzenrode maintained contacts with leading intellectual
figures in Poland and was a friend of the influential Italian-born humanist and Kraków courtier, Filippo
Buonaccorsi.[43] There are no surviving primary documents on the early years of Copernicus's childhood and
education.[10] Copernicus biographers assume that Watzenrode first sent young Copernicus to St. John's School, at
Toruń, where he himself had been a master.[10] Later, according to Armitage,[s] the boy attended the Cathedral School
at Włocławek, up the Vistula River from Toruń, which prepared pupils for entrance to the University of Kraków,
Watzenrode's alma mater in Poland's capital.[44]
Collegium Maius at Kraków University, Copernicus' Polish alma mater
In the winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia", matriculated together with his
brother Andrew at the University of Kraków (now Jagiellonian University).[10] Copernicus began his studies in the
Department of Arts (from the fall of 1491, presumably until the summer or fall of 1495) in the heyday of the Kraków
astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the foundations for his subsequent mathematical
achievements.[10] According to a later but credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Copernicus was a pupil of Albert
Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor of Aristotelian philosophybut taught astronomy privately
outside the university; Copernicus became familiar with Brudzewski's widely read commentary to Georg von
Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum and almost certainly attended the lectures of Bernard of
Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły, and probably other astronomical lectures by Jan of Głogów, Michał of
Wrocław (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy, and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.[45]
Copernicus' Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in the mathematical astronomy taught at the
University (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy) and a
good knowledge of the philosophical and natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics)
and Averroes (which in the future would play an important role in the shaping of Copernicus' theory), stimulating
his interest in learning and making him conversant with humanistic culture.[21] Copernicus broadened the
knowledge that he took from the university lecture halls with independent reading of books that he acquired during
his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum);
to this period, probably, also date his earliest scientific notes, now preserved partly at Uppsala University.[21] At
Kraków Copernicus began collecting a large library on astronomy; it would later be carried off as war booty by the
Swedes during the Deluge in the 1650s and is now at the Uppsala University Library.[46]
Copernicus' four years at Kraków played an important role in the development of his critical faculties and initiated
his analysis of logical contradictions in the two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric
spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles—the surmounting and discarding of which would
be the first step toward the creation of Copernicus' own doctrine of the structure of the universe. [21]
Without taking a degree, probably in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków for the court of his uncle Watzenrode,
who in 1489 had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (before November 1495) sought to place his
nephew in the Warmia canonry vacated by the 26 August 1495 death of its previous tenant, Jan Czanow. For
unclear reasons—probably due to opposition from part of the chapter, who appealed to Rome—Copernicus'
installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode to send both his nephews to study canon law in Italy, seemingly
with a view to furthering their ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening his own influence in the Warmia
chapter.[21]
Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew in Wrocław
Leaving Warmia in mid-1496—possibly with the retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going
to Italy—in the fall, possibly in October, Copernicus arrived in Bologna and a few months later (after 6 January
1497) signed himself into the register of the Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation", which included young
Poles from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students of other nationalities.[21]
In Italy
On 20 October 1497, Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry which had been granted to
him two years earlier. To this, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, he would add a sinecure at
the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew in Wrocław (at the time in the Kingdom of Bohemia).
Despite having been granted a papal indult on 29 November 1508 to receive further benefices, through his
ecclesiastic career Copernicus not only did not acquire further prebendsand higher stations (prelacies) at the
chapter, but in 1538 he relinquished the Wrocław sinecure. It is unclear whether he was ever ordained a
priest.[47] Edward Rosen asserts that he was not.[48][49] Copernicus did take minor orders, which sufficed for assuming
a chapter canonry.[21] The Catholic Encyclopedia proposes that his ordination was probable, as in 1537 he was one
of four candidates for the episcopal seat of Warmia, a position which required ordination.[50]
During his three-year stay at Bologna, between fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have devoted
himself less keenly to studying canon law (he received his doctorate in law only after seven years, following a
second return to Italy in 1503) than to studying the humanities—probably attending lectures by Filippo
Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni, and Alessandro Achillini—and to studying astronomy.
He met the famous astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and
assistant.[21]Copernicus was developing new ideas inspired by reading the "Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in
Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496). He verified its
observations about certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's theory of the Moon's motion, by conducting on 9 March 1497
at Bologna a memorable observation of the occultation of Aldebaran, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation,
by the moon. Copernicus the humanist sought confirmation for his growing doubts through close reading of Greek
and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny the
Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while at Padua, fragmentary historic
information about ancient astronomical, cosmological and calendarsystems.[51]
Via Galliera 65, Bologna, site of house of Domenico Maria Novara
"Here, where stood the house of Domenico Maria Novara, professor of the ancient Studium of Bologna, NICOLAUS COPERNICUS,
the Polish mathematician and astronomer who would revolutionize concepts of the universe, conducted brilliant celestial
observations with his teacher in 1497–1500. Placed on the 5th centenary of [Copernicus's] birth by the City, the University, the
Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna, the Polish Academy of Sciences. 1473 [—] 1973."
Copernicus spent the jubilee year 1500 in Rome, where he arrived with his brother Andrew that spring, doubtless to
perform an apprenticeship at the Papal Curia. Here, too, however, he continued his astronomical work begun at
Bologna, observing, for example, a lunar eclipse on the night of 5–6 November 1500. According to a later account
by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than at the Roman Sapienza—as a "Professor
Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous... students and... leading masters of the science",
public lectures devoted probably to a critique of the mathematical solutions of contemporary astronomy. [52]
On his return journey doubtless stopping briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia. After
on 28 July receiving from the chapter a two-year extension of leave in order to study medicine (since "he may in
future be a useful medical advisor to our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of the
chapter"), in late summer or in the fall he returned again to Italy, probably accompanied by his brother Andrew [t] and
by Canon Bernhard Sculteti. This time he studied at the University of Padua, famous as a seat of medical learning,
and—except for a brief visit to Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations for, and receive, his doctorate in
canon law—he remained at Padua from fall 1501 to summer 1503.[52]
Copernicus studied medicine probably under the direction of leading Padua professors—Bartolomeo da
Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he
acquired at this time, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Villa Nova, and
Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo of his later medical library.[52]
One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, since it was considered an important part of
a medical education.[54] However, unlike most other prominent Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to have
practiced or expressed any interest in astrology. [55]
As at Bologna, Copernicus did not limit himself to his official studies. It was probably the Padua years that saw the
beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Greek language and culture with the aid
of Theodorus Gaza's grammar (1495) and J.B. Chrestonius' dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity,
begun at Bologna, to the writings of Basilius Bessarion, Lorenzo Valla and others. There also seems to be evidence
that it was during his Padua stay that the idea finally crystallized, of basing a new system of the world on the
movement of the Earth.[52] As the time approached for Copernicus to return home, in spring 1503 he journeyed to
Ferrara where, on 31 May 1503, having passed the obligatory examinations, he was granted the degree of Doctor of
Canon Law (Nicolaus Copernich de Prusia, Jure Canonico ... et doctoratus[56]). No doubt it was soon after (at latest,
in fall 1503) that he left Italy for good to return to Warmia.[52]
Planetary observations
Copernicus made three observations of Mercury, with errors of -3, -15 and -1 minutes of arc. He made one of Venus,
with an error of -24 minutes. Four were made of Mars, with errors of 2, 20, 77, and 137 minutes. Four observations
were made of Jupiter, with errors of 32, 51, -11 and 25 minutes. He made four of Saturn, with errors of 31, 20, 23 and
-4 minutes.[57]
Work
Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God, by Matejko. In background: Frombork Cathedral.
Having completed all his studies in Italy, 30-year-old Copernicus returned to Warmia, where he would live out the
remaining 40 years of his life, apart from brief journeys to Kraków and to nearby Prussian
cities: Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig), Elbląg(Elbing), Grudziądz (Graudenz), Malbork (Marienburg), Königsberg (Kr
ólewiec).[52]
The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own diet (parliament) and monetary unit
(the same as in the other parts of Royal Prussia) and treasury.[58]
Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and physician from 1503 to 1510 (or perhaps till his uncle's death on 29
March 1512) and resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where he began work on his heliocentric
theory. In his official capacity, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic and administrative-
economic duties. From the beginning of 1504, Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions of the Royal
Prussian diet held at Malbork and Elbląg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated... in all the more
important events in the complex diplomatic game that ambitious politician and statesman played in defense of the
particular interests of Prussia and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Order and loyalty to the Polish
Crown."[52]
Copernicus's translation of Theophylact Simocatta's Epistles. Cover shows coats-of-arms of (clockwise from top) Poland,
Lithuania and Kraków.
In 1504–12 Copernicus made numerous journeys as part of his uncle's retinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk, to a
session of the Royal Prussian Council in the presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to sessions of the
Prussian diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum (Stuhm) (1512); and he may have attended
a Poznań (Posen) session (1510) and the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Old in Kraków (1507).
Watzenrode's itinerary suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended the Krakówsejm.[52]
It was probably on the latter occasion, in Kraków, that Copernicus submitted for printing at Jan Haller's press his
translation, from Greek to Latin, of a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, of 85
brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have passed between various characters in a Greek story. They
are of three kinds—"moral," offering advice on how people should live; "pastoral", giving little pictures of shepherd
life; and "amorous", comprising love poems. They are arranged to follow one another in a regular rotation of
subjects. Copernicus had translated the Greek verses into Latin prose, and he now published his version
as Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he
dedicated to his uncle in gratitude for all the benefits he had received from him. With this translation, Copernicus
declared himself on the side of the humanists in the struggle over the question whether Greek literature should be
revived.[28] Copernicus's first poetic work was a Greek epigram, composed probably during a visit to Kraków,
for Johannes Dantiscus' epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to King Zygmunt I the Old.[59]
Some time before 1514, Copernicus wrote an initial outline of his heliocentric theory known only from later
transcripts, by the title (perhaps given to it by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a
se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical
description of the world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical apparatus, and differed in some important
details of geometric construction from De revolutionibus; but it was already based on the same assumptions
regarding Earth's triple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as merely a first sketch
for his planned book, was not intended for printed distribution. He made only a very few manuscript copies
available to his closest acquaintances, including, it seems, several Kraków astronomers with whom he collaborated
in 1515–30 in observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would include a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own
treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in 1602, based on a manuscript that he had
received from the Bohemian physician and astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a friend of Rheticus.
The Commentariolus would appear complete in print for the first time only in 1878. [59]
Copernicus' tower at Frombork, where he lived and worked; reconstructed since World War II
In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on the Baltic
Sea coast. There, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fabian of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It
was only in early June 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the defensive
walls of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchased the northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork
stronghold. He would maintain both these residences to the end of his life, despite the devastation of the chapter's
buildings by a raid against Frauenburg carried out by the Teutonic Order in January 1520, during which
Copernicus's astronomical instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical
observations in 1513–16 presumably from his external curia; and in 1522–43, from an unidentified "small tower"
(turricula), using primitive instruments modeled on ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At
Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his more than 60 registered astronomical observations. [59]
Having settled permanently at Frombork, where he would reside to the end of his life, with interruptions in 1516–19
and 1520–21, Copernicus found himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was
also one of Warmia's two chief centers of political life. In the difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia,
threatened externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish-Teutonic War of
1519–21; Albert's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to strong separatist pressures (the selection of
the prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part of the chapter, represented a program of
strict cooperation with the Polish Crown and demonstrated in all his public activities (the defense of his country
against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support for
Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a citizen of
the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the death of uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of
the Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), governing the appointment of the Bishop of Warmia,
declaring, despite opposition from part of the chapter, for loyal cooperation with the Polish Crown.[59]
Frombork Cathedral mount and fortifications. In foreground: statue of Copernicus.
That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for
administering the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office again in 1530), having already since
1511 fulfilled the duties of chancellor and visitor of the chapter's estates.[59]
His administrative and economic dutes did not distract Copernicus, in 1512–15, from intensive observational
activity. The results of his observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and especially a series of four
observations of the Sun made in 1515, led to discovery of the variability of Earth's eccentricity and of the
movement of the solar apogee in relation to the fixed stars, which in 1515–19 prompted his first revisions of certain
assumptions of his system. Some of the observations that he made in this period may have had a connection with
a proposed reform of the Julian calendar made in the first half of 1513 at the request of the Bishop of
Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their contacts in this matter in the period of the Fifth Lateran Council were later
memorialized in a complimentary mention in Copernicus's dedicatory epistle in Dē revolutionibus orbium
coelestium and in a treatise by Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which
mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation. [60]
Olsztyn Castle
During 1516–21, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Castle as economic administrator of Warmia,
including Olsztyn(Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, he wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum
desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populating those fiefs with industrious farmers and so
bolstering the economy of Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the Teutonic Knights during the Polish–
Teutonic War, Copernicus directed the defense of Olsztyn and Warmia by Royal Polish forces. He also represented
the Polish side in the ensuing peace negotiations.[61]
Copernicus for years advised the Royal Prussian sejmik on monetary reform, particularly in the 1520s when that
was a major question in regional Prussian politics.[62] In 1526 he wrote a study on the value of money, "Monetae
cudendae ratio". In it he formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called Gresham's law, that "bad"
(debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation—several decades before Thomas
Gresham. He also, in 1517, set down a quantity theory of money, a principal concept in economics to the present
day. Copernicus's recommendations on monetary reform were widely read by leaders of both Prussia and Poland
in their attempts to stabilize currency.[63]
Copernicus Monument in Warsaw designed by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen
In 1533, Johann Widmanstetter, secretary to Pope Clement VII, explained Copernicus's heliocentric system to the
Pope and two cardinals. The Pope was so pleased that he gave Widmanstetter a valuable gift. [64] In 1535 Bernard
Wapowski wrote a letter to a gentleman in Vienna, urging him to publish an enclosed almanac, which he claimed
had been written by Copernicus. This is the only mention of a Copernicus almanac in the historical records. The
"almanac" was likely Copernicus's tables of planetary positions. Wapowski's letter mentions Copernicus's theory
about the motions of the earth. Nothing came of Wapowski's request, because he died a couple of weeks later. [64]
Following the death of Prince-Bishop of Warmia Mauritius Ferber (1 July 1537), Copernicus participated in the
election of his successor, Johannes Dantiscus (20 September 1537). Copernicus was one of four candidates for the
post, written in at the initiative of Tiedemann Giese; but his candidacy was actually pro forma, since Dantiscus had
earlier been named coadjutor bishop to Ferber and since Dantiscus had the backing of Poland's King Sigismund
I.[65] At first Copernicus maintained friendly relations with the new Prince-Bishop, assisting him medically in spring
1538 and accompanying him that summer on an inspection tour of Chapter holdings. But that autumn, their
friendship was strained by suspicions over Copernicus's housekeeper, Anna Schilling, whom Dantiscus banished
from Frombork in spring 1539.[65]
In his younger days, Copernicus the physician had treated his uncle, brother and other chapter members. In later
years he was called upon to attend the elderly bishops who in turn occupied the see of Warmia—Mauritius Ferber
and Johannes Dantiscus – and, in 1539, his old friend Tiedemann Giese, Bishop of Chełmno (Kulm). In treating
such important patients, he sometimes sought consultations from other physicians, including the physician to
Duke Albert and, by letter, the Polish Royal Physician.[66]
Portrait of Copernicus holding a lily of the valley, published in Nicolaus Reusner's Icones (1587), based on a sketch by Tobias
Stimmer (c. 1570), allegedly based on a self-portrait by Copernicus. This portrait became the basis of most later depictions of
Copernicus.[67]
In the spring of 1541, Duke Albert—former Grand Master of the Teutonic Order who had converted the Monastic
State of the Teutonic Knights into a Lutheran and hereditary realm, the Duchy of Prussia, upon doing homage to
his uncle, the King of Poland, Sigismund I—summoned Copernicus to Königsberg to attend the Duke's
counselor, George von Kunheim, who had fallen seriously ill, and for whom the Prussian doctors seemed unable to
do anything. Copernicus went willingly; he had met von Kunheim during negotiations over reform of the coinage.
And Copernicus had come to feel that Albert himself was not such a bad person; the two had many intellectual
interests in common. The Chapter readily gave Copernicus permission to go, as it wished to remain on good terms
with the Duke, despite his Lutheran faith. In about a month the patient recovered, and Copernicus returned to
Frombork. For a time, he continued to receive reports on von Kunheim's condition, and to send him medical advice
by letter.[68]
Some of Copernicus's close friends turned Protestant, but Copernicus never showed a tendency in that direction.
The first attacks on him came from Protestants. Wilhelm Gnapheus, a Dutch refugee settled in Elbląg, wrote a
comedy in Latin, Morosophus (The Foolish Sage), and staged it at the Latin school that he had established there. In
the play, Copernicus was caricatured as a haughty, cold, aloof man who dabbled in astrology, considered himself
inspired by God, and was rumored to have written a large work that was moldering in a chest. [43]
Elsewhere Protestants were the first to react to news of Copernicus's theory. Melanchthon wrote:
Some people believe that it is excellent and correct to work out a thing as absurd as did that Sarmatian [i.e., Polish]
astronomer who moves the earth and stops the sun. Indeed, wise rulers should have curbed such light-
mindedness.[43]
Nevertheless, in 1551, eight years after Copernicus's death, astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published, under the
sponsorship of Copernicus's former military adversary, the Protestant Duke Albert, the Prussian Tables, a set of
astronomical tables based on Copernicus's work. Astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted it in place of its
predecessors.[69]
Heliocentrism
"Nicolaus Copernicus Tornaeus BorussusMathemat.", 1597
Some time before 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his "Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"),
a manuscript describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis.[u] It contained seven basic assumptions
(detailed below).[70] Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.
About 1532 Copernicus had basically completed his work on the manuscript of Dē revolutionibus orbium
coelestium; but despite urging by his closest friends, he resisted openly publishing his views, not wishing—as he
confessed—to risk the scorn "to which he would expose himself on account of the novelty and incomprehensibility
of his theses."[65]
In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered a series of lectures in Rome outlining Copernicus's
theory. Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals heard the lectures and were interested in the theory. On 1
November 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schönberg, Archbishop of Capua, wrote to Copernicus from Rome:
Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I
began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of
the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the
earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the
utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of
yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe
together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject ...[71]
By then Copernicus's work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated
people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed publication of his book, perhaps
from fear of criticism—a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III.
Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus's concern was limited to possible astronomical and philosophical
objections, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections. [v]
The book
De revolutionibus, 1543, title page
Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not certain that he wanted to publish
it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon, a
close theological ally of Martin Luther, had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them.
Rheticus became Copernicus's pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book, Narratio prima (First
Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus's theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by
Copernicus (later included as chapters 13 and 14 of Book I of De revolutionibus).[72] Under strong pressure from
Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give De
revolutionibus to his close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for
printing by the German printer Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg (Nürnberg), Germany. While Rheticus initially
supervised the printing, he had to leave Nuremberg before it was completed, and he handed over the task of
supervising the rest of the printing to a Lutheran theologian, Andreas Osiander.[73]
Osiander added an unauthorised and unsigned preface, defending Copernicus' work against those who might be
offended by its novel hypotheses. He argued that "different hypotheses are sometimes offered for one and the
same motion [and therefore] the astronomer will take as his first choice that hypothesis which is the easiest to
grasp." According to Osiander, "these hypotheses need not be true nor even probable. [I]f they provide a calculus
consistent with the observations, that alone is enough."[74]
Death
Frombork Cathedral
Toward the close of 1542, Copernicus was seized with apoplexy and paralysis, and he died at age 70 on 24 May
1543. Legend has it that he was presented with the final printed pages of his Dē revolutionibus orbium
coelestium on the very day that he died, allowing him to take farewell of his life's work. [w] He is reputed to have
awoken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and then died peacefully.[x]
Copernicus was reportedly buried in Frombork Cathedral, where a 1580 epitaph stood until being defaced; it was
replaced in 1735. For over two centuries, archaeologists searched the cathedral in vain for Copernicus' remains.
Efforts to locate them in 1802, 1909, 1939 had come to nought. In 2004 a team led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of
an archaeology and anthropologyinstitute in Pułtusk, began a new search, guided by the research of
historian Jerzy Sikorski.[75][76] In August 2005, after scanning beneath the cathedral floor, they discovered what they
believed to be Copernicus's remains.[77]
1735 epitaph, Frombork Cathedral
The discovery was announced only after further research, on 3 November 2008. Gąssowski said he was "almost
100 percent sure it is Copernicus".[78] Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Polish Police Central Forensic
Laboratory used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features—including a broken nose and a
scar above the left eye—on a Copernicus self-portrait.[78] The expert also determined that the skull belonged to a
man who had died around age 70—Copernicus's age at the time of his death.[77]
The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains of the skeleton were found; missing, among other things,
was the lower jaw.[79]The DNA from the bones found in the grave matched hair samples taken from a book owned by
Copernicus which was kept at the library of the University of Uppsala in Sweden.[76][80]
On 22 May 2010 Copernicus was given a second funeral in a Mass led by Józef Kowalczyk, the former papal
nuncio to Poland and newly named Primate of Poland. Copernicus's remains were reburied in the same spot
in Frombork Cathedral where part of his skull and other bones had been found. A black granite tombstone now
identifies him as the founder of the heliocentric theory and also a church canon. The tombstone bears a
representation of Copernicus's model of the solar system—a golden sun encircled by six of the planets.[81]
Copernican system
Copernican heliocentrism
Predecessors
Philolaus (c. 480–385 BCE) described an astronomical system in which a Central Fire (different from the Sun)
occupied the centre of the universe, and a counter-Earth, the Earth, Moon, the Sun itself, planets, and stars all
revolved around it, in that order outward from the centre. [82] Heraclides Ponticus (387–312 BCE) proposed that the
Earth rotates on its axis.[83] Aristarchus of Samos (ca. 310 BCE – ca. 230 BCE) was the first to advance a theory that
the earth orbited the sun.[84] Further mathematical details of Aristarchus' heliocentric system were worked out
around 150 BCE by the Hellenistic astronomer Seleucus of Seleucia. Though Aristarchus' original text has been
lost, a reference in Archimedes' book The Sand Reckoner (Archimedis Syracusani Arenarius & Dimensio Circuli)
describes a work by Aristarchus in which he advanced the heliocentric model. Thomas Heath gives the following
English translation of Archimedes' text:[85]
You are now aware ['you' being King Gelon] that the "universe" is the name given by most astronomers to the
sphere the centre of which is the centre of the earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the centre
of the sun and the centre of the earth. This is the common account (τά γραφόμενα) as you have heard from
astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a
consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the "universe" just mentioned.
His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves about the sun on the
circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated
about the same centre as the sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a
proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface.
— The Sand Reckoner
Copernicus cited Aristarchus of Samos in an early (unpublished) manuscript of De Revolutionibus (which still
survives), though he removed the reference from his final published manuscript.[5]
Copernicus was probably aware that Pythagoras's system involved a moving earth. The Pythagorean system was
mentioned by Aristotle.[86]
Copernicus owned a copy of Giorgio Valla's "De expetendis et fugiendis rebus", which included a translation of
Plutarch's reference to Aristarchus's heliostaticism.[87]
In Copernicus' dedication of On the Revolutions to Pope Paul III—which Copernicus hoped would dampen criticism
of his heliocentric theory by "babblers... completely ignorant of [astronomy]"—the book's author wrote that, in
rereading all of philosophy, in the pages of Cicero and Plutarch he had found references to those few thinkers who
dared to move the Earth "against the traditional opinion of astronomers and almost against common sense."
Beginning in the 10th century, a tradition criticizing Ptolemy developed within Islamic astronomy, which climaxed
with Ibn al-Haytham of Basra's Al-Shukūk 'alā Baṭalamiyūs ("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy").[88] Several Islamic
astronomers questioned the Earth's apparent immobility,[89][90] and centrality within the universe.[91]Some accepted
that the earth rotates around its axis, such as Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020).[92][93] According to al-Biruni, al-Sijzi
invented an astrolabe based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the
Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[93][94] That others besides al-Sijzi held this view is further confirmed by
a reference from an Arabic work in the 13th century which states:
According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears
to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars.[93]
In the 12th century, Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji proposed a complete alternative to the Ptolemaic system (although not
heliocentric).[95][96] He declared the Ptolemaic system as an imaginary model, successful at predicting planetary
positions, but not real or physical.[95][96] Al-Bitruji's alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th
century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued up to the 16th century. [96]
Tusi couple
Mathematical techniques developed in the 13th to 14th centuries by Mo'ayyeduddin al-Urdi, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi,
and Ibn al-Shatir for geocentric models of planetary motions closely resemble some of those used later by
Copernicus in his heliocentric models.[97] Copernicus used what is now known as the Urdi lemma and the Tusi
couple in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. [98] Furthermore, the exact replacement of
the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the Commentariolus was found in an earlier work by Ibn al-
Shatir (d. c. 1375) of Damascus.[99] Ibn al-Shatir's lunar and Mercury models are also identical to those of
Copernicus.[100] This has led some scholars to argue that Copernicus must have had access to some yet to be
identified work on the ideas of those earlier astronomers.[101] However, no likely candidate for this conjectured work
has yet come to light, and other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas
independently of the late Islamic tradition.[102] Nevertheless, Copernicus cited some of the Islamic astronomers
whose theories and observations he used in De Revolutionibus, namely al-Battani, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-
Zarqali, Averroes, and al-Bitruji.[103]
Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544), in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed
a computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in
turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. In the
Tantrasangraha (1500), he further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at
predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and Copernican models.[citation needed]
The prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus's lifetime was the one that Ptolemy published in
his Almagest circa 150 CE; the Earth was the stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large
outer sphere which rotated rapidly, approximately daily, while each of the planets, the Sun, and the Moon were
embedded in their own, smaller spheres. Ptolemy's system employed devices, including epicycles,
deferents and equants, to account for observations that the paths of these bodies differed from simple, circular
orbits centered on the Earth.[104]
Copernicus
Copernicus's schematic diagram of his heliocentric theory of the Solar System from De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium[105]
As it appears in the surviving autograph manuscript
Source;Nicolaus Copernicus - Commons file De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg

Cropped image of page 9 verso of the autograph manuscript of Nicolaus Copernicus's De Revolutionibus
Orbium Coelestium
As it appears in the first printed edition
Source; Nicolai Copernici Created in vector format by Scewing - [1]

Image of heliocentric model from Nicolaus Copernicus' "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium".
Copernicus' major work on his heliocentric theory was Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of
the Celestial Spheres), published in the year of his death, 1543. He had formulated his theory by 1510. "He wrote
out a short overview of his new heavenly arrangement [known as the Commentariolus, or Brief Sketch], also
probably in 1510 [but no later than May 1514], and sent it off to at least one correspondent
beyond Varmia [the Latin for "Warmia"]. That person in turn copied the document for further circulation, and
presumably the new recipients did, too..."[106]
Copernicus' Commentariolus summarized his heliocentric theory. It listed the "assumptions" upon which the
theory was based, as follows:[107]
1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles[108] or spheres.[109]
2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center towards which heavy bodies move
and the center of the lunar sphere.
3. All the spheres surround the sun as if it were in the middle of them all, and therefore the center of the universe is
near the sun.
4. The ratio of the earth's distance from the sun to the height of the firmament (outermost celestial sphere
containing the stars) is so much smaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the
distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament.
5. Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from the earth's
motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on its fixed poles in a daily
motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged.
6. What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our
sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion.
7. The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from the earth's. The
motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in the heavens.
De revolutionibus itself was divided into six sections or parts, called "books": [110]
1. General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
2. Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the
arguments developed in the subsequent books)
3. Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
4. Description of the Moon and its orbital motions
5. Exposition of the motions in longitude of the non-terrestrial planets
6. Exposition of the motions in latitude of the non-terrestrial planets
Successors
Copernican Revolution
Casket with Copernicus' remains on exhibition in Olsztyn
Georg Joachim Rheticus could have been Copernicus's successor, but did not rise to the occasion.[64] Erasmus
Reinhold could have been his successor, but died prematurely.[64] The first of the great successors was Tycho
Brahe[64] (though he did not think the earth orbited the sun), followed by Johannes Kepler,[64] who had collaborated
with Tycho in Prague and benefited from Tycho's decades' worth of detailed observational data. [111]
Despite the near universal acceptance later of the heliocentric idea (though not the epicycles or the circular orbits),
Copernicus's theory was originally slow to catch on. Scholars hold that sixty years after the publication of The
Revolutions there were only around 15 astronomers espousing Copernicanism in all of Europe: "Thomas
Digges and Thomas Harriot in England; Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei in Italy; Diego Zuniga in Spain; Simon
Stevin in the Low Countries; and in Germany, the largest group – Georg Joachim Rheticus, Michael
Maestlin, Christoph Rothmann (who may have later recanted),[112] and Johannes Kepler."[112]Additional possibilities
are Englishman William Gilbert, along with Achilles Gasser, Georg Vogelin, Valentin Otto, and Tiedemann Giese.[112]
Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus's book had not been widely read
on its first publication.[113] This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen,[y] and has been decisively
disproved by Owen Gingerich, who examined nearly every surviving copy of the first two editions and found
copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004
in The Book Nobody Read.[114]
The intellectual climate of the time "remained dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and the corresponding
Ptolemaic astronomy. At that time there was no reason to accept the Copernican theory, except for its
mathematical simplicity [by avoiding using the equant in determining planetary positions]."[115] Tycho Brahe's
system ("that the earth is stationary, the sun revolves about the earth, and the other planets revolve about the
sun")[115] also directly competed with Copernicus's. It was only a half century later with the work of Kepler and
Galileo that any substantial evidence defending Copernicanism appeared, starting "from the time when Galileo
formulated the principle of inertia...[which] helped to explain why everything would not fall off the earth if it were in
motion."[115] "[Not until] after Isaac Newton formulated the universal law of gravitation and the laws of mechanics [in
his 1687 Principia], which unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, was the heliocentric view generally
accepted."[115]
Controversy
Photograph of a 16th-century portrait of Copernicus — the original painting was looted, and possibly destroyed, by the Germans
in World War II during the occupation of Poland.
See also: Catholic Church and science
The immediate result of the 1543 publication of Copernicus's book was only mild controversy. At the Council of
Trent (1545–63) neither Copernicus's theory nor calendar reform (which would later use tables deduced from
Copernicus's calculations) were discussed.[116] It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after the
publication of De revolutionibus that the Catholic Church took any official action against it, even the efforts of
Tolosani going unheeded. Catholic side opposition only commenced seventy-three years later, when it was
occasioned by Galileo.[117]
Tolosani
The first notable to move against Copernicanism was the Magister of the Holy Palace (i.e., the Catholic Church's
chief censor), Dominican Bartolomeo Spina, who "expressed a desire to stamp out the Copernican doctrine".[118] But
with Spina's death in 1546, his cause fell to his friend, the well known theologian-astronomer, the
Dominican Giovanni Maria Tolosani of the Convent of St. Mark in Florence. Tolosani had written a treatise on
reforming the calendar (in which astronomy would play a large role) and had attended the Fifth Lateran
Council (1512–17) to discuss the matter. He had obtained a copy of De Revolutionibus in 1544. His denunciation of
Copernicanism was written a year later, in 1545, in an appendix to his unpublished work, On the Truth of Sacred
Scripture.[119]
Emulating the rationalistic style of Thomas Aquinas, Tolosani sought to refute Copernicanism by philosophical
argument. Copernicanism was absurd, according to Tolosani, because it was scientifically unproven and
unfounded. First, Copernicus had assumed the motion of the Earth but offered no physical theory whereby one
would deduce this motion. (No one realized that the investigation into Copernicanism would result in a rethinking
of the entire field of physics.) Second, Tolosani charged that Copernicus's thought process was backwards. He
held that Copernicus had come up with his idea and then sought phenomena that would support it, rather than
observing phenomena and deducing from them the idea of what caused them. In this, Tolosani was linking
Copernicus's mathematical equations with the practices of the Pythagoreans (whom Aristotle had made arguments
against, which were later picked up by Thomas Aquinas). It was argued that mathematical numbers were a mere
product of the intellect without any physical reality, and as such could not provide physical causes in the
investigation of nature.[120]
Some astronomical hypotheses at the time (such as epicycles and eccentrics) were seen as mere mathematical
devices to adjust calculations of where the heavenly bodies would appear, rather than an explanation of the cause
of those motions. (As Copernicus still maintained the idea of perfectly spherical orbits, he relied on epicycles.) This
"saving the phenomena" was seen as proof that astronomy and mathematics could not be taken as serious means
to determine physical causes. Tolosani invoked this view in his final critique of Copernicus, saying that his biggest
error was that he had started with "inferior" fields of science to make pronouncements about "superior" fields.
Copernicus had used mathematics and astronomy to postulate about physics and cosmology, rather than
beginning with the accepted principles of physics and cosmology to determine things about astronomy and
mathematics. Thus Copernicus seemed to be undermining the whole system of the philosophy of science at the
time. Tolosani held that Copernicus had fallen into philosophical error because he had not been versed in physics
and logic; anyone without such knowledge would make a poor astronomer and be unable to distinguish truth from
falsehood. Because Copernicanism had not met the criteria for scientific truth set out by Thomas Aquinas, Tolosani
held that it could only be viewed as a wild unproven theory.[121][122]
Ptolemy and Copernicus, ca. 1686, at King Jan Sobieski's library, Wilanów Palace: an early Copernicus depiction
Tolosani recognized that the Ad Lectorem preface to Copernicus's book was not actually by him. Its thesis that
astronomy as a whole would never be able to make truth claims was rejected by Tolosani (though he still held that
Copernicus's attempt to describe physical reality had been faulty); he found it ridiculous that Ad Lectorem had
been included in the book (unaware that Copernicus had not authorized its inclusion). Tolosani wrote: "By means
of these words [of the Ad Lectorem], the foolishness of this book's author is rebuked. For by a foolish effort he
[Copernicus] tried to revive the weak Pythagorean opinion [that the element of fire was at the center of the
Universe], long ago deservedly destroyed, since it is expressly contrary to human reason and also opposes holy
writ. From this situation, there could easily arise disagreements between Catholic expositors of holy scripture and
those who might wish to adhere obstinately to this false opinion."[123] Tolosani declared: "Nicolaus Copernicus
neither read nor understood the arguments of Aristotle the philosopher and Ptolemy the astronomer."[119] Tolosani
wrote that Copernicus "is expert indeed in the sciences of mathematics and astronomy, but he is very deficient in
the sciences of physics and logic. Moreover, it appears that he is unskilled with regard to [the interpretation of]
holy scripture, since he contradicts several of its principles, not without danger of infidelity to himself and the
readers of his book. ...his arguments have no force and can very easily be taken apart. For it is stupid to contradict
an opinion accepted by everyone over a very long time for the strongest reasons, unless the impugner uses more
powerful and insoluble demonstrations and completely dissolves the opposed reasons. But he does not do this in
the least."[123]
Tolosani declared that he had written against Copernicus "for the purpose of preserving the truth to the common
advantage of the Holy Church."[124] Despite this, his work remained unpublished and there is no evidence that it
received serious consideration. Robert Westman describes it as becoming a "dormant" viewpoint with "no
audience in the Catholic world" of the late sixteenth century, but also notes that there is some evidence that it did
become known to Tommaso Caccini, who would criticize Galileo in a sermon in December 1613. [124]
Theology
Tolosani may have criticized the Copernican theory as scientifically unproven and unfounded, but the theory also
conflicted with the theology of the time, as can be seen in a sample of the works of John Calvin. In his Commentary
on Genesis he said that "We indeed are not ignorant that the circuit of the heavens is finite, and that the earth, like
a little globe, is placed in the centre."[125] In his commentary on Psalms 93:1 he states that "The heavens revolve
daily, and, immense as is their fabric and inconceivable the rapidity of their revolutions, we experience no
concussion.... How could the earth hang suspended in the air were it not upheld by God's hand? By what means
could it maintain itself unmoved, while the heavens above are in constant rapid motion, did not its Divine Maker fix
and establish it."[126] One sharp point of conflict between Copernicus's theory and the Bible concerned the story of
the Battle of Gibeon in the Book of Joshua where the Hebrew forces were winning but whose opponents were likely
to escape once night fell. This is averted by Joshua's prayers causing the sun and the moon to stand still. Martin
Luther once made a remark about Copernicus, although without mentioning his name. According to Anthony
Lauterbach, while eating with Martin Luther the topic of Copernicus arose during dinner on 4 June 1539 (in the
same year as professor George Joachim Rheticus of the local University had been granted leave to visit him).
Luther is said to have remarked "So it goes now. Whoever wants to be clever must agree with nothing others
esteem. He must do something of his own. This is what that fellow does who wishes to turn the whole of astronomy
upside down. Even in these things that are thrown into disorder I believe the Holy Scriptures, for Joshua
commanded the sun to stand still and not the earth."[115] These remarks were made four years before the publication
of On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres and a year before Rheticus' Narratio Prima. In John
Aurifaber's account of the conversation Luther calls Copernicus "that fool" rather than "that fellow", this version is
viewed by historians as less reliably sourced.[115]
Luther's collaborator Philipp Melanchthon also took issue with Copernicanism. After receiving the first pages
of Narratio Prima from Rheticus himself, Melanchthon wrote to Mithobius (physician and mathematician Burkard
Mithob of Feldkirch) on 16 October 1541 condemning the theory and calling for it to be repressed by governmental
force, writing "certain people believe it is a marvelous achievement to extol so crazy a thing, like that Polish
astronomer who makes the earth move and the sun stand still. Really, wise governments ought to repress
impudence of mind."[127] It had appeared to Rheticus that Melanchton would understand the theory and would be
open to it. This was because Melanchton had taught Ptolemaic astronomy and had even recommended his friend
Rheticus to an appointment to the Deanship of the Faculty of Arts & Sciences at the University of Wittenberg after
he had returned from studying with Copernicus.[128]
Rheticus' hopes were dashed when six years after the publication of De Revolutionibus Melanchthon published
his Initia Doctrinae Physicae presenting three grounds to reject Copernicanism. These were "the evidence of the
senses, the thousand-year consensus of men of science, and the authority of the Bible". [129] Blasting the new theory
Melanchthon wrote, "Out of love for novelty or in order to make a show of their cleverness, some people have
argued that the earth moves. They maintain that neither the eighth sphere nor the sun moves, whereas they
attribute motion to the other celestial spheres, and also place the earth among the heavenly bodies. Nor were these
jokes invented recently. There is still extant Archimedes' book on The Sand Reckoner; in which he reports that
Aristarchus of Samos propounded the paradox that the sun stands still and the earth revolves around the sun.
Even though subtle experts institute many investigations for the sake of exercising their ingenuity, nevertheless
public proclamation of absurd opinions is indecent and sets a harmful example."[127] Melanchthon went on to cite
Bible passages and then declare "Encouraged by this divine evidence, let us cherish the truth and let us not permit
ourselves to be alienated from it by the tricks of those who deem it an intellectual honor to introduce confusion into
the arts."[127] In the first edition of Initia Doctrinae Physicae, Melanchthon even questioned Copernicus's character
claiming his motivation was "either from love of novelty or from desire to appear clever", these more personal
attacks were largely removed by the second edition in 1550.[129]
Copernicus' 2010 gravestone in Frombork Cathedral.
Another Protestant theologian who disparaged heliocentrism on scriptural grounds was John Owen. In a passing
remark in an essay on the origin of the sabbath, he characterised "the late hypothesis, fixing the sun as in the
centre of the world" as being "built on fallible phenomena, and advanced by many arbitrary presumptions against
evident testimonies of Scripture."[130]
In Roman Catholic circles, German Jesuit Nicolaus Serarius was one of the first to write against Copernicus's
theory as heretical, citing the Joshua passage, in a work published in 1609–1610, and again in a book in 1612.[131] In
his 12 April 1615 letter to a Catholic defender of Copernicus, Paolo Antonio Foscarini, Catholic Cardinal Robert
Bellarmine condemned Copernican theory, writing "...not only the Holy Fathers, but also the modern commentaries
on Genesis, the Psalms, Ecclesiastes, and Joshua, you will find all agreeing in the literal interpretation that the sun
is in heaven and turns around the earth with great speed, and that the earth is very far from heaven and sits
motionless at the center of the world...Nor can one answer that this is not a matter of faith, since if it is not a matter
of faith 'as regards the topic,' it is a matter of faith 'as regards the speaker': and so it would be heretical to say that
Abraham did not have two children and Jacob twelve, as well as to say that Christ was not born of a virgin, because
both are said by the Holy Spirit through the mouth of prophets and apostles." [132]
Ingoli
Perhaps the most influential opponent of the Copernican theory was Francesco Ingoli, a Catholic priest. Ingoli
wrote a January 1616 essay to Galileo presenting more than twenty arguments against the Copernican
theory.[133] Though "it is not certain, it is probable that he [Ingoli] was commissioned by the Inquisition to write an
expert opinion on the controversy",[134] (after the Congregation of the Index's decree against Copernicanism on 5
March 1616, Ingoli was officially appointed its consultant). [134] Galileo himself was of the opinion that the essay
played an important role in the rejection of the theory by church authorities, writing in a later letter to Ingoli that he
was concerned that people thought the theory was rejected because Ingoli was right. [133] Ingoli presented five
physical arguments against the theory, thirteen mathematical arguments (plus a separate discussion of the sizes of
stars), and four theological arguments. The physical and mathematical arguments were of uneven quality, but many
of them came directly from the writings of Tycho Brahe, and Ingoli repeatedly cited Brahe, the leading astronomer
of the era. These included arguments about the effect of a moving earth on the trajectory of projectiles, and about
parallax and Brahe's argument that the Copernican theory required that stars be absurdly large. [135] Two of Ingoli's
theological issues with the Copernican theory were "common Catholic beliefs not directly traceable to Scripture:
the doctrine that hell is located at the center of Earth and is most distant from heaven; and the explicit assertion
that Earth is motionless in a hymn sung on Tuesdays as part of the Liturgy of the Hours of the Divine Office prayers
regularly recited by priests."[136] Ingoli cited Robert Bellarmine in regards to both of these arguments, and may have
been trying to convey to Galileo a sense of Bellarmine's opinion. [137] Ingoli also cited Genesis 1:14 where God places
"lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night." Ingoli did not think the central location of
the sun in the Copernican theory was compatible with it being described as one of the lights placed in the
firmament.[136] Like previous commentators Ingoli also pointed to the passages about the Battle of Gibeon. He
dismissed arguments that they should be taken metaphorically, saying "Replies which assert that Scripture speaks
according to our mode of understanding are not satisfactory: both because in explaining the Sacred Writings the
rule is always to preserve the literal sense, when it is possible, as it is in this case; and also because all the
[Church] Fathers unanimously take this passage to mean that the sun which was truly moving stopped at Joshua's
request. An interpretation which is contrary to the unanimous consent of the Fathers is condemned by the Council
of Trent, Session IV, in the decree on the edition and use of the Sacred Books. Furthermore, although the Council
speaks about matters of faith and morals, nevertheless it cannot be denied that the Holy Fathers would be
displeased with an interpretation of Sacred Scriptures which is contrary to their common agreement." [136] However,
Ingoli closed the essay by suggesting Galileo respond primarily to the better of his physical and mathematical
arguments rather than to his theological arguments, writing "Let it be your choice to respond to this either entirely
of in part—clearly at least to the mathematical and physical arguments, and not to all even of these, but to the more
weighty ones."[138] When Galileo wrote a letter in reply to Ingoli years later, he in fact only addressed the
mathematical and physical arguments.[138]
In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issued
a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds of ensuring that
Copernicanism, which it described as a "false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to the Holy Scripture,"
would not "creep any further to the prejudice of Catholic truth." [139] The corrections consisted largely of removing or
altering wording that the spoke of heliocentrism as a fact, rather than a hypothesis. [140] The corrections were made
based largely on work by Ingoli.[134]
Galileo
On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be
issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine.[z] The corrections to De
revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620. [141]
In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which
is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture", [142] and was placed under house arrest for the rest of
his life.[143][144]
At the instance of Roger Boscovich, the Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general
prohibition of works defending heliocentrism,[145] but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored
versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions
were finally dropped from the 1835 Index.[146]
Replica of Warsaw's Copernicus Monument, in Montreal, Canada
Bust by Schadow, 1807, in the Walhalla memorial
Nationality
There has been discussion of Copernicus' nationality and of whether it is meaningful to ascribe to him a nationality
in the modern sense.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born and raised in Royal Prussia, a semiautonomous and polyglot region of the Kingdom
of Poland.[147][148] He was the child of German-speaking parents and grew up with German as his mother
tongue.[149][150][151] His first alma mater was the University of Kraków in Poland. When he later studied in Italy, at
the University of Bologna, he joined the German Nation, a student organization for German-speakers of all
allegiances (Germany would not become a nation-state until 1871).[152][153] His family stood against the Teutonic
Order and actively supported the city of Toruń during the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66). Copernicus' father lent
money to Poland's King Casimir IV Jagiellon to finance the war against the Teutonic Knights,[154] but the inhabitants
of Royal Prussia also resisted the Polish crown's efforts for greater control over the region.[147]
Encyclopædia Britannica,[155] Encyclopedia Americana,[156] The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia,[157] The Oxford World
Encyclopedia,[158] and World Book Encyclopedia[159] refer to Copernicus as a "Polish astronomer". Sheila Rabin,
writing in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, describes Copernicus as a "child of a German family [who] was
a subject of the Polish crown",[9] while Manfred Weissenbacher writes that Copernicus's father was a Germanized
Pole.[160]
Nicolaus Copernicus Monument in Kraków
There are additional arguments for Kopernik's Polish descent on his father's side. Kopernik's Y-DNA haplogroup,
R1b L51, is found in southern Poland (in Silesia, where his father came from), but not in Germany or Austria. [161] The
surname Kopernik is typically Polish, with its suffix -nik, indicating an occupation (e.g. cukiernik, "confectioner",
or górnik, "miner"); while Koper- may refer to koprowina, an old Polish term for the Latin "cuprum" ("copper"). The
surname Kopernik is now found in Poland in 130 persons, and in Germany in only 22, mostly Polish immigrants to
Germany.[162][163] No Polish texts by Copernicus survive due to the rarity of Polish literary language before the
writings of the Polish Renaissance poets Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski (educated Poles had generally written
in Latin); but it is known that Copernicus knew Polish on a par with German and Latin. [164]
Historian Michael Burleigh describes the nationality debate as a "totally insignificant battle" between German and
Polish scholars during the interwar period.[165] Polish astronomer Konrad Rudnicki calls the discussion a "fierce
scholarly quarrel in ... times of nationalism" and describes Copernicus as an inhabitant of a German-speaking
territory that belonged to Poland, himself being of mixed Polish-German extraction.[166]
Czesław Miłosz describes the debate as an "absurd" projection of a modern understanding of nationality
onto Renaissance people, who identified with their home territories rather than with a nation.[167] Similarly,
historian Norman Davies writes that Copernicus, as was common in his era, was "largely indifferent" to nationality,
being a local patriot who considered himself "Prussian".[168] Miłosz and Davies both write that Copernicus had
a German-language cultural background, while his working language was Latin in accord with the usage of the
time.[167][168]Additionally, according to Davies, "there is ample evidence that he knew the Polish language". [168] Davies
concludes that, "Taking everything into consideration, there is good reason to regard him both as a German and as
a Pole: and yet, in the sense that modern nationalists understand it, he was neither." [168]
Commemoration
Enamel mosaic by Stefan Knapp, 1972, on building of Nicolaus Copernicus University, in Toruń, Poland
Copernicia
Copernicia, a genus of palm trees native to South America and the Greater Antilles, was named after Copernicus in
1837. In some of the species, the leaves are coated with a thin layer of wax, known as carnauba wax.
U.S. postage stamp on 500th anniversary of Copernicus's birth (1973)
Copernicium
Copernicium
On 14 July 2009, the discoverers, from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany,
of chemical element 112 (temporarily named ununbium) proposed to the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) that its permanent name be "copernicium" (symbol Cn). "After we had named elements after our
city and our state, we wanted to make a statement with a name that was known to everyone," said Hofmann. "We
didn't want to select someone who was a German. We were looking world-wide."[169]On the 537th anniversary of his
birthday the official naming was released to the public.[170]
55 Cancri A
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain
exoplanets and their host stars.[171] The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names.[172] In
December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name for 55 Cancri A was Copernicus.[173]
Veneration
Copernicus is honored, together with Johannes Kepler, in the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA),
with a feast day on 23 May.[174]
Wrocław
Wrocław-Strachowice International Airport is named after Nicolaus Copernicus (Copernicus Airport Wrocław)
Influence
Contemporary literary and artistic works inspired by Copernicus
 Mover of the Earth, Stopper of the Sun for symphony orchestra (overture), written by composer Svitlana
Azarova commissioned by ONDIF[175][176]
 Doctor Copernicus, a 1975 novel by John Banville, sketches the life of Copernicus and the 16th-century world
in which he lived.
.[20][21]
Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe (/ˈtiːkoʊ, ˈtaɪ- ˈbrɑː, ˈbrɑːhi, -(h)ə/; born Tyge Ottesen Brahe;[n 1] 14 December 1546 – 24 October 1601)
was a Danish nobleman, astronomer, and writer known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and
planetaryobservations. He was born in the then Danish peninsula of Scania. Well known in his lifetime as
an astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, he has been described as "the first competent mind in modern astronomy
to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts."[1] His observations were some five times more accurate than
the best available observations at the time.
Tycho Brahe
Brahe wearing the Order of the Elephant
An heir to several of Denmark's principal noble families, he received a comprehensive education. He took an
interest in astronomy and in the creation of more accurate instruments of measurement. As an astronomer, Tycho
worked to combine what he saw as the geometrical benefits of the Copernican system with the philosophical
benefits of the Ptolemaic system into his own model of the universe, the Tychonic system. His system correctly
saw the Moon as orbiting Earth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun, but erroneously considered the Sun to be
orbiting the Earth. Furthermore, he was the last of the major naked-eye astronomers, working
without telescopes for his observations. In his De nova stella(On the New Star) of 1573, he refuted the Aristotelian
belief in an unchanging celestial realm. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars" (stellae novae, now
known as supernovae), in particular that of 1572, lacked the parallaxexpected in sublunar phenomena and were
therefore not tailless comets in the atmosphere as previously believed but were above the atmosphere and beyond
the moon. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as
previously thought, and must pass through the supposedly immutable celestial spheres.
King Frederick II granted Tycho an estate on the island of Hven and the funding to build Uraniborg, an
early research institute, where he built large astronomical instruments and took many careful measurements, and
later Stjerneborg, underground, when he discovered that his instruments in Uraniborg were not sufficiently steady.
On the island (where he behaved autocratically toward the residents) he founded manufactories, such as a paper
mill, to provide material for printing his results. After disagreements with the new Danish king, Christian IV, in 1597,
he went into exile, and was invited by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II to Prague, where he
became the official imperial astronomer. He built an observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou. There, from 1600 until his
death in 1601, he was assisted by Johannes Kepler, who later used Tycho's astronomical data to develop his three
laws of planetary motion.
Tycho's body has been exhumed twice, in 1901 and 2010, to examine the circumstances of his death and to identify
the material from which his artificial nose was made. The conclusion was that his death was likely caused by a
burst bladder, and not by poisoning as had been suggested, and that the artificial nose was more likely made of
brass than silver or gold, as some had believed in his time.
Life
1586 portrait of Tycho Brahe framed by the family shields of his noble ancestors, by Jacques de Gheyn.
Tycho was born as heir to several of Denmark's most influential noble families and in addition to his immediate
ancestry with the Brahe and the Bille families, he also counted the Rud, Trolle, Ulfstand, and Rosenkrantz families
among his ancestors. Both of his grandfathers and all of his great grandfathers had served as members of the
Danish king's Privy Council. His paternal grandfather and namesake Thyge Brahe was the lord of Tosterup
Castle in Scania and died in battle during the 1523 Siege of Malmö during the Lutheran Reformation Wars. His
maternal grandfather Claus Bille, lord to Bohus Castle and a second cousin of Swedish king Gustav Vasa,
participated in the Stockholm Bloodbath on the side of the Danish king against the Swedish nobles. Tycho's
father Otte Brahe, like his father a royal Privy Councilor, married Beate Bille, who was herself a powerful figure at
the Danish court holding several royal land titles. Both parents are buried under the floor of Kågeröd Church, four
kilometres east of Knutstorp.[2]
Early years
Tycho was born at his family's ancestral seat of Knutstorp Castle (Danish: Knudstrup borg; Swedish: Knutstorps
borg), about eight kilometres north of Svalöv in then Danish Scania. He was the oldest of 12 siblings, 8 of whom
lived to adulthood. His twin brother died before being baptized. Tycho later wrote an ode in Latin to his dead
twin,[3] which was printed in 1572 as his first published work. An epitaph, originally from Knutstorp, but now on a
plaque near the church door, shows the whole family, including Tycho as a boy.
When he was only two years old Tycho was taken away to be raised by his uncle Jørgen Thygesen Brahe and his
wife Inger Oxe (sister to Peder Oxe, Steward of the Realm) who were childless. It is unclear why Otte Brahe reached
this arrangement with his brother, but Tycho was the only one of his siblings not to be raised by his mother at
Knutstorp. Instead, Tycho was raised at Jørgen Brahe's estate at Tosterup and at Tranekær on the island
of Langeland, and later at Næsbyhoved Castle near Odense, and later again at the Castle of Nykøbing on the island
of Falster. Tycho later wrote that Jørgen Brahe "raised me and generously provided for me during his life until my
eighteenth year; he always treated me as his own son and made me his heir". [4]
From ages 6 to 12, Tycho attended Latin school, probably in Nykøbing. At age 12, on 19 April 1559, Tycho began
studies at the University of Copenhagen. There, following his uncle's wishes, he studied law, but also studied a
variety of other subjects and became interested in astronomy. At the University, Aristotle was a staple of scientific
theory, and Tycho likely received a thorough training in Aristotelian physics and cosmology. He experienced
the solar eclipse of 21 August 1560, and was greatly impressed by the fact that it had been predicted, although the
prediction based on current observational data was a day off. He realized that more accurate observations would
be the key to making more exact predictions. He purchased an ephemeris and books on astronomy,
including Johannes de Sacrobosco's De sphaera mundi, Petrus Apianus's Cosmographia seu descriptio totius
orbis and Regiomontanus's De triangulis omnimodis.[4]
Jørgen Thygesen Brahe, however, wanted Tycho to educate himself in order to become a civil servant, and sent
him on a study tour of Europe in early 1562. 15-year old Tycho was given as mentor the 19-year-old Anders
Sørensen Vedel, whom he eventually talked into allowing the pursuit of astronomy during the tour. [5] Vedel and his
pupil left Copenhagen in February 1562. On 24 March, they arrived in Leipzig, where they matriculated at the
Lutheran Leipzig University.[6] In 1563, he observed a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn, and noticed that the
Copernican and Ptolemaic tables used to predict the conjunction were inaccurate. This led him to realize that
progress in astronomy required systematic, rigorous observation, night after night, using the most accurate
instruments obtainable. He began maintaining detailed journals of all his astronomical observations. In this period,
he combined the study of astronomy with astrology, laying down horoscopes for different famous personalities. [7]
When Tycho and Vedel returned from Leipzig in 1565, Denmark was at war with Sweden, and as vice-admiral of the
Danish fleet Jørgen Brahe had become a national hero for having participated in the sinking of the Swedish
warship Mars during the First battle of Öland (1564). Shortly after Tycho's arrival in Denmark, Jørgen Brahe was
defeated in the Action of 4 June 1565, and shortly afterwards died of a fever. Stories have it that he contracted
pneumonia after a night of drinking with the Danish King Frederick II when the king fell into the water in a
Copenhagen canal and Brahe jumped in after him. Brahe's possessions passed on to his wife Inger Oxe, who
considered Tycho with special fondness.[8]
Tycho's nose
An artificial nose of the kind Tycho wore. This particular example did not belong to Tycho.
In 1566, Tycho Brahe left to study at the University of Rostock. Here, he studied with professors of medicine at the
university's famous medical school, and became interested in medical alchemy and botanical medicine.[n 2] On 29
December 1566, Tycho lost part of his nose in a sword duel with a fellow Danish nobleman, his third
cousin Manderup Parsberg. The two had drunkenly quarreled over who was the superior mathematician at an
engagement party at the home of Professor Lucas Bachmeister on 10 December.[9] Coming nearly to blows again on
the 29th, they ended up resolving their feud with a duel in the dark. Though the two were later reconciled, the duel
resulted in Tycho losing the bridge of his nose, and gaining a broad scar across his forehead. He received the best
possible care at the university, and wore a prosthetic nose for the rest of his life. It was kept in place with paste or
glue, and said to be made of silver and gold.[10] In November 2012, Danish and Czech researchers reported that the
prosthetic was actually made out of brass after chemically analyzing a small bone sample from the nose from the
body exhumed in 2010.[11]
Science and life on Uraniborg

In April 1567, Tycho returned home from his travels, with a firm intention of becoming a scientist. Although he had
been expected to go into politics and the law, like most of his kinsmen, and although Denmark was still at war with
Sweden, his family supported his decision to dedicate himself to the sciences. His father wanted him to take up
law, but Tycho was allowed to travel to Rostock and then to Augsburg (where he built a great quadrant), Basel,
and Freiburg. In 1568, he was appointed a canon at the Cathedral of Roskilde, a largely honorary position that
would allow him to focus on his studies. At the end of 1570, he was informed of his father's ill health, so he
returned to Knutstorp Castle, where his father died on 9 May 1571. The war was over, and the Danish lords soon
returned to prosperity. Soon, another uncle, Steen Bille, helped him build an observatory and alchemical laboratory
at Herrevad Abbey.[12]
Marriage to Kirsten Jørgensdatter
Towards the end of 1571, Tycho fell in love with Kirsten, daughter of Jørgen Hansen, the Lutheran minister in
Knudstrup.[13] As she was a commoner, Tycho never formally married her, since if he did he would lose his noble
privileges. However, Danish law permitted morganatic marriage, which meant that a nobleman and a common
woman could live together openly as husband and wife for three years, and their alliance then became a legally
binding marriage. However, each would maintain their social status, and any children they had together would be
considered commoners, with no rights to titles, landholdings, coat of arms, or even their father's noble
name.[14] While King Frederick respected Tycho's choice of wife, himself having been unable to marry the woman he
loved, many of Tycho's family members disagreed, and many churchmen would continue to hold the lack of a
divinely sanctioned marriage against him. Kirsten Jørgensdatter gave birth to their first daughter, Kirstine (named
after Tycho's late sister) on 12 October 1573. Kirstine died from the plague in 1576, and Tycho wrote a heartfelt
elegy for her tombstone.[15]In 1574, they moved to Copenhagen where their daughter Magdalene was born, [16] later
the family followed him into exile.[17] Kirsten and Tycho lived together for almost thirty years until Tycho's death.
Together, they had eight children, six of whom lived to adulthood.
The 1572 supernova
Star map of the constellation Cassiopeia showing the position of the supernova of 1572 (the topmost star, labelled I); from Tycho
Brahe's De nova stella.
On 11 November 1572, Tycho observed (from Herrevad Abbey) a very bright star, now numbered SN 1572, which
had unexpectedly appeared in the constellation Cassiopeia. Because it had been maintained since antiquity that
the world beyond the Moon's orbit was eternally unchangeable (celestial immutability was a fundamental axiom of
the Aristotelian world-view), other observers held that the phenomenon was something in the terrestrial sphere
below the Moon. However, in the first instance, Tycho observed that the object showed no daily parallax against the
background of the fixed stars. This implied it was at least farther away than the Moon and those planets that do
show such parallax. He also found the object did not change its position relative to the fixed stars over several
months, as all planets did in their periodic orbital motions, even the outer planets for which no daily parallax was
detectable. This suggested it was not even a planet, but a fixed star in the stellar sphere beyond all the planets. In
1573, he published a small book, De nova stella[n 3] thereby coining the term nova for a "new" star (we now classify
this star as a supernova and we know that it is 7,500 light-years from Earth). This discovery was decisive for his
choice of astronomy as a profession. Tycho was strongly critical of those who dismissed the implications of the
astronomical appearance, writing in the preface to De nova stella: "O crassa ingenia. O caecos coeli spectatores"
("Oh thick wits. Oh blind watchers of the sky"). The publication of his discovery made him a well-known name
among scientists across Europe.[18][19]
Lord of Hven
Watercolor sketch of Uraniborg
Tycho continued with his detailed observations, often assisted by his first assistant and student, his younger
sister Sophie Brahe. In 1574, Tycho published the observations made in 1572 from his first observatory at Herrevad
Abbey. He then started lecturing on astronomy, but gave it up and left Denmark in spring 1575 to tour abroad. He
first visited William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel's observatory at Kassel, then went on to Frankfurt, Basel and
Venice, where he acted as an agent for the Danish king, contacting artisans and craftsmen whom the king wanted
to work on his new palace at Elsinore. Upon his return, the King wished to repay Tycho's service by offering him a
position worthy of his family; he offered him a choice of lordships of militarily and economically important estates,
such as the castles of Hammershus or Helsingborg. But Tycho was reluctant to take up a position as a lord of the
realm, preferring to focus on his science. He wrote to his friend Johannes Pratensis, "I did not want to take
possession of any of the castles our benevolent king so graciously offered me. I am displeased with society here,
customary forms and the whole rubbish".[20] Tycho secretly began to plan to move to Basel, wishing to participate in
the burgeoning academic and scientific life there. But the King heard of Tycho's plans, and desiring to keep the
distinguished scientist, he offered Tycho the island of Hven in Øresund and funding to set up an observatory.[21]
Tycho Brahe's large mural quadrant at Uraniborg
Until then, Hven had been property directly under the Crown, and the 50 families on the island considered
themselves to be freeholding farmers, but with Tycho Brahe's appointment as Feudal Lord of Hven, this changed.
Tycho took control of agricultural planning, requiring the peasants to cultivate twice as much as they had done
before, and he also exacted corvéelabor from the peasants for the construction of his new castle. [22] The peasants
complained about Brahe's excessive taxation and took him to court. The court established Tycho's right to levy
taxes and labor, and the result was a contract detailing the mutual obligations of lord and peasants on the island.[23]
Brahe envisioned his castle Uraniborg as a temple dedicated to the muses of arts and sciences, rather than as a
military fortress; indeed, it was named after Urania, the muse of astronomy. Construction began in 1576 (with a
laboratory for his alchemical experiments in the cellar). Uraniborg was inspired by the Venetian architect Andrea
Palladio, and was one of the first buildings in northern Europe to show influence from Italian renaissance
architecture. When he realized that the towers of Uraniborg were not adequate as observatories because of the
instruments' exposure to the elements and the movement of the building, he then constructed a second
underground observatory at nearby Stjerneborg in 1581. The basement included an alchemical laboratory with 16
furnaces for conducting distillations and other chemical experiments. [24] Unusually for the time, Tycho established
Uraniborg as a research centre, where almost 100 students and artisans worked from 1576 to 1597. [25][26]Uraniborg
also contained a printing press and a paper mill, both among the first in Scandinavia, enabling Tycho to publish his
own manuscripts, on locally made paper with his own watermark. He created a system of ponds and canals to run
the wheels of the paper mill. Over the years he worked on Uraniborg, Tycho was assisted by a number of students
and protegés, many of whom went on to their own careers in astronomy: among them were Christian Sørensen
Longomontanus, later one of the main proponents of the Tychonic model and Tycho's replacement as royal Danish
astronomer; Peder Flemløse; Elias Olsen Morsing; and Cort Aslakssøn. Tycho's instrument-maker Hans Crol also
formed part of the scientific community on the island.[27]
Brahe's notebook with his observations of the 1577 comet.
He observed the great comet that was visible in the Northern sky from November 1577 to January 1578. Within
Lutheranism, it was commonly believed that celestial objects like comets were powerful portents, announcing the
coming apocalypse, and in addition to Tycho's observations several Danish amateur astronomers observed the
object and published prophesies of impending doom. He was able to determine that the comet's distance to Earth
was much greater than the distance of the Moon, so that the comet could not have originated in the "earthly
sphere", confirming his prior anti-Aristotelian conclusions about the fixed nature of the sky beyond the Moon. He
also realized that the comet's tail was always pointing away from the Sun. He calculated its diameter, mass, and the
length of its tail, and speculated about the material it was made of. At this point, he had not yet broken with
Copernican theory, and observing the comet inspired him to try to develop an alternative Copernican model in
which the Earth was immobile.[28] The second half of his manuscript about the comet dealt with the astrological and
apocalyptic aspects of the comet, and he rejected the prophesies of his competitors; instead, making his own
predictions of dire political events in the near future.[29] Among his predictions was bloodshed in Moscow and the
imminent fall of Ivan the Terrible by 1583.[n 4]
Drawing of the above ground parts of Tycho Brahe's underground observatory "Stjerneborg".
The support that Tycho received from the Crown was substantial, amounting to 1% of the annual total revenue at
one point in the 1580s.[30] Tycho often held large social gatherings in his castle. Pierre Gassendi wrote that Tycho
also had a tame elk (moose) and that his mentor the Landgrave Wilhelm of Hesse-Kassel (Hesse-Cassel) asked
whether there was an animal faster than a deer. Tycho replied that there was none, but he could send his tame elk.
When Wilhelm replied he would accept one in exchange for a horse, Tycho replied with the sad news that the elk
had just died on a visit to entertain a nobleman at Landskrona. Apparently, during dinner, the elk had drunk a lot of
beer, fallen down the stairs, and died.[n 5] Among the many noble visitors to Hven was James VI of Scotland, who
married the Danish princess Anne. After his visit to Hven in 1590, he wrote a poem comparing Tycho Brahe with
Apollon and Phaethon.[31]
As part of Tycho's duties to the Crown in exchange for his estate, he fulfilled the functions of a royal astrologer. At
the beginning of each year, he had to present an Almanac to the court, predicting the influence of the stars on the
political and economic prospects of the year. And at the birth of each prince, he prepared their horoscopes,
predicting their fates. He also worked as a cartographer with his former tutor Anders Sørensen Vedel on mapping
out all of the Danish realm.[32] An ally of the king and friendly with Queen Sophie(both his mother Beate Bille and
adoptive mother Inger Oxe had been her court maids), he secured a promise from the King that ownership of Hven
and Uraniborg would pass to his heirs.[31]
Publications, correspondence and scientific disputes
Frontispiece to the 1610 edition of Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata
In 1588, Tycho's royal benefactor died, and a volume of Tycho's great two-volume work Astronomiae Instauratae
Progymnasmata (Introduction to the New Astronomy) was published. The first volume, devoted to the new star of
1572, was not ready, because the reduction of the observations of 1572–3 involved much research to correct the
stars' positions for refraction, precession, the motion of the Sun etc., and was not completed in Tycho's lifetime (it
was published in Prague in 1602/03), but the second volume, titled De Mundi Aetherei Recentioribus Phaenomenis
Liber Secundus (Second Book About Recent Phenomena in the Celestial World) and devoted to the comet of 1577,
was printed at Uraniborg and some copies were issued in 1588. Besides the comet observations, it included an
account of Tycho's system of the world.[28] The third volume was intended to treat the comets of 1580 and following
years in a similar manner, but it was never published, nor even written, though a great deal of material about the
comet of 1585 was put together and first published in 1845 with the observations of this comet.[33]
While at Uraniborg, Tycho Brahe maintained correspondence with scientists and astronomers across Europe. [34] He
inquired about other astronomers' observations and shared his own technological advances to help them achieve
more accurate observations. Thus, his correspondence was crucial to his research. Often, correspondence was not
just private communication between scholars, but also a way to disseminate results and arguments and to build
progress and scientific consensus. Through correspondence, Tycho Brahe was involved in several personal
disputes with critics of his theories. Prominent among them were John Craig, a Scottish physician who was a
strong believer in the authority of the Aristotelian worldview, and Nicolaus Reimers Baer, known as Ursus, an
astronomer at the Imperial court in Prague, whom Tycho accused of having plagiarized his cosmological model.
Craig refused to accept Brahe's conclusion that the comet of 1577 had to be located within the aetherial sphere
rather than within the atmosphere of Earth. Craig tried to contradict Brahe by using his own observations of the
comet, and by questioning his methodology. Brahe published an apologia (a defense) of his conclusions, in which
he provided additional arguments, as well as condemning Craig's ideas in strong language for being incompetent.
Another dispute concerned the mathematician Paul Wittich, who, after staying on Hven in 1580, taught Count
Wilhelm of Kassel and his astronomer Christoph Rothmann to build copies of Brahe's instruments without
permission from Brahe. In turn, Craig, who had studied with Wittich, accused Brahe of minimizing Wittich's role in
developing some of the trigonometric methods used by Brahe. In his dealings with these disputes, Tycho Brahe
made sure to leverage his support in the scientific community, by publishing and disseminating his own answers
and arguments.[35]
Exile and later years

When Frederick died in 1588, his son and heir Christian IV was only 11 years old. A regency council was appointed
to rule for the young prince-elect until his coronation in 1596. The head of the council (Steward of the Realm)
was Christoffer Valkendorff, who disliked Tycho Brahe after a conflict between them, and hence Tycho's influence
at the Danish court steadily declined. Feeling that his legacy on Hven was in peril, he approached the Dowager
Queen Sophie and asked her to affirm in writing her late husband's promise to endow Hven to Tycho's
heirs.[31]Nonetheless, he realized that the young king was more interested in war than in science, and was of no
mind to keep his father's promise. King Christian IV followed a policy of curbing the power of the nobility by
confiscating their estates to minimize their income bases, by accusing nobles of misusing their offices and of
heresies against the Lutheran church. Tycho, who was known to sympathize with the Philippists (followers of Philip
Melanchthon), was among the nobles who fell out of grace with the new king. The king's unfavorable disposition
towards Tycho was likely also a result of efforts by several of his enemies at court to turn the king against him.
Tycho's enemies included, in addition to Valkendorff, the king's doctor Peter Severinus, who also had a personal
gripes with Brahe, and several gnesio-Lutheran Bishops who suspected Brahe of heresy — a suspicion motivated
by his known Philippist sympathies, his pursuits in medicine and alchemy (both of which he practiced without the
church's approval) and his prohibiting the local priest on Hven to include the exorcism in the baptismal ritual.
Among the accusations raised against Tycho Brahe were his failure to adequately maintain the royal chapel at
Roskilde, and his harshness and exploitation of the Hven peasantry. [15]
The straw that broke the camel's back for Tycho was when a mob of commoners, possibly incited by his enemies at
court, rioted in front of his house in Copenhagen. Tycho Brahe left Hven in 1597, bringing some of his instruments
with him to Copenhagen, and entrusting others to a caretaker on the island. Shortly before leaving, he completed
his star catalogue giving the positions of 1,000 stars.[15] After some unsuccessful attempts at influencing the king to
let him return, he finally acquiesced to exile, but he wrote his most famous poem Elegy to Dania in which he chided
Denmark for not appreciating his genius. The instruments he had used in Uraniborg and Stjerneborg were depicted
and described in detail in his book Astronomiae instauratae mechanica or Instruments for the restoration of
astronomy,[37] first published in 1598. The King sent two envoys to Hven to describe the instruments left behind by
Brahe. Unversed in astronomy, the envoys reported to the king that the large mechanical contraptions such as his
large quadrant and sextant were "useless and even harmful". [38]
From 1597 to 1598, he spent a year at the castle of his friend Heinrich Rantzau in Wandesburg outside Hamburg,
and then they moved for a while to Wittenberg, where they stayed in the former home of Philip Melanchthon.[39]
In 1599, he obtained the sponsorship of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and moved to Prague, as Imperial Court
Astronomer. Tycho built a new observatory in a castle in Benátky nad Jizerou, 50 km from Prague, and worked
there for one year. The emperor then brought him back to Prague, where he stayed until his death. At the imperial
court even Tycho's wife and children were treated like nobility, which they had never been at the Danish court. [39]
Tycho received financial support from several nobles in addition to the emperor, including Oldrich Desiderius
Pruskowsky von Pruskow, to whom he dedicated his famous Mechanica. In return for their support, Tycho's duties
included preparing astrological charts and predictions for his patrons at events such as births, weather
forecasting, and astrological interpretations of significant astronomical events, such as the supernova of
1572 (sometimes called Tycho's supernova) and the Great Comet of 1577.[40]
Relationship with Kepler
In Prague, Tycho worked closely with Johannes Kepler, his assistant. Kepler was a convinced Copernican, and
considered Tycho's model to be mistaken, and derived from simple "inversion" of the Sun's and Earth's positions
in the Copernican model.[41] Together, the two worked on a new star catalogue based on his own accurate positions
— this catalogue became the Rudolphine Tables.[42] Also at the court in Prague was the mathematician Nicolaus
Reimers (Ursus), with whom Tycho had previously corresponded, and who, like Tycho, had developed a geo-
heliocentric planetary model, which Tycho considered to have been plagiarized from his own. Kepler had
previously spoken highly of Ursus, but now found himself in the problematic position of being employed by Tycho
and having to defend his employer against Ursus' accusations, even though he disagreed with both of their
planetary models. In 1600, he finished the tract Apologia pro Tychone contra Ursum (defense of Tycho against
Ursus).[43][44][45] Kepler had great respect for Tycho's methods and the accuracy of his observations and considered
him to be the new Hipparchus, who would provide the foundation for a restoration of the science of astronomy.[46]
Illness, death, and investigations
Tycho Brahe's grave in Prague, new tomb stone from 1901
Tycho suddenly contracted a bladder or kidney ailment after attending a banquet in Prague, and died eleven days
later, on 24 October 1601, at the age of 54. According to Kepler's first-hand account, Tycho had refused to leave the
banquet to relieve himself because it would have been a breach of etiquette.[47][48] After he returned home, he was no
longer able to urinate, except eventually in very small quantities and with excruciating pain. The night before he
died, he suffered from a delirium during which he was frequently heard to exclaim that he hoped he would not seem
to have lived in vain.[49] Before dying, he urged Kepler to finish the Rudolphine Tables and expressed the hope that
he would do so by adopting Tycho's own planetary system, rather than that of Copernicus. It was reported that
Brahe had written his own epitaph, "He lived like a sage and died like a fool."[50] A contemporary physician
attributed his death to a kidney stone, but no kidney stones were found during an autopsy performed after his body
was exhumed in 1901, and the 20th-century medical assessment is that his death is more likely to have resulted
from uremia.[51]
The investigations in the 1990s have suggested that Tycho may not have died from urinary problems, but instead
from mercury poisoning.[52][53] It was speculated that he had been intentionally poisoned. The two main suspects
were his assistant, Johannes Kepler, whose motives would be to gain access to Brahe's laboratory and
chemicals,[54] and his cousin, Erik Brahe, at the order of friend-turned-enemy Christian IV, because of rumors that
Tycho had had an affair with Christian's mother.[55][56]
In February 2010, the Prague city authorities approved a request by Danish scientists to exhume the remains, and
in November 2010 a group of Czech and Danish scientists from Aarhus University collected bone, hair and clothing
samples for analysis.[57][58][59] The scientists, led by Dr Jens Vellev, analyzed Tycho's beard hair once again. The team
reported in November 2012 that not only was there not enough mercury present to substantiate murder, but that
there were no lethal levels of any poisons present. The team's conclusion was that "it is impossible that Tycho
Brahe could have been murdered".[60][61] The findings were confirmed by scientists from the University of Rostock,
who examined a sample of Brahe's beard hairs that had been taken in 1901. Although traces of mercury were
found, these were present only in the outer scales. Therefore, mercury poisoning as the cause of death was ruled
out, while the study suggests that the accumulation of mercury may have come from the "precipitation of mercury
dust from the air during [Brahe's] long-term alchemistic activities".[62] The hair samples contain 20–100 times the
natural concentration of gold until 2 months before his death.[63]
Tycho is buried in the Church of Our Lady before Týn, in Old Town Square near the Prague Astronomical Clock.[64]
Career: observing the heavens

Observational astronomy
Drawing of a large sextant used by Tycho Brahe
Tycho's view of science was driven by his passion for accurate observations, and the quest for improved
instruments of measurement drove his life's work. Tycho was the last major astronomer to work without the aid of
a telescope, soon to be turned skyward by Galileo and others. Given the limitations of the naked eye for making
accurate observations, he devoted many of his efforts to improving the accuracy of the existing types of instrument
— the sextant and the quadrant. He designed larger versions of these instruments, which allowed him to achieve
much higher accuracy. Because of the accuracy of his instruments, he quickly realized the influence of wind and
the movement of buildings, and instead opted to mount his instruments underground directly on the bedrock. [65]
Tycho's observations of stellar and planetary positions were noteworthy both for their accuracy and
quantity.[66] With an accuracy approaching one arcminute, his celestial positions were much more accurate than
those of any predecessor or contemporary — about five times as accurate as the observations of the contemporary
astronomer Wilhelm of Hesse.[67]Rawlins (1993:§B2) asserts of Tycho's Star Catalog D, "In it, Tycho achieved, on a
mass scale, a precision far beyond that of earlier catalogers. Cat D represents an unprecedented confluence of
skills: instrumental, observational, & computational—all of which combined to enable Tycho to place most of his
hundreds of recorded stars to an accuracy of ordermag 1'!"
Drawing of a large quadrant used by Tycho Brahe.
He aspired to a level of accuracy in his estimated positions of celestial bodies of being consistently within
a arcminute of their real celestial locations, and also claimed to have achieved this level. But, in fact, many of the
stellar positions in his star catalogues were less accurate than that. The median errors for the stellar positions in
his final published catalog were about 1.5', indicating that only half of the entries were more accurate than that,
with an overall mean error in each coordinate of around 2'.[68]Although the stellar observations as recorded in his
observational logs were more accurate, varying from 32.3" to 48.8" for different instruments, [69] systematic errors of
as much as 3' were introduced into some of the stellar positions Tycho published in his star catalog — due, for
instance, to his application of an erroneous ancient value of parallax and his neglect of polestar
refraction.[70] Incorrect transcription in the final published star catalogue, by scribes in Brahe's employ, was the
source of even larger errors, sometimes by many degrees. [n 6]
Celestial objects observed near the horizon and above appear with a greater altitude than the real one, due to
atmospheric refraction, and one of Tycho's most important innovations was that he worked out and published the
very first tables for the systematic correction of this possible source of error. But, as advanced as they were, they
attributed no refraction whatever above 45 degrees altitude for solar refraction, and none for starlight above 20
degrees altitude.[71]
To perform the huge number of multiplications needed to produce much of his astronomical data, Tycho relied
heavily on the then new technique of prosthaphaeresis, an algorithm for approximating products based
on trigonometric identities that predated logarithms.[72]
The Tychonic cosmological model

Tychonic system
In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects
on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of fixed stars.
source;User:Fastfission - Own work

Diagram depicting the basics of the Tychonian geocentric system. Basically, the objects on blue orbits (the
Moon and the Sun and the fixed stars) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. All is surrounded by a sphere of fixed stars
(though they are fixed only with respect to each other, for the sphere revolves around the earth). The system
is essentially geocentric, though everything except for the moon and the fixed stars and the earth centre
itself revolves around the Sun. Distances are of course just generalized, though it is important that the minor
planets are always "tied" to the Sun while the major planets can be on either side of the Earth. This is a
superior diagram of Tycho's system to most that you will find: the path of the sun's orbit intersects with the
path of Mars' orbit, causing a problem for any astronomer thinking of the mechanism as incorporating
nested physical "spheres".
Although Tycho admired Copernicus and was the first to teach his theory in Denmark, he was unable to reconcile
Copernican theory with the basic laws of Aristotelian physics, that he considered to be foundational. He was also
critical of the observational data that Copernicus built his theory on, which he correctly considered to have a high
margin of error. Instead, Tycho proposed a "geo-heliocentric" system in which the Sun and Moon orbited the Earth,
while the other planets orbited the Sun. Tycho's system had many of the same observational and computational
advantages that Copernicus' system had, and both systems also could accommodate the phases of Venus,
although Galilei had yet to discover them. Tycho's system provided a safe position for astronomers who were
dissatisfied with older models but were reluctant to accept the heliocentrism and the Earth's motion. [73] It gained a
considerable following after 1616 when Rome declared that the heliocentric model was contrary to both philosophy
and Scripture, and could be discussed only as a computational convenience that had no connection to
fact.[74] Tycho's system also offered a major innovation: while both the purely geocentric model and the heliocentric
model as set forth by Copernicus relied on the idea of transparent rotating crystalline spheres to carry the planets
in their orbits, Tycho eliminated the spheres entirely. Kepler, as well as other Copernican astronomers, tried to
persuade Tycho to adopt the heliocentric model of the solar system, but he was not persuaded. According to
Tycho, the idea of a rotating and revolving Earth would be "in violation not only of all physical truth but also of the
authority of Holy Scripture, which ought to be paramount."[75]
With respect to physics, Tycho held that the Earth was just too sluggish and heavy to be continuously in motion.
According to the accepted Aristotelian physics of the time, the heavens (whose motions and cycles were
continuous and unending) were made of "Aether" or "Quintessence"; this substance, not found on Earth, was light,
strong, unchanging, and its natural state was circular motion. By contrast, the Earth (where objects seem to have
motion only when moved) and things on it were composed of substances that were heavy and whose natural state
was rest. Accordingly, Tycho said the Earth was a "lazy" body that was not readily moved.[76][77][78] Thus while Tycho
acknowledged that the daily rising and setting of the sun and stars could be explained by the Earth's rotation, as
Copernicus had said, still
such a fast motion could not belong to the earth, a body very heavy and dense and opaque, but rather belongs to
the sky itself whose form and subtle and constant matter are better suited to a perpetual motion, however fast. [79]
With respect to the stars, Tycho also believed that, if the Earth orbited the Sun annually, there should be an
observable stellar parallax over any period of six months, during which the angular orientation of a given star
would change thanks to Earth's changing position. (This parallax does exist, but is so small it was not detected
until 1838, when Friedrich Bessel discovered a parallax of 0.314 arcseconds of the star 61 Cygni.[80]) The Copernican
explanation for this lack of parallax was that the stars were such a great distance from Earth that Earth's orbit was
almost insignificant by comparison. However, Tycho noted that this explanation introduced another problem: Stars
as seen by the naked eye appear small, but of some size, with more prominent stars such as Vega appearing larger
than lesser stars such as Polaris, which in turn appear larger than many others. Tycho had determined that a
typical star measured approximately a minute of arc in size, with more prominent ones being two or three times as
large. In writing to Christoph Rothmann, a Copernican astronomer, Tycho used basic geometry to show that,
assuming a small parallax that just escaped detection, the distance to the stars in the Copernican system would
have to be 700 times greater than the distance from the sun to Saturn. Moreover, the only way the stars could be so
distant and still appear the sizes they do in the sky would be if even average stars were gigantic — at least as big
as the orbit of the Earth, and of course vastly larger than the sun. And, Tycho said, the more prominent stars would
have to be even larger still. And what if the parallax was even smaller than anyone thought, so the stars were yet
more distant? Then they would all have to be even larger still. [81][82] Tycho said
Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others)
accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference. [83]
Copernicans offered a religious response to Tycho's geometry: titanic, distant stars might seem unreasonable, but
they were not, for the Creator could make his creations that large if He wanted. [84][85] In fact, Rothmann responded to
this argument of Tycho's by saying:
"[W]hat is so absurd about [an average star] having size equal to the whole [orbit of the Earth]? What of this is
contrary to divine will, or is impossible by divine Nature, or is inadmissible by infinite Nature? These things must
be entirely demonstrated by you, if you will wish to infer from here anything of the absurd. These things that vulgar
sorts see as absurd at first glance are not easily charged with absurdity, for in fact divine Sapience and Majesty is
far greater than they understand. Grant the vastness of the Universe and the sizes of the stars to be as great as you
like — these will still bear no proportion to the infinite Creator. It reckons that the greater the king, so much greater
and larger the palace befitting his majesty. So how great a palace do you reckon is fitting to GOD?".[86]
Religion played a role in Tycho's geocentrism also – he cited the authority of scripture in portraying the Earth as
being at rest. He rarely used Biblical arguments alone (to him they were a secondary objection to the idea of Earth's
motion) and over time he came to focus on scientific arguments, but he did take Biblical arguments seriously. [87]
Tycho's 1587 geo-heliocentric model differed from those of other geo-heliocentric astronomers, such as Paul
Wittich, Reimarus Ursus, Helisaeus Roeslin and David Origanus, in that the orbits of Mars and the Sun intersected.
This was because Tycho had come to believe the distance of Mars from the Earth at opposition (that is, when Mars
is on the opposite side of the sky from the Sun) was less than that of the Sun from the Earth. Tycho believed this
because he came to believe Mars had a greater daily parallax than the Sun. But, in 1584, in a letter to a fellow
astronomer, Brucaeus, he had claimed that Mars had been further than the Sun at the opposition of 1582, because
he had observed that Mars had little or no daily parallax. He said he had therefore rejected Copernicus's model
because it predicted Mars would be at only two-thirds the distance of the Sun.[88] But, he apparently later changed
his mind to the opinion that Mars at opposition was indeed nearer the Earth than the Sun was, but apparently
without any valid observational evidence in any discernible Martian parallax. [89] Such intersecting Martian and solar
orbits meant that there could be no solid rotating celestial spheres, because they could not possibly interpenetrate.
Arguably, this conclusion was independently supported by the conclusion that the comet of 1577 was superlunary,
because it showed less daily parallax than the Moon and thus must pass through any celestial spheres in its
transit.
Lunar theory
Tycho's distinctive contributions to lunar theory include his discovery of the variation of the Moon's longitude. This
represents the largest inequality of longitude after the equation of the center and the evection. He also discovered
librations in the inclination of the plane of the lunar orbit, relative to the ecliptic (which is not a constant of about 5°
as had been believed before him, but fluctuates through a range of over a quarter of a degree), and accompanying
oscillations in the longitude of the lunar node. These represent perturbations in the Moon's ecliptic latitude.
Tycho's lunar theory doubled the number of distinct lunar inequalities, relative to those anciently known, and
reduced the discrepancies of lunar theory to about a fifth of their previous amounts. It was published
posthumously by Kepler in 1602, and Kepler's own derivative form appears in Kepler's Rudolphine Tables of
1627.[90]
Subsequent developments in astronomy

Kepler used Tycho's records of the motion of Mars to deduce laws of planetary motion,[91] enabling calculation of
astronomical tables with unprecedented accuracy (the Rudolphine Tables)[n 7] and providing powerful support for
a heliocentric model of the solar system.[92][93]
Valentin Naboth's drawing of Martianus Capella's geo-heliocentric astronomical model (1573)
source;Valentin Naboth (1523-1593) -

https://books.google.com/books?id=dNk5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PT98#v=onepage&q&f=true
Naboth's representation of Martianus Capella's geo-heliocentric astronomical model
Galileo's 1610 telescopic discovery that Venus shows a full set of phases refuted the pure geocentric Ptolemaic
model. After that it seems 17th-century astronomy mostly converted to geo-heliocentric planetary models that
could explain these phases just as well as the heliocentric model could, but without the latter's disadvantage of the
failure to detect any annual stellar parallax that Tycho and others regarded as refuting it.[94] The three main geo-
heliocentric models were the Tychonic, the Capellan with just Mercury and Venus orbiting the Sun such as
favoured by Francis Bacon, for example, and the extended Capellan model of Riccioli with Mars also orbiting the
Sun whilst Saturn and Jupiter orbit the fixed Earth. But the Tychonic model was probably the most popular, albeit
probably in what was known as 'the semi-Tychonic' version with a daily rotating Earth. This model was advocated
by Tycho's ex-assistant and disciple Longomontanus in his 1622 Astronomia Danica that was the intended
completion of Tycho's planetary model with his observational data, and which was regarded as the canonical
statement of the complete Tychonic planetary system. Longomontanus' work was published in several editions and
used by many subsequent astronomers, and through him the Tychonic system was adopted by astronomers as far
away as China.[95]
Johannes Kepler published the Rudolphine Tables containing a star catalog and planetary tables using Tycho's measurements.
Hven island appears west uppermost on the base.
The ardent anti-heliocentric French astronomer Jean-Baptiste Morin devised a Tychonic planetary model with
elliptical orbits published in 1650 in a simplified, Tychonic version of the Rudolphine Tables.[96] Some acceptance of
the Tychonic system persisted through the 17th century and in places until the early 18th century; it was supported
(after a 1633 decree about the Copernican controversy) by "a flood of pro-Tycho literature" of Jesuit origin. Among
pro-Tycho Jesuits, Ignace Pardies declared in 1691 that it was still the commonly accepted system, and Francesco
Blanchinus reiterated that as late as 1728.[97]Persistence of the Tychonic system, especially in Catholic countries,
has been attributed to its satisfaction of a need (relative to Catholic doctrine) for "a safe synthesis of ancient and
modern". After 1670, even many Jesuit writers only thinly disguised their Copernicanism. But in Germany, the
Netherlands, and England, the Tychonic system "vanished from the literature much earlier". [98]
James Bradley's discovery of stellar aberration, published in 1729, eventually gave direct evidence excluding the
possibility of all forms of geocentrism including Tycho's. Stellar aberration could only be satisfactorily explained
on the basis that the Earth is in annual orbit around the Sun, with an orbital velocity that combines with the finite
speed of the light coming from an observed star or planet, to affect the apparent direction of the body observed. [99]
Work in medicine, alchemy and astrology

Tycho Brahe also worked in medicine and alchemy. He was strongly influenced by Paracelsus, who considered the
human body to be directly influenced by celestial bodies. The paracelsian view of man as a microcosm, and
astrology as the science tying together the celestial and bodily universes was also shared by Philip Melanchthon,
and was precisely one of the points of contention between Melanchthon and Luther, and hence between the
philippists and the gnesio-Lutherans.[28] For Tycho Brahe there was a close connection between empiricism and
natural science on one hand and religion and astrology on the other.[100] Using his large herbal garden at Uraniborg,
Tycho Brahe produced several recipes for herbal medicines, using them to treat illnesses such as fever and
plague.[101] In his own time, Tycho was also famous for his contributions to medicine; his herbal medicines were in
use as late as the 1900s.[102] The expression Tycho Brahe days, in Scandinavian folklore, refers to a number of
"unlucky days" that were featured in many almanacs beginning in the 1700s, but which have no direct connection
to Tycho Brahe or his work.[103] Whether because he realized that astrology was not an empirical science or because
he feared religious repercussions Brahe seems to have had a somewhat ambiguous relation to his own astrological
work. For example, two of his more astrological treatises one on weather predictions and an almanac were
published in the names of his assistants, in spite of the fact that he worked on them personally. Some scholars
have argued that he lost faith in horoscope astrology over the course of his career,[104] and others that he simply
changed his public communication on the topic as he realized that connections with astrology could influence the
reception of his empirical astronomical work.[100]
Legacy
Monument of Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler in Prague
Biographies
The first biography of Tycho Brahe, which was also the first full-length biography of any scientist, was written
by Pierre Gassendi in 1654.[105] In 1779, Tycho de Hoffmann wrote of Brahe's life in his history of the Brahe family. In
1913, Dreyer published Tycho Brahe's collected works, facilitating further research. Early modern scholarship on
Tycho Brahe tended to see the shortcomings of his astronomical model, painting him as a mysticist recalcitrant in
accepting the Copernican revolution, and valuing mostly his observations that allowed Kepler to formulate his laws
of planetary movement. Especially in Danish scholarship, Tycho Brahe was depicted as a mediocre scholar and a
traitor to the nation — perhaps because of the important role in Danish historiography of Christian IV as a warrior
king.[15] In the second half of the 20th century, scholars began reevaluating is significance and studies by Kristian
Peder Moesgaard, Owen Gingerich, Robert Westman, Victor E. Thoren, and John R. Christianson focused on his
contributions to science, and demonstrated that while he admired Copernicus he was simply unable to reconcile
his basic theory of physics with the Copernican view.[106][107] Christianson's work showed the influence of Tycho's
Uraniborg as a training center for scientists who after studying with Brahe went on to make contributions in
various scientific fields.[108]
Scientific legacy
Although Tycho's planetary model was soon discredited, his astronomical observations were an essential
contribution to the scientific revolution. The traditional view of Tycho is that he was primarily an empiricist who set
new standards for precise and objective measurements.[109] This appraisal originated in Pierre Gassendi's 1654
biography, Tychonis Brahe, equitis Dani, astronomorum coryphaei, vita. It was furthered by Johann Dreyer's
biography in 1890, which was long the most influential work on Tycho. According to historian of science Helge
Kragh, this assessment grew out of Gassendi's opposition to Aristotelianism and Cartesianism, and fails to
account for the diversity of Tycho's activities.[109]
Cultural legacy
Tycho's discovery of the new star was the inspiration for Edgar Allan Poe's poem "Al Aaraaf".[110] In 1998, Sky &
Telescope magazine published an article by Donald W. Olson, Marilynn S. Olson and Russell L. Doescher arguing,
in part, that Tycho's supernova was also the same "star that's westward from the pole" in Shakespeare's Hamlet.[111]
The lunar crater Tycho is named in his honour,[112] as is the crater Tycho Brahe on Mars and the minor planet 1677
Tycho Brahe in the asteroid belt.[113] The bright supernova, SN 1572, is also known as Tycho's Nova[114] and the Tycho
Brahe Planetarium in Copenhagen is also named after him,[115] as is the palm genus Brahea.[116]
Works (selection)
 De Mundi Aetherei Recentioribus Phaenomenis Liber Secundus (Uraniborg, 1588; Prague, 1603; Frankfurt,
1610)
 Tychonis Brahe Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata (Prague, 1602/03; Frankfurt, 1610)
Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler refined the Ptolemaic lunar theory, but did not overcome
its central defect of giving a poor account of the (mainly monthly) variations in the Moon's
distance, apparent diameter and parallax. Their work added to the lunar theory three
substantial further discoveries.
• The nodes and the inclination of the lunar orbital plane both appear to librate, with a
monthly (according to Tycho) or semi-annual period (according to Kepler).
• The lunar longitude has a twice-monthly Variation, by which the Moon moves faster
than expected at new and full moon, and slower than expected at the quarters.
• There is also an annual effect, by which the lunar motion slows down a little in
January and speeds up a little in July: the annual equation.
The refinements of Brahe and Kepler were recognized by their immediate successors as
improvements, but their seventeenth-century successors tried numerous alternative
geometrical configurations for the lunar motions to improve matters further. A notable
success was achieved by Jeremiah Horrocks, who proposed a scheme involving an
approximate 6 monthly libration in the position of the lunar apogee and also in the size of the
elliptical eccentricity. This scheme had the great merit of giving a more realistic description
of the changes in distance, diameter and parallax of the Moon.
Modern developments
Digital computers and Lunar Laser Ranging
The Laser Ranging Facility at Goddard Spaceflight Center
Since the Second World War and especially since the 1960s, lunar theory has been further
developed in a somewhat different way. This has been stimulated in two ways: on the one
hand, by the use of automatic digital computation, and on the other hand, by modern
observational data-types, with greatly increased accuracy and precision.
Wallace John Eckert, a student of Ernest William Brown who worked at IBM, used the
experimental digital computers developed there after the Second World War for computation
of astronomical ephemerides. One of the projects was to put Brown's lunar theory into the
machine and evaluate the expressions directly. Another project was something entirely new:
a numerical integration of the equations of motion for the Sun and the four major planets.
This became feasible only after electronic digital computers became available. Eventually
this led to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Development Ephemeris series.
In the meantime, Brown's theory was improved with better constants and the introduction
of Ephemeris Time and the removal of some empirical corrections associated with this. This
led to the Improved Lunar Ephemeris (ILE),[33] which, with some minor successive
improvements, was used in the astronomical almanacs from 1960 through 1983 (ILE j=0 from
1960 to 1967, ILE j=1 from 1968 to 1971, ILE j=2 from 1972 to 1983),[42] and was used in lunar
landing missions.
The most significant improvement of position observations of the Moon have been the Lunar
Laser Ranging measurements, obtained using Earth-bound lasers and special retro-reflectors
placed on the surface of the Moon. The time-of-flight of a pulse of laser light to one of the
reflectors and back gives a measure of the Moon's distance at that time. The first of five
reflectors that are operational today was taken to the Moon in the Apollo 11 spacecraft in July
1969 and placed in a suitable position on the Moon's surface by Neil Armstrong.[43] Its
precision is still being extended further by the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-
ranging Operation, established in 2005.
Numerical integrations, relativity, tides, librations

The lunar theory, as developed numerically to fine precision using these modern measures,
is based on a larger range of considerations than the classical theories: it takes account not
only of gravitational forces (with relativistic corrections) but also of many tidal and
geophysical effects and a greatly extended theory of lunar libration. Like many other
scientific fields this one has now developed so as to be based on the work of large teams and
institutions. An institution notably taking one of the leading parts in these developments has
been the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at California Institute of Technology; and names
particularly associated with the transition, from the early 1970s onwards, from classical lunar
theories and ephemerides towards the modern state of the science include those of J Derral
Mulholland and J G Williams (and for the linked development of solar system (planetary)
ephemerides E Myles Standish).[44]
Since the 1970s, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has produced a series of numerically
integrated Development Ephemerides (numbered DExxx), incorporating Lunar Ephemerides
(LExxx). Planetary and lunar ephemerides DE200/LE200 were used in the official
Astronomical Almanac ephemerides for 1984–2002, and ephemerides DE405/LE405, of further
improved accuracy and precision, have been in use as from the issue for 2003.[45]
Analytical developments
In parallel with these developments, a new class of analytical lunar theory has also been
developed in recent years, notably the Ephemeride Lunaire Parisienne[46] by Jean Chapront
and Michelle Chapront-Touzé from the Bureau des Longitudes. Using computer-assisted
algebra, the analytical developments have been taken further than previously could be done
by the classical analysts working manually. Also, some of these new analytical theories (like
ELP) have been fitted to the numerical ephemerides previously developed at JPL as
mentioned above. The main aims of these recent analytical theories, in contrast to the aims of
the classical theories of past centuries, have not been to generate improved positional data
for current dates; rather, their aims have included the study of further aspects of the motion,
such as long-term properties, which may not so easily be apparent from the modern
numerical theories themselves.[47]
Alfred Wegener.
Alfred Lothar Wegener (/ˈveɪɡənər/;[1] German: [ˈʔalfʁeːt ˈveːgənɐ];[2][3] 1 November 1880 – November 1930) was a
German polar researcher, geophysicist and meteorologist.
During his lifetime he was primarily known for his achievements in meteorology and as a pioneer of polar research,
but today he is most remembered as the originator of the theory of continental drift by hypothesizing in 1912 that
the continents are slowly drifting around the Earth (German: Kontinentalverschiebung). His hypothesis was
controversial and not widely accepted until the 1950s, when numerous discoveries such
as palaeomagnetism provided strong support for continental drift, and thereby a substantial basis for today's
model of plate tectonics.[4][5] Wegener was involved in several expeditions to Greenland to study polar air circulation
before the existence of the jet stream was accepted. Expedition participants made many meteorological
observations and were the first to overwinter on the inland Greenland ice sheet and the first to bore ice cores on a
moving Arctic glacier.
Alfred Wegener

Alfred Wegener was born in Berlin on 1 November 1880 as the youngest of five children in a clergyman's family. His
father, Richard Wegener, was a theologian and teacher of classical languages at the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum
Grauen Kloster. In 1886 his family purchased a former manor house near Rheinsberg, which they used as a
vacation home. Today there is an Alfred Wegener Memorial site and tourist information office in a nearby building
that was once the local schoolhouse.[6] He was cousin to film pioneer Paul Wegener.
Commemorative plaque on Wegener's former school in Wallstrasse
Wegener attended school at the Köllnisches Gymnasium on Wallstrasse in Berlin (a fact which is memorialized on
a plaque on this protected building, now a school of music), graduating as the best in his class. Afterward he
studied Physics, meteorology and Astronomy in Berlin, Heidelberg and Innsbruck. From 1902 to 1903 during his
studies he was an assistant at the Urania astronomical observatory. He obtained a doctorate in astronomy in 1905
based on a dissertation written under the supervision of Julius Bauschingerat Friedrich Wilhelms
University (today Humboldt University), Berlin. Wegener had always maintained a strong interest in the developing
fields of meteorology and climatology and his studies afterwards focused on these disciplines.
In 1905 Wegener became an assistant at the Aeronautisches Observatorium Lindenberg near Beeskow. He worked
there with his brother Kurt, two years his senior, who was likewise a scientist with an interest in meteorology and
polar research. The two pioneered the use of weather balloons to track air masses. On a balloon ascent undertaken
to carry out meteorological investigations and to test a celestial navigation method using a particular type of
quadrant (“Libellenquadrant”), the Wegener brothers set a new record for a continuous balloon flight, remaining
aloft 52.5 hours from April 5–7, 1906.[7]
First Greenland expedition and years in Marburg

In that same year 1906, Wegener participated in the first of his four Greenland expeditions, later regarding this
experience as marking a decisive turning point in his life. The expedition was led by the Dane Ludvig Mylius-
Erichsen and charged with studying the last unknown portion of the northeastern coast of Greenland. During the
expedition Wegener constructed the first meteorological station in Greenland near Danmarkshavn, where he
launched kites and tethered balloons to make meteorological measurements in an Arctic climatic zone. Here
Wegener also made his first acquaintance with death in a wilderness of ice when the expedition leader and two of
his colleagues died on an exploratory trip undertaken with sled dogs.
After his return in 1908 and until World War I, Wegener was a lecturer in meteorology, applied astronomy and
cosmic physics at the University of Marburg. His students and colleagues in Marburg particularly valued his ability
to clearly and understandably explain even complex topics and current research findings without sacrificing
precision. His lectures formed the basis of what was to become a standard textbook in meteorology, first written In
1909/1910: Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre(Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere), in which he incorporated many
of the results of the Greenland expedition.
On 6 January 1912 he publicized his first thoughts about continental drift in a lecture at a session of the
Geologischen Vereinigung at the Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt am Main and in three articles in the
journal Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen.[8]
Second Greenland expedition

After a stopover in Iceland to purchase and test ponies as pack animals, the expedition arrived in Danmarkshavn.
Even before the trip to the inland ice began the expedition was almost annihilated by a calving glacier. The Danish
expedition leader, Johan Peter Koch, broke his leg when he fell into a glacier crevasse and spent months
recovering in a sickbed. Wegener and Koch were the first to winter on the inland ice in northeast
Greenland.[9] Inside their hut they drilled to a depth of 25 m with an auger. In summer 1913 the team crossed the
inland ice, the four expedition participants covering a distance twice as long as Fridtjof Nansen's southern
Greenland crossing in 1888. Only a few kilometers from the western Greenland settlement of Kangersuatsiaq the
small team ran out of food while struggling to find their way through difficult glacial breakup terrain. But at the last
moment, after the last pony and dog had been eaten, they were picked up at a fjord by the clergyman of Upernavik,
who just happened to be visiting a remote congregation at the time.
Later in 1913 after his return Wegener married Else Köppen, the daughter of his former teacher and mentor, the
meteorologist Wladimir Köppen. The young pair lived in Marburg, where Wegner resumed his university
lectureship.
World War I
As an infantry reserve officer Wegener was immediately called up when the First World War began in 1914. On the
war front in Belgium he experienced fierce fighting but his term lasted only a few months: after being wounded
twice he was declared unfit for active service and assigned to the army weather service. This activity required him
to travel constantly between various weather stations in Germany, on the Balkans, on the Western Front and in
the Baltic region.
Nevertheless, he was able in 1915 to complete the first version of his major work, Die Entstehung der Kontinente
und Ozeane (“The Origin of Continents and Oceans”). His brother Kurt remarked that Alfred Wegener's motivation
was to “reestablish the connection between geophysics on the one hand and geography and geology on the other,
which had become completely ruptured because of the specialized development of these branches of science.”
Interest in this small publication was however low, also because of wartime chaos. By the end of the war Wegener
had published almost 20 additional meteorological and geophysical papers in which he repeatedly embarked for
new scientific frontiers. In 1917 he undertook a scientific investigation of the Treysa meteorite.
Postwar period and third expedition

Wegener obtained a position as a meteorologist at the German Naval Observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) and moved
to Hamburg with his wife and their two daughters. In 1921 he was appointed senior lecturer at the new University of
Hamburg. From 1919 to 1923 Wegener did pioneering work on reconstructing the climate of past eras (now known
as "paleoclimatology"), closely in collaboration with Milutin Milanković,[10] publishing Die Klimate der geologischen
Vorzeit (“The Climates of the Geological Past”) together with his father-in-law, Wladimir Köppen, in 1924.[11] In 1922
the third, fully revised edition of “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” appeared, and discussion began on his
theory of continental drift, first in the German language area and later internationally. Withering criticism was the
response of most experts.
In 1924 Wegener was appointed to a professorship in meteorology and geophysics in Graz, which finally provided
him with a secure position for himself and his family. He concentrated on physics and the optics of the atmosphere
as well as the study of tornados. Scientific assessment of his second Greenland expedition (ice measurements,
atmospheric optics, etc.) continued to the end of the 1920s.
In November 1926 Wegener presented his continental drift theory at a symposium of the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists in New York City, again earning rejection from everyone but the chairman. Three years later
the fourth and final expanded edition of “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” appeared.
In 1929 Wegener embarked on his third trip to Greenland, which laid the groundwork for a later main expedition and
included a test of an innovative, propeller-driven snowmobile.
Fourth and last expedition
Wegener (left) and Villumsen (right) in Greenland; November 1, 1930.

Wegener's last Greenland expedition was in 1930. The 14 participants under his leadership were to establish three
permanent stations from which the thickness of the Greenland ice sheet could be measured and year-round Arctic
weather observations made. Wegener felt personally responsible for the expedition's success, as the German
government had contributed $120,000 ($1.5 million in 2007 dollars). Success depended on enough provisions being
transferred from West camp to Eismitte ("mid-ice") for two men to winter there, and this was a factor in the decision
that led to his death. Owing to a late thaw, the expedition was six weeks behind schedule and, as summer ended,
the men at Eismitte sent a message that they had insufficient fuel and so would return on 20 October.
Vehicles used by the 1930 expedition (stored).
On 24 September, although the route markers were by now largely buried under snow, Wegener set out with
thirteen Greenlanders and his meteorologist Fritz Loewe to supply the camp by dog sled. During the journey, the
temperature reached −60 °C (−76 °F) and Loewe's toes became so frostbitten they had to be amputated with a
penknife without anesthetic. Twelve of the Greenlanders returned to West camp. On 19 October the remaining three
members of the expedition reached Eismitte. There being only enough supplies for three at Eismitte, Wegener and
Rasmus Villumsen took two dog sleds and made for West camp. They took no food for the dogs and killed them
one by one to feed the rest until they could run only one sled. While Villumsen rode the sled, Wegener had to use
skis, but they never reached the camp: Wegener died and Villumsen was never seen again. The expedition was
completed by his brother, Kurt Wegener.
This expedition inspired the Greenland expedition episode of Adam Melfort in John Buchan's 1933 novel A Prince
of the Captivity.
Death
Wegener died in Clarinetania, Greenland, in November 1930. Villumsen had buried the body with great care, and a
pair of skis marked the grave site. After burying Wegener, Villumsen had resumed his journey to West camp, but
was never seen again. Six months later, on 12 May 1931, Wegener's body was found halfway between Eismitte and
West camp. The team that found him reburied his body in the same spot and marked the grave with a large cross.
Wegener had been 50 years of age and a heavy smoker, and it was believed that he had died of heart
failure brought on by overexertion. Villumsen was 23 when he died, and it is estimated that his body, and
Wegener's diary, now lie under more than 100 metres (330 ft) of accumulated ice and snow.[citation needed]
Continental drift theory

Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit
together like a jigsaw puzzle. The Continental shelf of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica,
Australia, India and Madagascar fit next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only published his idea after
reading a paper in 1911 which criticized the prevalent hypothesis, that a bridge of land once connected Europe and
America, on the grounds that this contradicts isostasy.[12] Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted
to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis
on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He
noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in fossil plants.
Fossil patterns across continents (Gondwana).
Source; Osvaldocangaspadilla - Own work

Obra derivada de Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.gif
From 1912, Wegener publicly advocated the existence of "continental drift", arguing that all the continents were
once joined together in a single landmass and had since drifted apart. He supposed that the mechanisms causing
the drift might be the centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation ("Polflucht") or the astronomical precession. Wegener
also speculated about sea-floor spreading and the role of the mid-ocean ridges, stating that "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for
fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth." [13]However, he did not pursue these ideas in his later works.
In 1915, in the first edition of his book, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, written in German,[14] Wegener
drew together evidence from various fields to advance the theory that there had once been a giant continent, which
he named "Urkontinent"[15] (German for "primal continent", analogous to the Greek "Pangaea",[16] meaning "All-
Lands" or "All-Earth"). Expanded editions during the 1920s presented further evidence. (The first English edition
was published in 1924 as The Origin of Continents and Oceans, a translation of the 1922 third German edition.) The
last German edition, published in 1929, revealed the significant observation that shallower oceans were
geologically younger. It was, however, not translated into English until 1962. [14]
Wegener during J.P. Koch's Expedition 1912–1913 in the winter base "Borg".
Reaction
In his work, Wegener presented a large amount of observational evidence in support of continental drift, but the
mechanism remained a problem, partly because Wegener's estimate of the velocity of continental motion,
250 cm/year, was too high.[17](The currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa
is about 2.5 cm/year.)[18]
While his ideas attracted a few early supporters such as Alexander Du Toit from South Africa, Arthur Holmes in
England [19]and Milutin Milanković in Serbia, for whom continental drift theory was the premise for investigating
polar wandering,[20][21] the hypothesis was initially met with skepticism from geologists, who viewed Wegener as an
outsider and were resistant to change.[19] The one American edition of Wegener's work, published in 1925, which
was written in "a dogmatic style that often results from German translations", [19] was received so poorly that
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists organized a symposium specifically in opposition to the
continental drift hypothesis.[22] The opponents argued, as did the Leipzigergeologist Franz Kossmat, that the
oceanic crust was too firm for the continents to "simply plough through".
From at least 1910, Wegener imagined the continents once fitting together not at the current shore line, but 200
m below this, at the level of the continental shelves, where they match well.[19] Part of the reason Wegener's ideas
were not initially accepted was the misapprehension that he was suggesting the continents had fit along the
current coastline.[19] Charles Schuchert commented:
During this vast time [of the split of Pangea] the sea waves have been continuously pounding against Africa and
Brazil and in many places rivers have been bringing into the ocean great amounts of eroded material, yet
everywhere the geographic shore lines are said to have remained practically unchanged! It apparently makes no
difference to Wegener how hard or how soft are the rocks of these shore lines, what are their geological structures
that might aid or retard land or marine erosion, how often the strand lines have been elevated or depressed, and
how far peneplanation has gone on during each period of continental stability. Furthermore, sea-level in itself has
not been constant, especially during the Pleistocene, when the lands were covered by millions of square miles of
ice made from water subtracted out of the oceans. In the equatorial regions, this level fluctuated three times during
the Pleistocene, and during each period of ice accumulation the sea-level sank about 250 feet [75 m].
Wegener was in the audience for this lecture, but made no attempt to defend his work, possibly because of an
inadequate command of the English language.
In 1943 George Gaylord Simpson wrote a strong critique of the theory (as well as the rival theory of sunken land
bridges) and gave evidence for the idea that similarities of flora and fauna between the continents could best be
explained by these being fixed land masses which over time were connected and disconnected by periodic
flooding, a theory known as permanentism.[23] Alexander du Toit wrote a rejoinder to this the following year. [24]
Modern developments
The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century.
Map:USGS Description:Scott Nash - File:Tectonic plates.png

The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates,
which float on the fluid-like (visco-elastic solid) asthenosphere. The relative fluidity of the asthenosphere
allows the tectonic plates to undergo motion in different directions. This map shows 15 of the largest plates.
Note that the Indo-Australian Plate may be breaking apart into the Indian and Australian plates, which are
shown separately on this map.
In the early 1950s, the new science of paleomagnetism pioneered at the University of Cambridge by S. K.
Runcorn and at Imperial College by P.M.S. Blackett was soon producing data in favour of Wegener's theory. By
early 1953 samples taken from India showed that the country had previously been in the Southern hemisphere as
predicted by Wegener. By 1959, the theory had enough supporting data that minds were starting to change,
particularly in the United Kingdom where, in 1964, the Royal Society held a symposium on the subject. [25]
The 1960s saw several relevant developments in geology, notably the discoveries of seafloor
spreading and Wadati–Benioff zones, and this led to the rapid resurrection of the continental drift hypothesis in the
form of its direct descendant, the theory of plate tectonics. Maps of the geomorphology of the ocean floors created
by Marie Tharp in cooperation with Bruce Heezen were an important contribution to the paradigm shift that was
starting. Wegener was then recognized as the founding father of one of the major scientific revolutions of the 20th
century.
With the advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS), it became possible to measure continental drift directly. [26]
Awards and honors

The Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Bremerhaven, Germany, was established in 1980 on
Wegener's centenary. It awards the Wegener Medal in his name. [27] The crater Wegener on the Moon and the
crater Wegener on Mars, as well as the asteroid 29227 Wegener and the peninsula where he died in Greenland
(Wegener Peninsula near Ummannaq, 71°12′N 51°50′W), are named after him.[28]
The European Geosciences Union sponsors an Alfred Wegener Medal & Honorary Membership "for scientists who
have achieved exceptional international standing in atmospheric, hydrological or ocean sciences, defined in their
widest senses, for their merit and their scientific achievements." [29]
Selected works
 Wegener, Alfred (1911). Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre [Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere] (in German).
Leipzig: Verlag Von Johann Ambrosius Barth. (in German)
 Wegener, Alfred (1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf
geophysikalischer Grundlage". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen (in German). 63: 185–195, 253–256,
305–309. Presented at the annual meeting of the German Geological Society, Frankfurt am Main (January 6,
1912).
 Wegener, Alfred (July 1912). "Die Entstehung der Kontinente". Geologische Rundschau (in German). 3 (4):
276–292. Bibcode:1912GeoRu...3..276W. doi:10.1007/BF02202896.
 Wegener, Alfred (1922). Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane [The Origin of Continents and Oceans] (in
German). ISBN 3-443-01056-3. LCCN unk83068007.
 Wegener, Alfred (1929). Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane [The Origin of Continents and Oceans] (in
German) (4 ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. ISBN 3-443-01056-3.
 English language edition: Wegener, Alfred (1966). The Origin of Continents and Oceans. New York:
Dover. ISBN 0-486-61708-4. Translated from the fourth revised German edition by John Biram.; British
edition: Methuen, London (1968).
 Köppen, W. & Wegener, A. (1924): Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit, Borntraeger Science Publishers.
English language edition: The Climates of the Geological Past 2015.
 Wegener, Elsie; Loewe, Fritz, eds. (1939). Greenland Journey, The Story of Wegener’s German Expedition to
Greenland in 1930–31 as told by Members of the Expedition and the Leader’s Diary. London: Blackie & Son
Ltd. Translated from the seventh German edition by Winifred M. Deans.
Wallace John Eckert

Wallace John Eckert (June 19, 1902 – August 24, 1971) was an American astronomer, who directed the Thomas J.
Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau at Columbia University which evolved into the research division of IBM
IBM.I nternational Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is an American multinational information
technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, with operations in over 170 countries. The company
began in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) and was renamed "International Business
Machines" in 1924.
IBM produces and sells computer hardware, middleware and software, and provides hosting and consulting
services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a major research organization,
holding the record for most U.S. patents generated by a business (as of 2019) for 26 consecutive years. [5] Inventions
by IBM include the automated teller machine (ATM), the floppy disk, the hard disk drive, the magnetic stripe card,
the relational database, the SQL programming language, the UPC barcode, and dynamic random-access
memory (DRAM). The IBM mainframe, exemplified by the System/360, was the dominant computing platform during
the 1960s and 1970s.
IBM has continually shifted business operations by focusing on higher-value, more profitable markets. This
includes spinning off printer manufacturer Lexmark in 1991 and the sale of personal
computer (ThinkPad/ThinkCentre) and x86-based server businesses to Lenovo (in 2005 and 2014, respectively), and
acquiring companies such as PwC Consulting(2002), SPSS (2009), The Weather Company (2016), and Red
Hat (2018). Also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go "fabless", continuing to design semiconductors, but
offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries.
Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the
world's largest employers, with (as of 2017) over 380,000 employees. Known as "IBMers", IBM employees have
been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology (USA) and five National
Medals of Science (USA).
Life.
Wallace John Eckert was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on January 19, 1902. Shortly thereafter, his parents John
and Anna Margaret (née Heil) Eckert[1] moved to Erie County, PA where they raised their four sons on a farm in
Albion, PA. Wallace graduated from Albion High School in a class of six boys and eight girls. He graduated
from Oberlin College in 1925, and earned an MA from Amherst Collegein 1926.[2]
He started teaching at Columbia University in 1926, and earned his PhD from Yale in 1931 in astronomy under
Professor Ernest William Brown (1866–1938).[3]
He married Dorothy Woodworth Applegate in 1932. They raised three children, Alice, John and Penelope.
He was not related to another computer pioneer of the time, J. Presper Eckert (1919–1995).[2]
He attended the launch of Apollo 14 just before his death August 24, 1971 in New Jersey.[4]
A lunar crater, located within Mare Crisium, is named in his honor.[5]
Solution of differential equations for astronomy

Around 1933 Eckert proposed interconnecting punched card tabulating machines from IBM located in Columbia's
Rutherford Laboratory to perform more than simple statistical calculations. Eckert arranged with IBM
president Thomas J. Watson for a donation of newly developed IBM 601 calculating punch, which could multiply
instead of just adding and subtracting.[6] In 1937 the facility was named the Thomas J. Watson Astronomical
Computing Bureau. IBM support included customer service and hardware circuit modifications needed to tabulate
numbers, create mathematical tables, add, subtract, multiply, reproduce, verify, create tables of differences, create
tables of logarithms and perform Lagrangian interpolation, all to solve differential equations for astronomical
applications. In January 1940, Eckert published Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation, which solved the
problem of predicting the orbits of the planets, using the IBM electric tabulating machines, based on the punched
card. This slim book is only 136 pages, including the index.
Naval service
In 1940, Eckert became director of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC. World War II had been
raging in Europe for many months. The US had not yet officially joined the effort to defeat Hitler. None-the-less, the
demand for navigation tables had risen. This demand helped inspire Eckert to automate the process of creating
these tables, using punched card equipment. The 1941 almanac was the first to be produced using automated
equipment, down to the final typesetting.[7][8]Martin Schwarzschild became directory of the Columbia laboratory
while Eckert was at USNO.
Manhattan Project
Columbia Physics professor Dana P. Mitchell served in the Manhattan Project (developing the first nuclear
weapons) at Los Alamos National Laboratory. By 1943 the laborious simulation calculations used
electromechanical calculators of that time operated by human "computers," mostly wives of the scientists. Mitchell
suggested using IBM machines like his colleague Eckert. Nicholas Metropolis and Richard Feynman organized a
punched-card solution, proving its effectiveness for physics research. John von Neumann and others were aware
of this "computing by punched cards". That helped them conceive towards the all-electronic answers which
evolved into what we call a computer today.[9][10]
Watson laboratory
After the war Eckert moved back to Columbia. Watson had just had a falling out with Harvard University over
a project IBM had funded. IBM would instead focus their funding on Columbia, and Eckert's laboratory was named
Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory. Eckert understood the significance of his laboratory, keenly aware of the
advantage of scientific calculations performed without human interventions for long stretches of computation. A
massive machine built to Eckert's specifications was built and installed behind glass at IBM's headquarters
on Madison Avenue in January 1948. Known as the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, it was used as a
calculating device with some success, but served even better as a recruiting tool. [11] Eckert published a description
of the SSEC in November 1948.[12]
As an employee of IBM, Eckert directed one of the first industrial research laboratories in the country. In 1945 he
hired Herb Grosch[13] and Llewellyn Thomas[14] as the next two IBM research scientists, who both made significant
contributions. When Cuthbert Hurd became the next PhD to be hired by IBM in 1949, he was offered a position with
Eckert, but instead founded the Applied Science Department, and later directed the development of IBM's first
commercial stored program computer (the IBM 701) based on the demand demonstrated by applications such as
those of Eckert.[15]
In this period he continued his innovative contributions to computational astronomy by implementing
Brown's Lunar theory in his computer; developing the Improved Lunar Ephemeris; and performing the first
numerical integration to compute an ephemeris for the outer planets.
In 1957 the Watson lab moved to Yorktown Heights, New York (with a new building completed in 1961) where it is
known as the Thomas J. Watson Research Center.[16] Eckert won the James Craig Watson Medal in 1966 from the US
National Academy of Sciences.[17]
Author
Faster, Faster - A Simple Description of a Giant Electronic Calculator, and the Problems it Solves. Written with
Rebecca Jones, Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, Columbia University, International Business Machines.
McGraw-Hill, 1955- An account for the layman. Says multiplying 1,000 pairs of ten digit numbers would take a week
by hand, and could be done by a "electronic supercalculator" (of the day!) in one second.
Richard Feynmann
Richard Phillips Feynman (/ˈfaɪnmən/; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical physicist,
known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics,
and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics for which he
proposed the parton model. For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman,
jointly with Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965.
Feynman developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions describing
the behavior of subatomic particles, which later became known as Feynman diagrams. During his lifetime,
Feynman became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide
by the British journal Physics World he was ranked as one of the ten greatest physicists of all time. [1]
He assisted in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and became known to a wide public in the
1980s as a member of the Rogers Commission, the panel that investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
Along with his work in theoretical physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum
computing and introducing the concept of nanotechnology. He held the Richard C.
Tolman professorship in theoretical physics at the California Institute of Technology.
Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics through both books and lectures including a 1959 talk on top-down
nanotechnology called There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom and the three-volume publication of his
undergraduate lectures, The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Feynman also became known through his semi-
autobiographical books Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! and What Do You Care What Other People Think? and
books written about him such as Tuva or Bust! by Ralph Leighton and the biography Genius: The Life and Science
of Richard Feynman by James Gleick.
Richard Feynman
Early life
Feynman was born on May 11, 1918, in Queens, New York City,[2] to Lucille née Phillips, a homemaker, and Melville
Arthur Feynman, a sales manager[3] originally from Minsk in Belarus [4] (then part of the Russian Empire). Both
were Lithuanian Jews.[5] They were not religious, and by his youth, Feynman described himself as an
"avowed atheist".[6] Many years later, in a letter to Tina Levitan, declining a request for information for her book on
Jewish Nobel Prize winners, he stated, "To select, for approbation the peculiar elements that come from some
supposedly Jewish heredity is to open the door to all kinds of nonsense on racial theory", adding, "at thirteen I was
not only converted to other religious views, but I also stopped believing that the Jewish people are in any way
'the chosen people'".[7] Later in his life, during a visit to the Jewish Theological Seminary, he encountered
the Talmud for the first time and remarked that it contained a medieval kind of reasoning and was a wonderful
book.[8]
Feynman was a late talker, and did not speak until after his third birthday. As an adult he spoke with a New York
accent[9][10] strong enough to be perceived as an affectation or exaggeration[11][12]—so much so that his
friends Wolfgang Pauli and Hans Bethe once commented that Feynman spoke like a "bum".[11] The young Feynman
was heavily influenced by his father, who encouraged him to ask questions to challenge orthodox thinking, and
who was always ready to teach Feynman something new. From his mother, he gained the sense of humor that he
had throughout his life. As a child, he had a talent for engineering, maintained an experimental laboratory in his
home, and delighted in repairing radios. When he was in grade school, he created a home burglar alarm system
while his parents were out for the day running errands.[13]
When Richard was five his mother gave birth to a younger brother, Henry Phillips, who died at age four
weeks.[14] Four years later, Richard's sister Joan was born and the family moved to Far Rockaway, Queens.[3] Though
separated by nine years, Joan and Richard were close, and they both shared a curiosity about the world. Though
their mother thought women lacked the capacity to understand such things, Richard encouraged Joan's interest in
astronomy, and Joan eventually became an astrophysicist.[15]
Education
Feynman attended Far Rockaway High School, a school in Far Rockaway, Queens, which was also attended by
fellow Nobel laureates Burton Richter and Baruch Samuel Blumberg.[16] Upon starting high school, Feynman was
quickly promoted into a higher math class. A high-school-administered IQ test estimated his IQ at 125—high, but
"merely respectable" according to biographer James Gleick.[17][18] His sister Joan did better, allowing her to claim
that she was smarter. Years later he declined to join Mensa International, saying that his IQ was too
low.[19] Physicist Steve Hsu stated of the test:
I suspect that this test emphasized verbal, as opposed to mathematical, ability. Feynman received the highest
score in the United States by a large margin on the notoriously difficult Putnam mathematics competition exam ...
He also had the highest scores on record on the math/physics graduate admission exams at Princeton ...
Feynman's cognitive abilities might have been a bit lopsided ... I recall looking at excerpts from a notebook
Feynman kept while an undergraduate ... [it] contained a number of misspellings and grammatical errors. I doubt
Feynman cared very much about such things.[20]
When Feynman was 15, he taught himself trigonometry, advanced algebra, infinite series, analytic geometry, and
both differential and integral calculus.[21] Before entering college, he was experimenting with and deriving
mathematical topics such as the half-derivative using his own notation.[22] He created special symbols
for logarithm, sine, cosine and tangent functions so they did not look like three variables multiplied together, and
for the derivative, to remove the temptation of canceling out the d's.[23][24] A member of the Arista Honor Society, in
his last year in high school he won the New York University Math Championship.[25] His habit of direct
characterization sometimes rattled more conventional thinkers; for example, one of his questions, when
learning feline anatomy, was "Do you have a map of the cat?" (referring to an anatomical chart). [26]
Feynman applied to Columbia University but was not accepted because of their quota for the number of Jews
admitted.[3] Instead, he attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he joined the Pi Lambda Phi
fraternity.[27] Although he originally majored in mathematics, he later switched to electrical engineering, as he
considered mathematics to be too abstract. Noticing that he "had gone too far," he then switched to physics, which
he claimed was "somewhere in between."[28] As an undergraduate, he published two papers in the Physical
Review.[25] One of these, which was co-written with Manuel Vallarta, was titled "The Scattering of Cosmic Rays by
the Stars of a Galaxy".[29]
Vallarta let his student in on a secret of mentor-protégé publishing: the senior scientist's name comes first.
Feynman had his revenge a few years later, when Heisenberg concluded an entire book on cosmic rays with the
phrase: "such an effect is not to be expected according to Vallarta and Feynman." When they next met, Feynman
asked gleefully whether Vallarta had seen Heisenberg's book. Vallarta knew why Feynman was grinning. "Yes," he
replied. "You're the last word in cosmic rays."[30]
The other was his senior thesis, on "Forces in Molecules",[31] based on an idea by John C. Slater, who was
sufficiently impressed by the paper to have it published. Today, it is known as the Hellmann–Feynman theorem.[32]
In 1939, Feynman received a bachelor's degree,[33] and was named a Putnam Fellow.[34] He attained a perfect score on
the graduate school entrance exams to Princeton University in physics—an unprecedented feat—and an
outstanding score in mathematics, but did poorly on the history and English portions. The head of the physics
department there, Henry D. Smyth, had another concern, writing to Philip M. Morse to ask: "Is Feynman Jewish? We
have no definite rule against Jews but have to keep their proportion in our department reasonably small because of
the difficulty of placing them."[35] Morse conceded that Feynman was indeed Jewish, but reassured Smyth that
Feynman's "physiognomy and manner, however, show no trace of this characteristic". [35]
Attendees at Feynman's first seminar, which was on the classical version of the Wheeler-Feynman absorber theory,
included Albert Einstein, Wolfgang Pauli, and John von Neumann. Pauli made the prescient comment that the
theory would be extremely difficult to quantize, and Einstein said that one might try to apply this method to gravity
in general relativity,[36] which Sir Fred Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar did much later as the Hoyle–Narlikar theory of
gravity.[37][38] Feynman received a Ph.D. from Princeton in 1942; his thesis advisor was John Archibald Wheeler.[39] His
doctoral thesis was titled "The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics".[40] Feynman had applied
the principle of stationary action to problems of quantum mechanics, inspired by a desire to quantize the Wheeler–
Feynman absorber theory of electrodynamics, and laid the groundwork for the path integral
formulation and Feynman diagrams.[41] A key insight was that positrons behaved like electrons moving backwards
in time.[41] James Gleick wrote:
This was Richard Feynman nearing the crest of his powers. At twenty-three ... there may now have been no
physicist on earth who could match his exuberant command over the native materials of theoretical science. It was
not just a facility at mathematics (though it had become clear ... that the mathematical machinery emerging in the
Wheeler–Feynman collaboration was beyond Wheeler's own ability). Feynman seemed to possess a frightening
ease with the substance behind the equations, like Einstein at the same age, like the Soviet physicist Lev Landau—
but few others.[39]
One of the conditions of Feynman's scholarship to Princeton was that he could not be married; nevertheless, he
continued to see his high school sweetheart, Arline Greenbaum, and was determined to marry her once he had
been awarded his Ph.D. despite the knowledge that she was seriously ill with tuberculosis. This was an incurable
disease at the time, and she was not expected to live more than two years. On June 29, 1942, they took
the ferry to Staten Island, where they were married in the city office. The ceremony was attended by neither family
nor friends and was witnessed by a pair of strangers. Feynman could only kiss Arline on the cheek. After the
ceremony he took her to Deborah Hospital, where he visited her on weekends.[42][43]
Manhattan Project
Feynman's Los Alamos ID badge
In 1941, with World War II raging in Europe but the United States not yet at war, Feynman spent the summer
working on ballistics problems at the Frankford Arsenal in Pennsylvania.[44][45] After the attack on Pearl Harbor had
brought the United States into the war, Feynman was recruited by Robert R. Wilson, who was working on means to
produce enriched uranium for use in an atomic bomb, as part of what would become the Manhattan
Project.[46][47] Wilson's team at Princeton was working on a device called an isotron, intended to electromagnetically
separate uranium-235 from uranium-238. This was done in a quite different manner from that used by
the calutron that was under development by a team under Wilson's former mentor, Ernest O. Lawrence, at
the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California. On paper, the isotron was many times more efficient than
the calutron, but Feynman and Paul Olumstruggled to determine whether or not it was practical. Ultimately, on
Lawrence's recommendation, the isotron project was abandoned.[48]
At this juncture, in early 1943, Robert Oppenheimer was establishing the Los Alamos Laboratory, a secret
laboratory on a mesa in New Mexico where atomic bombs would be designed and built. An offer was made to the
Princeton team to be redeployed there. "Like a bunch of professional soldiers," Wilson later recalled, "we signed
up, en masse, to go to Los Alamos."[49] Like many other young physicists, Feynman soon fell under the spell of the
charismatic Oppenheimer, who telephoned Feynman long distance from Chicago to inform him that he had found
a sanatorium in Albuquerque, New Mexico, for Arline. They were among the first to depart for New Mexico, leaving
on a train on March 28, 1943. The railroad supplied Arline with a wheelchair, and Feynman paid extra for a private
room for her.[50]
At Los Alamos, Feynman was assigned to Hans Bethe's Theoretical (T) Division, [51] and impressed Bethe enough to
be made a group leader.[52] He and Bethe developed the Bethe–Feynman formula for calculating the yield of a fission
bomb, which built upon previous work by Robert Serber.[53] As a junior physicist, he was not central to the project.
He administered the computation group of human computers in the theoretical division. With Stanley
Frankel and Nicholas Metropolis, he assisted in establishing a system for using IBM punched cards for
computation.[54] He invented a new method of computing logarithms that he later used on the Connection
Machine.[55][56] Other work at Los Alamos included calculating neutron equations for the Los Alamos "Water Boiler",
a small nuclear reactor, to measure how close an assembly of fissile material was to criticality. [57]
On completing this work, Feynman was sent to the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where the
Manhattan Project had its uranium enrichmentfacilities. He aided the engineers there in devising safety procedures
for material storage so that criticality accidents could be avoided, especially when enriched uranium came into
contact with water, which acted as a neutron moderator. He insisted on giving the rank and file a lecture on nuclear
physics so that they would realize the dangers.[58] He explained that while any amount of unenriched uranium could
be safely stored, the enriched uranium had to be carefully handled. He developed a series of safety
recommendations for the various grades of enrichments.[59] He was told that if the people at Oak Ridge gave him
any difficulty with his proposals, he was to inform them that Los Alamos "could not be responsible for their safety
otherwise".[60]
At the 1946 colloquium on the "Super" at the Los Alamos Laboratory. Feynman is in the second row, fourth from left, next to
Oppenheimer
Returning to Los Alamos, Feynman was put in charge of the group responsible for the theoretical work and
calculations on the proposed uranium hydride bomb, which ultimately proved to be infeasible.[52][61] He was sought
out by physicist Niels Bohr for one-on-one discussions. He later discovered the reason: most of the other
physicists were too much in awe of Bohr to argue with him. Feynman had no such inhibitions, vigorously pointing
out anything he considered to be flawed in Bohr's thinking. He said he felt as much respect for Bohr as anyone
else, but once anyone got him talking about physics, he would become so focused he forgot about social niceties.
Perhaps because of this, Bohr never warmed to Feynman.[62][63]
At Los Alamos, which was isolated for security, Feynman amused himself by investigating the combination locks
on the cabinets and desks of physicists. He often found that they left the lock combinations on the factory settings,
wrote the combinations down, or used easily guessable combinations like dates. [64] He found one cabinet's
combination by trying numbers he thought a physicist might use (it proved to be 27–18–28 after the base of natural
logarithms, e = 2.71828 ...), and found that the three filing cabinets where a colleague kept research notes all had
the same combination. He left notes in the cabinets as a prank, spooking his colleague, Frederic de Hoffmann, into
thinking a spy had gained access to them.[65]
Feynman's $380 monthly salary was about half the amount needed for his modest living expenses and Arline's
medical bills, and they were forced to dip into her $3,300 in savings. [66] On weekends he drove to Albuquerque to
see Arline in a car borrowed from his friend Klaus Fuchs.[67][68] Asked who at Los Alamos was most likely to be a spy,
Fuchs mentioned Feynman's safe cracking and frequent trips to Albuquerque; [67] Fuchs himself later confessed to
spying for the Soviet Union.[69] The FBI would compile a bulky file on Feynman.[70]
Feynman (center) with Robert Oppenheimer (immediately right of Feynman) at a Los Alamos Laboratory social function during
the Manhattan Project
Informed that Arline was dying, Feynman drove to Albuquerque and sat with her for hours until she died on June
16, 1945.[71] He then immersed himself in work on the project and was present at the Trinity nuclear test. Feynman
claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the very dark glasses or welder's lenses provided,
reasoning that it was safe to look through a truck windshield, as it would screen out the
harmful ultraviolet radiation. The immense brightness of the explosion made him duck to the truck's floor, where he
saw a temporary "purple splotch" afterimage.[72]
Cornell
Feynman nominally held an appointment at the University of Wisconsin–Madison as an assistant professor of
physics, but was on unpaid leave during his involvement in the Manhattan Project. [73] In 1945, he received a letter
from Dean Mark Ingraham of the College of Letters and Science requesting his return to the university to teach in
the coming academic year. His appointment was not extended when he did not commit to returning. In a talk given
there several years later, Feynman quipped, "It's great to be back at the only university that ever had the good
sense to fire me."[74]
As early as October 30, 1943, Bethe had written to the chairman of the physics department of his
university, Cornell, to recommend that Feynman be hired. On February 28, 1944, this was endorsed by Robert
Bacher,[75] also from Cornell,[76] and one of the most senior scientists at Los Alamos.[77] This led to an offer being
made in August 1944, which Feynman accepted. Oppenheimer had also hoped to recruit Feynman to the University
of California, but the head of the physics department, Raymond T. Birge, was reluctant. He made Feynman an offer
in May 1945, but Feynman turned it down. Cornell matched its salary offer of $3,900 per annum. [75] Feynman became
one of the first of the Los Alamos Laboratory's group leaders to depart, leaving for Ithaca, New York, in October
1945.[78]
Because Feynman was no longer working at the Los Alamos Laboratory, he was no longer exempt from the draft.
At his induction physical Army psychiatrists diagnosed Feynman as suffering from a mental illness, and the Army
gave him a 4-F exemption on mental grounds.[79][80] His father died suddenly on October 8, 1946, and Feynman
suffered from depression.[81] On October 17, 1946, he wrote a letter to Arline, expressing his deep love and
heartbreak. The letter was sealed and only opened after his death. "Please excuse my not mailing this," the letter
concluded, "but I don't know your new address."[82] Unable to focus on research problems, Feynman began tackling
physics problems, not for utility, but for self-satisfaction.[81] One of these involved analyzing the physics of a
twirling, nutating disk as it is moving through the air, inspired by an incident in the cafeteria at Cornell when
someone tossed a dinner plate in the air.[83] He read the work of Sir William Rowan Hamilton on quaternions, and
attempted unsuccessfully to use them to formulate a relativistic theory of electrons. His work during this period,
which used equations of rotation to express various spinning speeds, ultimately proved important to his Nobel
Prize–winning work, yet because he felt burned out and had turned his attention to less immediately practical
problems, he was surprised by the offers of professorships from other renowned universities, including
the Institute for Advanced Study, the University of California, Los Angeles, and the University of California,
Berkeley.[81]
Feynman diagram of electron/positron annihilation
Feynman was not the only frustrated theoretical physicist in the early post-war years. Quantum
electrodynamics suffered from infinite integrals in perturbation theory. These were clear mathematical flaws in the
theory, which Feynman and Wheeler had unsuccessfully attempted to work around. [84] "Theoreticians",
noted Murray Gell-Mann, "were in disgrace."[85] In June 1947, leading American physicists met at the Shelter Island
Conference. For Feynman, it was his "first big conference with big men ... I had never gone to one like this one in
peacetime."[86] The problems plaguing quantum electrodynamics were discussed, but the theoreticians were
completely overshadowed by the achievements of the experimentalists, who reported the discovery of the Lamb
shift, the measurement of the magnetic moment of the electron, and Robert Marshak's two-meson hypothesis.[87]
Bethe took the lead from the work of Hans Kramers, and derived a renormalized non-relativistic quantum equation
for the Lamb shift. The next step was to create a relativistic version. Feynman thought that he could do this, but
when he went back to Bethe with his solution, it did not converge.[88] Feynman carefully worked through the
problem again, applying the path integral formulation that he had used in his thesis. Like Bethe, he made the
integral finite by applying a cut-off term. The result corresponded to Bethe's version.[89][90] Feynman presented his
work to his peers at the Pocono Conference in 1948. It did not go well. Julian Schwinger gave a long presentation
of his work in quantum electrodynamics, and Feynman then offered his version, titled "Alternative Formulation of
Quantum Electrodynamics". The unfamiliar Feynman diagrams, used for the first time, puzzled the audience.
Feynman failed to get his point across, and Paul Dirac, Edward Teller and Niels Bohr all raised objections.[91][92]
To Freeman Dyson, one thing at least was clear: Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Schwinger and Feynman understood what
they were talking about even if no one else did, but had not published anything. He was convinced that Feynman's
formulation was easier to understand, and ultimately managed to convince Oppenheimer that this was the
case.[93] Dyson published a paper in 1949, which added new rules to Feynman's that told how to implement
renormalization.[94] Feynman was prompted to publish his ideas in the Physical Review in a series of papers over
three years.[95] His 1948 papers on "A Relativistic Cut-Off for Classical Electrodynamics" attempted to explain what
he had been unable to get across at Pocono.[96] His 1949 paper on "The Theory of Positrons" addressed
the Schrödinger equation and Dirac equation, and introduced what is now called the Feynman
propagator.[97] Finally, in papers on the "Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic
Interaction" in 1950 and "An Operator Calculus Having Applications in Quantum Electrodynamics" in 1951, he
developed the mathematical basis of his ideas, derived familiar formulae and advanced new ones.[98]
While papers by others initially cited Schwinger, papers citing Feynman and employing Feynman diagrams
appeared in 1950, and soon became prevalent.[99] Students learned and used the powerful new tool that Feynman
had created. Computer programs were later written to compute Feynman diagrams, providing a tool of
unprecedented power. It is possible to write such programs because the Feynman diagrams constitute a formal
language with a formal grammar. Marc Kac provided the formal proofs of the summation under history, showing
that the parabolic partial differential equation can be re-expressed as a sum under different histories (that is, an
expectation operator), what is now known as the Feynman–Kac formula, the use of which extends beyond physics
to many applications of stochastic processes.[100]To Schwinger, however, the Feynman diagram was "pedagogy, not
physics."[101]
By 1949, Feynman was becoming restless at Cornell. He never settled into a particular house or apartment, living in
guest houses or student residences, or with married friends "until these arrangements became sexually
volatile."[102] He liked to date undergraduates, hire prostitutes, and sleep with the wives of friends. [103] He was not
fond of Ithaca's cold winter weather, and pined for a warmer climate. [104] Above all, at Cornell, he was always in the
shadow of Hans Bethe.[102] Despite all of this, Feynman looked back favorably on the Telluride House, where he
resided for a large period of his Cornell career. In an interview, he described the House as "a group of boys that
have been specially selected because of their scholarship, because of their cleverness or whatever it is, to be given
free board and lodging and so on, because of their brains." He enjoyed the house's convenience and said that "it's
there that I did the fundamental work" for which he won the Nobel Prize.[105][106]
Caltech years
Personal and political life
Feynman spent several weeks in Rio de Janeiro in July 1949.[107] That year, the Soviet Union detonated its first
atomic bomb, generating anti-communist hysteria.[108]Fuchs was arrested as a Soviet spy in 1950 and the FBI
questioned Bethe about Feynman's loyalty.[109] Physicist David Bohm was arrested on December 4, 1950[110]and
emigrated to Brazil in October 1951.[111] A girlfriend told Feynman that he should also consider moving to South
America.[108] He had a sabbatical coming for 1951–52,[112] and elected to spend it in Brazil, where he gave courses at
the Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas. In Brazil, Feynman was impressed with sambamusic, and learned to
play a metal percussion instrument, the frigideira.[113] He was an enthusiastic amateur player of bongo drums and
often played them in the pit orchestra in musicals.[114] He spent time in Rio with his friend Bohm but Bohm could not
convince Feynman to investigate Bohm's ideas on physics.[115]
Feynman did not return to Cornell. Bacher, who had been instrumental in bringing Feynman to Cornell, had lured
him to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Part of the deal was that he could spend his first year on
sabbatical in Brazil.[116][102] He had become smitten by Mary Louise Bell from Neodesha, Kansas. They had met in a
cafeteria in Cornell, where she had studied the history of Mexican art and textiles. She later followed him to
Caltech, where he gave a lecture. While he was in Brazil, she taught classes on the history of furniture and interiors
at Michigan State University. He proposed to her by mail from Rio de Janeiro, and they married in Boise, Idaho, on
June 28, 1952, shortly after he returned. They frequently quarreled and she was frightened by his violent temper.
Their politics were different; although he registered and voted as a Republican, she was more conservative, and
her opinion on the 1954 Oppenheimer security hearing ("Where there's smoke there's fire") offended him. They
separated on May 20, 1956. An interlocutory decree of divorce was entered on June 19, 1956, on the grounds of
"extreme cruelty". The divorce became final on May 5, 1958. [117][118]
He begins working calculus problems in his head as soon as he awakens. He did calculus while driving in his car, while sitting in
the living room, and while lying in bed at night.
Mary Louise Bell, divorce complaint[119]
In the wake of the 1957 Sputnik crisis, the US government's interest in science rose for a time. Feynman was
considered for a seat on the President's Science Advisory Committee, but was not appointed. At this time, the FBI
interviewed a woman close to Feynman, possibly Mary Lou, who sent a written statement to J. Edgar Hoover on
August 8, 1958:
I do not know—but I believe that Richard Feynman is either a Communist or very strongly pro-Communist—and as
such as [sic] a very definite security risk. This man is, in my opinion, an extremely complex and dangerous person,
a very dangerous person to have in a position of public trust ... In matters of intrigue Richard Feynman is, I believe
immensely clever—indeed a genius—and he is, I further believe, completely ruthless, unhampered by morals,
ethics, or religion—and will stop at absolutely nothing to achieve his ends.[118]
The government nevertheless sent Feynman to Geneva for the September 1958 Atoms for Peace Conference. On
the beach at Lake Geneva, he met Gweneth Howarth, who was from Ripponden, Yorkshire, and working in
Switzerland as an au pair. Feynman's love life had been turbulent since his divorce; his previous girlfriend had
walked off with his Albert Einstein Award medal and, on the advice of an earlier girlfriend, had feigned pregnancy
and blackmailed him into paying for an abortion, then used the money to buy furniture. When Feynman found that
Howarth was being paid only $25 a month, he offered her $20 a week to be his live-in maid. Feynman knew that this
sort of behavior was illegal under the Mann Act, so he had a friend, Matthew Sands, act as her sponsor. Howarth
pointed out that she already had two boyfriends, but decided to take Feynman up on his offer, and arrived
in Altadena, California, in June 1959. She made a point of dating other men, but Feynman proposed in early 1960.
They were married on September 24, 1960, at the Huntington Hotel in Pasadena. They had a son, Carl, in 1962, and
adopted a daughter, Michelle, in 1968.[120][121] Besides their home in Altadena, they had a beach house in Baja
California, purchased with the money from Feynman's Nobel Prize.[122]
Feynman tried marijuana and ketamine at John Lilly's famed sensory deprivation tanks, as a way of studying
consciousness.[123][124] He gave up alcohol when he began to show vague, early signs of alcoholism, as he did not
want to do anything that could damage his brain.[125] Despite his curiosity about hallucinations, he was reluctant to
experiment with LSD.[125]
Physics
At Caltech, Feynman investigated the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, where helium
seems to display a complete lack of viscosity when flowing. Feynman provided a quantum-mechanical explanation
for the Soviet physicist Lev Landau's theory of superfluidity.[126] Applying the Schrödinger equation to the question
showed that the superfluid was displaying quantum mechanical behavior observable on a macroscopic scale. This
helped with the problem of superconductivity, but the solution eluded Feynman.[127] It was solved with the BCS
theory of superconductivity, proposed by John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer in 1957.[126]
Richard Feynman at the Robert Treat Paine Estate in Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1984
Feynman, inspired by a desire to quantize the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory of electrodynamics, laid the
groundwork for the path integral formulation and Feynman diagrams.[41]
With Murray Gell-Mann, Feynman developed a model of weak decay, which showed that the current coupling in the
process is a combination of vector and axial currents (an example of weak decay is the decay of a neutron into an
electron, a proton, and an antineutrino). Although E. C. George Sudarshan and Robert Marshak developed the
theory nearly simultaneously, Feynman's collaboration with Murray Gell-Mann was seen as seminal because
the weak interaction was neatly described by the vector and axial currents. It thus combined the 1933 beta
decay theory of Enrico Fermi with an explanation of parity violation.[128]
Feynman attempted an explanation, called the parton model, of the strong interactions governing nucleon
scattering. The parton model emerged as a complement to the quark model developed by Gell-Mann. The
relationship between the two models was murky; Gell-Mann referred to Feynman's partons derisively as "put-ons".
In the mid-1960s, physicists believed that quarks were just a bookkeeping device for symmetry numbers, not real
particles; the statistics of the omega-minus particle, if it were interpreted as three identical strange quarks bound
together, seemed impossible if quarks were real.[129][130]
The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory deep inelastic scattering experiments of the late 1960s showed
that nucleons(protons and neutrons) contained point-like particles that scattered electrons. It was natural to
identify these with quarks, but Feynman's parton model attempted to interpret the experimental data in a way that
did not introduce additional hypotheses. For example, the data showed that some 45% of the energy momentum
was carried by electrically neutral particles in the nucleon. These electrically neutral particles are now seen to be
the gluons that carry the forces between the quarks, and their three-valued color quantum number solves the
omega-minus problem. Feynman did not dispute the quark model; for example, when the fifth quark was
discovered in 1977, Feynman immediately pointed out to his students that the discovery implied the existence of a
sixth quark, which was discovered in the decade after his death. [129][131]
After the success of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman turned to quantum gravity. By analogy with the photon,
which has spin 1, he investigated the consequences of a free massless spin 2 field and derived the Einstein field
equation of general relativity, but little more. The computational device that Feynman discovered then for gravity,
"ghosts", which are "particles" in the interior of his diagrams that have the "wrong" connection between spin and
statistics, have proved invaluable in explaining the quantum particle behavior of the Yang–Mills theories, for
example, quantum chromodynamics and the electro-weak theory.[132] He did work on all four of the forces of
nature: electromagnetic, the weak force, the strong force and gravity. John and Mary Gribbin state in their book on
Feynman that "Nobody else has made such influential contributions to the investigation of all four of the
interactions".[133]
Partly as a way to bring publicity to progress in physics, Feynman offered $1,000 prizes for two of his challenges in
nanotechnology; one was claimed by William McLellan and the other by Tom Newman.[134] He was also one of the
first scientists to conceive the possibility of quantum computers.[135][136] In 1984–1986, he developed a variational
method for the approximate calculation of path integrals, which has led to a powerful method of converting
divergent perturbation expansions into convergent strong-coupling expansions (variational perturbation theory)
and, as a consequence, to the most accurate determination[137] of critical exponentsmeasured in satellite
experiments.[138]
Pedagogy
In the early 1960s, Feynman acceded to a request to "spruce up" the teaching of undergraduates at Caltech. After
three years devoted to the task, he produced a series of lectures that later became The Feynman Lectures on
Physics. He wanted a picture of a drumhead sprinkled with powder to show the modes of vibration at the beginning
of the book. Concerned over the connections to drugs and rock and roll that could be made from the image, the
publishers changed the cover to plain red, though they included a picture of him playing drums in the
foreword. The Feynman Lectures on Physics occupied two physicists, Robert B. Leighton and Matthew Sands, as
part-time co-authors for several years. Even though the books were not adopted by universities as textbooks, they
continue to sell well because they provide a deep understanding of physics. [139] Many of his lectures and
miscellaneous talks were turned into other books, including The Character of Physical Law, QED: The Strange
Theory of Light and Matter, Statistical Mechanics, Lectures on Gravitation, and the Feynman Lectures on
Computation.[140]
Feynman wrote about his experiences teaching physics undergraduates in Brazil. The students' study habits and
the Portuguese language textbooks were so devoid of any context or applications for their information that, in
Feynman's opinion, the students were not learning physics at all. At the end of the year, Feynman was invited to
give a lecture on his teaching experiences, and he agreed to do so, provided he could speak frankly, which he
did.[141][142]
Feynman opposed rote learning or unthinking memorization and other teaching methods that emphasized form
over function. Clear thinking and clear presentationwere fundamental prerequisites for his attention. It could be
perilous even to approach him unprepared, and he did not forget fools and pretenders. [143] In 1964, he served on the
California State Curriculum Commission, which was responsible for approving textbooks to be used by schools in
California. He was not impressed with what he found.[144] Many of the mathematics texts covered subjects of use
only to pure mathematicians as part of the "New Math". Elementary students were taught about sets, but:
It will perhaps surprise most people who have studied these textbooks to discover that the symbol ∪ or ∩
representing union and intersection of sets and the special use of the brackets { } and so forth, all the elaborate
notation for sets that is given in these books, almost never appear in any writings in theoretical physics, in
engineering, in business arithmetic, computer design, or other places where mathematics is being used. I see no
need or reason for this all to be explained or to be taught in school. It is not a useful way to express one's self. It is
not a cogent and simple way. It is claimed to be precise, but precise for what purpose?[145]
In April 1966, Feynman delivered an address to the National Science Teachers Association, in which he suggested
how students could be made to think like scientists, be open-minded, curious, and especially, to doubt. In the
course of the lecture, he gave a definition of science, which he said came about by several stages. The evolution of
intelligent life on planet Earth—creatures such as cats that play and learn from experience. The evolution of
humans, who came to use language to pass knowledge from one individual to the next, so that the knowledge was
not lost when an individual died. Unfortunately, incorrect knowledge could be passed down as well as correct
knowledge, so another step was needed. Galileo and others started doubting the truth of what was passed down
and to investigate ab initio, from experience, what the true situation was—this was science.[146]
In 1974, Feynman delivered the Caltech commencement address on the topic of cargo cult science, which has the
semblance of science, but is only pseudosciencedue to a lack of "a kind of scientific integrity, a principle of
scientific thought that corresponds to a kind of utter honesty" on the part of the scientist. He instructed the
graduating class that "The first principle is that you must not fool yourself—and you are the easiest person to fool.
So you have to be very careful about that. After you've not fooled yourself, it's easy not to fool other scientists. You
just have to be honest in a conventional way after that." [147]
Feynman served as doctoral advisor to 31 students.[148]
In the 1960s, Feynman began thinking of writing an autobiography, and he began granting interviews to historians.
In the 1980s, working with Ralph Leighton (Robert Leighton's son), he recorded chapters on audio tape that Ralph
transcribed. The book was published in 1985 as Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! and became a best-seller. The
publication of the book brought a new wave of protest about Feynman's attitude toward women. There had been
protests over his alleged sexism in 1968, and again in 1972. It did not help that Jenijoy La Belle, who had been hired
as Caltech's first female professor in 1969, was refused tenure in 1974. She filed suit with the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission, which ruled against Caltech in 1977, adding that she had been paid less than male
colleagues. La Belle finally received tenure in 1979. Many of Feynman's colleagues were surprised that he took her
side. He had got to know La Belle and both liked and admired her.[149][150]
Gell-Mann was upset by Feynman's account in the book of the weak interaction work, and threatened to sue,
resulting in a correction being inserted in later editions. [151] This incident was just the latest provocation in decades
of bad feeling between the two scientists. Gell-Mann often expressed frustration at the attention Feynman
received;[152] he remarked: "[Feynman] was a great scientist, but he spent a great deal of his effort generating
anecdotes about himself."[153] He noted that Feynman's eccentricities included a refusal to brush his teeth, which he
advised on national television that others not do, despite dentists showing him scientific studies that supported the
practice.[153]
Challenger disaster
: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
The 1986 Space Shuttle Challengerdisaster
When invited to join the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Challenger disaster, Feynman was hesitant.
Washington, D.C., he told his wife, was "a great big world of mystery to me, with tremendous forces." [154] But she
convinced him to go, saying he might discover something others overlooked. Because Feynman did not balk at
blaming NASA for the disaster, he clashed with the politically savvy commission chairman William Rogers, a
former Secretary of State. During a break in one hearing, Rogers told commission member Neil Armstrong,
"Feynman is becoming a pain in the ass."[155] During a televised hearing, Feynman demonstrated that the material
used in the shuttle's O-rings became less resilient in cold weather by compressing a sample of the material in a
clamp and immersing it in ice-cold water.[156] The commission ultimately determined that the disaster was caused by
the primary O-ring not properly sealing in unusually cold weather at Cape Canaveral.[157]
Feynman devoted the latter half of his book What Do You Care What Other People Think? to his experience on the
Rogers Commission, straying from his usual convention of brief, light-hearted anecdotes to deliver an extended
and sober narrative. Feynman's account reveals a disconnect between NASA's engineers and executives that was
far more striking than he expected. His interviews of NASA's high-ranking managers revealed startling
misunderstandings of elementary concepts. For instance, NASA managers claimed that there was a 1 in 100,000
chance of a catastrophic failure aboard the shuttle, but Feynman discovered that NASA's own engineers estimated
the chance of a catastrophe at closer to 1 in 200. He concluded that NASA management's estimate of the reliability
of the space shuttle was unrealistic, and he was particularly angered that NASA used it to recruit Christa
McAuliffe into the Teacher-in-Space program. He warned in his appendix to the commission's report (which was
included only after he threatened not to sign the report), "For a successful technology, reality must take
precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled." [158]
Recognition and awards

The first public recognition of Feynman's work came in 1954, when Lewis Strauss, the chairman of the Atomic
Energy Commission (AEC) notified him that he had won the Albert Einstein Award, which was worth $15,000 and
came with a gold medal. Because of Strauss's actions in stripping Oppenheimer of his security clearance, Feynman
was reluctant to accept the award, but Isidor Isaac Rabi cautioned him: "You should never turn a man's generosity
as a sword against him. Any virtue that a man has, even if he has many vices, should not be used as a tool against
him."[159] It was followed by the AEC's Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award in 1962.[160]Schwinger, Tomonaga and
Feynman shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with
deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles". [161] He was elected a Foreign Member of the
Royal Society in 1965,[2][162] received the Oersted Medal in 1972,[163] and the National Medal of Science in 1979.[164] He
was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences, but ultimately resigned and is no longer listed by
them.[165]
Death
In 1978, Feynman sought medical treatment for abdominal pains and was diagnosed with liposarcoma, a rare form
of cancer. Surgeons removed a tumor the size of a football that had crushed one kidney and his spleen. Further
operations were performed in October 1986 and October 1987. [166] He was again hospitalized at the UCLA Medical
Center on February 3, 1988. A ruptured duodenal ulcer caused kidney failure, and he declined to undergo
the dialysis that might have prolonged his life for a few months. Watched over by his wife Gweneth, sister Joan,
and cousin Frances Lewine, he died on February 15, 1988, at age 69.[167]
When Feynman was nearing death, he asked Danny Hillis why he was so sad. Hillis replied that he thought
Feynman was going to die soon. Feynman said that this sometimes bothered him, too, adding, when you get to be
as old as he was, and have told so many stories to so many people, even when he was dead he would not be
completely gone.[168]
Near the end of his life, Feynman attempted to visit the Tuvan ASSR in Russia, a dream thwarted by Cold War
bureaucratic issues – the letter from the Soviet government authorizing the trip was not received until the day after
he died. His daughter Michelle later undertook the journey.[169] His burial was at Mountain View Cemetery and
Mausoleum in Altadena.[170] His last words were: "I'd hate to die twice. It's so boring."[169]
Popular legacy
List of things named after Richard Feynman
Aspects of Feynman's life have been portrayed in various media. Feynman was portrayed by Matthew Broderick in
the 1996 biopic Infinity.[171] Actor Alan Aldacommissioned playwright Peter Parnell to write a two-character play
about a fictional day in the life of Feynman set two years before Feynman's death. The play, QED, premiered at
the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles in 2001 and was later presented at the Vivian Beaumont Theater on
Broadway, with both presentations starring Alda as Richard Feynman. [172] Real Time Opera premiered its
opera Feynman at the Norfolk (CT) Chamber Music Festival in June 2005. [173] In 2011, Feynman was the subject of a
biographical graphic novel entitled simply Feynman, written by Jim Ottaviani and illustrated by Leland Myrick.[174] In
2013, Feynman's role on the Rogers Commission was dramatised by the BBC in The Challenger (US title: The
Challenger Disaster), with William Hurt playing Feynman.[175][176][177] In the 2016 book, Idea Makers: Personal
Perspectives on the Lives & Ideas of Some Notable People, it states that one of the things Feynman often said was
that "peace of mind is the most important prerequisite for creative work." Feynman felt one should do everything
possible to achieve that peace of mind.[178]
Feynman is commemorated in various ways. On May 4, 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the
"American Scientists" commemorative set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The
scientists depicted were Richard Feynman, John von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, and Josiah Willard Gibbs.
Feynman's stamp, sepia-toned, features a photograph of a 30-something Feynman and eight small Feynman
diagrams.[179] The stamps were designed by Victor Stabin under the artistic direction of Carl T. Herrman.[180] The main
building for the Computing Division at Fermilab is named the "Feynman Computing Center" in his honor.[181] A
photograph of Richard Feynman giving a lecture was part of the 1997 poster series commissioned by Apple Inc. for
their "Think Different" advertising campaign.[182] The Sheldon Cooper character in The Big Bang Theory is a
Feynman fan who emulates him by playing the bongo drums.[183] On January 27, 2016, Bill Gates wrote an article
"The Best Teacher I Never Had" describing Feynman's talents as a teacher which inspired Gates to create Project
Tuva to place the videos of Feynman's Messenger Lectures, The Character of Physical Law, on a website for public
viewing. In 2015 Gates made a video on why he thought Feynman was special. The video was made for the 50th
anniversary of Feynman's 1965 Nobel Prize, in response to Caltech's request for thoughts on Feynman. [184]
Bibliography
Selected scientific works
 Feynman, Richard P. (2000). Laurie M. Brown, ed. Selected Papers of Richard Feynman: With Commentary.
20th Century Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-4131-5.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1942). Laurie M. Brown, ed. The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics. PhD
Dissertation, Princeton University. World Scientific (with title Feynman's Thesis: a New Approach to Quantum
Theory) (published 2005). ISBN 978-981-256-380-4.
 Wheeler, John A.; Feynman, Richard P. (1945). "Interaction with the Absorber as the Mechanism of
Radiation". Reviews of Modern Physics. 17 (2–3): 157–
181. Bibcode:1945RvMP...17..157W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.17.157.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1946). A Theorem and its Application to Finite Tampers. Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. OSTI 4341197.
 Feynman, Richard P.; Welton, T. A. (1946). Neutron Diffusion in a Space Lattice of Fissionable and Absorbing
Materials. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. OSTI 4381097.
 Feynman, Richard P.; Metropolis, N.; Teller, E. (1947). Equations of State of Elements Based on the
Generalized Fermi-Thomas Theory. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Atomic Energy
Commission. OSTI 4417654.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1948). "Space-time approach to non-relativistic quantum mechanics". Reviews of
Modern Physics. 20 (2): 367–387. Bibcode:1948RvMP...20..367F. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.20.367.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1948). "A Relativistic Cut-Off for Classical Electrodynamics". Physical Review. 74 (8):
939–946. Bibcode:1948PhRv...74..939F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.74.939.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1948). "A Relativistic Cut-Off for Quantum Electrodynamics". Physical Review. 74 (10):
1430–1438. Bibcode:1948PhRv...74.1430F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.74.1430.
 Wheeler, John A.; Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "Classical Electrodynamics in Terms of Direct Interparticle
Action" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 21 (3): 425–
433. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..425W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.425.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "The theory of positrons". Physical Review. 76 (6): 749–
759. Bibcode:1949PhRv...76..749F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.749.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamic". Physical Review. 76 (6):
769–789. Bibcode:1949PhRv...76..769F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.769.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1950). "Mathematical formulation of the quantum theory of electromagnetic
interaction". Physical Review. 80 (3): 440–457. Bibcode:1950PhRv...80..440F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.80.440.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1951). "An Operator Calculus Having Applications in Quantum
Electrodynamics". Physical Review. 84: 108–128. Bibcode:1951PhRv...84..108F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.84.108.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1953). "The λ-Transition in Liquid Helium". Physical Review. 90 (6): 1116–
1117. Bibcode:1953PhRv...90.1116F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.90.1116.2.
 Feynman, Richard P.; de Hoffmann, F.; Serber, R. (1955). Dispersion of the Neutron Emission in U235
Fission. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. OSTI 4354998.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1956). "Science and the Open Channel". Science (published February 24,
1956). 123 (3191): 307. Bibcode:1956Sci...123..307F. doi:10.1126/science.123.3191.307. PMID 17774518.
 Cohen, M.; Feynman, Richard P. (1957). "Theory of Inelastic Scattering of Cold Neutrons from Liquid
Helium". Physical Review. 107: 13–24. Bibcode:1957PhRv..107...13C. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.107.13.
 Feynman, Richard P.; Vernon, F. L.; Hellwarth, R. W. (1957). "Geometric representation of the Schrödinger
equation for solving maser equations". J. Appl. Phys. 28:
49. Bibcode:1957JAP....28...49F. doi:10.1063/1.1722572.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1959). "Plenty of Room at the Bottom". Presentation to American Physical Society.
Archived from the original on February 11, 2010.
 Edgar, R. S.; Feynman, Richard P.; Klein, S.; Lielausis, I.; Steinberg, C. M. (1962). "Mapping experiments with r
mutants of bacteriophage T4D". Genetics(published February 1962). 47 (2): 179–
86. PMC 1210321. PMID 13889186.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1968) [1966]. "What is Science?" (PDF). The Physics Teacher. 7 (6): 313–
320. Bibcode:1969PhTea...7..313F. doi:10.1119/1.2351388. Retrieved December 15, 2016. Lecture presented at
the fifteenth annual meeting of the National Science Teachers Association, 1966 in New York City
 Feynman, Richard P. (1966). "The Development of the Space-Time View of Quantum
Electrodynamics". Science (published August 12, 1966). 153 (3737): 699–
708. Bibcode:1966Sci...153..699F. doi:10.1126/science.153.3737.699. PMID 17791121.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1974a). "Structure of the proton". Science (published February 15, 1974). 183 (4125):
601–610. Bibcode:1974Sci...183..601F. doi:10.1126/science.183.4125.601. PMID 17778830.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1974). "Cargo Cult Science" (PDF). Engineering and Science. 37 (7).
 Feynman, Richard P.; Kleinert, Hagen (1986). "Effective classical partition functions". Physical Review
A (published December 1986). 34 (6): 5080–
5084. Bibcode:1986PhRvA..34.5080F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.34.5080. PMID 9897894.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1986). Rogers Commission Report, Volume 2 Appendix F – Personal Observations on
Reliability of Shuttle. NASA.
Textbooks and lecture notes
The Feynman Lectures on Physics including Feynman's Tips on Physics: The Definitive and Extended Edition (2nd edition, 2005)
The Feynman Lectures on Physics is perhaps his most accessible work for anyone with an interest in physics,
compiled from lectures to Caltech undergraduates in 1961–1964. As news of the lectures' lucidity grew,
professional physicists and graduate students began to drop in to listen. Co-authors Robert B.
Leighton and Matthew Sands, colleagues of Feynman, edited and illustrated them into book form. The work has
endured and is useful to this day. They were edited and supplemented in 2005 with Feynman's Tips on Physics: A
Problem-Solving Supplement to the Feynman Lectures on Physics by Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton (Robert
Leighton's son), with support from Kip Thorne and other physicists.
 Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (2005) [1970]. The Feynman Lectures on Physics:
The Definitive and Extended Edition (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-9045-6. Includes Feynman's Tips
on Physics (with Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton), which includes four previously unreleased lectures on
problem solving, exercises by Robert Leighton and Rochus Vogt, and a historical essay by Matthew Sands.
Three volumes; originally published as separate volumes in 1964 and 1966.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1961). Theory of Fundamental Processes. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-2507-7.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1962). Quantum Electrodynamics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-2501-0.
 Feynman, Richard P.; Hibbs, Albert (1965). Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-
020650-3.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1967). The Character of Physical Law: The 1964 Messenger Lectures. MIT Press. ISBN 0-
262-56003-8.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1972). Statistical Mechanics: A Set of Lectures. Reading, Mass: W. A. Benjamin. ISBN 0-
8053-2509-3.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1985b). QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-02417-0.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1987). Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34000-4.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1995). Brian Hatfield, ed. Lectures on Gravitation. Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-201-
62734-5.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1997). Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun (Vintage Press
ed.). London: Vintage. ISBN 0-09-973621-7.
 Feynman, Richard P. (2000). Tony Hey and Robin W. Allen, ed. Feynman Lectures on Computation. Perseus
Books Group. ISBN 0-7382-0296-7.
Popular works
 Feynman, Richard P. (1985). Ralph Leighton, ed. Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!: Adventures of a Curious
Character. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-01921-7. OCLC 10925248.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1988). Ralph Leighton, ed. What Do You Care What Other People Think?: Further
Adventures of a Curious Character. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-02659-0.
 No Ordinary Genius: The Illustrated Richard Feynman, ed. Christopher Sykes, W. W. Norton & Co,
1996, ISBN 0-393-31393-X.
 Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher, Perseus Books, 1994, ISBN 0-
201-40955-0. Listed by the Board of Directors of the Modern Library as one of the 100 best nonfiction books.[185]
 Six Not So Easy Pieces: Einstein's Relativity, Symmetry and Space-Time, Addison Wesley, 1997, ISBN 0-201-
15026-3.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1998). The Meaning of It All: Thoughts of a Citizen Scientist. Reading, Massachusetts:
Perseus Publishing. ISBN 0-7382-0166-9.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1999). Robbins, Jeffrey, ed. The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works
of Richard P. Feynman. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books. ISBN 0-7382-0108-1.
 Classic Feynman: All the Adventures of a Curious Character, edited by Ralph Leighton, W. W. Norton & Co,
2005, ISBN 0-393-06132-9. Chronologically reordered omnibus volume of Surely You're Joking, Mr.
Feynman! and What Do You Care What Other People Think?, with a bundled CD containing one of Feynman's
signature lectures.
Audio and video recordings

 Safecracker Suite (a collection of drum pieces interspersed with Feynman telling anecdotes)
 Los Alamos From Below (audio, talk given by Feynman at Santa Barbara on February 6, 1975)
 Six Easy Pieces (original lectures upon which the book is based)
 Six Not So Easy Pieces (original lectures upon which the book is based)
 The Feynman Lectures on Physics: The Complete Audio Collection
 Samples of Feynman's drumming, chanting and speech are included in the songs "Tuva Groove (Bolur Daa-
Bol, Bolbas Daa-Bol)" and "Kargyraa Rap (Dürgen Chugaa)" on the album Back Tuva Future, The Adventure
Continues by Kongar-ool Ondar. The hidden track on this album also includes excerpts from lectures without
musical background.
 The Messenger Lectures, given at Cornell in 1964, in which he explains basic topics in physics. Available
on Project Tuva free.[186] (See also the book The Character of Physical Law)
 Take the world from another point of view [videorecording] / with Richard Feynman; Films for the Hu (1972)
 The Douglas Robb Memorial Lectures, four public lectures of which the four chapters of the book QED: The
Strange Theory of Light and Matter are transcripts. (1979)
 The Pleasure of Finding Things Out, BBC Horizon episode (1981) (not to be confused with the later published
book of the same title)
 Richard Feynman: Fun to Imagine Collection, BBC Archive of six short films of Feynman talking in a style that
is accessible to all about the physics behind common to all experiences. (1983)
 Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics (1986)
 Tiny Machines: The Feynman Talk on Nanotechnology (video, 1984)
 Computers From the Inside Out (video)
 Quantum Mechanical View of Reality: Workshop at Esalen (video, 1983)
 Idiosyncratic Thinking Workshop (video, 1985)
 Bits and Pieces—From Richard's Life and Times (video, 1988)
 Strangeness Minus Three (video, BBC Horizon 1964)
 No Ordinary Genius (video, Cristopher Sykes Documentary)
 Richard Feynman—The Best Mind Since Einstein (video, Documentary)
 The Motion of Planets Around the Sun (audio, sometimes titled "Feynman's Lost Lecture")
 Nature of Matter (audio)[
Philips James Edwin Peebles
Phillip James Edwin Peebles OM FRS (born 1935) is a Canadian-American physicist and
theoretical cosmologist who is currently the Albert Einstein Professor Emeritus of Science at Princeton
University.[1][2] He is widely regarded as one of the world's leading theoretical cosmologists in the period since
1970, with major theoretical contributions to primordial nucleosynthesis, dark matter, the cosmic microwave
background, and structure formation. His three textbooks (Physical Cosmology, 1971; Large Scale Structure of
the Universe, 1980; Principles of Physical Cosmology, 1993) have been standard references in the field.
Phillip James Edwin Peebles
Academic career
Peebles was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, on April 25, 1935, and completed his bachelor's degree at the University
of Manitoba. He left Manitoba in the fall of 1958 to attend Princeton University, where he completed his doctorate
supervised by Robert Dicke;[3] he remained at Princeton for his whole career.
Peebles has made many important contributions to the big bang model. With Dicke and others (nearly two decades
after George Gamov, Ralph A. Alpher and Robert C. Herman), he predicted the cosmic microwave background
radiation. Along with making major contributions to big bang nucleosynthesis, dark matter, and dark energy, he
was the leading pioneer in the theory of cosmic structure formation in the 1970s. Long before it was considered a
serious, quantitative branch of physics, Peebles was studying physical cosmology and has done much to establish
its respectability. His Shaw Prize citation states "He laid the foundations for almost all modern investigations in
cosmology, both theoretical and observational, transforming a highly speculative field into a precision science
."[4]
Peebles has a long record of innovating the basic ideas, which would be extensively studied later by other
scientists. For instance, in 1987, he proposed the primordial isocurvature baryon model for the development of the
early universe.[5] Similarly, Peebles contributed to establishing the problem of dark matter in the early
1970s.[6] Peebles is also known for the Ostriker–Peebles criterion, relating to the stability of galactic form.
In Peebles' book, Principles of Physical Cosmology,[7] he expressed a preferred reference frame for velocity
anywhere in the universe based on Isotropic Cosmic Background Radiation, a departure from previous models, but
according to Peebles not in violation of Relativity. Victor Weisskopf gave the same opinion in his book. [8]Without
compromising Relativity principles in 1949 Albert Einstein introduced the concept of a preferred inertial frame in
his Autobiographical Notes[9] with the recommendation that kinetic energy should be developed as a field concept,
but this was not possible at the time before discovery of Cosmic Background Radiation.
Honours
Awards
 Eddington Medal (1981)

 Heineman Prize (1982)
 Fellow of the Royal Society (1982)[10]
 Henry Norris Russell Lectureship (1993)
 Bruce Medal (1995)
 Oskar Klein Medal (1997)
 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1998)
 Gruber Prize in Cosmology (2000), with Allan Sandage
 Harvey Prize (2001)
 Shaw Prize (2004)
 Crafoord Prize with James E. Gunn and Martin Rees (2005)
 Hitchcock Professorship (2006)
 Dirac Medal (2013)
 Member of the Order of Manitoba (2017)
Named after him
 Asteroid 18242 Peebles
Oliver Heaviside
Oliver Heaviside FRS[1] (/ˈhɛvisaɪd/; 18 May 1850 – 3 February 1925) was an English self-taught electrical
engineer, mathematician, and physicist who adapted complex numbers to the study of electrical circuits,
invented mathematical techniques for the solution of differential equations (equivalent to Laplace transforms),
reformulated Maxwell's field equations in terms of electric and magnetic forces and energy flux, and
independently co-formulated vector analysis. Although at odds with the scientific establishment for most of
his life, Heaviside changed the face of telecommunications, mathematics, and science for years to come.
Oliver Heaviside
[
Biography
Early life
Heaviside was born in Camden Town, London, at 55 Kings Street[3]:13 (now Plender Street). He was a short and red-
headed child, and suffered from scarlet fever when young, which left him with a hearing impairment. A small legacy
enabled the family to move to a better part of Camden when he was thirteen and he was sent to Camden House
Grammar School. He was a good student, placed fifth out of five hundred students in 1865, but his parents could
not keep him at school after he was 16, so he continued studying for a year by himself and had no further formal
education.[4]:51
Heaviside's uncle by marriage was Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875), an internationally celebrated expert in
telegraphy and electromagnetism, and the original co-inventor of the first commercially successful telegraph in the
mid-1830s. Wheatstone took a strong interest in his nephew's education[5] and in 1867 sent him north to work with
his own, older brother Arthur, who was managing one of Wheatstone's telegraph companies in Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.[4]:53
Two years later he took a job as a telegraph operator with the Danish Great Northern Telegraph Company laying a
cable from Newcastle to Denmark using British contractors. He soon became an electrician. Heaviside continued to
study while working, and by the age of 22 he published an article in the prestigious Philosophical Magazine on 'The
Best Arrangement of Wheatstone's Bridge for measuring a Given Resistance with a Given Galvanometer and
Battery'[6] which received positive comments from physicists who had unsuccessfully tried to solve this algebraic
problem, including Sir William Thomson, to whom he gave a copy of the paper, and James Clerk Maxwell. When he
published an article on the duplex method of using a telegraph cable,[7] he poked fun at R. S. Culley, the engineer in
chief of the Post Office telegraph system, who had been dismissing duplex as impractical. Later in 1873 his
application to join the Society of Telegraph Engineers was turned down with the comment that "they didn't want
telegraph clerks". This riled Heaviside, who asked Thomson to sponsor him, and along with support of the
society's president he was admitted "despite the P.O. snobs". [4]:60
In 1873 Heaviside had encountered Maxwell's newly published, and later famous, two-volume Treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism. In his old age Heaviside recalled:
I remember my first look at the great treatise of Maxwell's when I was a young man… I saw that it was great, greater
and greatest, with prodigious possibilities in its power… I was determined to master the book and set to work. I
was very ignorant. I had no knowledge of mathematical analysis (having learned only school algebra and
trigonometry which I had largely forgotten) and thus my work was laid out for me. It took me several years before I
could understand as much as I possibly could. Then I set Maxwell aside and followed my own course. And I
progressed much more quickly… It will be understood that I preach the gospel according to my interpretation of
Maxwell.[8]
Undertaking research from home, he helped develop transmission line theory (also known as the "telegrapher's
equations"). Heaviside showed mathematically that uniformly distributed inductance in a telegraph line would
diminish both attenuation and distortion, and that, if the inductance were great enough and
the insulationresistance not too high, the circuit would be distortionless while currents of all frequencies would
have equal speeds of propagation.[9] Heaviside's equations helped further the implementation of the telegraph.
Middle years
From 1882 to 1902, except for three years, he contributed regular articles to the trade paper The Electrician, which
wished to improve its standing, for which he was paid £40 per year. This was hardly enough to live on, but his
demands were very small and he was doing what he most wanted to. Between 1883 and 1887 these averaged 2–3
articles per month and these articles later formed the bulk of his Electromagnetic Theory and Electrical Papers.[4]:71
In 1880, Heaviside researched the skin effect in telegraph transmission lines. That same year he patented, in
England, the coaxial cable. In 1884 he recast Maxwell's mathematical analysis from its original cumbersome form
(they had already been recast as quaternions) to its modern vector terminology, thereby reducing twelve of the
original twenty equations in twenty unknowns down to the four differential equations in two unknowns we now
know as Maxwell's equations. The four re-formulated Maxwell's equations describe the nature of electric charges
(both static and moving), magnetic fields, and the relationship between the two, namely electromagnetic fields.
Between 1880 and 1887, Heaviside developed the operational calculus using p for the differential operator, (which
Boole[10] had previously denoted by D), giving a method of solving differential equations by direct solution
as algebraic equations. This later caused a great deal of controversy, owing to its lack of rigour. He famously said,
"Mathematics is an experimental science, and definitions do not come first, but later on." [11] On another occasion he
asked somewhat more defensively, "Shall I refuse my dinner because I do not fully understand the process of
digestion?"[12]
In 1887, Heaviside worked with his brother Arthur on a paper entitled "The Bridge System of Telephony". However
the paper was blocked by Arthur's superior, William Henry Preece of the Post Office, because part of the proposal
was that loading coils (inductors) should be added to telephone and telegraph lines to increase their self-induction
and correct the distortion which they suffered. Preece had recently declared self-inductance to be the great enemy
of clear transmission. Heaviside was also convinced that Preece was behind the sacking of the editor of The
Electrician which brought his long-running series of articles to a halt (until 1891).[13] There was a long history of
animosity between Preece and Heaviside. Heaviside considered Preece to be mathematically incompetent, an
assessment supported by the biographer Paul J. Nahin: "Preece was a powerful government official, enormously
ambitious, and in some remarkable ways, an utter blockhead." Preece's motivations in suppressing Heaviside's
work were more to do with protecting Preece's own reputation and avoiding having to admit error than any
perceived faults in Heaviside's work.[3]: xi–xvii, 162–183
The importance of Heaviside's work remained undiscovered for some time after publication in The Electrician, and
so its rights lay in the public domain. In 1897, AT&Temployed one of its own scientists, George A. Campbell, and an
external investigator Michael I. Pupin to find some respect in which Heaviside's work was incomplete or incorrect.
Campbell and Pupin extended Heaviside's work, and AT&T filed for patents covering not only their research, but
also the technical method of constructing the coils previously invented by Heaviside. AT&T later offered Heaviside
money in exchange for his rights; it is possible that the Bell engineers' respect for Heaviside influenced this offer.
However, Heaviside refused the offer, declining to accept any money unless the company were to give him full
recognition. Heaviside was chronically poor, making his refusal of the offer even more striking. [14]
But this setback had the effect of turning Heaviside's attention towards electromagnetic radiation, [15] and in two
papers of 1888 and 1889, he calculated the deformations of electric and magnetic fields surrounding a moving
charge, as well as the effects of it entering a denser medium. This included a prediction of what is now known
as Cherenkov radiation, and inspired his friend George FitzGerald to suggest what now is known as the Lorentz–
FitzGerald contraction.
In 1889, Heaviside first published a correct derivation of the magnetic force on a moving charged particle, [16] which
is now called the Lorentz force.
In the late 1880s and early 1890s, Heaviside worked on the concept of electromagnetic mass. Heaviside treated this
as material mass, capable of producing the same effects. Wilhelm Wien later verified Heaviside's expression (for
low velocities).
In 1891 the British Royal Society recognized Heaviside's contributions to the mathematical description of
electromagnetic phenomena by naming him a Fellow of the Royal Society, and the following year devoting more
than fifty pages of the Philosophical Transactions of the Society to his vector methods and electromagnetic theory.
In 1905 Heaviside was given an honorary doctorate by the University of Göttingen.
Later years and views

In 1896, FitzGerald and John Perry obtained a civil list pension of £120 per year for Heaviside, who was now living
in Devon, and persuaded him to accept it, after he had rejected other charitable offers from the Royal Society.[15]
In 1902, Heaviside proposed the existence of what is now known as the Kennelly–Heaviside layer of
the ionosphere. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's
curvature. The existence of the ionosphere was confirmed in 1923. The predictions by Heaviside, combined
with Planck's radiation theory, probably discouraged further attempts to detect radio waves from the Sun and
other astronomical objects. For whatever reason, there seem to have been no attempts for 30 years,
until Jansky's development of radio astronomy in 1932.
In later years his behavior became quite eccentric. According to associate B. A. Behrend, he became a recluse who
was so averse to meeting people that he delivered the manuscripts of his Electrician papers to a grocery store,
where the editors picked them up.[17] Though he had been an active cyclist in his youth, his health seriously
declined in his sixth decade. During this time Heaviside would sign letters with the initials "W.O.R.M." after his
name. Heaviside also reportedly started painting his fingernails pink and had granite blocks moved into his house
for furniture.[3]: xx In 1922, he became the first recipient of the Faraday Medal, which was established that year.
On Heaviside's religious views, he was a Unitarian, but not a religious one. He was even said to have made fun of
people who put their faith in a supreme being.[18]
Comparison of before and after the restoration project.
Heaviside died on 3 February 1925, at Torquay in Devon by falling from a ladder,[19] and is buried near the eastern
corner of Paignton cemetery. He is buried with his father, Thomas Heaviside (1813–1896) and his mother, Rachel
Elizabeth Heaviside. The gravestone was cleaned thanks to an anonymous donor sometime in 2005.[20] Most of his
recognition was gained posthumously.
Heaviside Memorial Project

In July 2014, academics at Newcastle University, UK and the Newcastle Electromagnetics Interest Group founded
the Heaviside Memorial Project[21] in a bid to fully restore the monument through public subscription.[22][23] The
restored memorial was ceremonially unveiled on 30 August 2014 by Alan Heather, a distant relative of Heaviside.
The unveiling was attended by the Mayor of Torbay, the MP for Torbay, an ex-curator of the Science Museum
(representing the Institution of Engineering and Technology), the Chairman of the Torbay Civic Society, and
delegates from Newcastle University.[24]
The Heaviside Collection 1872–1923

A collection of Heaviside's notebooks, papers, correspondence, notes and annotated pamphlets on telegraphy is
held at the Institution of Engineering and Technology(IET) Archive Centre.[25]
Innovations and discoveries

Heaviside did much to develop and advocate vector methods and the vector calculus.[26] Maxwell's formulation
of electromagnetism consisted of 20 equations in 20 variables. Heaviside employed
the curl and divergence operators of the vector calculus to reformulate 12 of these 20 equations into four equations
in four variables (B, E, J, and ρ), the form by which they have been known ever since (see Maxwell's equations).
Less well known is that Heaviside's equations and Maxwell's are not exactly the same, and in fact it is easier to
modify the latter to make them compatible with quantum physics. [27] The possibility of gravitational waves was also
discussed by Heaviside using the analogy between the inverse-square law in gravitation and electricity [28]
He invented the Heaviside step function using it to calculate the current when an electric circuit is switched on. He
was the first to use the unit impulse function now usually known as the Dirac delta function.[29] He invented
his operational calculus method for solving linear differential equations. This resembles the currently used Laplace
transform method based on the "Bromwich integral" named after Bromwich who devised a rigorous mathematical
justification for Heaviside's operator method using contour integration. [30] Heaviside was familiar with the Laplace
transform method but considered his own method more direct.[31][32]
Heaviside developed the transmission line theory (also known as the "telegrapher's equations"), which had the
effect of increasing the transmission rate over transatlantic cables by a factor of ten. It originally took ten minutes
to transmit each character, and this immediately improved to one character per minute. Closely related to this was
his discovery that telephone transmission could be greatly improved by placing electrical inductance in series with
the cable.[33] Heaviside also independently discovered the Poynting vector.[3]:116–118
Heaviside advanced the idea that the Earth's uppermost atmosphere contained an ionized layer known as
the ionosphere; in this regard, he predicted the existence of what later was dubbed the Kennelly–Heaviside layer. In
1947 Edward Victor Appleton received the Nobel Prize in Physics for proving that this layer really existed.
Electromagnetic terms
Heaviside coined the following terms of art in electromagnetic theory:
 admittance (reciprocal of impedance) (December 1887);

 elastance (reciprocal of permittance, reciprocal of capacitance) (1886);
 conductance (real part of admittance, reciprocal of resistance) (September 1885);
 electret for the electric analogue of a permanent magnet, or, in other words, any substance that exhibits a
quasi-permanent electric polarization (e.g. ferroelectric);
 impedance (July 1886);
 inductance (February 1886);
 permeability (September 1885);
 permittance and permittivity (June 1887);
 reluctance (May 1888);
 susceptance (imaginary part of admittance, reciprocal of reactance) (1887).
Publications
 1885, 1886, and 1887, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation", The Electrician.
 1888/89, "Electromagnetic waves, the propagation of potential, and the electromagnetic effects of a moving
charge", The Electrician.
 1889, "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a
Dielectric", Phil.Mag.S.5 27: 324.
 1892 "On the Forces, Stresses, and Fluxes of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field" Phil.Trans.Royal Soc.
A 183:423–80.
 1892 "On Operators in Physical Mathematics" Part I. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1892 Jan 01. vol.52 pp. 504–529
 1892 Heaviside, Oliver (1892). Electrical Papers. Volume 1. Macmillan Co, London and New York.
 1893 "On Operators in Physical Mathematics" Part II Proc. Roy. Soc. 1893 Jan 01. vol.54 pp. 105–143
 1893 "A gravitational and electromagnetic analogy," The Electrician.
 1893 Heaviside, Oliver (1893). Electromagnetic Theory. Volume 1. The Electrician Printing and Publishing Co,
London.
 1894 Heaviside, Oliver (1894). Electrical Papers. Volume 2. Macmillan Co, London and New York.
London.
London.
 1925. Electrical Papers. 2 vols Boston 1925 (Copley)
 1950 Electromagnetic theory: The complete & unabridged edition. (Spon) reprinted 1950 (Dover)
 1970 Heaviside, Oliver (1970). Electrical Papers. Chelsea Publishing Company, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8284-
0235-4.
 1971 "Electromagnetic theory; Including an account of Heaviside's unpublished notes for a fourth volume"
Chelsea, ISBN 0-8284-0237-X
 2001 Heaviside, Oliver (1 December 2001). Electrical Papers. ISBN 978-0-8218-2840-3.
2]
George Darwin.
Sir George Howard Darwin, KCB, FRS, FRSE (9 July 1845 – 7 December 1912)[1] was an English barrister
and astronomer, the second son and fifth child of Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin.
Sir George Howard Darwin

Sir George Howard Darwin
Biography
George H. Darwin was born at Down House, Kent, the fifth child of geneticist Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin.
From the age of 11 he studied under Charles Pritchard at Clapham Grammar School, and entered St John's College,
Cambridge, in 1863, though he soon moved to Trinity College,[2] where his tutor was Edward John Routh. He
graduated as second wrangler in 1868, when he was also placed second for the Smith's Prize and was appointed to
a college fellowship. He earned his M.A. in 1871.[2] He was admitted to the bar in 1872, but returned to
science.[2] George Darwin conducted studies into the prevalence and health outcomes of contemporary first-cousin
marriages in Great Britain. His father Charles had become concerned after the death of three of his children,
including his favorite daughter, Annie, from tuberculosis in 1851, that his and Emma’s union may have been a
mistake from a biological perspective. He was reassured by George's results. [3]
In 1879, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and won their Royal Medal in 1884 and their Copley Medal in
1911.[4] He delivered their Bakerian Lecture in 1891 on the subject of "tidal prediction".
In 1883 Darwin became Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at the University of
Cambridge. He studied tidal forces involving the Sun, Moon, and Earth, and formulated the fission theory of Moon
formation.[5]
Darwin was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) and won the Gold Medal of the RAS in 1892. From
1899–1901 he served as President of the RAS. The RAS founded a prize lectureship in 1984 and named it
the George Darwin Lectureship in Darwin's honour.
He was an invited speaker in the International Congress of Mathematicians 1908, Rome on the topic of "Mechanics,
Physical Mathematics, Astronomy."[6] As President of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, he also gave the
Introductory Address to the Congress in 1912 on the character of pure and applied mathematics. [7]
He received the degree of Doctor mathematicae (honoris causa) from the Royal Frederick University on 6
September 1902, when they celebrated the centennial of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel

Sir George Howard Darwin, oil on canvas, Mark Gertler, 1912
George Darwin ca 1908 by his daughter Gwen Raverat
Lady George Darwin, pastel, Cecilia Beaux, 1889
Family
Darwin married Martha (Maud) du Puy, the daughter of Charles du Puy of Philadelphia, in 1884; his wife was a
member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, with 11 other members.
She died on 6 February 1947. They had three sons and two daughters:
 Gwen Raverat (1885–1957), artist.

 Sir Charles Galton Darwin (1887–1962), physicist and applied mathematician.
 Margaret Elizabeth Darwin (1890–1974), married Sir Geoffrey Keynes.
 William Robert Darwin (1894–1970)
 Leonard Darwin (1899–1899)
George and Maud Darwin bought Newnham Grange, Cambridge in 1885. The Darwins extensively remodelled the
house. Since 1962 the Grange has been part of Darwin College, Cambridge.
He is buried in Trumpington Extension Cemetery in Cambridge with his son Leonard and his daughter Gwen
(Raverat), his wife Lady Maud Darwin was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium; his brothers Sir Francis
Darwin and Sir Horace Darwin and their respective wives are interred in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground.
Ancestry
Works
 "Tides". Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.). 1875–1889.
 The tides and kindred phenomena in the solar system (Boston, Houghton, 1899)
 Problems connected with the tides of a viscous spheroid (London, Harrison and Sons, 1879–1882)
 Scientific papers (Volume 1): Oceanic tides and lunar disturbances of gravity (Cambridge : University Press,
1907)[10][11]
 Scientific papers (Volume 2): Tidal friction and cosmogony. (Cambridge : University Press, 1908)[10]
 Scientific papers (Volume 3): Figures of equilibrium of rotating liquid and geophysical
investigations. (Cambridge : University Press, 1908)
 Scientific papers (Volume 4): Periodic orbits and miscellaneous papers. (Cambridge : University Press, 1911)
 Scientific papers (Volume 5) Supplementary volume, containing biographical memoirs by Sir Francis Darwin
and Professor E. W. Brown, lectures on Hill's lunar theory, etc... (Cambridge : University Press, 1916)
 The Scientific Papers of Sir George Darwin. 1907. Cambridge University Press (rep. by Cambridge University
Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00449-7)
Articles
 "On Beneficial Restrictions to Liberty of Marriage," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXII, June/November 1873.
 "Commodities Versus Labour," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXII, June/November 1873.
 "The Birth of a Satellite" Harper's Monthly Magazine, December 1903, pages 124 to 130.
In 1898, George Darwin made the suggestion that the Earth and Moon were once a single body. Darwin's
hypothesis was that a molten Moon had been spun from the Earth because of centrifugal forces, and this became
the dominant academic explanation.[9] Using Newtonian mechanics, he calculated that the Moon had orbited much
more closely in the past and was drifting away from the Earth. This drifting was later confirmed
by American and Soviet experiments, using laser ranging targetsplaced on the Moon.
Nonetheless, Darwin's calculations could not resolve the mechanics required to trace the Moon backward to the
surface of the Earth. In 1946, Reginald Aldworth Dalyof Harvard University challenged Darwin's explanation,
adjusting it to postulate that the creation of the Moon was caused by an impact rather than centrifugal
forces.[10]Little attention was paid to Professor Daly's challenge until a conference on satellites in 1974, during
which the idea was reintroduced and later published and discussed in Icarus in 1975 by Drs. William K.
Hartmann and Donald R. Davis. Their models suggested that, at the end of the planet formation period, several
satellite-sized bodies had formed that could collide with the planets or be captured. They proposed that one of
these objects may have collided with the Earth, ejecting refractory, volatile-poor dust that could coalesce to form
the Moon. This collision could potentially explain the unique geological and geochemical properties of the Moon. [11]
A similar approach was taken by Canadian astronomer Alastair G. W. Cameron and American astronomer William
R. Ward, who suggested that the Moon was formed by the tangential impact upon Earth of a body the size of Mars.
It is hypothesized that most of the outer silicates of the colliding body would be vaporized, whereas a metallic core
would not. Hence, most of the collisional material sent into orbit would consist of silicates, leaving the coalescing
Moon deficient in iron. The more volatile materials that were emitted during the collision probably would escape the
Solar System, whereas silicates would tend to coalesce.[12]
Artist's depiction of a collision between two planetary bodies. Such an impact between Earth and a Mars-sized object likely formed
the Moon.
The giant-impact hypothesis, sometimes called the Big Splash, or the Theia Impact suggests that the Moon formed
out of the debris left over from a collision between Earth and an astronomical body the size of Mars, approximately
4.5 billion years ago, in the Hadean eon; about 20 to 100 million years after the solar system coalesced. [1] The
colliding body is sometimes called Theia, from the name of the mythical Greek Titan who was the mother of Selene,
the goddess of the Moon.[2] Analysis of lunar rocks, published in a 2016 report, suggests that the impact may have
been a direct hit, causing a thorough mixing of both parent bodies.[3]
The giant impact hypothesis is currently the favored scientific hypothesis for the formation of the
Moon.[4] Supporting evidence includes:
 Earth's spin and the Moon's orbit have similar orientations.[5]

 Moon samples indicate that the Moon's surface was once molten.
 The Moon has a relatively small iron core.
 The Moon has a lower density than Earth.
 There is evidence in other star systems of similar collisions, resulting in debris disks.
 Giant collisions are consistent with the leading theories of the formation of the Solar System.
 The stable-isotope ratios of lunar and terrestrial rock are identical, implying a common origin. [6]
However, there remain several questions concerning the best current models of the giant-impact hypothesis.[7] The
energy of such a giant impact is predicted to have heated Earth to produce a global magma ocean, and evidence of
the resultant planetary differentiation of the heavier material sinking into Earth's mantle has been
documented.[8] However, as of 2015 there is no self-consistent model that starts with the giant-impact event and
follows the evolution of the debris into a single moon. Other remaining questions include when the Moon lost its
share of volatile elements and why Venus—which experienced giant impacts during its formation—does not host a
similar moon.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY.

UNITING PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
Astronomy
whole.[1]
Astronomy is one of the few sciences in which amateurs still play an active role, especially in the discovery and
observation of transient events. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical
discoveries, such as finding new comets.
Celestial mechanics
Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions of objects in outer space. Historically,
celestial mechanics applies principles of physics (classical mechanics) to astronomical objects, such
as stars and planets, to produce ephemeris data.
As an astronomical field of study, celestial mechanics includes the sub-fields of orbital mechanics, which deals
with the launching and orbits artificial satellites, and lunar theory, a specialty which deals with the complications of
the orbit of the Moon. Modern celestial mechanics tends to divide between five broad fields of study:
 trajectories of artificial satellites (astrodynamics)

 motions of major planets, minor planets, and natural satellites in the Solar system and other stellar systems
and widely spaced multiple-star systems (planetary dynamics)
 the motion of component stars and their planetary systems in closely spaced multiple-star systems and
globular clusters (astrodynamics and stellar dynamics)
 flow of stars within and among the bodies of large galaxies, dwarf galaxies, and globular clusters (stellar
dynamicsand galactic dynamics)
 motions of galaxies and intergalactic dust and gas within galaxy clusters (computational astrophysics)
All of the above fields overlap, but are sometimes treated as separate, especially the study of the motion of stars
within galaxies and interactions between whole galaxies, which both tend to rely heavily on fluid mechanics (whole
stars being particles of the “fluid”
Computational Astrophysics.
Computational astrophysics refers to the methods and computing tools developed and used
in astrophysics research. Like computational chemistry or computational physics, it is both a specific branch
of theoretical astrophysics and an interdisciplinary field relying on computer science, mathematics, and
wider physics. Computational astrophysics is most often studied through an applied mathematics or astrophysics
programme at PhD level.
Well-established areas of astrophysics employing computational methods include magnetohydrodynamics,
astrophysical radiative transfer, stellar and galacticdynamics, and astrophysical fluid dynamics. A recently
developed field with interesting results is numerical relativity.
Research
Many astrophysicists,Astronauts, Astronomers use computers in their work, and a growing number of
astrophysics departments now have research groups specially devoted to computational astrophysics. Important
research initiatives include the US Department of Energy (DoE) SciDAC collaboration for astrophysics[1] and the
now defunct European AstroSim collaboration.[2] A notable active project is the international Virgo Consortium,
which focuses on cosmology.
In August 2015 during the general assembly of the International Astronomical Union a new commission C.B1 on
Computational Astrophysics was inaugurated, therewith recognizing the importance of astronomical discovery by
computing.
Important techniques of computational astrophysics include particle-in-cell (PIC) and the closely related particle-
mesh (PM), N-body simulations, Monte Carlo methods, as well as grid-free (with smoothed particle
hydrodynamics (SPH) being an important example) and grid-based methods for fluids. In addition, methods
from numerical analysis for solving ODEs and PDEs are also used.
Simulation of astrophysical flows is of particular importance as many objects and processes of astronomical
interest such as stars and nebulae involve gases. Fluid computer models are often coupled with radiative transfer,
(Newtonian) gravity, nuclear physics and (general) relativity to study highly energetic phenomena such as
supernovae, relativistic jets, active galaxies and gamma-ray bursts[3] and are also used to model stellar
structure, planetary formation, evolution of stars and of galaxies, and exotic objects such as neutron
stars, pulsars, magnetars and black holes.[4] Computer simulations are often the only means to study stellar
collisions, galaxy mergers, as well as galactic and black hole interactions.[5][6]
In recent years the field has made increasing use of parallel and high performance computers.[7]
Tools
Computational astrophysics as a field makes extensive use of software and hardware technologies. These systems
are often highly specialized and made by dedicated professionals, and so generally find limited popularity in the
wider (computational) physics community.
Hardware
Like other similar fields, computational astrophysics makes extensive use of supercomputers and computer
clusters . Even on the scale of a normal desktop it is possible to accelerate the hardware. Perhaps the most notable
such computer architecture built specially for astrophysics is the GRAPE (gravity pipe) in Japan.
As of 2010, the biggest N-body simulations, such as DEGIMA, do general-purpose computing on graphics
processing units.[8]
Software
Many codes and software packages, exist along with various researchers and consortia maintaining them. Most
codes tend to be n-body packages or fluid solvers of some sort. Examples of n-body codes include ChaNGa,
MODEST,[9] nbodylab.org[10] and Starlab [11].
For hydrodynamics there is usually a coupling between codes, as the motion of the fluids usually has some other
effect (such as gravity, or radiation) in astrophysical situations. For example, for SPH/N-body there is GADGET and
SWIFT[12]; for grid-based/N-body RAMSES,[13] ENZO,[14] FLASH,[15] and ART.[16]
AMUSE [3],[17] takes a different approach (called Noah's Arc [18]) than the other packages by providing an interface
structure to a large number of publicly available astronomical codes for addressing stellar dynamics, stellar
evolution, hydrodynamics and radiative transport.
Astrophysics
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics
and chemistry "to ascertain the nature of the astronomical objects, rather than their positions
or motions in space".[1][2] Among the objects studied are the Sun,
other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave
background.[3][4] Their emissions are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature,
and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad
subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics,
including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum
mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.
In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the
realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists
include their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, and black
holes; whether or not time travel is possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists;
and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe.[3] Topics also studied by theoretical
astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar
dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-
scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical
cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics.
History
Early 20th-century comparison of elemental, solar, and stellar spectra
Although astronomy is as ancient as recorded history itself, it was long separated from the
study of terrestrial physics. In the Aristotelian worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be
unchanging spheres whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly
world was the realm which underwent growth and decay and in which natural motion was in a
straight line and ended when the moving object reached its goal. Consequently, it was held
that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found
in the terrestrial sphere; either Fire as maintained by Plato, or Aether as maintained
by Aristotle.[5][6] During the 17th century, natural philosophers such
as Galileo,[7] Descartes,[8] and Newton[9] began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial
regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same natural
laws.[10] Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove
these assertions.[11]
For much of the nineteenth century, astronomical research was focused on the routine work
of measuring the positions and computing the motions of astronomical objects.[12][13] A new
astronomy, soon to be called astrophysics, began to emerge when William Hyde
Wollaston and Joseph von Fraunhofer independently discovered that, when decomposing
the light from the Sun, a multitude of dark lines (regions where there was less or no light)
were observed in the spectrum.[14] By 1860 the physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, and the
chemist, Robert Bunsen, had demonstrated that the dark lines in the solar spectrum
corresponded to bright linesin the spectra of known gases, specific lines corresponding to
unique chemical elements.[15] Kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are
caused by absorption by chemical elements in the Solar atmosphere.[16] In this way it was
proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun and stars were also found on Earth.
Among those who extended the study of solar and stellar spectra was Norman Lockyer, who
in 1868 detected bright, as well as dark, lines in solar spectra. Working with the
chemist, Edward Frankland, to investigate the spectra of elements at various temperatures
and pressures, he could not associate a yellow line in the solar spectrum with any known
elements. He thus claimed the line represented a new element, which was called helium, after
the Greek Helios, the Sun personified.[17][18]
In 1885, Edward C. Pickering undertook an ambitious program of stellar spectral
classification at Harvard College Observatory, in which a team of woman computers,
notably Williamina Fleming, Antonia Maury, and Annie Jump Cannon, classified the spectra
recorded on photographic plates. By 1890, a catalog of over 10,000 stars had been prepared
that grouped them into thirteen spectral types. Following Pickering's vision, by 1924 Cannon
expanded the catalog to nine volumes and over a quarter of a million stars, developing
the Harvard Classification Scheme which was accepted for worldwide use in 1922.[19]
In 1895, George Ellery Hale and James E. Keeler, along with a group of ten associate editors
from Europe and the United States,[20] established The Astrophysical Journal: An International
Review of Spectroscopy and Astronomical Physics.[21] It was intended that the journal would
fill the gap between journals in astronomy and physics, providing a venue for publication of
articles on astronomical applications of the spectroscope; on laboratory research closely
allied to astronomical physics, including wavelength determinations of metallic and gaseous
spectra and experiments on radiation and absorption; on theories of the Sun, Moon, planets,
comets, meteors, and nebulae; and on instrumentation for telescopes and laboratories.[20]
Around 1920, following the discovery of the Hertsprung-Russell diagram still used as the
basis for classifying stars and their evolution, Arthur Eddington anticipated the discovery
and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper The Internal Constitution of
the Stars.[22][23] At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington
correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous
energy according to Einstein's equation E = mc2. This was a particularly remarkable
development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are
largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been discovered.
In 1925 Cecilia Helena Payne (later Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin) wrote an influential doctoral
dissertation at Radcliffe College, in which she applied ionization theory to stellar
atmospheres to relate the spectral classes to the temperature of stars.[24] Most significantly,
she discovered that hydrogen and helium were the principal components of stars. Despite
Eddington's suggestion, this discovery was so unexpected that her dissertation readers
convinced her to modify the conclusion before publication. However, later research
confirmed her discovery.[25]
By the end of the 20th century, studies of astronomical spectra had expanded to cover
wavelengths extending from radio waves through optical, x-ray, and gamma
wavelengths.[26] In the 21st century it further expanded to include observations based
on gravitational waves.
Observational astrophysics
Supernova remnant LMC N 63A imaged in x-ray (blue), optical (green) and radio (red) wavelengths. The
X-ray glow is from material heated to about ten million degrees Celsius by a shock wave generated by
the supernova explosion.
Observational astronomy is a division of the astronomical science that is concerned with

recording data, in contrast with theoretical astrophysics, which is mainly concerned with
finding out the measurable implications of physical models. It is the practice of
observing celestial objects by using telescopes and other astronomical apparatus.
The majority of astrophysical observations are made using the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Radio astronomy studies radiation with a wavelength greater than a few millimeters.
Example areas of study are radio waves, usually emitted by cold objects such
as interstellar gas and dust clouds; the cosmic microwave background radiation which is
the redshifted light from the Big Bang; pulsars, which were first detected
at microwave frequencies. The study of these waves requires very large radio telescopes.
 Infrared astronomy studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible to the
naked eye but is shorter than radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with
telescopes similar to the familiar optical telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as
planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.
 Optical astronomy is the oldest kind of astronomy. Telescopes paired with a charge-
coupled device or spectroscopes are the most common instruments used. The
Earth's atmosphere interferes somewhat with optical observations, so adaptive
opticsand space telescopes are used to obtain the highest possible image quality. In this
wavelength range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed
to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies and nebulae.
 Ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray astronomy study very energetic processes such
as binary pulsars, black holes, magnetars, and many others. These kinds of radiation do
not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere well. There are two methods in use to observe this
part of the electromagnetic spectrum—space-based telescopes and ground-
based imaging air Cherenkov telescopes (IACT). Examples of Observatories of the first
type are RXTE, the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Compton Gamma Ray
Observatory. Examples of IACTs are the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) and
the MAGIC telescope.
Other than electromagnetic radiation, few things may be observed from the Earth that
originate from great distances. A few gravitational wave observatories have been
constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect. Neutrino observatories
have also been built, primarily to study our Sun. Cosmic rays consisting of very high energy
particles can be observed hitting the Earth's atmosphere.
Observations can also vary in their time scale. Most optical observations take minutes to
hours, so phenomena that change faster than this cannot readily be observed. However,
historical data on some objects is available, spanning centuries or millennia. On the other
hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale (millisecond pulsars)
or combine years of data (pulsar deceleration studies). The information obtained from these
different timescales is very different.
The study of our very own Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics. Due to the
tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail
unparalleled by any other star. Our understanding of our own Sun serves as a guide to our
understanding of other stars.
The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modeled by placing the varieties
of star types in their respective positions on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, which can be
viewed as representing the state of a stellar object, from birth to destruction.
Theoretical astrophysics
Stream lines on this simulation of a supernovashow the flow of matter behind the shock wave giving
clues as to the origin of pulsars
Theoretical astrophysicists use a wide variety of tools which include analytical models (for
example, polytropes to approximate the behaviors of a star) and computational numerical
simulations. Each has some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better
for giving insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the
existence of phenomena and effects that would otherwise not be seen.[27][28]
Theorists in astrophysics endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the
observational consequences of those models. This helps allow observers to look for data
that can refute a model or help in choosing between several alternate or conflicting models.
Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of
an inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model
to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total
abandonment of a model.
Topics studied by theoretical astrophysicists include: stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy
formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the
universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology,
including string cosmology and astroparticle physics. Astrophysical relativity serves as a
tool to gauge the properties of large scale structures for which gravitation plays a significant
role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for black hole (astro)physics and
the study of gravitational waves.
Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astrophysics, now included in
the Lambda-CDM model, are the Big Bang, cosmic inflation, dark matter, dark energy and
fundamental theories of physics. Wormholes are examples of hypotheses which are yet to be
proven (or disproven).
Popularization
The roots of astrophysics can be found in the seventeenth century emergence of a unified
physics, in which the same laws applied to the celestial and terrestrial realms.[10] There were
scientists who were qualified in both physics and astronomy who laid the firm foundation for
the current science of astrophysics. In modern times, students continue to be drawn to
astrophysics due to its popularization by the Royal Astronomical Society and
notable educators such as prominent professors Lawrence Krauss, Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar, Stephen Hawking, Hubert Reeves, Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson. The
efforts of the early, late, and present scientists continue to attract young people to study the
history and science of astrophysics.
THE MOON.
FORMATION OF THE MOON.

The Moon formed 4.51 billion years ago,[f] some 60 million years after the origin of the Solar
System. Several forming mechanisms have been proposed,[26] including the fission of the
Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force[27] (which would require too great an initial
spin of Earth),[28] the gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon[29] (which would require an
unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon),[28] and
the co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk (which does
not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon).[28] These hypotheses also cannot account for
the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system.[30]
The Moon
Near side of the Moon

Far side of the Moon
Lunar north pole
Lunar south pole
Formation
: Origin of the Moon and Giant-impact hypothesis
The evolution of the Moon and a tour of the Moon
The prevailing hypothesis is that the Earth–Moon system formed after an impact of a Mars-
sized body (named Theia) with the proto-Earth (giant impact). The impact blasted material
into Earth's orbit and then the material accreted and formed the Moon.[31][32]
The Moon's far side has a crust that is 30 mi (48 km) thicker than that of the near side. This is
thought to be because the Moon fused from two different bodies.
This hypothesis, although not perfect, perhaps best explains the evidence. Eighteen months
prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff
Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists: "You have eighteen months. Go back to your
Apollo data, go back to your computer, do whatever you have to, but make up your mind.
Don't come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moon's birth." At
the 1984 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most
popular.
Before the conference, there were partisans of the three "traditional" theories, plus a few
people who were starting to take the giant impact seriously, and there was a huge apathetic
middle who didn’t think the debate would ever be resolved. Afterward, there were essentially
only two groups: the giant impact camp and the agnostics.[33]
Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System. Computer
simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the
lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations also
show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-
Earth.[34]However, more recent simulations suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from
the proto-Earth.[35][36][37][38] Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars
and 4Vestahave, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and
tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have
nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth-Moon system
might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the
two,[39] although this is debated.[40]
The impact released a lot of energy and then the released material re-accreted into the Earth–
Moon system. This would have melted the outer shell of Earth, and thus formed a magma
ocean.[41][42] Similarly, the newly formed Moon would also have been affected and had its
own lunar magma ocean; its depth is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km
(1,079 miles).[41]
While the giant impact hypothesis might explain many lines of evidence, some questions are
still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition.[43]
Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms")
Ancient rift valleys – rectangular structure (visible – topography – GRAIL gravity gradients)
Ancient rift valleys– context.

In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institute of Washington reported the most precise
measurement of the isotopic signatures of lunar rocks.[44] To their surprise, the rocks from
the Apollo program had the same isotopic signature as rocks from Earth, however they
differed from almost all other bodies in the Solar System. Indeed, this observation was
unexpected, because most of the material that formed the Moon was thought to come
from Theia and it was announced in 2007 that there was less than a 1% chance that Theia and
Earth had identical isotopic signatures.[45] Other Apollo lunar samples had in 2012 the same
titanium isotopes composition as Earth,[46] which conflicts with what is expected if the Moon
formed far from Earth or is derived from Theia. These discrepancies may be explained by
variations of the giant impact hypothesis.
Physical characteristics
Internal structure
The Moon is a differentiated body: it has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core. The
Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 km (150 mi) and a
fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 km (190 mi). Around
the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 km (310 mi).[48][49] This
structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a
global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.[50] Crystallization
of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of
the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the
magma ocean had crystallised, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a
crust atop.[51] The final liquids to crystallise would have been initially sandwiched between the
crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing
elements.[1] Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests
the crust of mostly anorthosite.[9]The Moon rock samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto
the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is
more iron-rich than that of Earth.[1] The crust is on average about 50 km (31 mi) thick.[1]
The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io.[52] However, the inner
core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 km (220 mi) or less,[1] around 20% of the
radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well defined, but is probably metallic iron alloyed
with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation
suggest that it is at least partly molten.[53]
Internal structure of the Moon
Source; Kelvinsong - Own work

A more complete and sophisticated moon diagram
Structure of the Moon
Chemical composition of the lunar surface regolith (derived from crustal rocks)[47]
Composition (wt %)
Compound Formula
Maria Highlands
silica SiO2 45.4% 45.5%

alumina Al2O3 14.9% 24.0%
lime CaO 11.8% 15.9%
iron(II) oxide FeO 14.1% 5.9%
magnesia MgO 9.2% 7.5%
titanium dioxide TiO2 3.9% 0.6%
sodium oxide Na2O 0.6% 0.6%
Total 99.9% 100.0%
Surface geology
Geology of the Moon and Moon rocks
Topography of the Moon
3D
STL 3D model of the Moon with 10× elevation exaggeration rendered with data from the Lunar Orbiter
Laser Altimeter of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image
analysis.[54] Its most visible topographic feature is the giant far-side 2%South Pole–Aitken
basin, some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-
largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System.[55][56] At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is
the lowest point on the surface of the Moon.[55][57] The highest elevations of the Moon's surface
are located directly to the northeast, and it has been suggested might have been thickened
by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.[58] Other large impact basins,
such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale, also possess regionally low
elevations and elevated rims.[55] The far side of the lunar surface is on average about 1.9 km
(1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side.[1]
The discovery of fault scarp cliffs by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter suggest that the
Moon has shrunk within the past billion years, by about 90 metres (300 ft).[59] Similar
shrinkage features exist on Mercury.
Volcanic features
: Lunar mare
Lunar nearside with major mariaand craters labeled
Source; Peter Freiman Cmglee Background photograph by Gregory H. Revera - Remake

of File:FullMoon2010.jpg Bitmap fromFile:FullMoon2010.jpg Own work
Lunar nearside with major maria and craters labelled.
The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains, clearly seen with the naked eye, are
called maria (Latin for "seas"; singular mare), as they were once believed to be filled with
water;[60] they are now known to be vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava. Although
similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by
water.[61] The majority of these lavas erupted or flowed into the depressions associated
with impact basins. Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and
volcanic domes are found within the near side "maria".[62]
Evidence of young lunar volcanism
Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near
side,[63] compared with 2% of the far side.[64]This is thought to be due to a concentration of
heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side, seen on geochemical maps
obtained by Lunar Prospector's gamma-ray spectrometer, which would have caused the
underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt.[51][65][66] Most of the
Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.0–3.5 billion years ago, although
some radiometrically dated samples are as old as 4.2 billion years.[67] Until recently, the
youngest eruptions, dated by crater counting, appeared to have been only 1.2 billion years
ago.[68] In 2006, a study of Ina, a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis, found jagged, relatively
dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only
2 million years old.[69] Moonquakes and releases of gas also indicate some continued lunar
activity.[69] In 2014 NASA announced "widespread evidence of young lunar volcanism" at
70 irregular mare patches identified by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, some less than 50
million years old. This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously
believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of
the greater concentration of radioactive elements.[70][71][72][73] Just prior to this, evidence has
been presented for 2–10 million years younger basaltic volcanism inside Lowell
crater,[74][75] Orientale basin, located in the transition zone between the near and far sides of
the Moon. An initially hotter mantle and/or local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the
mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities also on the far side in the Orientale
basin.[76][77]
The lighter-coloured regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands,
because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having
formed 4.4 billion years ago, and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma
ocean.[67][68] In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a
result of tectonic events.[78]
The concentration of maria on the Near Side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of
the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second
moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after their formation.[79][80]
Impact craters
Further information: List of craters on the Moon
Lunar crater Daedalus on the Moon's far side
The other major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact
cratering,[81] with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface.
There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's
near side alone.[82]The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact
events, including Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale, structures characterized by multiple rings
of uplifted material, between hundreds and thousands of kilometres in diameter and
associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic
horizon.[83] The lack of an atmosphere, weather and recent geological processes mean that
many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins have been
definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters
accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be
used to estimate the age of the surface.[83] The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks
collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has
been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment of impacts.[84]
Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller
particles) and impact gardened surface layer called regolith, formed by impact processes.
The finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has a texture resembling snow and a
scent resembling spent gunpowder.[85] The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than
for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) in the highlands and
3–5 km (1.9–3.1 mi) in the maria.[86] Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is
the megaregolith, a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometres thick.[87]
Comparison of high-resolution images obtained by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter has
shown a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than previously estimated.
A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two
centimetres of regolith a hundred times more quickly than previous models suggested—on a
timescale of 81,000 years.[88][89]
Lunar swirls at Reiner Gamma

Lunar swirls
Lunar swirls
Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized
by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. the optical characteristics of a relatively
young regolith), and have often a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low
albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls.
Presence of water
Lunar water
Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface. When exposed to solar radiation, water
quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space.
However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by
impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and
hydrogen from solar wind, leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold,
permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon.[90][91] Computer simulations suggest
that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow.[92] The
presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar
habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be
prohibitively expensive.[93]
In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.[94] In 1994,
the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft, indicated the existence of
small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations
by Arecibo, suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact
craters.[95] In 1998, the neutron spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that
high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near
the polar regions.[96] Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed
small amounts of water in their interior.[97]
The 2008 1Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice,
using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper. The spectrometer observed absorption lines
common to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice,
on the lunar surface. The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as
1,000 ppm.[98] In 2009, LCROSS sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into a permanently
shadowed polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected
material.[99][100] Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water
to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb).[101]
In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was
reported,[102] the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during
the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the
Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of
magma in Earth's upper mantle. Although of considerable selenological interest, this
announcement affords little comfort to would-be lunar colonists—the sample originated
many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took
39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.
Gravitational field
Gravity of the Moon
The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of
radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The main lunar gravity features are mascons,
large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly
caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins.[103][104] The anomalies
greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows
by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that
are not linked to mare volcanism.[105]
GRAIL's gravity map of the Moon
NASA/JPL-Caltech/MIT/GSFC - GRAIL's Gravity Map of the Moon

This image shows the variations in the lunar gravity field as measured by NASA's Gravity Recovery and Interior
Laboratory (GRAIL) during the primary mapping mission from March to May 2012. Very precise microwave
measurements between two spacecraft, named Ebb and Flow, were used to map gravity with high precision and high
spatial resolution. The field shown resolves blocks on the surface of about 12 miles (20 kilometres) and
measurements are three to five orders of magnitude improved over previous data. Red corresponds to mass
excesses and blue corresponds to mass deficiencies. The map shows more small-scale detail on the far side of the
moon compared to the nearside because the far side has many more small craters. Twin NASA probes orbiting
Earth's moon have generated the highest resolution gravity field map of any celestial body. The new map, created by
the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission, is allowing scientists to learn about the moon's internal
structure and composition in unprecedented detail. Data from the two washing machine-sized spacecraft also will
provide a better understanding of how Earth and other rocky planets in the solar system formed and evolved. The
gravity field map reveals an abundance of features never before seen in detail, such as tectonic structures, volcanic
landforms, basin rings, crater central peaks and numerous simple, bowl-shaped craters. Data also show the moon's
gravity field is unlike that of any terrestrial planet in our solar system. These are the first scientific results from the
prime phase of the mission, and they are published in three papers in the journal Science. "What this map tells us is
that more than any other celestial body we know of, the moon wears its gravity field on its sleeve," said GRAIL
Principal Investigator Maria Zuber of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. "When we see a
notable change in the gravity field, we can sync up this change with surface topography features such as craters,
rilles or mountains." According to Zuber, the moon's gravity field preserves the record of impact bombardment that
characterized all terrestrial planetary bodies and reveals evidence for fracturing of the interior extending to the deep
crust and possibly the mantle. This impact record is preserved, and now precisely measured, on the moon. The
probes revealed the bulk density of the moon's highland crust is substantially lower than generally assumed. This
low-bulk crustal density agrees well with data obtained during the final Apollo lunar missions in the early 1970s,
indicating that local samples returned by astronauts are indicative of global processes. "With our new crustal bulk
density determination, we find that the average thickness of the moon's crust is between 21 and 27 miles (34 and 43
kilometres), which is about 6 to 12 miles (10 to 20 kilometres) thinner than previously thought," said Mark Wieczorek,
GRAIL co-investigator at the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris. "With this crustal thickness, the bulk composition
of the moon is similar to that of Earth. This supports models where the moon is derived from Earth materials that
were ejected during a giant impact event early in solar system history." The map was created by the spacecraft
transmitting radio signals to define precisely the distance between them as they orbit the moon in formation. As they
fly over areas of greater and lesser gravity caused by visible features, such as mountains and craters, and masses
hidden beneath the lunar surface, the distance between the two spacecraft will change slightly. "We used gradients of
the gravity field in order to highlight smaller and narrower structures than could be seen in previous datasets," said
Jeff Andrews-Hanna, a GRAIL guest scientist with the Colorado School of Mines in Golden. "This data revealed a
population of long, linear gravity anomalies, with lengths of hundreds of kilometres, crisscrossing the surface. These
linear gravity anomalies indicate the presence of dikes, or long, thin, vertical bodies of solidified magma in the
subsurface. The dikes are among the oldest features on the moon, and understanding them will tell us about its early
history." While results from the primary science mission are just beginning to be released, the collection of gravity
science by the lunar twins continues. GRAIL's extended mission science phase began 30 August and will conclude
on 17 December 2012. As the end of mission nears, the spacecraft will operate at lower orbital altitudes above the
moon. When launched in September 2011, the probes were named GRAIL A and B. They were renamed Ebb and
Flow in January 2012 by elementary students in Bozeman, Montana, in a nationwide contest. Ebb and Flow were
placed in a near-polar, near-circular orbit at an altitude of approximately 34 miles (55 kilometres) on 31 December
2011, and 1 January 2012, respectively.
Magnetic field
Magnetic field of the Moon

The magnetic field of the Moon is very weak in comparison to that of the Earth. Other major
differences are that the Moon does not currently have a dipolar magnetic field (as would be
generated by a geodynamoin its core) and the varying magnetization that is present is almost
entirely crustal in origin. One hypothesis holds that the crustal magnetizations were acquired
early in lunar history when a geodynamo was still operating. An analysis of magnetized moon
rocks brought to Earth by Apollo astronauts showed that the moon must have had a strong
(above 110 uT) magnetic field at least 4.25 billion years ago, which then fell to 20 uT level in
[1]
the 3.6 - 3.1 billion years BP period. The small size of the lunar core, however, is a potential
[2]
obstacle to promoting that hypothesis to the status of theory. Alternatively, it is possible that
on an airless body such as the Moon, transient magnetic fields could be generated during
large impact events. In support of this, it has been noted that the largest crustal
magnetizations appear to be located near the antipodes of the giant impact basins. It has
been proposed that such a phenomenon could result from the free expansion of an impact-
generated plasma cloud around the Moon in the presence of an ambient magnetic field. For [3]
example, the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft mapped a "mini-magnetosphere" at

the Crisium antipode on the moon's far side, using its Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyzer
(SARA) instrument. The mini-magnetosphere is 360 km across at the surface and is
surrounded by a 300-km-thick region of enhanced plasma flux that results from the solar
wind flowing around the mini-magnetosphere. [4]
There is growing evidence that fine particles of moondust might actually float, ejected from
the lunar surface by electrostatic repulsion. This could create a temporary nighttime
"atmosphere" of dust. The moondust atmosphere might also gather itself into a sort of
diaphanous wind. Drawn by differences in global charge accumulation, floating dust would
naturally fly from the strongly negative nightside to the weakly negative dayside. This "dust
storm" effect would be strongest at the Moon'sterminator. Much of these details are still
speculative, but the Lunar Prospector spacecraft detected changes in the lunar nightside
voltage during magnetotail crossings, jumping from -200 V to -1000 V. Further
characterization was done by theLunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer orbiter in
late 2013. [5][6]
The plasma sheet is a very dynamic structure, in a constant state of motion, so as the Moon
orbits through the magnetotail the plasma sheet can sweep across it many times with
encounters lasting anywhere from minutes to hours or even days. [7]
The Moon has an external magnetic field of about 1–100 nanoteslas, less than one-
hundredth that of Earth. The Moon does not currently have a global dipolar magnetic field
and only has crustal magnetization, probably acquired early in its history when a dynamo
was still operating.[106][107] Alternatively, some of the remnant magnetization may be from
transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of an impact-
generated plasma cloud in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the apparent
location of the largest crustal magnetizations near the antipodes of the giant impact
basins.[108]
Total magnetic field strength at the surface of the Moon as derived from the Lunar Prospector electron reflectometer experiment.
Source; Mark A. Wieczorek - Own work

The topography of the Moon referenced to a sphere with a radius of 1737.4 kilometers. Data were obtained
from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) that was flown on the mission Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
(LRO). The color coded topography is displayed in two Lambert equal area images projected on the near and
far side hemispheres.
GEODYNAMO.
In physics, the dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as Earth or
a star generates a magnetic field. The dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating,convecting,
and electrically conducting fluid can maintain a magnetic field over astronomical time scales. A dynamo is thought
to be the source of the Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic fields of other planets.
Illustration of the dynamo mechanism that creates the Earth's magnetic field: convectioncurrents of fluid metal in the Earth's outer
core, driven by heat flow from the inner core, organized into rolls by the Coriolis force, create circulating electric currents, which
generate the magnetic field.
Source; United States Geological Survey - http://geomag.usgs.gov/images/faq/Q6.jpg

A schematic illustrating the relationship between motion of conducting fluid, organized into rolls by the
Coriolis force, and the magnetic field the motion generates.
History of Geoddynamo theory,

When William Gilbert published de Magnete in 1600, he concluded that the Earth is magnetic and proposed the first
hypothesis for the origin of this magnetism: permanent magnetism such as that found in lodestone. In
1919, Joseph Larmor proposed that a dynamo might be generating the field.[2][3] However, even after he advanced his
hypothesis, some prominent scientists advanced alternative explanations. Einstein believed that there might be an
asymmetry between the charges of the electron and proton so that the Earth's magnetic field would be produced by
the entire Earth. The Nobel Prize winner Patrick Blackett did a series of experiments looking for a fundamental
relation betweenangular momentum and magnetic moment, but found none.[4][5]
Walter M. Elsasser, considered a "father" of the presently accepted dynamo theory as an explanation of the Earth's
magnetism, proposed that this magnetic field resulted from electric currents induced in the fluid outer core of the
Earth. He revealed the history of the Earth's magnetic field through pioneering the study of the magnetic orientation
of minerals in rocks.
In order to maintain the magnetic field against ohmic decay (which would occur for the dipole field in 20,000 years),
the outer core must be convecting. The convection is likely some combination of thermal and compositional
convection. The mantle controls the rate at which heat is extracted from the core. Heat sources include
gravitational energy released by the compression of the core, gravitational energy released by the rejection of light
elements (probablysulfur, oxygen, or silicon) at the inner core boundary as it grows, latent heat of crystallization at
the inner core boundary, and radioactivity of potassium, uranium and thorium.[6]
At the dawn of the 21st century, numerical modeling of the Earth's magnetic field has not been successfully
demonstrated, but appears to be in reach. Initial models are focused on field generation by convection in the
planet's fluid outer core. It was possible to show the generation of a strong, Earth-like field when the model
assumed a uniform core-surface temperature and exceptionally high viscosities for the core fluid. Computations
which incorporated more realistic parameter values yielded magnetic fields that were less Earth-like, but also point
the way to model refinements which may ultimately lead to an accurate analytic model. Slight variations in the core-
surface temperature, in the range of a few millikelvins, result in significant increases in convective flow and
produce more realistic magnetic fields.[7][8]
Formal definition[
Dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting fluid acts
to maintain a magnetic field. This theory is used to explain the presence of anomalously long-lived magnetic fields
in astrophysical bodies. The conductive fluid in the geodynamo is liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar
dynamo is ionized gas at the tachocline. Dynamo theory of astrophysical bodies
uses magnetohydrodynamic equations to investigate how the fluid can continuously regenerate the magnetic
field.[9]
It was once believed that the dipole, which comprises much of the Earth's magnetic field and is misaligned along
the rotation axis by 11.3 degrees, was caused by permanent magnetization of the materials in the earth. This means
that dynamo theory was originally used to explain the Sun's magnetic field in its relationship with that of the Earth.
However, this hypothesis, which was initially proposed by Joseph Larmor in 1919, has been modified due to
extensive studies of magnetic secular variation, paleomagnetism (including polarity reversals), seismology, and the
solar system's abundance of elements. Also, the application of the theories of Carl Friedrich Gauss to magnetic
observations showed that Earth's magnetic field had an internal, rather than external, origin.
There are three requisites for a dynamo to operate:
 An electrically conductive fluid medium

 Kinetic energy provided by planetary rotation
 An internal energy source to drive convective motions within the fluid. [10]
In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is induced and constantly maintained by the convection of liquid iron in
the outer core. A requirement for the induction of field is a rotating fluid. Rotation in the outer core is supplied by
theCoriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth. The Coriolis force tends to organize fluid motions and electric
currents into columns (also see Taylor columns) aligned with the rotation axis. Induction or creation of magnetic
field is described by the induction equation:
Atmosphere of the moon.

Atmosphere of the Moon
Sketch by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The lunar atmosphere was later studied by LADEE.[109][110]
The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum, with a total mass of less
than 10 metric tons (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).[111] The surface pressure of this small mass
is around 3 × 10−15 atm (0.3 nPa); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources
include outgassing and sputtering, a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar
wind ions.[9][112] Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium, produced
by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io); 4helium-4 and neon[113] from
the solar wind; and argon-40, radon-222, and polonium-210, outgassed after their creation
by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle.[114][115] The absence of such neutral species
(atoms or molecules) as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and magnesium, which are
present in the regolith, is not understood.[114] Water vapour has been detected
by 1Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is
possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith.[116] These gases either
return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through
solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's
magnetic field.[114]
Dust
A permanent asymmetric moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, created by small particles
from comets. Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface each 24
hours. The particles strike the Moon's surface ejecting moon dust above the Moon. The dust
stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to
fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising to 100 kilometers
above the surface. The dust measurements were made by LADEE's Lunar Dust EXperiment
(LDEX), between 20 and 100 kilometers above the surface, during a six-month period. LDEX
detected an average of one 0.3 micrometer moon dust particle each minute. Dust particle
counts peaked during the Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, and Omicron
Centaurid meteor showers, when the Earth, and Moon, pass through comet debris. The cloud
is asymmetric, more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and
nightside.[117][118]
Past thicker atmosphere
In October 2017, NASA scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Lunar and
Planetary Institute in Houston announced their finding, based on studies of Moon magma
samples retrieved by the Apollo missions, that the Moon had once possessed a relatively
thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This
atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the
thickness of that of present-day Mars. The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped
away by solar winds and dissipated into space.[119]
Seasons
The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5424°,[120] much less than the 23.44°
of Earth. Because of this, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season, and
topographical details play a crucial role in seasonal effects.[121] From images taken
by Clementine in 1994, it appears that four mountainous regions on the rim of Peary Crater at
the Moon's north pole may remain illuminated for the entire lunar day, creating peaks of
eternal light. No such regions exist at the south pole. Similarly, there are places that remain
in permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters,[92] and these "craters of eternal
darkness" are extremely cold: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer
temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F)[122] and just 26 K
(−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in north polar Hermite Crater. This is the
coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the
surface of Pluto.[121] Average temperatures of the Moon's surface are reported, but
temperatures of different areas will vary greatly depending upon whether they are in sunlight
or shadow.[123]
Sources
One source of the lunar atmosphere is outgassing: the release of gases such as radon and
helium resulting from radioactive decay within the crust and mantle. Another important
source is the bombardment of the lunar surface by micrometeorites, the solar wind, and
sunlight, in a process known as sputtering.[4]
Losses
Gases can either:
be re-implanted into the regolith as a result of the Moon's gravity;

escape the Moon entirely if the particle is moving at or above the lunar escape velocity of
2.38 km/s (1.48 mi/s);
be lost to space either by solar radiation pressure or, if the gases are ionized, by being swept
away in the solar wind's magnetic field.
Composition
What little atmosphere the Moon has consists of some unusual gases, including sodium and
potassium, which are not found in the atmospheres of Earth, Mars, or Venus. At sea level on
Earth, each cubic centimeter of the atmosphere contains approximately 1019 molecules; by
comparison the lunar atmosphere contains fewer than 106 molecules in the same volume. On
Earth, this is considered to be a very good vacuum. In fact, the density of the atmosphere at
the Moon's surface is comparable to the density of the outermost fringes of Earth's
atmosphere, where the International Space Station orbits.[5]
The elements sodium and potassium have been detected in the Moon's atmosphere using
Earth-based spectroscopic methods, whereas the isotopes radon-222 and polonium-210 have
been inferred from data obtained by the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer.[6]
Argon-40, helium-4, oxygen and/or methane (CH
4), nitrogen (N
2) and/or carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO
2)) were detected by in-situ detectors placed by the Apollo astronauts.[7]
The average daytime abundances of the elements known to be present in the lunar
atmosphere, in atoms per cubic centimeter, are as follows:
Argon: 20,000–100,000[8]
Helium: 5,000–30,000[8]
Neon: up to 20,000[8][9]
Sodium: 70
Potassium: 17
Hydrogen: fewer than 17
This yields approximately 80,000 total atoms per cubic centimeter, marginally higher than the
quantity posited to exist in the atmosphere of Mercury.[7] While this greatly exceeds the
density of the solar wind, which is usually on the order of just a few protons per cubic
centimeter, it is virtually a vacuum in comparison with the atmosphere of the Earth.
The Moon may also have a tenuous "atmosphere" of electrostatically-levitated dust. See
Moon dust for more details.
Ancient atmosphere
In October 2017, NASA scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Lunar and
Planetary Institute in Houston announced their finding, based on studies of Moon magma
samples retrieved by the Apollo missions, that the Moon had once possessed a relatively
thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This
atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the
thickness of that of present-day Mars. It has been theorized, in fact, that this ancient
atmosphere could have supported life, though no evidence of life has been found.[10] The
ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into
space
Sputtering
Sputtering is a process whereby particles are ejected from a solid target material due to
bombardment of the target by energetic particles,[1] particularly gas ions in a laboratory. It
only happens when the kinetic energy of the incoming particles is much higher than
conventional thermal energies (≫ 1 eV). This process can lead, during prolonged ion or
plasma bombardment of a material, to significant erosion of materials, and can thus be
harmful. On the other hand, it is commonly used for thin-film deposition, etching and
analytical techniques. Sputtering is done either using DC voltage (DC sputtering) or using AC
voltage (RF sputtering). In DC sputtering, voltage is set from 3-5 kV and in RF sputtering,
power supply is set at 14 MHz. Due to the application of an alternating current, the ions inside
the plasma oscillate resulting in an increase in the levels of plasma.
A commercial AJA Orion sputtering system at Cornell NanoScale Science and Technology Facility
Physics of sputtering.
Physical sputtering is driven by the momentum exchange between the ions and atoms in the
target materials, due to collisions.[1][2][3]
Sputtering from a linear collision cascade. The thick line illustrates the position of the surface, and the
thinner lines the ballistic movement paths of the atoms from beginning until they stop in the material.
The purple circle is the incoming ion. Red, blue, green and yellow circles illustrate primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary recoils, respectively. Two of the atoms happen to move out from the sample, i.e.
they are sputtered.
The incident ions set off collision cascades in the target. When such cascades recoil and
reach the target surface with an energy greater than the surface binding energy, an atom
would be ejected, and this process is known as sputtering. If the target is thin on an atomic
scale, the collision cascade can reach the back side of the target and atoms can escape the
surface binding energy "in transmission". The average number of atoms ejected from the
target per incident ion is called the sputter yield and depends on the ion incident angle, the
energy of the ion, the masses of the ion and target atoms, and the surface binding energy of
atoms in the target. For a crystalline target the orientation of the crystal axes with respect to
the target surface is relevant.
The primary particles for the sputtering process can be supplied in a number of ways: for
example by a plasma, an ion source, an accelerator or by a radioactive material emitting
alpha particles.
A model for describing sputtering in the cascade regime for amorphous flat targets is
Thompson's analytical model.[4] An algorithm that simulates sputtering based on a quantum
mechanical treatment including electrons stripping at high energy is implemented in the
program TRIM.[5]
A different mechanism of physical sputtering is heat spike sputtering. This may occur when
the solid is dense enough, and then the incoming ion heavy enough, that the collisions occur
very close to each other. Then the binary collision approximation is no longer valid, but
rather the collisional process should be understood as a many-body process. The dense
collisions induce a heat spike (also called thermal spike), which essentially melts the crystal
locally. If the molten zone is close enough to a surface, large numbers of atoms may sputter
due to flow of liquid to the surface and/or microexplosions.[6] Heat spike sputtering is most
important for heavy ions (e.g. Xe or Au or cluster ions) with energies in the keV–MeV range
bombarding dense but soft metals with a low melting point (Ag, Au, Pb, etc.). The heat spike
sputtering often increases nonlinearly with energy, and can for small cluster ions lead to
dramatic sputtering yields per cluster of the order of 10,000.[7] For animations of such a
process see "Re: Displacement Cascade 1" in the external links section.
Physical sputtering has a well-defined minimum energy threshold equal to or larger than the
ion energy at which the maximum energy transfer of the ion to a sample atom equals the
binding energy of a surface atom. This threshold typically is somewhere in the range 10–100
eV.
Preferential sputtering can occur at the start when a multicomponent solid target is
bombarded and there is no solid state diffusion. If the energy transfer is more efficient to one
of the target components, or it is less strongly bound to the solid, it will sputter more
efficiently than the other. If in an AB alloy the component A is sputtered preferentially, the
surface of the solid will, during prolonged bombardment, become enriched in the B
component, thereby increasing the probability that B is sputtered such that the composition
of the sputtered material will ultimately return to AB.
Electronic sputtering
The term electronic sputtering can mean either sputtering induced by energetic electrons (for
example in a transmission electron microscope), or sputtering due to very high-energy or
highly charged heavy ions that lose energy to the solid, mostly by electronic stopping power,
where the electronic excitations cause sputtering.[8] Electronic sputtering produces high
sputtering yields from insulators, as the electronic excitations that cause sputtering are not
immediately quenched, as they would be in a conductor. One example of this is Jupiter's ice-
covered moon Europa, where a MeV sulfur ion from Jupiter's magnetosphere can eject up to
10,000 H2O molecules.[9]
Potential sputtering
A commercial sputtering system
In the case of multiple charged projectile ions a particular form of electronic sputtering can
take place that has been termed potential sputtering.[10][11] In these cases the potential energy
stored in multiply charged ions (i.e., the energy necessary to produce an ion of this charge
state from its neutral atom) is liberated when the ions recombine during impact on a solid
surface (formation of hollow atoms). This sputtering process is characterized by a strong
dependence of the observed sputtering yields on the charge state of the impinging ion and
can already take place at ion impact energies well below the physical sputtering threshold.
Potential sputtering has only been observed for certain target species[12] and requires a
minimum potential energy.[13]
Etching and chemical sputtering.
Removing atoms by sputtering with an inert gas is called ion milling or ion etching.
Sputtering can also play a role in reactive-ion etching (RIE), a plasma process carried out
with chemically active ions and radicals, for which the sputtering yield may be enhanced
significantly compared to pure physical sputtering. Reactive ions are frequently used
in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) equipment to enhance the sputter rates. The
mechanisms causing the sputtering enhancement are not always well understood, although
the case of fluorine etching of Si has been modeled well theoretically.[14]
Sputtering observed to occur below the threshold energy of physical sputtering is also often
called chemical sputtering.[1][3]The mechanisms behind such sputtering are not always well
understood, and may be hard to distinguish from chemical etching. At elevated temperatures,
chemical sputtering of carbon can be understood to be due to the incoming ions weakening
bonds in the sample, which then desorb by thermal activation.[15] The hydrogen-induced
sputtering of carbon-based materials observed at low temperatures has been explained by H
ions entering between C-C bonds and thus breaking them, a mechanism dubbed swift
chemical sputtering.[16]
Applications and phenomena

Film deposition
Main article: Sputter deposition
Sputter deposition is a method of depositing thin films by sputtering that involves eroding
material from a "target" source onto a "substrate" e.g. a silicon wafer, solar cell, optical
component, or many other possibilities[17]. Resputtering, in contrast, involves re-emission of
the deposited material, e.g. SiO2 during the deposition also by ion bombardment.
Sputtered atoms are ejected into the gas phase but are not in their thermodynamic
equilibrium state, and tend to deposit on all surfaces in the vacuum chamber. A substrate
(such as a wafer) placed in the chamber will be coated with a thin film. Sputtering deposition
usually uses an argon plasma because argon, a noble gas, will not react with the target
material.
Etching
In the semiconductor industry sputtering is used to etch the target. Sputter etching is chosen
in cases where a high degree of etching anisotropy is needed and selectivity is not a
concern. One major drawback of this technique is wafer damage.
For analysis
Another application of sputtering is to etch away the target material. One such example
occurs in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), where the target sample is sputtered at a
constant rate. As the target is sputtered, the concentration and identity of sputtered atoms
are measured using mass spectrometry. In this way the composition of the target material
can be determined and even extremely low concentrations (20 µg/kg) of impurities detected.
Furthermore, because the sputtering continually etches deeper into the sample,
concentration profiles as a function of depth can be measured.
In space[edit]
Sputtering is one of the forms of space weathering, a process that changes the physical and
chemical properties of airless bodies, such as asteroids and the Moon. On icy moons,
especially Europa, sputtering of photolyzed water from the surface leads to net loss of
hydrogen and accumulation of oxygen-rich materials that may be important for life.
Sputtering is also one of the possible ways that Mars has lost most of its atmosphere and
that Mercury continually replenishes its tenuous surface-bounded exosphere.
Relationship to Earth
Orbit
Orbit of the Moon and Lunar theory
The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars about once
every 27.3 days[g] (its sidereal period). However, because Earth is moving in its orbit around
the Sun at the same time, it takes slightly longer for the Moon to show the same phase to
Earth, which is about 29.5 days[h] (its synodic period).[63] Unlike most satellites of other
planets, the Moon orbits closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane. The
Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting
ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61[124] years,
which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically
described by Cassini's laws.[125]
Earth–Moon system (schematic)
Source; Earth-image from NASA; arrangement by brews_ohare -

NASA http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/
NASA photos of Earth and Moon labeled with some data on orbits and tilts
DSCOVR satellite sees the Moon passing in front of Earth
NASA/EPIC - http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/from-a-million-miles-away-nasa-camera-shows-
moon-crossing-face-of-earth(image link)
This animation features satellite images of the far side of the Moon, illuminated by the Sun, as it crosses
between the DSCOVR spacecraft's Earth Polychromatic Imaging Camera (EPIC) and telescope, and the
Earth — one million miles (1.6 million km) away. The times of the images span from 3:50 p.m. to 8:45 p.m.
EDT on July 16, 2015. The time of the New Moon was at 9:26 p.m. EDT on July 15.
Relative size
The Moon is exceptionally large relative to Earth: a quarter its diameter and 1/81 its mass. [63] It is the
largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet,[i] though Charon is larger relative to
the dwarf planet Pluto, at 1/9 Pluto's mass.[j][126] The Earth and the Moon's barycentre, their common
centre of mass, is located 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath Earth's
surface.
The Earth revolves around the Earth-Moon barycentre once a sidereal month, moving at 1/81 the
speed of the Moon, or about 12.5 metres (41 ft) per second. This motion is superimposed on the much
larger revolution of the Earth around the Sun at a speed of about 30 kilometres (19 mi) per second.
Appearance from Earth
Moon setting in western sky over the High Desert in California
source;Jessie Eastland - Own work

Western Moon setting over Mountains, High Desert, California
Lunar observation, Lunar phase, Moonlight, and Earthlight (astronomy)
The Moon is in synchronous rotation as it orbits Earth; it rotates about its axis in about the same time it
takes to orbit Earth. This results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards Earth. However,
because of the effect of libration, about 59% of the Moon's surface can actually be seen from Earth. The
side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite the far side. The far side is often
inaccurately called the "dark side", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5
Earth days. During new moon, the near side is dark.[127]
The Moon had once rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history, its rotation slowed and became tidally
locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by
Earth.[128] With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was
no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists, using data collected on the much
earlier NASA Lunar Prospector mission, found two hydrogen-rich areas on opposite sides of the Moon,
probably in the form of water ice. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of
years ago, before it was tidally locked to Earth.[129]
The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo, giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of
worn asphalt. Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun.[63][k]This is due partly to the
brightness enhancement of the opposition surge; the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright,
rather than half as bright, as at full moon.[130]Additionally, color constancy in the visual system recalibrates
the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is
comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges of the full moon seem as
bright as the centre, without limb darkening, because of the reflective properties of lunar soil,
which retroreflects light more towards the Sun than in other directions. The Moon does appear larger
when close to the horizon, but this is a purely psychological effect, known as the moon illusion, first
described in the 77th century BC.[131] The full Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52° (on average) in the
sky, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses).
The Moon's highest altitude at culmination varies by its phase and time of year. The full moon is currently
northernmost during winter. The 18.61-year nodal cycle has an influence on lunar standstill. When
the ascending node of the lunar orbit is in the vernal equinox, the lunar declination can reach up to plus or
minus 28° each month. This means the Moon can pass overhead if viewed from latitudes up to 28° north or
south (of the Equator), instead of only 18°. The orientation of the Moon's crescent also depends on the
latitude of the viewing location; an observer in the tropics can see a smile-shaped crescent Moon.[132] The
Moon is visible for two weeks every 27.3 days at the North and South Poles. Zooplankton in
the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end.[133]
14 November 2016 supermoon was 356,511 kilometres (221,526 mi) away[134] from the center of Earth,
the closest occurrence since 26 January 1948. It will not be closer until 25 November 2034
Tomruen - Own work

Near-Full moon on 11/14/16, 8" reflector, direct imaging, 6 hours before greatest full moon,
.[135]
The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) to 406,700 km
(252,700 mi) at perigee (closest) and apogee (farthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it was
closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1948, 14% closer than its farthest position in
apogee.[136] Reported as a "supermoon", this closest point coincides within an hour of a full moon, and
it was 30% more luminous than when at its greatest distance because its angular diameter is 14%
greater and .[137][138][139] At lower levels, the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is
provided by the following formula:[140][141]
When the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is about 0.877, or
1.00 / 1.14. This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14% between apogee and perigee moons of
the same phase.[142]
There has been historical controversy over whether features on the Moon's surface change over time.
Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different
lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does
occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient
phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar
surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago. [143][144]
The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere. Common optical
effects are the 22° halo ring, formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals of
high cirrostratus clouds, and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.[145]
The monthly changes in the angle between the direction of sunlight and view from Earth, and
the phases of the Moon that result, as viewed from the Northern Hemisphere. The Earth–Moon
distance is not to scale.
Source; Orion 8 - Own work

The relation of the phases of the Moon with its revolution around Earth. The sizes of Earth and Moon, and
their distance you see here are far from real. On this image the following are also depicted: the synchronous
rotation of the Moon, the motion of the Earth around the common center of mass, the difference between the
sidereal and synodical month (green mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE: the precise moment of a New Moon
take place in daylight when you can see only the bright Sun.)
The illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by , where is
the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer (on Earth) and the Sun).
Tidal effects
Tidal force, Tidal acceleration, Tide, and Theory of tides
The gravitational attraction that masses have for one another decreases inversely with the square of
the distance of those masses from each other. As a result, the slightly greater attraction that the
Moon has for the side of Earth closest to the Moon, as compared to the part of the Earth opposite the
Moon, results in tidal forces. Tidal forces affect both the Earth's crust and oceans.
The most obvious effect of tidal forces is to cause two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side
facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. This results in elevated sea levels called ocean
tides.[146] As the Earth spins on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under"
the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides
in about 24 hours.[146] Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's
rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the
Moon's time to orbit the Earth. The Sun has the same tidal effect on the Earth, but its forces of
attraction are only 40% that of the Moon's; the Sun's and Moon's interplay is responsible for spring
and neap tides.[146] If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide
of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified
by other effects: the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors,
the inertia of water's movement, ocean basins that grow shallower near land, the sloshing of water
between different ocean basins.[147] As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is
a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.
While gravitation causes acceleration and movement of the Earth's fluid oceans, gravitational
coupling between the Moon and Earth's solid body is mostly elastic and plastic. The result is a further
tidal effect of the Moon on the Earth that causes a bulge of the solid portion of the Earth nearest the
Moon that acts as a torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains" angular momentum and
rotational kinetic energy from Earth's spin, slowing the Earth's rotation.[146]HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"[148] That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is
transferred to the Moon in a process (confusingly known as tidal acceleration), which lifts the Moon
into a higher orbit and results in its lower orbital speed about the Earth. Thus the distance between
Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's spin is slowing in reaction.[148] Measurements from
laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the
Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year[149] (roughly the rate at which human
fingernails grow).[150] Atomic clocks also show that Earth's day lengthens by about
15 microseconds every year,[151] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds.
Left to run its course, this tidal drag would continue until the spin of Earth and the orbital period of
the Moon matched, creating mutual tidal locking between the two. As a result, the Moon would be
suspended in the sky over one meridian, as is already currently the case with Pluto and its
moon Charon. However, the Sun will become a red giantengulfing the Earth-Moon system long before
this occurrence.[152]HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"[153]
In a like manner, the lunar surface experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days,
with two components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, and a
varying component from the Sun.[148] The Earth-induced component arises from libration, a result of
the Moon's orbital eccentricity (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular, there would only be solar
tides).[148] Libration also changes the angle from which the Moon is seen, allowing a total of about
59% of its surface to be seen from Earth over time.[63] The cumulative effects of stress built up by
these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are
earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour—significantly longer than terrestrial
quakes—because of the absence of water to damp out the seismic vibrations. The existence of
moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon
by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972.[154]
The libration of the Moon over a single lunar month. Also visible is the slight variation in the Moon's
visual size from Earth.
source;Tomruen - Lunar_libration_with_phase_Oct_2007.gif
Lunar libration. see below for more descriptions
Eclipses
Solar eclipse, Lunar eclipse, and Eclipse cycle
Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "syzygy"). Solar
eclipses occur at new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast, lunar
eclipses occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the Moon
is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide. The
Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent
size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth. The variations in
apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different
cycles. This makes possible both total (with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun)
and annular (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses.[156] In a total eclipse, the
Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye.
Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time,[146] the
angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. Also, as it evolves toward becoming a red giant, the size
of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing.[l] The combination of these
two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover
the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of
years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not
occur.[157]
Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to the orbit of Earth around
the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be
near the intersection of the two orbital planes.[158] The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the
Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of
approximately 18 years.[159]
Because the Moon is continuously blocking our view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the
sky,[m]HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"[160] the related phenomenon
of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden
from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively
close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the
same time. Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted
From Earth, the Moon and the Sun appear the same size, as seen in the 1999 solar eclipse (left),
whereas from the STEREO-B spacecraft in an Earth-trailing orbit, the Moon appears much smaller than
the Sun (right).[155]
.[161]
Observation and exploration

Ancient and medieval studies
Exploration of the Moon: Early history, Selenography, and Lunar theory
Understanding of the Moon's cycles was an early development of astronomy: by the 5th century
BC, Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses,[162] and Indian
astronomers had described the Moon's monthly elongation.[163] The Chinese astronomer Shi
Shen (fl. 4th century BC) gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses.[164] Later, the
physical form of the Moon and the cause of moonlight became understood. The ancient
Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical
rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former.[165]HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"[166] Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the
Moon to be energy equated to qi, their 'radiating influence' theory also recognized that the light of
the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the
Moon.[167] In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel A True Story, in which the heroes travel to
the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in
his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon.[168] The astronomer
and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror,
but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all
directions.[169] ShenKuo(1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing
and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and
viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.[170]
Map of the Moon by Johannes Hevelius from his Selenographia(1647), the first map to include
the libration zones
Source; Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687) -

http://dziedzictwo.polska.pl/katalogskarb,Selenographia_Jana_Heweliusza_(Selenographia_sive_l
unae_descriptio)_,gid,262839,cid,1688.htm?body=desc (monochrome version of the image in 1647
year edition of Selenographia)
Map of the Moon engraved by the astronomer Johannes Hevelius
A study of the Moon in Robert Hooke's Micrographia, 1665
Source; Robert Hooke (1635-1703) - This image is available from the National Library of Wales
Schem. XXXVIII - Of the Moon
Galileo's sketches of the Moon from SidereusNuncius
Source;Galileo -
http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?AZIONE=IMG&TESTO=E_Y&PARAM=03-
63.jpg,http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?AZIONE=IMG&TESTO=E_Y&PARAM=03-
66.jpg andhttp://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?AZIONE=IMG&TESTO=E_Y&PARAM=03-
66.jpg
Galileo's sketches of the moon from en:Sidereus Nuncius, published in March 1610.
In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the
spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether,
an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries.[171] However, in the 2nd century
BC, Seleucus of Seleucia correctly theorized that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and
that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.[172] In the same
century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of
about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance. These figures were greatly improved
by Ptolemy (90–168 AD): his values of a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of
0.292 Earth diameters were close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273
respectively.[173] Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions
of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.[174]
During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognised
as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".[175]
In 1609, Galileo Galilei drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the Moon in his
book SidereusNunciusand noted that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Telescopic
mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista
Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today. The
more exact 1834–36 MappaSelenographica of Wilhelm Beer and 34Johann Heinrich Mädler, and their
associated 1837 book Der Mond, the first trigonometricallyaccurate study of lunar features, included
the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies
possible in earthly geography.[176] Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to
be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions.[63] This
view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert, and from
comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s,[177] leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy,
which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology.[63]
By spacecraft
See also: Robotic exploration of the Moon, List of proposed missions to the Moon, Colonization of the
Moon, and List of artificial objects on the Moon
20th century
Soviet missions
Luna program and Lunokhodprogramme
Luna 2, the first human-made object to reach the surface of the Moon (left) and
Soviet Moon rover Lunokhod 1
NASA - http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1959-014A
Luna 2 Soviet moon probe.
Luna 2, the first human-made object to reach the surface of the Moon (left) and Soviet Moon
rover 1Lunokhod 1
Source; Petar Milošević - Own work

Soviet Lunokhod moonrover, from 70-ies of 20th century.
The Cold War-inspired Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of
interest in exploration of the Moon. Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent
unmanned probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions. Spacecraft from the Soviet
Union's LunaHYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_programme" program were the first to
accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958,[178] the first
human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was 1"Luna 1; the first human-
made object to impact the lunar surface was 2"Luna 2, and the first photographs of the normally
occluded far side of the Moon were made by 3"Luna 3, all in 1959.
The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was 9"Luna 9 and the first unmanned
vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966.[63] Rock and soil samples were brought back to
Earth by three Luna sample return missions (Luna 16 in 1970, Luna 20 in 1972, and Luna 24 in 1976),
which returned 0.3 kg total.[179] Two pioneering robotic rovers landed on the Moon in 1970 and 1973
as a part of Soviet Lunokhodprogramme.
Luna 24 was the last Soviet/Russian mission to the Moon.

United States missions
Apollo program and Moon landing
Earthrise (8Apollo 8, 1968)

NASA/Bill Anders - http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/alsj/a410/AS8-14-2383HR.jpg
Taken by Apollo 8 crewmember Bill Anders on December 24, 1968, at mission time 075:49:07 [5] (16:40 UTC),
while in orbit around the Moon, showing the Earth rising for the third time above the lunar horizon. The lunar
horizon is approximately 780 kilometers from the spacecraft. Width of the photographed area at the lunar
horizon is about 175 kilometers. [6] The land mass visible just above the terminator line is west
Africa. Note that this phenomenon is only visible to an observer in motion relative to the lunar surface.
Because of the Moon's synchronous rotation relative to the Earth (i.e., the same side of the Moon is always
facing Earth), the Earth appears to be stationary (measured in anything less than a geological timescale) in
the lunar "sky". In order to observe the effect of Earth rising or setting over the Moon's horizon, an observer
must travel towards or away from the point on the lunar surface where the Earth is most directly overhead
(centred in the sky). Otherwise, the Earth's apparent motion/visible change will be limited to: 1. Growing
larger/smaller as the orbital distance between the two bodies changes. 2. Slight apparent movement of the
Earth due to the eccenticity of the Moon's orbit, the effect being called libration. 3. Rotation of the Earth (the
Moon's rotation is synchronous relative to the Earth, the Earth's rotation is not synchronous relative to the
Moon). 4. Atmospheric & surface changes on Earth (i.e.: weather patterns, changing seasons, etc.). Two
craters, visible on the image were named 8 Homeward and Anders' Earthrise in honor of Apollo 8 by IAU in
2018. [7]
Moon rock (Apollo 17, 1972)
Source;NASA - http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc/70017.pdf
Lunar basalt 70017 moon rock from Apollo 17. It is a vesicular, medium-grained, high-titanium ilmenite
basalt. It is 3.7 billion years old. (source of information: Meyer, C. (2008) 70017 Ilmenite Basalt 2957 gram,
Lunar Sample Compendium, NASA.)
During the late 1950s at the height of the Cold War, the United States Army conducted a
classified feasibility study that proposed the construction of a manned military outpost on the Moon
called Project Horizon with the potential to conduct a wide range of missions from scientific research
to nuclear Earth bombardment. The study included the possibility of conducting a lunar-based nuclear
test.[180][181] The Air Force, which at the time was in competition with the Army for a leading role in the
space program, developed its own similar plan called Lunex.[182][183][180] However, both these proposals
were ultimately passed over as the space program was largely transferred from the military to the
civilian agency NASA.[183]
Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a manned moon landing before the end
of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of unmanned probes to
develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for manned missions: the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory's Ranger program produced the first close-up pictures; the Lunar Orbiter
program produced maps of the entire Moon; the Surveyor program landed 1its first spacecraft four
months after Luna 9. The manned Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of
unmanned and manned tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a
potential Soviet lunar flight, in 1968 8Apollo 8 made the first manned mission to lunar orbit. The
subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination of
the Space Race.[184]
Neil Armstrong working at the lunar module
Source: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/alsj/a11/as11-40-5886.jpg (old)

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasacommons/9457460819/in/photolist-yHwndD-fpHXBi-rXt9oZ-RawPTe-
bh1Lyp-gtocpc-GgGNZu-ritZqY-qZdQZn-6Gud2A-virACd (visited 2018-07-24, archive moved to Flickr)
Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American
mission Apollo 11by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on 21 July 1969.[185] An estimated
500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest
television audience for a live broadcast at that time.[186][187] The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo
13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) returned 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and
soil in 2,196 separate samples.[188] The American Moon landing and return was enabled by
considerable technological advances in the early 1960s, in domains such
as ablation chemistry, software engineering, and atmospheric re-entry technology, and by highly
competent management of the enormous technical undertaking.[189][190]
Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-
lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were
installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth
concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations,[191][192] but as the stations' lunar laser
ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used. Ranging to
the stations is routinely performed from Earth-based stations with an accuracy of a few centimetres,
and data from this experiment are being used to place constraints on the size of the lunar core.[193]
1980s–2000
An artificially coloured mosaic constructed from a series of 53 images taken through three spectral
filters by Galileo' s imaging system as the spacecraft flew over the northern regions of the Moon on 7
December 1992.
Source;NASA/JPL - http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00131 (image link)

This false-color mosaic was constructed from a series of 53 images taken through three spectral
filters by Galileo'simaging system as the spacecraft flew over the northern regions of the Moon on December
7, 1992. The part of the Moon visible from Earth is on the left side in this view. The color mosaic
shows compositional variations in parts of the Moon's northern hemisphere. Bright pinkish areas are
highlands materials, such as those surrounding the oval lava-filled Crisium impact basin toward the bottom
of the picture. Blue to orange shades indicate volcanic lava flows. To the left of Crisium, the dark blue Mare
Tranquillitatis is richer in titanium than the green and orange maria above it. Thin mineral-rich soils
associated with relatively recent impacts are represented by light blue colors; the youngest craters have
prominent blue rays extending from them. The monochrome band on the right edge shows
the unretouchedsurface of the moon. The Galileo project, whose primary mission is the exploration of
the en:Jupiter system in 1995-97, is managed for en:NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
After the first Moon race there were years of near quietude but starting in the 1990s, many more
countries have become involved in direct exploration of the Moon. In 1990, Japan became the third
country to place a spacecraft into lunar orbit with its Hiten spacecraft. The spacecraft released a
smaller probe, Hagoromo, in lunar orbit, but the transmitter failed, preventing further scientific use of
the mission.[194] In 1994, the U.S. sent the joint Defense Department/NASA spacecraft Clementine to
lunar orbit. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first
global multispectral images of the lunar surface.[195] This was followed in 1998 by the Lunar
Prospector mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles,
which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the
regolith within permanently shadowed craters.[196]
India, Japan, China, the United States, and the European Space Agency each sent lunar orbiters, and
especially ISRO's 1Chandrayaan-1 has contributed to confirming the discovery of lunar water ice in
permanently shadowed craters at the poles and bound into the lunar regolith. The post-Apollo era has
also seen two rover missions: the final Soviet Lunokhod mission in 1973, and China's
ongoing 3Chang'e 3 mission, which deployed its Yutu rover on 14 December 2013. The Moon remains,
under the Outer Space Treaty, free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes.
21st century
Artistic representation of a future Moon colony
Source; NASA/SAIC/Pat Rawlings -

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/mmb/22may_beaty_prt.htm,http://www.spaceflig
ht.nasa.gov/gallery/images/mars/lunaractivities/html/s99_04195.html
Moon colony. (Artist's concept of possible exploration programs.) Just a few kilometers from the Apollo 17
Taurus Littrow landing site, a lunar mining facility harvests oxygen from the resource-rich volcanic soil of
the eastern Mare Serenitatis. Here a marketing executive describes the high iron, aluminum, magnesium, and
titanium content in the processed tailings, which could be used as raw material for a lunar metals production
plant. This image produced for NASA by Pat Rawlings, (SAIC). Technical concepts for NASA's Exploration
Office, Johnson Space Center (JSC).
The European spacecraft 1"SMART-1, the second ion-propelled spacecraft, was in lunar orbit from 15
November 2004 until its lunar impact on 3 September 2006, and made the first detailed survey of
chemical elements on the lunar surface.[197]
The ambitious Chinese Lunar Exploration Program began with 1"Chang'e 1, which successfully orbited
the Moon from 5 November 2007 until its controlled lunar impact on 1 March 2009.[198] It obtained a
full image map of the Moon. 2"Chang'e 2, beginning in October 2010, reached the Moon more quickly,
mapped the Moon at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, then left lunar orbit for an
extended stay at the Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point, before finally performing a flyby of asteroid 4179
Toutatis on 13 December 2012, and then heading off into deep space. On 14 December
2013, 3"Chang'e 3 landed a lunar lander onto the Moon's surface, which in turn deployed a lunar
rover, named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; literally "Jade Rabbit"). This was the first lunar soft
landing since Luna 24 in 1976, and the first lunar rover mission since 2"Lunokhod 2 in 1973. China
intends to launch another rover mission (4"Chang'e 4) before 2020, followed by a sample return
mission (5"Chang'e 5) soon after.[199]
Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009, the Japan Aerospace Exploration
Agency's Kaguya (Selene) mission, a lunar orbiter fitted with a high-definition video camera, and two
small radio-transmitter satellites, obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high-definition
movies from beyond Earth orbit.[200]HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"[201] India's
first lunar mission, 1"Chandrayaan I, orbited from 8 November 2008 until loss of contact on 27 August
2009, creating a high resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar
surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil.[202] The Indian Space Research
Organisation planned to launch Chandrayaan II in 2013, which would have included a Russian robotic
lunar rover.[203]HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"[204] However, the failure of
Russia's Fobos-Grunt mission has delayed this project.
Copernicus's central peaks as observed by the LRO, 2012
Source;NASA (image by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter) - http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/629
Central peak complex of Copernicus crater. The peaks stand in a now frozen lake of impact melt. Height of
peak at the foreground is 700 m, image width is ~8 km. Photo by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, made with
Narrow Angle Camera (M196665381LR).
The Ina formation, 2009
Source; NASA - Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter images M113921307LE and M113921307RE.

Aligned and merged manually. Resolution is decreased by factor of 2 to reduce file size. Projected
by rotating 2.15° clockwise (the angle is obtained from JMARS) and decreasing of horizontal size
by 17.8% (taken from NASA ortophoto), so, north is up and proportions are real. Brightness is
increased.
Mysterious crater Ina on the Moon, in Lacus Felicitatis (a map). Centered at 18.65°N, 5.29°E. Photo by Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter, made with Narrow Angle Camera 27 November 2009 from altitude 45 km. Sun
elevation is 32.3°. Resolution is 1.1 m/pixel, width of the photo is 3.5 km, north is up.
The U.S. co-launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the LCROSS impactor and follow-up
observation orbiter on 18 June 2009; LCROSS completed its mission by making a planned and widely
observed impact in the crater Cabeus on 9 October 2009,[205] whereas LRO is currently in operation,
obtaining precise lunar altimetry and high-resolution imagery. In November 2011, the LRO passed over the
large and bright Aristarchus crater. NASA released photos of the crater on 25 December 2011.[206]
Two NASA GRAIL spacecraft began orbiting the Moon around 1 January 2012,[207] on a mission to learn more
about the Moon's internal structure. NASA's LADEE probe, designed to study the lunar exosphere, achieved
orbit on 6 October 2013.
Upcoming lunar missions include Russia's Luna-Glob: an unmanned lander with a set of seismometers, and
an orbiter based on its failed Martian Fobos-Grunt mission.[208][209] Privately funded lunar exploration has
been promoted by the Google Lunar X Prize, announced 13 September 2007, which offers US$20 million to
anyone who can land a robotic rover on the Moon and meet other specified criteria.[210] Shackleton Energy
Companyis building a program to establish operations on the south pole of the Moon to harvest water and
supply their Propellant Depots.[211]
NASA began to plan to resume manned missions following the call by U.S. President George W. Bush on 14
January 2004 for a manned mission to the Moon by 2019 and the construction of a lunar base by
2024.[212] The Constellation program was funded and construction and testing begun on a manned
spacecraft and launch vehicle,[213] and design studies for a lunar base.[214] However, that program has been
cancelled in favor of a manned asteroid landing by 2025 and a manned Mars orbit by 2035.[215] India has
also expressed its hope to send a manned mission to the Moon by 2020.[216]
On February 28, 2018, SpaceX, Vodafone, Nokia and Audi announced a collaboration to install
a 44G wireless communication network on the Moon, with the aim of streaming live footage on the surface
to Earth.[217]
Planned commercial missions
In 2007, the X Prize Foundation together with Google launched the Google Lunar X Prize to encourage
commercial endeavors to the Moon. A prize of $20 million will be awarded to the first private venture to
get to the Moon with a robotic lander by the end of March 2018, with additional prizes worth $10 million
for further milestones.[218][219] As of August 2016, 16 teams are participating in the competition.[220] In January
2018 the foundation announced that the prize would go unclaimed as none of the finalist teams would be
able to make a launch attempt by the deadline.[221]
In August 2016, the US government granted permission to US-based start-up Moon Express to land on the
Moon.[222] This marked the first time that a private enterprise was given the right to do so. The decision is
regarded as a precedent helping to define regulatory standards for deep-space commercial activity in the
future, as thus far companies' operation had been restricted to being on or around Earth.[222]
Astronomy from the Moon
A false-color image of Earth in ultraviolet light taken from the surface of the Moon on the Apollo
16 mission. The day-side reflects a lot of UV light from the Sun, but the night-side shows faint bands of
UV emission from the aurora caused by charged particles
Source; NASA/Apollo 16 - "Ultraviolet Light from our Sun,"
NASA, URL http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/apollo16/hires/s72-
40821.jpg (flipped/rotated/cropped version)
NASA Mission Science description: This unusual false-color image shows how the Earth glows in ultraviolet
(UV) light. The Far UV Camera/Spectrograph deployed and left on the Moon by the crew of Apollo 16
captured this image. The part of the Earth facing the Sun reflects much UV light and bands of UV emission
are also apparent on the side facing away from the Sun. These bands are the result of aurora caused by
charged particles given off by the Sun. They spiral towards the Earth along Earth's magnetic field
lines. NASA Spaceflight description: An artificially reproduced color enhancement of a ten-minute far-
ultraviolet exposure of Earth, taken with a filter which blocks the glow caused by atomic hydrogen but which
transmits the glow caused by atomic oxygen and molecular nitrogen. Note that airglow emission bands are
visible on the night side of Earth, one roughly centered between the two polar auroral zones and one at an
angle to this extending northward toward the sunlit side of Earth. The UV camera was operated by astronaut
John W. Young on the Apollo 16 lunar landing mission. It was designed and built at the Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington, D.C. EDITOR'S NOTE: The photographic number of the original black & white UV
camera photograph, from which this artificially reproduced version was made, is AS16-123-19657.
.[223]
For many years, the Moon has been recognized as an excellent site for telescopes. [224] It is relatively
nearby; astronomical seeing is not a concern; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and
cold, and thus especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be
shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.[225] The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving
parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the
construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.[226] A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply
with an ionic liquid.[227]
In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet
with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.[228]
LEGAL STATUS OF THE MOON.

Space law
Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were
symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any
part of the Moon's surface.[229] Russia and the U.S. are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty,[230] which
defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind".[229] This treaty also restricts the
use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass
destruction.[231] The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to restrict the exploitation of the Moon's
resources by any single nation, but as of November 2016, it has been signed and ratified by only 18
nations, none of which engages in self-launched human space exploration or has plans to do
so.[232] Although several individuals have made claims to the Moon in whole or in part, none of these
are considered credible.[233][234][235]
In culture
Luna, the Moon, from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber astronomiae
Source; Nicolaus Pruknerus, Guido Bonatti - Guido Bonatti, De Astronomia Libri X (Basel,
Nicolaus Pruknerus, 1550)
The Moon, from Guido Bonatti Liber Astronomiae.
Moon in fiction
The Moon has been the subject of many works of art and literature and the inspiration for countless others. It is a
motif in the visual arts, the performing arts, poetry, prose and music.
Fantasy
Literary
 The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, a 10th-century Japanese folktale, tells of a mysterious Moon Princess growing
up on Earth as the adopted daughter of a bamboo cutter and his wife, dazzling human Princes and the
Emperor himself with her beauty, and finally going back to her people at "The Capital of the Moon" (Tsuki-no-
Miyako 月の都), leaving many broken hearts on Earth. It is among the first texts of any culture assuming the
Moon to be an inhabited world and describing travel between it and the Earth.
 John Heywood's Proverbes (1546) coined the famous phrase that "The moon is made of a greene cheese",
"greene" meaning "not aged", but Heywood was probably being sarcastic. [1]
 One of the earliest fictional flights to the Moon took place on the pages of Ludovico Ariosto's well-
known Italian epic poem Orlando Furioso (1516). The protagonist Orlando, having been thwarted in love, goes
mad with despair and rampages through Europe and Africa, destroying everything in his path. The English
knight Astolfo, seeking to find a cure for Orlando's madness, flies up to the Moon in Elijah's flaming chariot. In
this depiction, the Moon is where everything lost on earth is to be found, including Orlando's wits, and Astolfo
brings them back in a bottle and makes Orlando sniff them, thus restoring him to sanity.
 Edward Young's poem entitled The Complaint, and the Consolation; or, Night Thoughts (1742-1745), was a
favorite of poets and painters of Romanticism including William Blake and Samuel Palmer.[2][3]
 In the Great Moon Hoax of 1835, a newspaper reporter concocted a series of stories purporting to describe the
discovery of life on the Moon, talking of such creatures as winged humanoids and goats.
 In Liudmyla Starytska-Cherniakhivska’s Living Grave: A Ukrainian Legend [Zhyva Mohyla: Ukrainska
Lehenda], first published in 1889, the Moon is often referred as the 'kozak (cossack) sun'.[4]
 Johnny Gruelle's 1922 children's book, The Magical Land of Noom, relates the adventures of two Earth
children among the inhabitants of the far side of the Moon.
 Roverandom by J. R. R. Tolkien was written in 1925 to console his son Michael, then four years old, for the
loss of a beloved toy dog. In the story, the dog has flown to the Moon and had a whole series of amusing
adventures there. The story was only published posthumously. In addition, Isil and the guidesman Tilion in J.
R. R. Tolkien's fictional Middle-earth cosmology are based in Tolkien's familiarity with Norse and Gaelic myths
of the moon.
 Doctor Dolittle in the Moon (1928) was intended to be the last of Hugh Lofting's Doctor Dolittle books. The
Doctor, with his unique ability to communicate with animals, arrived in the Moon on the back of a
giant moth and finds a considerably different kind of fauna (for example, Moon insects are far bigger than the
local birds), and more startlingly, intelligent plants whose language he learns (as he never did with earthly
plants). He also meets the Moon's single human inhabitant, a prehistoric man who has grown into an
enormous giant due to lunar foods and conditions (which soon happens to the doctor himself). But it is
doubtful whether he would ever be allowed to return to Earth.
 The Hopkins Manuscript (1939) is a social-political dystopian novel written by R. C. Sherriff. It describes how
the nations of the world, bent on destroying each other, band together to meet a common disaster- the
imminent threat of the Moon itself landing on Earth.
 Goodnight Moon (1947) by Margaret Wise Brown, illustrated by Clement Hurd.
 Winter Moon, a poem by Langston Hughes.
 Moon Palace (1989) by Paul Auster, one of his best-known and most complicated novels.
 Rabbit and the Moon (1998) by Douglas Wood, how Rabbit reached the Moon.
 Cloud Atlas. In a future Korea, a projector on Mount Fuji beams projections of advertisements onto the Moon's
face.
 The Boy Who Climbed Into the Moon (2010) by David Almond, about a boy who climbs a ladder to the Moon
and goes inside.
Theatre
 Frau Luna, an 1899 operetta by Paul Lincke, depicts a fantastic moon which the protagonist, amateur inventor
Steppke, comes to visit.
 The End of the Moon by Laurie Anderson is a 90-minute monologue created as part of Anderson's two years
as NASA artist-in-residence. It premiered in a two-week run at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Harvey
Theater in March 2005.
 Far Side of the Moon by Robert Lepage, a theatre creator/performer from Québec.
Science fiction
Literature
Early stories
Lucian's Icaromenippus and True History, written in the 2nd century AD, deal with imaginary voyages to the Moon
such as on a fountain after going past the Pillars of Hercules. The theme did not become popular until the 17th
century, however, when the invention of the telescope hastened the popular acceptance of the concept of "a world
in the Moon", that is, that the Moon was an inhabitable planet, which might be reached via some sort of aërial
carriage. The concept of another world, close to our own and capable of looking down at it from a distance,
provided ample scope for satirical comments on the manners of the Earthly world. Among the early stories dealing
with this concept are:
 Somnium (1541) by Juan Maldonado

 The Dream (Somnium) (1634) by Johannes Kepler (written before 1610, but not published during Kepler's life).
An Icelandic voyager is transported to the Moon by aërial demons; an occasion for Kepler to offer some of his
astronomical theories in the guise of fiction.
 The Man in the Moone (1638) by Francis Godwin. A Spaniard flies to the Moon using a contraption pulled by
geese.
 The Discovery of a World in the Moone, or a discourse tending to prove that 'tis probable there may be another
habitable world in that planet. (1638) by John Wilkins.
 Voyage dans la Lune (1657) by Cyrano de Bergerac, inspired by Godwin.[5] Cyrano is launched toward the
Moon by fireworks.
 The Consolidator (1705) by Daniel Defoe. Travels between China and the Moon on an engine called The
Consolidator (a satire on the Parliament of England).
 A Voyage to Cacklogallinia (1727) by Samuel Brunt
 Acajou et Zirphile (1744) by Charles Pinot Duclos. In this satirical fairy tale, the prince Acajou travels to the
Moon to retrieve the severed head of the princess Zirphile and restore it to her body.
 Syzygies and Lunar Quadratures Aligned to the Meridian of Mérida of the Yucatán by an Anctitone or
Inhabitant of the Moon (1775), by Franciscan friar Manuel Antonio de Rivas
 Newest Voyage (1784) by Vasily Levshin. A protagonist flies in a self-constructed winged apparatus.
 The improbable adventures of Baron Munchausen (1786) included two voyages to the Moon, and a description
of its flora and fauna.
 A Voyage to the Moon (1793) by Aratus (the penname of an anonymous British author, not the original Greek
scientist)
 The Conquest by the Moon (1809) by Washington Irving. An invasion story meant as an allegory about
treatment of Native Americans by European settlers in America.
 A Flight to the Moon (1813) by George Fowler.
 Land of Acephals (1824) by Wilhelm Küchelbecker. Flight in a balloon.
 A Voyage to the Moon (1827) by George Tucker.
 "The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall" (1835) by Edgar Allan Poe features a repairer of bellows
in Rotterdam who creates a giant balloon and an 'air compressor' to allow him to travel to the Moon.
 "The Galoshes of Fortune" (1838) by Hans Christian Andersen. A watchman unknowingly fits on a pair of
magic galoshes that can grant people's wishes. As he wishes he could visit the Moon the shoes send him
flying there. There he meets several Moon men who all wonder whether Earth is inhabited and decide this must
be impossible. Back on Earth the lifeless body of the watchman is found and he is brought to a hospital, where
they take his shoes off, breaking the spell again. He awakens and declares it to have been the most terrible
night he had ever experienced.
 "Recollections of Six Days' Journey in the Moon. By An Aerio-Nautical Man" (1844). Published in the July and
August issues of the Southern Literary Messenger.
 The Princess of the Moon: A Confederate Fairy Story (1869) by "A Lady of Warrenton, Va" (Cora Semmes Ives)
has the "Fairy of the Moon" descend to earth to save a Confederate soldier from his grief after the U.S. Civil
War. She gifts him with a Pegasus steed that can fly him anywhere. After surveying the South and the Union,
he flies to the Moon, meets the king of the Moon and his people, falls in love with the princess, and helps their
kingdom fight off an invasion of Union soldiers arriving in balloons.[6]
First voyage
The first flight to the Moon was a popular topic of science fiction before the actual landing in 1969.
 From the Earth to the Moon (1865) and its sequel Around the Moon (1870) by Jules Verne, in which a projectile
is launched from Florida and lands in the Pacific Ocean, not unlike in the Apollo program lunar orbit
rendezvous.
 In Les Exilés de la Terre (Exiled from Earth, 1887), by Paschal Grousset (writing as André Laurie),
a Sudanese mountain composed of pure iron ore is converted into a huge electro-magnet and catapulted to
the Moon where the protagonists have various adventures.
 The First Men in the Moon (1901) by H. G. Wells in which a spaceship gets to the Moon with the aid of Cavorite
-a material which shields out gravity. It is inhabited by insect-like Selenites who are ruled by a Grand Lunar,
and who prevent Cavor from returning to Earth after learning of humanity's warlike nature.
 Na srebrnym globie [The Silver Globe] (1903), by Polish writer Jerzy Żuławski in which a first expedition from
Earth gives birth to a lunar society. The story was continued in Zwycięzca [The Conqueror] (1910) and Stara
Ziemia [The Old Earth] (1911). This so-called Lunar Trilogy was the first modern Polish SF story. It was adapted
to the screen as On the Silver Globe by Andrzej Żuławski.
 Trends is a 1939 short story by Isaac Asimov in which religious fanatics oppose a fictional first flight to the
Moon in the 1970s.
 Prelude to Space is a 1951 novel by Arthur C. Clarke recounting the events leading up to a fictional first flight
to the Moon in 1978.
Robert A. Heinlein
Robert A. Heinlein wrote extensively, prolifically, and inter-connectedly about first voyages and colonization of the
Moon, which he most often called Luna.[7] He also was involved with the films Destination Moon and Project
Moonbase.
 "Requiem" 1940. A lyrical story about Harriman, the man who financed the first Moon landing (see also "The
Man Who Sold the Moon", below).
 Rocket Ship Galileo 1947. A physicist and several prodigy teenagers convert a sub-orbital rocket ship to reach
the Moon where they are profoundly surprised and have to act quickly to deal with a malignant menace.
 "Columbus Was a Dope", as Lyle Monroe, 1947. In a bar on the Moon, a chance encounter reveals both deep
and practical attitudes about space exploration.
 "The Long Watch" (aka "Rebellion on the Moon", 1948). An officer in charge of a nuclear arsenal on the Moon
makes tough decisions.
 "Gentlemen, Be Seated!", 1948. A dangerous leak develops in a lunar tunnel and the men devise a unique way
to deal with it until a repair can be made.
 "The Black Pits of Luna", 1948. A Boy Scout visits cities on the Moon.
 "The Man Who Sold the Moon", a 1949 short story, first published in 1951. In this story, a prequel to "Requiem"
(above), events revolve around a fictional first Moon landing in 1978.
 "Nothing Ever Happens on the Moon", 1949. A 21st-century Boy Scout on the Moon encounters numerous
hazards and predicaments in a bid to earn Eagle Scout (Moon).
 The Rolling Stones 1952. The exceptional Stone family lives on the Moon and after extensive background and
preparation of their own ship they depart to tour and live in the Solar System.
 "The Menace From Earth", 1957. A lunar teenage girl's romance is disrupted by a newcomer. Extensive
descriptions, most noteworthy is the muscle-power flying in a huge sealed cavern.
 "Searchlight", 1962. A short-short piece about a rescue on the Moon.
 The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966). In this Hugo Award winning novel, the Moon is a penal colony, especially
for political prisoners and their descendants. They revolt for independence from Earth-based control. The
novel discusses issues of sustainability, health, transportation, family organization, artificial intelligence, and
political governance.
 The Cat Who Walks Through Walls 1985. About a third of the book takes place on a Free Luna that is a
continuation of the Luna in The Moon is a Harsh Mistress(TMiaHM above). Free-enterprise is rampant Luna
City is called L-City. Hazel Stone from The Rolling Stones and TMiaHM appears.
Inhabited Moon
The Moon is sometimes imagined as having, now or in the distant past, indigenous life and civilization.
 The First Men in the Moon (1901) by H. G. Wells, the Moon is inhabited by insectoid "Selenites."
 Lost Paradise (1936) by C. L. Moore. This Northwest Smith story tells how the once-fertile Moon became an
airless wasteland.
 In C. S. Lewis's That Hideous Strength (1945), the Moon (Sulva) is described as being home to a race of
extreme eugenicists. On the near side, the elite caste seems to have dispensed with organic existence
altogether, by some means never clearly described; the only holdouts against this trend are an embattled
minority on the far side. The response of the characters to this state of affairs varies according to their status:
Professor Filostrato, of the wicked N.I.C.E., considers the Sulvans "[a] great race, further advanced than we",
while the Christian champion Elwin Ransom describes them as "an accursed people, full of pride and lust."
 In Badger's Moon (1949) by Elleston Trevor, four animals travel to the Moon by rocket ship and meet the
inhabitants.
 The ″Lomokome″ Papers (1968) by Herman Wouk. Lt. Daniel Butler is left marooned on the Moon. A rescue
ship finds a manuscript written by Lt. Butler where he tells a story of how he was held captive by people who
live beneath the Moon's surface.
 The Matthew Looney series of children's books by Jerome Beatty Jr (written 1961 - 1978) is an amusing set of
stories about an inhabited Moon whose government is intent on invading the Earth.
Colonization
Human settlements on the Moon are found in many science fiction novels, short stories and films. Not all have the
Moon colony itself as central to the plot.
 Menace from the Moon (1925), by English writer Bohun Lynch. A lunar colony, founded in 1654 by a Dutchman,
an Englishman, an Italian, and "their women", threatens Earth with heat-ray doom unless it helps them escape
their dying world.
 Earthlight (1955) by Arthur C. Clarke. A settlement on the Moon becomes caught in the crossfire of a war
between Earth and a federation of Mars and Venus.
 The Trouble With Tycho (1960) by Clifford D. Simak. A young lunar prospector seeks to find a lost expedition
to the Moon.
 A Fall of Moondust (1961) by Arthur C. Clarke. A lunar dust boat full of tourists sinks into a sea of Moon dust.
 The Lathe of Heaven (1971) by Ursula K. Le Guin. In one of the alternate realities in the novel lunar bases are
established by 2002, only to be attacked by aliens from Aldebaran (who in another reality turn out to be
benign).
 The Gods Themselves (1973) by Isaac Asimov. The third section of the novel takes place in a lunar settlement
in the early 22nd Century.
 Dark, Dark Were the Tunnels (1974) by George R. R. Martin. This story takes place on Earth, devastated by
nuclear war 500 years earlier and being explored by descendants of a small remnant of humanity that survived
on a lunar colony.
 Inherit the Stars (1977) by James P. Hogan is the first book of the Giants series. The Moon turns out to have
previously orbited Minerva, a planet that exploded to form the asteroid belt 50,000 years ago.
 The Lunatics (1988) by Kim Stanley Robinson. A group of enslaved miners forced to work under the lunar
surface launch a rebellion.
 Lunar Descent by Allen Steele (1991) Set in 2024, the novel describes a base called Descartes Station.
 Transmigration of Souls (1996) by William Barton. An expedition from a Moon base discovers an alien
base with technology that allows teleportation and time travel. ISBN 0-446-60167-5.
 Ice (2002) by Shane Johnson. A fictional Apollo 19 mission takes a disastrous turn when the Apollo Lunar
Module ascent engine fails to fire. The astronauts then set out on their own as far as their new heavy lunar
rover will take them. Their exploration leads miraculously to an ancient—but still functioning—lunar base.
 People Came From Earth by Stephen Baxter, printed in The Year's Best Science Fiction: Seventeenth Annual
Collection.
 In the novels A Fall of Moondust, Earthlight, Rendezvous with Rama, and 2001: A Space Odyssey,by Arthur C.
Clarke, colonies of various sizes and functions exist on the Moon—some the size of cities
 The Moonrise and Moonwar books by Ben Bova tell the story of a lunar base built by an American corporation,
which eventually rebels against Earth control. The books form part of the "Grand Tour" series.
 Moonfall (1998) by Jack McDevitt features a comet heading for a collision with the Moon just as the first base
is being opened. ISBN 0-06-105036-9.
 The short story "Byrd Land Six" (2010) by Alastair Reynolds includes a Moon colony centered around
mining helium-3.
 In the Hyperion stories by Dan Simmons, the Moon is one of several hundred colonized celestial bodies;
however, it is left almost entirely abandoned as 99% of the existing colonized planets are preferable to the
moon.
 Life as We Knew It (2006) by Susan Beth Pfeffer, a novel focusing on the effects of an asteroid colliding with
the Moon and knocking its orbit closer to Earth.
 Learning the World by Ken MacLeod, a first contact novel. Humans trace their history from the Moon caves,
the inference being failure of the primary.
 Luna is the capital of the Society and home of its Sovereign in Pierce Brown's Red Rising series of
novels: Red Rising (2014), Golden Son (2015) and Morning Star(2016).
 Luna: New Moon (2015) by Ian McDonald, and its 2016 sequel Luna: Wolf Moon, are about several rival families
which compete for helium-3 mining operations on the Moon.
 Limit (2013) by Frank Schätzing: a sf thriller concerning the mining of Helium-3 and tourism activities on the
Moon.
 Artemis, a 2017 Andy Weir novel set in a fictional but scientifically plausible lunar city. The city's well
developed economy (ultimately based on tourism) is described in considerable detail. Major resources include
a nuclear power plant, aluminium smelter and oxygen production facility.
Film
 Le Voyage dans la Lune (1902) written and directed by Georges Méliès. Released in the US as A Trip to the
Moon. A French silent film loosely based upon the Jules Verne novel From the Earth to the Moon and the First
Men in the Moon. Includes a famous scene where the rocket hits the Man of the Moon in the eye.
 Frau im Mond ("Woman in the Moon", 1929), written and directed by Fritz Lang. Based on the novel Die Frau im
Mond (1928) by Lang's then-wife and collaborator Thea von Harbou, translated in English as The Rocket to the
Moon (1930). The film was released in the USA as By Rocket to the Moon, and in the UK as Woman in the
Moon. A silent movie often considered to be one of the first "serious" science fiction films, in which the basics
of rocket travel were presented to a mass audience for the first time.
 Things to Come (1936) was an early science fiction film and featured a spacecraft sending two people on the
first manned flight around the Moon launched into space by a space gun in the year 2036.
 Melody Time (1948). In the segment "Pecos Bill", Pecos Bill's fiancee Slue Foot Sue gets thrown to the Moon
by Pecos' horse Widowmaker, where she stays for all time. Bill is so depressed by the loss of his love that he
howls at the moon, and coyotes join in. This is a tall tale of why coyotes howl at the Moon.
 Destination Moon (1950) was a groundbreaking science fiction film, based on a story treatment by Robert A.
Heinlein and directed by George Pal.
 Project Moonbase (1953). A failed television pilot converted into a film.
 First Men in the Moon (1964) is a science fiction film loosely based on H. G. Wells' novel The First Men in the
Moon.
 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) by Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke. Includes a scene at a lunar
administrative base in the Clavius crater.
 Moon Zero Two (1969). Billed as a 'space western', this Hammer Films production followed shortly after 2001:
A Space Odyssey. In the year 2021 the Moon is in the process of being colonized, and this new frontier is
attracting a diverse group of people.
 Superman II (1980) Three supervillains from the Phantom Zone (Ursa, General Zod, and Non) kill all the
astronauts on a mission on the Moon before heading to Earth.
 Airplane II: The Sequel (1982) A spaceplane is launched on a voyage to a colonized settlement on the Moon,
encountering many difficulties on the way.
 Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987) Superman and Nuclear Man fight on the Moon, eventually causing
a solar eclipse.
 Moontrap (1989). Astronauts find ancient woman and alien robots on the Moon.
 Star Trek: First Contact (1996). By the 24th century there were approximately 50 million people living on the
Moon, and on a clear day, at least two cities and man-made Lake Armstrong were visible from Earth - as such,
time-traveler William Riker, sitting in the cockpit of the first warp prototype, marvels at the sight of the
"unspoiled" Moon in 2063.
 Starship Troopers (1997). In the 23rd century, the Moon has been colonized with many military bases on it, and
has a huge space station orbiting it, from which starships launch on voyages.
 Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999). Dr. Evil attempts to destroy Washington D.C. with a giant
laser from his Moon base, but Austin Powers is able to stop him.
 Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000). In a dream, Sherman Klump accidentally blows up the Moon while trying
to prevent an asteroid hitting Earth, which it does.
 Titan A.E. (2000). When an evil alien race called the Drej destroys Earth, huge chunks of the Earth collide with
the Moon and break it in half, destroying it.
 Space Cowboys (2000). An astronaut rides a disused Russian satellite with nuclear missiles to the Moon to
prevent it from hitting Earth.
 Recess: School's Out (2001). A tractor beam is used in a school in an attempt to move the Moon into a
different orbit around Earth, which would end summer and cause a new ice age.
 Millennium Actress (2001). One of the films that the actress Chiyoko Fujiwara stars in is a sci-fi one, in which a
spaceship launches from a base on the Moon on an interstellar voyage.
 The Time Machine (2002). The Moon is accidentally destroyed by human efforts at colonization in 2037. The
film is not specific as to how exactly it occurs, but the use of nuclear weapons for creating underground
caverns is cited as a cause. The destruction causes humanity to divide into Morlocks and Eloi.
 The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005). The Moon is shown being rebuilt by the Magrathian construction
crew in orbit around the new Earth Mark II, implying that it was also destroyed when the Vogons destroyed the
first Earth.
 WALL-E (2008) One scene in this film seems to reference an abandoned human colonization attempt on the
Moon in the early 22nd century; a holographic sign is seen next to the Apollo 11 landing site advertising a
proposal for an outlet mall on the Moon.[8]
 Impact (2009) In this TV miniseries, the Moon is hit by a meteor shower, sending it on a collision course with
Earth.
 Moon (2009) Film about a solitary lunar employee mining for new energy resources who experiences a
personal crisis as the end of his three-year contract nears. It is the feature debut of director Duncan Jones
starring Sam Rockwell.
 Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011) The Apollo 11 mission to the Moon in 1969 turned out to be a top secret
mission to examine the remains of an ancient Transformer Spacecraft containing deceased alien robots.
 Apollo 18 (2011) follows a fictional Apollo 18 mission and its discovery on the Moon.
 Iron Sky (2012) Nazis attack the Earth from a base on the dark side of the Moon while a coalition, led by
president Sarah Palin attempts to defeat them.
 Oblivion (2013) An alien race destroys the Moon, causing massive earthquakes and tsunamis that cause great
damage to the Earth.
 Stranded (2013) Astronauts working at a lunar mining base are harassed by aliens.
 Independence Day: Resurgence (2016) A defense base is on the Moon.
 Beyond Skyline (2017) The film ends with an alien spaceship battle next to the Moon.
Television
 Men Into Space (1959 – 1960) is a science-fiction television series produced by Ziv Television Programs, Inc.
and broadcast on CBS. The series depicted the efforts of the U.S. Air Force to send American astronauts into
space. Several episodes depicted the first lunar landing, additional flights to the Moon, building and working
on moon bases, and using the Moon as a staging area to launch a mission to Mars.
 Several episodes of the long-running British television series Doctor Who feature the Moon:
 The Moonbase (1967). A four-part serial set in the year 2070, where a moonbase has been established to
use a gravity-control device called the Gravitron to control the weather on Earth.
 "The Seeds of Death" (1969). A base on the Moon is used as a relay station for T-Mat a
powerful teleportation technology that has replaced all conventional forms of transport.
 "Silver Nemesis" (1988). The Cybermen's Cyber-Fleet is in orbit around the Moon when it is destroyed by
the Nemesis statue.
 "Frontier in Space" (1973). Features a penal colony on the Moon in the year 2540.
 "Smith and Jones" (2007). The Judoon take London Hope Hospital to the Moon as they have no rights
over the Earth to arrest a Plasmavore.
 "Kill the Moon" (2014). The episode reveals that the Moon is in fact a giant egg, and is set mainly on the
Moon's surface, or in a Moon-based structure.
 Moonbase 3 (1973). Another British science fiction television show about a lunar base; aired only six episodes.
 Two Gerry Anderson's series featured moonbases:
 UFO (1970). The SHADO Moonbase is used as the launch site for SHADO Interceptors sent to destroy
invading alien spaceships. Are also seen a Dalotek Corporation outpost and a Sovatek Corporation base.
 Space: 1999 (ITC Entertainment, 1975–1977). Featured Moonbase Alpha on a Moon that had been blasted
out of its orbit by a nuclear explosion at phenomenal velocity. The opening episode indicates that the
base coordinated nuclear waste disposal, spaceflight operations and training, and subsequent episodes
suggest mining, surface surveys and exploration, indicating a versatile base for multiple use, overseen by
an international organization on Earth, the International Lunar Finance Commission, division of the World
Space Commission.
 Star Cops (1987). The titular police force has its base of operations on the Moon.
 * Masks (Star Trek: The Next Generation) in which the relationship between Masaka and Korgano is described
as similar to the relationship between the sun and the moon
 Colonization of the Moon is mentioned several times in the Star Trek franchise.
 Star Trek: Enterprise. The Moon has already been colonized in this series.
 The Next Generation. The character Dr. Beverly Crusher was born in Copernicus City on the surface of the
moon.
 Deep Space Nine mentions settlements on the Moon called Tycho City, New Berlin, and Lunaport. It is
also revealed that Earth's moon is referred to by its Latinname, Luna, probably to distinguish it from the
thousands of moons throughout the universe. It is also revealed that living on the Moon is seen by many
humans as something of a novelty, as Jake Sisko uses the slang term "Lunar schooner" somewhat
affectionately when he meets a girl from there.
 H2O: Just Add Water (2006-2010). The Moon influences the life of the mermaids and transform normal people in
this creatures and reverse.
 Mako: Island of Secrets (2013-2016) and H2O: Mermaid Adventures (2015–present). Two spin-off series.
 Three Moons Over Milford (2006) was a short-lived ABC Family science fiction dramedy television series in
which a giant asteroid collides with the Moon, fracturing it into three large pieces (hence the “three moons” of
the series’ title). The pieces are now in a doomsday spiral that will, in just a few years, send them crashing to
Earth and obliterating all life on the planet. Knowing that they are doomed soon to die, people cast aside all
social, cultural, and moral conventions and begin to live their lives to the fullest, totally without inhibitions, in
what little time they have left.
Animation
 Space Brothers is a Japanese anime based on the manga of the same name. Two young brothers see a UFO,
inspiring them to become astronauts and go to the Moon. While the younger brother (Hibito) eventually
becomes a JAXA astronaut, the older brother (Nanba) loses his motivation and becomes wrapped in mundane
life. The story follows each brother as Nanba finds his inspiration, struggles through the JAXA tests
and NASA training, while Hibito becomes the first Japanese astronaut to walk on the Moon but afterward
wrestles with his unwanted fame and his crippling fears from a close brush with death.
 Sailor Moon. In this Japanese anime and manga series, the Moon was once home to the Moon Kingdom Silver
Millennium until a conflict between it and the Earth Earth caused the Moon to take its current form. The titular
heroine Usagi Tsukino is based on aspects of the Greek goddess Selene and Princess Kaguya, her name a
play on words for Moon Rabbit "tsuki no usagi".
 Mr Moon is a 2010 children's TV series in which the main character is anthropomorphism of the Moon
exploring the Solar System which his friends.
 In the manga and anime series Naruto, the Moon was method in the series mythos to have been created by
Hagoromo Otsutsuki to contain the transformed and powerless husk of his mother Kaguya with the dwindling
descendants of his brother Hamura safe guarding the Gedo Statue until was stolen by Madara Uchiha for his
Project Tsuki no Me agenda.
 Planetes (2003). A Japanese anime television series set at a time when travel to the Moon has become an
everyday occurrence.
 Mobile Suit Gundam. Throughout most of this anime saga, the Moon has been extensively colonised, with
underground cities built inside of the larger craters.
 Exosquad. In this American military science fiction series, the Moon is the site of the fiercest battle between
Terran and Neosapien forces. The victory achieved by the Terrans on the Moon soon leads to the liberation of
Earth.
 Futurama. By the year 3000, a theme park has been constructed on the Moon inside a giant dome with an
artificial atmosphere, and an artificial gravity. First seen in the second episode The Series Has Landed.
 Megas XLR. on one episode the Glorft attempt to convert the Moon into a Missile. Coop also ends up blowing
up half the Moon (in the credits he's seen putting the Moon back together).
 Aqua Teen Hunger Force. Among the recurring characters are The Mooninites, which hail from the Moon.
 Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann. The Moon is used by the Anti-Spirals as the "Human Extermination System",
and is designed to fall on the Earth once a million humans live on the surface. It is later discovered that the
Moon is actually one of Lord Genome's battleships.
 Origin: Spirits of the Past. An anime movie set in Japan 300 years in the future. An apocalypse was brought
about by extensive genetic engineering on trees, conducted at a research facility on Earth's moon, in order to
produce trees capable of growing in harsh, arid conditions. The trees became conscious and spread to Earth
in a fiery holocaust, wiping out most of modern civilization and fragmenting the Moon.
 The Tick. Supervillain Chairface Chippendale attempts to create the ultimate act of vandalism by writing his
name on the Moon's surface with a powerful laser. He is only able to write "CHA" before being thwarted by The
Tick. Some time later a mission to the Moon is mounted with the intent of repairing this damage. The Tick is
given a backpack full of explosives and told to wait in the carved-out "C". When the backpack explodes, The
Tick is hurled out of the Solar System, but the "C" is repaired, leaving "HA" still visible from Earth.
 In Despicable Me the world’s #1 super villain, Gru, decides to steal the Moon in an attempt to prove himself
better than his arch-rival (#1 super villain), Vector.
 Avatar: The Last Airbender: In this Nickelodeon cartoon series the Moon is a major part of the lore and
spirituality of the Water Tribes. According to legend the first waterbenders learned how to bend water by
watching the Moon push and pull the water and were eventually able to do so themselves.
 In Space Jam, Mr. Swackhammer, the villain of the film gets sent there at the end of the game by the Monstars.
 In Transformers: Armada, The Mini-Con ship Exodus crash-landed on the Moon, scattering its stasis-locked
passengers all over Earth. Later, the Decepticons would set up a base inside the derelict ship, from where they
would teleport to various locations on Earth to search for the Mini-Cons.
 In official supplemental materials for Neon Genesis Evangelion, the impact that created the Moon - known in-
universe as First Impact - is revealed to have been caused by the "Black Moon", an artificial construct carrying
the Angel Lilith; as an allusion, Rei Ayanami is frequently depicted in the series and in official artwork with a
full moon motif. During Third Impact as depicted in The End of Evangelion, Lilith's blood is shown to splatter
onto the Moon from low Earth orbit. In the Rebuild of Evangelion movies, the existence of NERV's Tabgha
Lunar Base is revealed. Various features depicted on the surface in the first film include a large red stain not
unlike the one created by Lilith in The End of Evangelion, a series of coffin-like objects - one of which is
revealed to contain Kaworu Nagisa - and a large humanoid entity resembling Lilith's original depiction. In the
second film, Gendo Ikari and Kozou Fuyutsuki travel to the base in a large spacecraft but are denied entry;
they subsequently observe the giant entity from above, revealing it as the under-construction Evangelion
Mark.06.
 In the popular animation show My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, the Moon and the Sun are raised each day
and night by two alicorn princesses called Luna and Celestia, respectively. A thousand years prior to the first
episode, Luna grew jealous that the ponies living in the world slept during her night, and tried to make the
night last forever, taking the name 'Nightmare Moon'. Celestia subsequently banished her to the Moon, and
arranged for the show's main characters to assist in redeeming her.
 In the anime series Inazuma Eleven GO, antagonist Bitway Ozrock seals the Moon away to demonstrate his
true strength, and uses the effects of its absence on the Earth to coerce the World's joint governments to
agree to his demands.
 At the end of the Arthur episode "The Boy Who Cried Comet", Arthur and his friends are shown unmasking
themselves, showing them as aliens who live in a city on the far side of the Moon.
 In the Teen Titans Go! episode "Starfire the Terrible," Starfire says she has rigged the Moon to explode, which
Cyborg dismisses. Cut to the Moon covered in dynamite seconds before it explodes, shocking the other Titans
Starfire laughs/gargles before she really does down the milk carton, telling them that she only did it because
Robin loved the Moon so much.
 SpongeBob SquarePants. In "Sandy's Rocket," SpongeBob and Patrick take Sandy's rocket to what they think
is the Moon, but they're still in Bikini Bottom. Trouble endues when they capture all the citizens, thinking
they're aliens. In "Mooncation," Sandy goes to the moon for a vacation with SpongeBob.
 Hanazuki: Full of Treasures. In this series, the moonflowers are species that plant Treasure Trees to protect
their moons from the Big Bad.
 Mixels. In the episode "Mixel Moon Madness," it is revealed that there are Mixels that live on the Moon. There
are Oribitons which are space-themed Mixels and Glowkies which are nocturnal-based creatures.
 Legends of Chima. In the episode "The Hundred Year Moon," It is said that once every hundred years for two
nights the Moon makes the Wolf Tribe go to their barbaric side.
 Kido Senkan Nadeshiko. Earth comes under attack from the descendants of exiled Lunar separatists. United
Earth is shown to have a base on the Moon.
 Aldnoah.Zero. The Moon was the site of a hypergate built by an ancient civilization that enabled transport
between it and Mars. Due to the hypergate going out of control due to fighting on the Moon's surface during
the First Earth-Mars War, part of the Moon was destroyed.
Computer and video games

 Battlezone - Set during the 1960s with an alternative history plot, in which the space race is used to cover up
the military deployment of US and USSR into space, the Moon is set a stage as the first mission in the NSDF
Campaign.
 Call of Duty Black Ops - The Moon is one of the maps available through the Rezurection map pack.
 Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare - The Terminal map remake takes place on the Moon.
 Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge - In one of Soviet Campaign missions, the general was assigned to
establish his base there in order to destroy Yuri's Lunar Command Center to prevent the Earth from falling
under his psychic mind control.
 Darius II - The Moon is inhabited by enemy forces and underground bases players must confront on the fourth
level.
 Dead Moon - Aliens crash land on the Moon and use it as their headquarters for invading Earth.
 Descent – the main character (the Material Defender) has to clean the Solar System of infected PTMC mines,
starting from the Moon. Consequently, the first three levels of the game take place in an outpost, a sci-lab, and
a military base on the Moon.
 Destiny - The Moon had previously been inhabited during humanity's "Golden Age", long before the events of
the game. The majority of the gameplay on the surface is centered around Oceanus Procellarum (known by its
English translation, "Ocean of Storms"), with a pair of maps in the Crucible (PvP) set in nearby Mare Cognitum.
 Destroy All Humans! 2 - The final area of the game takes place on a Russian moonbase called "Solaris".
 Donkey Kong Country Returns - After the final boss, Donkey Kong is blasted into space, as he falls, he powers
up a punch and punches the Moon, causing to fall on the Volcano.
 Duke Nukem 3D - The second episode of the game, Lunar Apocalypse, takes place on a series of space
stations that lead to the Moon's surface.
 Einhänder - The protagonist, a spacecraft fighter from Moon colony Selene. is sent to the Earth during the
events of the Second Moon War.
 Final Fantasy IV/II (U.S SNES version)- in the last part of the game the characters travel to the Moon to confront
the final boss.
 Infinite Undiscovery - The main antagonist has enchained the Moon in order to gain its power.
 The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask - Link, the protagonist, must prevent the Moon from crashing to Earth
within 3 days. The Moon carries a face that dreads its inevitable destruction.
 Mass Effect - One of the sidemissions is set on the Moon.
 Metal Black (video game) - After a massive alien invasion on Earth, the Moon is overtaken by the aliens so as
to involve it in their plot and its darkside sets the scene for the second level boss fight.
 Military Madness – Moon colonization wars exist between the Union and Xenon.
 Moonbase – add-on for SimCity Classic to build a lunar colony rather than an earthbound city.
 Moonbase Commander
 Moon Patrol (Irem)
 Moon Tycoon - A colony building game, claims to be the first 3-D Sim game.
 Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door - Mario must journey to the Moon to recover a Crystal Star.
 Portal 2 - Chell, having learned that moon rocks are very good portal conductors, fires a portal at the Moon to
save herself from death.
 Rebel Moon Rising, a PC game by Fenris Wolf and GT Interactive.
 Star Control 2 – features a now uninhabited moonbase.
 Star Ocean: Till the End of Time – features a moonbase.
 Sonic Adventure 2 - Dr. Eggman destroyed half the Moon with the ARK's Eclipse Cannon.
 Strikers 1945 - In the original Japanese release of the game, players are rocketed towards the enemy's real
headquarters situated on the Moon's surface for the last two levels.
 Super Mario Odyssey - A family of wedding planner rabbits from the Moon's far side try to obstruct Mario as he
rescues Peach from Bowser's attempt to forcibly marry her in a wedding hall which exists on the near side.
The game contains many references to the Moon and has three playable areas which take place on the Moon—
the Moon Kingdom, Dark Side, and Darker Side.
 Terra Diver - In the future, the Moon is one of many points of galactic resources utilised by companies on
Earth and hosts a company owned outpost stationed on a nearby asteroid where the fourth boss awaits.
 Virtue's Last Reward - The ending of the game reveals that the events actually take place on the Moon in the
year 2074 in a moon base.
 Wolfenstein: The New Order - The game takes place on a secret Nazi moonbase near the end of the game.
Comics
 In the DC Universe, the Moon is the location of the Justice League Watchtower until its destruction
by Alexander Luthor and also a former home of Eclipso.
 In an early Ibis the Invincible story the Moon has members of a humanoid race composed of stone that
competed with humanity over the Earth and were exiled to the Moon thousands of years ago where they are
frozen. A Professor makes a rocket ship to go to the Moon with Taia, and Ibis follows them. Two of the
creatures are taken on the ship, and revive on a journey back to Earth, but are killed when the spaceship
crashes.
 De Avonturen van Pa Pinkelman (1945) by Godfried Bomans and drawn by Carol Voges has the characters set
foot on the Moon, where they spent a long time and meet an entire society, even with his own national anthem.
 In Hergé's Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon (1953–1954), Tintin and his companions make the first
voyage to the Moon and Tintin becomes the first explorer on the Moon.
 In The Adventures of Nero story "De Daverende Pitteleer" (1959) by Marc Sleen Nero and his friends
accidentally land on the Moon. They meet a moon man there too, before continuing their flight to their original
destination on Earth. The Moon is depicted just like Earth, with the characters walking around without having
to use a space helmet or undergoing any effect of gravity loss.
 In The Adventures of Nero story "De Paarse Futen" (1968) Nero and his friends travel at sea and pick up a pair
of American astronauts who crash-landed in the ocean after their attempt to travel to the Moon once again
failed. Adhemar uses a magic wand to send them to the Moon and says: "This time the Americans beat the
Russians." Near the end of the story a US military official arrives to congratulate Adhemar for what he has
done and awards him a medal.
 In the Marvel Universe, the Moon contains the Blue Area, the home of the Inhumans. It was built by the Skrull
race, in events which led to their Inter-galactic war with the Kree race. The powerful Watcher, Uatu, watches
the Solar System from a base on the Moon. In FF #13 the Fantastic Four make the first landing on the Moon
(this was published before 1969), and battle the communist villain the Red Ghost and his Super-apes.
 In Judge Dredd the Moon is the site of a small colony named Luna City One.
Mythology
Lunar deity, Selene, Luna (goddess), Man in the Moon, and Crescent
A 5,000-year-old rock carving at Knowth, Ireland, may represent the Moon, which would be the
earliest depiction discovered.[236] The contrast between the brighter highlands and the darker maria
creates the patterns seen by different cultures as the Man in the Moon, the rabbit and the buffalo,
among others. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Moon was personified as a deity or
other supernaturalphenomenon, and astrological views of the Moon continue to be propagated
today.
In Proto-Indo-European religion, the moon was personified as the male god *Meh1not.[237] The
ancient Sumerians believed that the Moon was the god Nanna,[238][239] who was the father of Inanna,
the goddess of the planet Venus,[238][239] and Utu, the god of the sun.[238][239]Nanna was later known as
Sîn,[239][238] and was particularly associated with magic and sorcery.[238] In Greco-Roman mythology, the
Sun and the Moon are represented as male and female, respectively
(Helios/Sol and Selene/Luna);[237] this is a development unique to the eastern Mediterranean[237] and
traces of an earlier male moon god in the Greek tradition are preserved in the figure of Menelaus.[237]
In Mesopotamian iconography, the crescent was the primary symbol of Nanna-Sîn.[239] In ancient Greek
art, the Moon goddess Selene was represented wearing a crescent on her headgear in an arrangement
reminiscent of horns.[240][241] The star and crescent arrangement also goes back to the Bronze Age,
representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and planet Venus, in combination. It came to
represent the goddess Artemis or Hecate, and via the patronage of Hecate came to be used as a
symbol of Byzantium.
An iconographic tradition of representing Sun and Moon with faces developed in the late medieval
period.
The splitting of the moon (Arabic: ‫ )انشقاقالقمر‬is a miracle attributed to Muhammad.[242]
Sun and Moon with faces (1493 woodcut)

Calendar
Lunar calendar, Lunisolar calendar, Metonic cycle, Blue moon, and Movable feast
The Moon's regular phases make it a very convenient timepiece, and the periods of its waxing and
waning form the basis of many of the oldest calendars. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back
as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.[243][244][245] The ~30-day
month is an approximation of the lunar cycle. The English noun month and its cognates in other
Germanic languages stem from Proto-Germanic *mǣnṓth-, which is connected to the above-
mentioned Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, indicating the usage of a lunar calendar among the Germanic
peoples (Germanic calendar) prior to the adoption of a solar calendar.[246] The PIE root of moon,
*méh1nōt, derives from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional
conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. the English
words measure and menstrual),[247][248][249] and echoing the Moon's importance to many ancient cultures
in measuring time (see Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn), meaning
"month").[250][251][252][253] Most historical calendars are lunisolar. The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an
exceptional example of a purely lunar calendar. Months are traditionally determined by the visual
sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.[254]
"Moonrise", 1884, picture by 55Stanisław Masłowski (33National Museum, Kraków, Gallery of Sukiennice Museum)
Lunacy
Lunar effect
The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the
words lunacy and lunatic (popular shortening loony) are derived from the Latin name for the
Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in
susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon
and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.[255] Even
today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic
accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but dozens of studies invalidate these
claims.
EXPERIMENT.
RAW MATERIALS AND APPARATUS DESCRIPTION
Astronomer
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question
or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such
as stars, planets, moons, comets, and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data)
or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science,
solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. Related but distinct
subjects like physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole.
Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational
astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast,
theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it
takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers
must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how
they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how
different celestial objects work.
Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary
astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology.
The Astronomer by Johannes Vermeer
Academic
Galileo is often referred to as the Father of modern astronomy
Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in
the sky, while astrophysicsattempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them
using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and
"astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who
typically have a Ph.D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or
universities.[1] They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have
other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.
The number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American
Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America,
has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as
physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to
astronomy.[2] The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70
different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the Ph.D. level and beyond.[3]
Guy ConsolmagnoVatican Observatory, analyzing a meteorite, 2014
Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark
hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a
long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over
time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern
astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of
observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the
majority of observational astronomers' time.
Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate
classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and
sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field.
Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing
in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also
invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a Ph.D. in astronomy or physics.
Amateur astronomers
Emily Lakdawalla at the Planetary Conference 2013
While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular
among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often
host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in
the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70
different nations.[4] Like any hobby, most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers
may devote a few hours a month to stargazingand reading the latest developments in research.
However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who
own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own
discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research.
APPARATUS.
Spacecraft
A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a
variety of purposes, including communications, earth
observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration,
and transportation of humans and cargo. All spacecraft except single-stage-to-orbit vehicles
cannot get into space on their own, and require a launch vehicle (carrier rocket)
On a sub-orbital spaceflight, a space vehicle enters space and then returns to the surface,
without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits
around the Earth or around other celestial bodies. Spacecraft used for human spaceflight
carry people on board as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (space stations) only,
whereas those used for robotic space missions operate
either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic spacecraft used to support scientific
research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a planetary body
are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer
10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, and New Horizons, are on trajectories that leave the Solar
System.
Orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be
divided in non-winged space capsules and winged spaceplanes.
Humanity has achieved space flight but only a few nations have the technology for orbital
launches: Russia (RSA or "Roscosmos"), the United States (NASA), the member states of
the European Space Agency
(ESA), Japan (JAXA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO), Taiwan[1][2][3][4] (National Chung-Shan
Institute of Science and Technology, Taiwan National Space Organization
(NSPO),[5][6][7] Israel (ISA), Iran (ISA), and North Korea (NADA).
More than 100 Soviet and Russian Soyuzmanned spacecraft (TMA version shown) have flown since
1967 and now support the International Space Station.
The US Space Shuttle flew 135 times from 1981 to 2011, supporting Spacelab, Mir, and the ISS.
(Columbia's first launch, which had a white external tank, shown)
Historyof space craft.

History of spaceflight
A German V-2 became the first spacecraft when it reached an altitude of 189 km in June 1944
in Peenemünde, Germany.[8] Sputnik 1was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an
elliptical low Earth orbit (LEO) by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. The launch ushered in
new political, military, technological, and scientific developments; while the Sputnik launch
was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age.[9][10] Apart from its value as a
technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layer's density,
through measuring the satellite's orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal
distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellite's false body provided the
first opportunity for meteoroid detection. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International
Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now at
the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers (18,000 mi) per hour,
taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit, and emitted radio signals at 20.005 and 40.002 MHz
The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. It was launched by the Soviet Union
While Sputnik 1 was the first spacecraft to orbit the Earth, other man-made objects had
previously reached an altitude of 100 km, which is the height required by the international
organization Fédération Aéronautique Internationale to count as a spaceflight. This altitude is
called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2
rocket, some of which reached altitudes well over 100 km.
Spacecraft types
Crewed spacecraft
List of crewed spacecraft and Human spaceflight
Apollo 17 Command Module in Lunar orbit
As of 2016, only three nations have flown crewed spacecraft: USSR/Russia, USA, and China.
The first crewed spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into
space in 1961, and completed a full Earth orbit. There were five other crewed missions which
used a Vostok spacecraft.[11] The second crewed spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it
performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an
altitude of just over 187 kilometers (116 mi). There were five other crewed missions
using Mercury spacecraft.
Other Soviet crewed spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown un crewed
as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, and the Salyut and Mircrewed space stations. Other American crewed
spacecraft include the Gemini spacecraft, Apollo spacecraft, the Skylab space station, and
the Space Shuttle with undetached European Spacelab and private US Spacehab space
stations-modules. China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently
using Shenzhou (its first crewed mission was in 2003).
Except for the space shuttle, all of the recoverable crewed orbital spacecraft were space
capsules.
Crewed space capsules
Soviet Vostok capsule
American Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft
Soviet Voskhod (variant of Vostok)
1967 Soviet/Russian Soyuz spacecraft

Chinese Shenzhou
The International Space Station, crewed since November 2000, is a joint venture between
Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries.
Spaceplanes
Spaceplane
Columbia orbiter landing
Some reusable vehicles have been designed only for crewed spaceflight, and these are often
called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane,
which conducted two crewed flights which reached an altitude of over 100 km in the 1960s.
The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19,
1963.
The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was
launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981.
During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and
five of which have flown in space. Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests,
launching from the back of a Boeing 747 SCA and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards
AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was Columbia, followed
by Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Endeavour was built to
replace Challengerwhen it was lost in January 1986. Columbia broke up during reentry in
February 2003.
The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran-class shuttle, launched by the
USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight and this was uncrewed.
This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the U.S. Space Shuttle,
although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at
the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding,
complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran. The
Space Shuttle was subsequently modified to allow for autonomous re-entry in case of
necessity.
Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its
old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's
human transport role is to be replaced by SpaceX's Dragon V2 and Boeing's CST-100
Starliner no later than 2017. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by
expendable rockets such as the Space Launch System and SpaceX's Falcon Heavy.
Scaled Composites' SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried
pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X
Prize. The Spaceship Company will build its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of
SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic was planned to begin reusable private
spaceflight carrying paying passengers in 2014, but was delayed after the crash of
VSS Enterprise.
Unmanned spacecraft
List of unmanned spacecraft by program, Timeline of spaceflight, Timeline of artificial
satellites and space probes, List of Solar System probes, Space probe, Robotic
spacecraft, Unmanned resupply spacecraft, and Satellite
Hubble Space Telescope
Jules Verne Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV)approaches the International Space Station on Monday,
March 31, 2008
Mariner 10 diagram of trajectory past planet Venus
This section needs expansion. You

can help by adding to it. (March 2011)
Designed as manned but flown as unmanned only spacecraft

Zond/L1 – lunar flyby capsule
L3 – capsule and lunar lander
TKS – capsule
Buran-class shuttle – Soviet shuttle

Semi-manned – manned as space stations or part of space stations
Progress – unmanned USSR/Russia cargo spacecraft
TKS – unmanned USSR/Russia cargo spacecraft and space station module
Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) – unmanned European cargo spacecraft

H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) – unmanned Japanese cargo spacecraft
SpaceX Dragon – unmanned private spacecraft
Tianzhou 1 (spacecraft) – China's unmanned spacecraft
Earth-orbit satellites
Explorer 1 – first US satellite
Project SCORE – first communications satellite
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) - orbits the Sun near L1

Sputnik 1 – world's first artificial satellite
Sputnik 2 – first animal in orbit (Laika)
Korabl-Sputnik 2 – first capsule recovered from orbit (Vostok precursor) – animals survived
Syncom – first geosynchronous communications satellite

Hubble Space Telescope – largest orbital observatory
X-37 – spaceplane
Lunar probes
Clementine – US Navy mission, orbited Moon, detected hydrogen at the poles

Kaguya JPN – lunar orbiter
Luna 1 – first lunar flyby
Luna 2 – first lunar impact
Luna 3 – first images of lunar far side
Luna 9 – first soft landing on the Moon
Luna 10 – first lunar orbiter
Luna 16 – first unmanned lunar sample retrieval
Lunar Orbiter – very successful series of lunar mapping spacecraft

Lunar Prospector – confirmed detection of hydrogen at the lunar poles
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter – Identifies safe landing sites and locates Moon resources
Lunokhod - Soviet lunar rovers
SMART-1 ESA – Lunar Impact

Surveyor – USA's first soft lander
Chang'e 1 – China's Chang'e lunar mission

Chandrayaan 1 – first Indian Lunar mission
Artist's conception of Cassini–Huygens as it enters Saturn's orbit
Artist's conception of the Phoenix spacecraft as it lands on Mars
Planetary probes
Akatsuki JPN – a Venus orbiter
Cassini–Huygens – first Saturn orbiter and Titan lander
Curiosity – Rover sent to Mars by NASA in 2012

Galileo – first Jupiter orbiter and descent probe
IKAROS JPN – first solar-sail spacecraft
Mariner 4 – first Mars flyby, first close and high resolution images of Mars
Mariner 9 – first Mars orbiter

Mariner 10 – first Mercury flyby, first close up images
Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity)– Mars rovers
Mars Express – Mars orbiter
Mars Global Surveyor – Mars orbiter

Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) - India's first Interplanetary probe
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter – an advanced climate, imaging, sub-surface radar, and
telecommunications Mars orbiter
MESSENGER – first Mercury orbiter (arrival 2011)
Mars Pathfinder – Mars lander, carrying the Sojourner rover
New Horizons – first Pluto flyby (arrival 2015)
Pioneer 10 – first Jupiter flyby, first close up images
Pioneer 11 – second Jupiter flyby and first Saturn flyby (first close up images of Saturn)
Pioneer Venus – first Venus orbiter and landers
Vega 1 – Balloon release into Venus atmosphere and lander (joint mission with Vega 2),
mothership continued on to fly by Halley's Comet[
Venera 4 – first soft landing on another planet (Venus)
Viking 1 – first soft landing on Mars
Voyager 2 – Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby, and first flybys/images of Neptune and Uranus
Other – deep space[edit]

Main article: Space probe
Cluster
Deep Space 1
Deep Impact
Genesis
Hayabusa
Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous

Stardust
STEREO – Heliospheric and solar sensing; first images of the entire Sun
WMAP
Fastest spacecraft
Parker Solar Probe (estimated 343,000 km/h or 213,000 mph at first sun close pass, will reach
700,000 km/h or 430,000 mph at final perihelion)[12]
Helios I and II Solar Probes (252,792 km/h or 157,078 mph)
Furthest spacecraft from the Sun
Voyager 1 at 144.20 AU as of December 2018, traveling outward at about 3.58 AU/year[13]
Pioneer 10 at 122.48 AU as of December 2018, traveling outward at about 2.52 AU/year[13]

Voyager 2 at 119.34 AU as of December 2018, traveling outward at about 3.24 AU/year[13]
Pioneer 11 at 101.17 AU as of December 2018, traveling outward at about 2.37 AU/year[13]
Unfunded and canceled programs

The first test flight of the Delta Clipper-Experimental Advanced (DC-XA), a prototype launch system
Manned spacecraft
Chinese Shuguang capsule
Soviet Soyuz Kontakt capsule

Soviet Almaz space station
US Manned Orbiting Laboratory space station
US Altair lunar lander
Multi-stage spaceplanes
US X-20 spaceplane
Soviet Spiral shuttle
Soviet/Russian Buran-class shuttle
ESA Hermes shuttle

Kliper Russian semi-shuttle/semi-capsule
Japanese HOPE-X shuttle
Chinese Shuguang Project 921-3 shuttle
SSTO spaceplanes
RR/British Aerospace HOTOL
ESA Hopper Orbiter
US DC-X (Delta Clipper)
US Roton Rotored-Hybrid
US VentureStar
Spacecraft under development
The Orion spacecraft
Manned
(US-NASA) Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle – capsule
(US-SpaceX) Dragon V2 – capsule
(US-Boeing) CST-100 – capsule
(US-Sierra Nevada Corporation) Dream Chaser – orbital spaceplane
(US-The SpaceShip company) SpaceShipTwo suborbital spaceplane
(US-Blue Origin) New Shepard – VTVL capsule

(US-XCOR) Lynx rocketplane – suborbital spaceplane
China Shenzhou spacecraft Cargo
(India-DRDO) Avatar RLV -Under development, First demonstration flight planned in 2015.[14]
(India-ISRO) Gaganyaan – capsule

(India-ISRO) RLV Technology Demonstration Programme - Spacecraft
SpaceX reusable rocket (BFR)
(Russia-RKA) Prospective Piloted Transport System (PPTS) – capsule
(Europe-ESA) Advanced Crew Transportation System – capsule

(Iranian Space Agency) Orbital Vehicle – capsule
Unmanned
ESA & JAXA BepiColombo - Planetary Probe to Mercury
China Shenzhou (spacecraft) Cargo
CNES Mars Netlander

Orbital Sciences Cygnus – cargo delivery to the ISS
Darwin14 ESA probe
James Webb Space Telescope (delayed)
Mars 2020 rover
Reaction Engines Limited
Skylon
SpaceX Dragon – cargo delivery to the ISS

StarChip and Sprites - miniaturized interstellar spacecraft
System F6—a DARPA Fractionated Spacecraft demonstrator
Terrestrial Planet Finder cancelled probe
Subsystems
A spacecraft system comprises various subsystems, depending on the mission profile.
Spacecraft subsystems comprise the spacecraft's "bus" and may include attitude
determination and control (variously called ADAC, ADC, or ACS), guidance, navigation and
control (GNC or GN&C), communications (comms), command and data handling (CDH or
C&DH), power (EPS), thermal control (TCS), propulsion, and structures. Attached to the bus
are typically payloads.
Life support
Spacecraft intended for human spaceflight must also include a life support system for the
crew.
Reaction control system thrusters on the front of the U.S. Space Shuttle
Attitude control
A Spacecraft needs an attitude control subsystem to be correctly oriented in space and
respond to external torques and forces properly. The attitude control subsystem consists
of sensors and actuators, together with controlling algorithms. The attitude-control
subsystem permits proper pointing for the science objective, sun pointing for power to the
solar arrays and earth pointing for communications.
GNC
Guidance refers to the calculation of the commands (usually done by the CDH subsystem)
needed to steer the spacecraft where it is desired to be. Navigation means determining a
spacecraft's orbital elements or position. Control means adjusting the path of the spacecraft
to meet mission requirements.
Command and data handling
The CDH subsystem receives commands from the communications subsystem, performs
validation and decoding of the commands, and distributes the commands to the appropriate
spacecraft subsystems and components. The CDH also receives housekeeping data and
science data from the other spacecraft subsystems and components, and packages the data
for storage on a data recorder or transmission to the ground via the communications
subsystem. Other functions of the CDH include maintaining the spacecraft clock and state-of-
health monitoring.
Further information: On-Board Data Handling
Communications
Spacecraft, both robotic and crewed, utilize various communications systems for
communication with terrestrial stations as well as for communication between spacecraft in
space. Technologies utilized include RF and optical communication. In addition, some
spacecraft payloads are explicitly for the purpose of ground–
ground communication using receiver/retransmitter electronic technologies.
Power
Spacecraft need an electrical power generation and distribution subsystem for powering the
various spacecraft subsystems. For spacecraft near the Sun, solar panels are frequently
used to generate electrical power. Spacecraft designed to operate in more distant locations,
for example Jupiter, might employ a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) to generate
electrical power. Electrical power is sent through power conditioning equipment before it
passes through a power distribution unit over an electrical bus to other spacecraft
components. Batteries are typically connected to the bus via a battery charge regulator, and
the batteries are used to provide electrical power during periods when primary power is not
available, for example when a low Earth orbit spacecraft is eclipsed by Earth.
Thermal control
Spacecraft must be engineered to withstand transit through Earth's atmosphere and
the space environment. They must operate in a vacuum with temperatures potentially ranging
across hundreds of degrees Celsius as well as (if subject to reentry) in the presence of
plasmas. Material requirements are such that either high melting temperature, low density
materials such as beryllium and reinforced carbon–carbon or (possibly due to the lower
thickness requirements despite its high density) tungsten or ablative carbon–carbon
composites are used. Depending on mission profile, spacecraft may also need to operate on
the surface of another planetary body. The thermal control subsystem can be passive,
dependent on the selection of materials with specific radiative properties. Active thermal
control makes use of electrical heaters and certain actuators such as louvers to control
temperature ranges of equipments within specific ranges.
Spacecraft propulsion
Spacecraft may or may not have a propulsion subsystem, depending on whether or not the
mission profile calls for propulsion. The Swift spacecraft is an example of a spacecraft that
does not have a propulsion subsystem. Typically though, LEO spacecraft include a
propulsion subsystem for altitude adjustments (drag make-up maneuvers)
and inclination adjustment maneuvers. A propulsion system is also needed for spacecraft
that perform momentum management maneuvers. Components of a conventional propulsion
subsystem include fuel, tankage, valves, pipes, and thrusters. The thermal control system
interfaces with the propulsion subsystem by monitoring the temperature of those
components, and by preheating tanks and thrusters in preparation for a spacecraft
maneuver.
Structures
Spacecraft must be engineered to withstand launch loads imparted by the launch vehicle,
and must have a point of attachment for all the other subsystems. Depending on mission
profile, the structural subsystem might need to withstand loads imparted by entry into
the atmosphere of another planetary body, and landing on the surface of another planetary
body.
Payload
The payload depends on the mission of the spacecraft, and is typically regarded as the part
of the spacecraft "that pays the bills". Typical payloads could include scientific instruments
(cameras, telescopes, or particle detectors, for example), cargo, or a human crew.
Ground segment
Main article: Ground segment
The ground segment, though not technically part of the spacecraft, is vital to the operation of
the spacecraft. Typical components of a ground segment in use during normal operations
include a mission operations facility where the flight operations team conducts the
operations of the spacecraft, a data processing and storage facility, ground stations to
radiate signals to and receive signals from the spacecraft, and a voice and data
communications network to connect all mission elements.[15]
Launch vehicle
The launch vehicle propels the spacecraft from Earth's surface, through the atmosphere, and
into an orbit, the exact orbit being dependent on the mission configuration. The launch
vehicle may be expendable or reusable.
RAW MATERIALS,
Drinking Water
Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which
is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most
living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides
no calories or organic nutrients. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that each of
its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds.
Water is the name of the liquid state of H2O at standard ambient temperature and pressure. It
forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds are formed
from suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice
may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor.
Water moves continually through the water
cycle of evaporation, transpiration(evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation,
and runoff, usually reaching the sea.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in seas and oceans.[1] Small portions of water
occur as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland
(1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air),
and precipitation (0.001%).[2][3]
Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the freshwater
used by humans goes to agriculture.[4] Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major
source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade
of commodities (such as oil and natural gas) and manufactured products is transported by
boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are
used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide
variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in
cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment,
such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, and diving.
Water in two states: liquid (including the clouds, which are examples of aerosols), and solid (ice).
Etymology
The word "water" comes from Old English "wæter", from Proto-Germanic "*watar" (source
also of Old Saxon "watar", Old Frisian "wetir", Dutch "water", Old High
German "wazzar", German "Wasser", Old Norse "vatn", Gothic "wato"), from Proto-
Indoeuropean "*wod-or", suffixed form of root "*wed-" ("water"; "wet").[5]
Chemical and physical properties

Main article: Properties of water
See also: Water (data page) and Water model

Water (H
2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room
temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This
simplest hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and is
described as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many substances.[6][7] This
allows it to be the "solvent of life".[8] It is the only common substance to exist as a solid,
liquid, and gas in normal terrestrial conditions.[9]
States
Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life.
Specifically, at a standard pressure of 1 atm, water is a liquid between 0 and 100 °C (32 and
212 °F). Increasing the pressure slightly lowers the melting point, which is about −5 °C (23 °F)
at 600 atm and −22 °C (−8 °F) at 2100 atm. This effect is relevant, for example, to ice skating,
to the buried lakes of Antarctica, and to the movement of glaciers. (At pressures higher than
2100 atm the melting point rapidly increases again, and ice takes several exotic forms that do
not exist at lower pressures.)
Increasing the pressure has a more dramatic effect on the boiling point, that is about 374 °C
(705 °F) at 220 atm. This effect is important in, among other things, deep-sea hydrothermal
vents and geysers, pressure cooking, and steam engine design. At the top of Mount Everest,
where the atmospheric pressure is about 0.34 atm, water boils at 68 °C (154 °F).
At very low pressures (below about 0.006 atm), water cannot exist in the liquid state and
passes directly from solid to gas by sublimation—a phenomenon exploited in the freeze
drying of food. At very high pressures (above 221 atm), the liquid and gas states are no
longer distinguishable, a state called supercritical steam.
Water also differs from most liquids in that it becomes less dense as it freezes. The maximum
density of water in its liquid form (at 1 atm) is 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lb/cu ft); that occurs at
3.98 °C (39.16 °F).[10] The density of ice is 917 kg/m3 (57.25 lb/cu ft).[11][12] Thus, water expands
9% in volume as it freezes, which accounts for the fact that ice floats on liquid water.
The details of the exact chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood; some
theories suggest that the unusual behaviour of water is due to the existence of 2 liquid
states.[10][13][14][15]
Liquid water, showing droplets and air bubbles caused by the drops
SOURCE; David Santaolalla from León, spain - Brindis
Brindis
Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902
SOURCE;Wilson Bentley - Plate XIX of "Studies among the Snow Crystals ... " by Wilson
Bentley, "The Snowflake Man." From Annual Summary of the "Monthly Weather Review" for 1902.
Snow flakes by Wilson Bentley. Bentley was a bachelor farmer whose hobby was
photographing snow flakes. ; Image ID: wea02087, Historic NWS Collection ;
Location: Jericho, Vermont ; Photo Date: 1902 Winter
Taste and odor
Pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific
sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths,[16] and frogs are known to be able
to smell it.[17] However, water from ordinary sources (including bottled mineral water) usually
has many dissolved substances, that may give it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other
animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by
avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.[18]
Color and appearance

The apparent color of natural bodies of water (and swimming pools) is often determined more
by dissolved and suspended solids, or by reflection of the sky, than by water itself.
Light in the visible electromagnetic spectrum can traverse a couple meters of pure water (or
ice) without significant absorption, so that it looks transparent and colorless.[19] Thus aquatic
plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms can live in water up to hundreds of meters
deep, because sunlight can reach them. Water vapour is essentially invisible as a gas.
Through a thickness of 10 meters (33 ft) or more, however, the intrinsic color of water (or ice)
is visibly turquoise (greenish blue), as its absorption spectrum has a sharp minimum at the
corresponding color of light (1/227 m−1 at 418 nm). The color becomes increasingly stronger
and darker with increasing thickness. (Practically no sunlight reaches the parts of the oceans
below 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) of depth.) Infrared and ultraviolet light, on the other hand, is
strongly absorbed by water.
The refraction index of liquid water (1.333 at 20 °C (68 °F)) is much higher than that of air
(1.0), similar to those of alkanes and ethanol, but lower than those
of glycerol(1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4
to 1.6). The refraction index of ice (1.31) is lower than that of liquid water.
Polarity and hydrogen bonding
Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a
higher electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it is a polar molecule, with an electrical dipole
moment: the oxygen atom carries a slight negative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are
slightly positive. Water is a good polar solvent, that dissolves
many salts and hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols such
as ethanol. Water also dissolves many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide—the latter
giving the fizz of carbonated beverages, sparkling winesand beers. In addition, many
substances in living organisms, such as proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, are dissolved in
water. The interactions between water and the subunits of these biomacromolecules
shape protein folding, DNA base pairing, and other phenomena crucial to life (hydrophobic
effect).
Many organic substances (such as fats and oils and alkanes) are hydrophobic, that is,
insoluble in water. Many inorganic substances are insoluble too, including most
metal oxides, sulfides, and silicates.
Because of its polarity, a molecule of water in the liquid or solid state can form up to
four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. These bonds are the cause of water's
high surface tension[20] and capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of
water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by
all vascular plants, such as trees.[21]
The hydrogen bonds are also the reason why the melting and boiling points of water are
much higher than those of other analogous compounds like hydrogen sulfide (H
2S). They also explain its exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/g/K), heat of
fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization (2257 J/g), and thermal conductivity (between
0.561 and 0.679 W/m/K). These properties make water more effective at moderating
Earth's climate, by storing heat and transporting it between the oceans and the atmosphere.
The hydrogen bonds of water are of moderate strength, around 23 kJ/mol (compared to a
covalent O-H bond at 492 kJ/mol). Of this, it is estimated that 90% of the hydrogen bond is
attributable to electrostatics, while the remaining 10% reflects partial covalent character.[22]
See also: Chemical bonding of H2O
Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water.

Capillary action of water compared to mercury. Note that the menisci of the two liquids curve in the
opposite direction.
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular capillary waves.
Electrical conductivity and electrolysis

Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, which increases with the dissolution of a small
amount of ionic material such as common salt.
Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric
current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy
input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).[23]
Mechanical properties
Liquid water can be assumed to be incompressible for most purposes: its compressibility
ranges from 4.4 to 5.1×10−10 Pa−1 in ordinary conditions.[24] Even in oceans at 4 km depth,
where the pressure is 400 atm, water suffers only a 1.8% decrease in volume.[25]
The viscosity of water is about 10−3 Pa·s or 0.01 poise at 20 °C (68 °F), and the speed of
sound in liquid water ranges between 1,400 and 1,540 meters per second (4,600 and
5,100 ft/s) depending on temperature. Sound travels long distances in water with little
attenuation, especially at low frequencies (roughly 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz), a property that is
exploited by cetaceans and humans for communication and environment sensing (sonar).[26]
Reactivity
Metallic elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such
as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from water,
forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen. At high temperatures, carbon reacts with steam
to form carbon monoxide.
On Earth
Hydrology and Water distribution on Earth
Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the
Earth. The study of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the distribution and
movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters
is limnology and distribution of oceans is oceanography. Ecological processes with
hydrology are in focus of ecohydrology.
The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is called
the hydrosphere. Earth's approximate water volume (the total water supply of the world) is
1.338 billion cubic kilometers (321×106 cu mi).[2]
Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal,
pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the
atmosphere in solid, liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers.
Water is important in many geological processes. Groundwater is present in most rocks, and
the pressure of this groundwater affects patterns of faulting. Water in the mantle is
responsible for the melt that produces volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the
Earth, water is important in both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and to
a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are also responsible for a large amount of sediment
transport that occurs on the surface of the earth. Deposition of transported sediment forms
many types of sedimentary rocks, which make up the geologic record of Earth history.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface; the oceans contain 96.5% of the Earth's water. The Antarctic
ice sheet, which contains 61% of all fresh water on Earth, is visible at the bottom. Condensed
atmospheric water can be seen as clouds, contributing to the Earth's albedo.
SOURCE; NASA/Apollo 17 crew; taken by either Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans -

https://web.archive.org/web/20160112123725/http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/GPN-2000-
001138.html (image link); see
alsohttps://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_329.html
"The Blue Marble" is a famous photograph of the Earth taken on December 7, 1972,
by the crew of the Apollo 17spacecraft en route to the Moon at a distance of about
29,000 kilometres (18,000 mi). It shows Africa, Antarctica, and the Arabian Peninsula.
Water cycle
Main article: Water cycle
Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of
following transfer processes:
 evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from land
plants and animals into air.
 precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean.
 runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.
Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water vapor over
land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 47 Tt per year. Over land, evaporation and
transpiration contribute another 72 Tt per year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt per year over
land, has several forms: most commonly rain, snow, and hail, with some contribution
from fog and dew.[27] Dew is small drops of water that are condensed when a high density of
water vapor meets a cool surface. Dew usually forms in the morning when the temperature is
the lowest, just before sunrise and when the temperature of the earth's surface starts to
increase.[28] Condensed water in the air may also refractsunlight to produce rainbows.
Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used
to simulate river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is a hydrological
transport model. Some water is diverted to irrigation for agriculture. Rivers and seas offer
opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment
creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the
establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying,
is covered with water. It is when a river overflows its banks or flood comes from the sea. A
drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its
water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.
THE WATER CYCLE.
Water cycle
The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous
exchange of water within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface
water, groundwater, and plants.
SOURCE; John M. Even / USGS - USGS -
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleprint.html (English Wikipedia, original upload 27 April
2005 by Brian0918 en:Image:Water cycle.png)
Water cycle
Fresh water storage

Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes. At high altitude, during
winter, and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow packs and glaciers.
Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to
the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also
extracted artificially in wells. This water storage is important, since clean, fresh water is
essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply.
Sea water and tides

Seawater and Tides
Sea water contains about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of other
substances. The physical properties of sea water differ from fresh water in some important
respects. It freezes at a lower temperature (about −1.9 °C (28.6 °F)) and its density increases
with decreasing temperature to the freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density at a
temperature above freezing. The salinity of water in major seas varies from about 0.7% in
the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in the Red Sea. (The Dead Sea, known for its ultra-high salinity levels
of between 30–40%, is really a salt lake.)
Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of local sea levels caused by the tidal forces of the
Moon and the Sun acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine
and estuarine water bodies and produce oscillating currents known as tidal streams. The
changing tide produced at a given location is the result of the changing positions of the
Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth rotation and the
local bathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low
tide, the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tides.
Water resources
The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide. At low tide, many rocks are exposed and the boat in the
picture is grounded.
SOURCE; © Samuel Wantman / Wikimedia Commons

The bay of Fundy at low tide, 1972. As I recall, this was in New Brunswick, not far
from the w:Fundy National Park.
Effects on life
From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the
proliferation of life. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways
that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both
as a solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of
many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total
of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through
energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g.
starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water
is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and
amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Without water, these
particular metabolic processes could not exist.
Water is fundamental to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's
energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen[citation needed]. Hydrogen is combined with
CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen[citation needed]. All living cells
use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform
water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration).
Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion
(H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as a
hydroxide ion (OH−) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative
log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7
while bases have values greater than 7.
An oasis is an isolated water sourcewith vegetation in a desert.

Source;Sfivat - Own work
Ubari Oasis in the Category:Wadi Al Hayaa District, of the Fezzan region in
southwestern Libya.
Overview of photosynthesis (green) and respiration (red). Water (at right),
together with carbon dioxide (CO2), form oxygen and organic compounds (at left),
which can be respired to water and (CO2).
Source; Mikael Häggström - Images used: Glucose Animals Carbon dioxide Glucose (open
form) Oxygen Plants Fungi Starch Water Human
Cycle between autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs can use carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water to form oxygen and complex organic compounds, mainly
through the process of photosynthesis. All organisms can use such compounds to
again form CO2 and water through cellular respiration.
Aquatic life forms
Hydrobiology, Marine life, and Aquatic plant
Earth surface waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all
fish live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as dolphins
and whales. Some kinds of animals, such as amphibians, spend portions of their lives in
water and portions on land. Plants such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis
for some underwater ecosystems. Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food
chain.
Aquatic vertebrates must obtain oxygen to survive, and they do so in various ways. Fish
have gills instead of lungs, although some species of fish, such as the lungfish, have
both. Marine mammals, such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals need to surface
periodically to breathe air. Some amphibians are able to absorb oxygen through their skin.
Invertebrates exhibit a wide range of modifications to survive in poorly oxygenated waters
including breathing tubes (see insect and mollusc siphons) and gills (Carcinus). However as
invertebrate life evolved in an aquatic habitat most have little or no specialisation for
respiration in water.
Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef
Source;Copyright (c) 2004 Richard Ling

A Blue Starfish (Linckia laevigata) resting on hard Acropora and Porites corals (one
can also see Anthiinae fish and crinoids). Lighthouse, Ribbon Reefs, Great Barrier
Reef.
Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group
Source;Prof. Gordon T. Taylor, Stony Brook University - corp2365, NOAA Corps Collection
Assorted diatoms as seen through a microscope. These specimens were living
between crystals of annual sea ice in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Image digitized
from original 35mm Ektachrome slide. These tiny phytoplankton are encased within
a silicate cell wall.
Effects on human civilization

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the
so-called cradle of civilization, was situated between the major rivers Tigris and Euphrates;
the ancient society of the Egyptians depended entirely upon the Nile. Rome was also founded
on the banks of the Italian river Tiber. Large metropolises like Rotterdam, London, Montreal,
Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe their
success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade.
Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore, have flourished for the same reason. In places
such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is more scarce, access to clean
drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.
Health and pollution

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potable water. Water that is not
potable may be made potable by filtration or distillation, or by a range of other methods.
Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for humans when used for swimming or
bathing is called by various names other than potable or drinking water, and is sometimes
called safe water, or "safe for bathing". Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that
is used to make water safe for bathing or drinking. Its use is highly technical and is usually
monitored by government regulations (typically 1 part per million (ppm) for drinking water,
and 1–2 ppm of chlorine not yet reacted with impurities for bathing water). Water for bathing
may be maintained in satisfactory microbiological condition using chemical disinfectants
such as chlorine or ozone or by the use of ultraviolet light.
In the US, non-potable forms of wastewater generated by humans may be referred to
as greywater, which is treatable and thus easily able to be made potable again,
and blackwater, which generally contains sewage and other forms of waste which
require further treatment in order to be made reusable. Greywater composes 50–80% of
residential wastewater generated by a household's sanitation equipment (sinks, showers and
kitchen runoff, but not toilets, which generate blackwater.) These terms may have different
meanings in other countries and cultures.
This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a major
social and economic concern. Currently, about a billion people around the world routinely
drink unhealthy water. Most countries accepted the goal of halving by 2015 the number of
people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and sanitation during the 2003 G8
Evian summit.[29] Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still leave more than an estimated half
a billion people without access to safe drinking water and over a billion without access to
adequate sanitation. Poor water quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some five million
deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water. The World Health
Organization estimates that safe water could prevent 1.4 million child deaths
from diarrhea each year.[30]
Water, however, is not a finite resource (meaning the availability of water is limited), but
rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation[31] in quantities many orders of
magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of
water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply,[citation needed] which is
replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years),[citation needed] that is a non-renewable
resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is
scarce,[clarification needed] rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor
countries use importation of goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave
enough for local human consumption),[further explanation needed] since the manufacturing
process[clarification needed] uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.[clarification needed]
In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and
streams.[32] Some 50 countries, with roughly a third of the world's population, also suffer from
medium or high water stress, and 17 of these extract more water annually than is recharged
through their natural water cycles.[33] The strain not only affects surface freshwater bodies
like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resources
An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State Universitysampling water
Source;The Iowa State Department of Agronomy

Environmental Science student sampling water from a stream.
.
Water fountain
Source; MikeParker at English Wikipedia
Photo of a fountain in the Italian Garden section of en:Longwood Gardens in Kennett
Square, en:Pennsylvania. Photo taken by Michael Parker. Original: Fountain
Human uses
Water supply
The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to
produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing
countries[34] and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (in the
United States, 30% of freshwater usage is for irrigation).[35]
Fifty years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At the time,
there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as
wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to
produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from
rivers. Today, the competition for the fixed amount of water resources is much more intense,
giving rise to the concept of peak water.[36] This is because there are now nearly seven billion
people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and
there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation and biofuel crops. In
future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the Earth's population is
forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050.[37]
An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by
the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient
water to provide food for its growing population.[38] It assessed the current availability of
water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water
scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas
of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6
billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of
investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to
satisfy the demand for water. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food
required in future, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends
would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will
have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and
cities find ways to use water more efficiently.[39]
Water scarcity is also caused by production of cotton: 1 kg of cotton—equivalent of a pair of
jeans—requires 10.9 cubic meters (380 cu ft) water to produce. While cotton accounts for
2.4% of world water use, the water is consumed in regions which are already at a risk of water
shortage. Significant environmental damage has been caused, such as disappearance of
the Aral Sea.[40]
As a scientific standard
On 7 April 1795, the gram was defined in France to be equal to "the absolute weight of a
volume of pure water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of
melting ice".[41] For practical purposes though, a metallic reference standard was required,
one thousand times more massive, the kilogram. Work was therefore commissioned to
determine precisely the mass of one liter of water. In spite of the fact that the decreed
definition of the gram specified water at 0 °C (32 °F)—a highly reproducible temperature—the
scientists chose to redefine the standard and to perform their measurements at the
temperature of highest water density, which was measured at the time as 4 °C (39 °F).[42]
The Kelvin temperature scale of the SI system is based on the triple point of water, defined as
exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C; 32.02 °F). The scale is an absolute temperature scale with the same
increment as the Celsius temperature scale, which was originally defined according to
the boiling point (set to 100 °C (212 °F)) and melting point (set to 0 °C (32 °F)) of water.
Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also a
small quantity of heavier isotopes such as hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The amount of deuterium
oxides or heavy water is very small, but it still affects the properties of water. Water from
rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium than seawater. Therefore, standard water is
defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification.
Agriculture
Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation
Source; Source[edit]
http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.gov/Index.asp
Irrigation of field crops
Source; Source
http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.gov/Index.asp
For drinking.
Drinking water.
The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size.[43] To function
properly, the body requires between one and seven liters (0.22 and 1.54 imp gal; 0.26 and
1.85 U.S. gal) of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level
of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or
beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed
by healthy people, though most specialists agree that approximately 2 liters (6 to 7 glasses)
of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.[44] Medical literature favors a
lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra
requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.[45]
For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but
(especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little.
People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at
risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal.[46][47] The popular claim that "a
person should consume eight glasses of water per day" seems to have no real basis in
science.[48] Studies have shown that extra water intake, especially up to 500 milliliters
(18 imp fl oz; 17 U.S. fl oz) at mealtime was conducive to weight loss.[49][50][51][52][53][54]Adequate
fluid intake is helpful in preventing constipation.[55]
Hazard symbol for non-potable water
Source;Torsten Henning - Drawn by Torsten Henning. Re-coded by Albin Jacobsson.

No drinking water, prohibition sign D-P005 according to German standard DIN 4844-2
An original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of
the United States National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons
is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared
foods."[56] The latest dietary reference intake report by the United States National Research
Council in general recommended, based on the median total water intake from US survey
data (including food sources): 3.7 liters (0.81 imp gal; 0.98 U.S. gal) for men and 2.7 liters
(0.59 imp gal; 0.71 U.S. gal) of water total for women, noting that water contained in food
provided approximately 19% of total water intake in the survey.[57]
Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluids to stay hydrated.
The Institute of Medicine (US) recommends that, on average, men consume 3 liters
(0.66 imp gal; 0.79 U.S. gal) and women 2.2 liters (0.48 imp gal; 0.58 U.S. gal); pregnant
women should increase intake to 2.4 liters (0.53 imp gal; 0.63 U.S. gal) and breastfeeding
women should get 3 liters (12 cups), since an especially large amount of fluid is lost during
nursing.[58] Also noted is that normally, about 20% of water intake comes from food, while the
rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included). Water is excreted from
the body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of
water vapor in the breath. With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase
and daily fluid needs may increase as well.
Humans require water with few impurities. Common impurities include metal salts and
oxides, including copper, iron, calcium and lead,[59] and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio.
Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide
needed electrolytes.[60]
The single largest (by volume) freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in
Siberia.[61]
Water availability: fraction of population using improved water
sources by country
Source;OmnipotentArchetype0309 - Own work

This is a map based off of File:Water quality.jpg but recreated from scratch in svg
format. It shows the population of a country that uses improved water sources as a
percent of total population. Data gathered from UNDP as of 2006.
Washing
The propensity of water to form solutions and emulsions is useful in
various washing processes. Washing is also an important component of several aspects of
personal body hygiene. Most of personal water use is due to showering, doing
the laundry and dishwashing, reaching hundreds of liters per day in developed countries.
Transportation
Main article: Ship transport
The use of water for transportation of materials through rivers and canals as well as the
international shipping lanes is an important part of the world economy.
Chemical uses
Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less commonly as
a solute or catalyst. In inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic
compounds, as well as other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds closely
related to water. In organic reactions, it is not usually used as a reaction solvent, because it
does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic.
Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also, acceleration of Diels-Alder
reactions by water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a topic of
research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water combusts organic pollutants efficiently. Water
vapor is used for some processes in the chemical industry. An example is the production of
acrylic acid from acrolein, propylene and propane.[62][63][64][65] The possible effect of water in
these reactions includes the physical-, chemical interaction of water with the catalyst and the
chemical reaction of water with the reaction intermediates.
Heat exchange
Water and steam are a common fluid used for heat exchange, due to its availability and
high heat capacity, both for cooling and heating. Cool water may even be naturally available
from a lake or the sea. It's especially effective to transport heat
through vaporization and condensation of water because of its large latent heat of
vaporization. A disadvantage is that metals commonly found in industries such as steel and
copper are oxidized faster by untreated water and steam. In almost all thermal power
stations, water is used as the working fluid (used in a closed loop between boiler, steam
turbine and condenser), and the coolant (used to exchange the waste heat to a water body or
carry it away by evaporation in a cooling tower). In the United States, cooling power plants is
the largest use of water.[35]
In the nuclear power industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In
most nuclear reactors, water is both a coolant and a moderator. This provides something of a
passive safety measure, as removing the water from the reactor also slows the nuclear
reaction down. However other methods are favored for stopping a reaction and it is preferred
to keep the nuclear core covered with water so as to ensure adequate cooling.
Fire extinction
Water is used for fighting wildfires.
Source;Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Chris Fahey, U.S. Navy -

http://www.defenselink.mil; exact source
An MH-60S Seahawk helicopter assigned to Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron (HSC)
Eight Five dumps water from a 420-gallon extinguishing trough October 23, 2007,
onto of one of the many areas in San Diego County, California, suffering from an
ongoing wildfire. The trough is used to dump water to help fend off the fires that have
already forced more than 250,000 people from their homes.
Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire
extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous
to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents, because many organic materials
float on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid.
Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion,
which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen
explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon
such as coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, decompose the water, producing water gas.
The power of such explosions was seen in the Chernobyl disaster, although the water
involved did not come from fire-fighting at that time but the reactor's own water cooling
system. A steam explosion occurred when the extreme overheating of the core caused water
to flash into steam. A hydrogen explosion may have occurred as a result of reaction between
steam and hot zirconium.
Recreation
Water sport (recreation)
Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports.
Some of these include swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some
sports, like ice hockey and ice skating, are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water
parks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound
and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other water features are
popular decorations. Some keep fish and other life in aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and
companionship. Humans also use water for snow sports
i.e. skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which require the water to be frozen.
Grand Anse Beach, St. George's, Grenada, West Indies
Source;Vkap at English Wikipedia

Grand Anse Beach, St. George's, Grenada, West Indies (Caribbean
Water industry
The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage
treatment) to households and industry. Water supply facilities include water
wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water
purificationfacilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including
old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in development.
Drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings (wells) in the
ground, or pumped from lakes and rivers. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a
possible way to produce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow.
Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water may require purification for human
consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances
and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes
undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does
all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse
osmosis. Desalination of abundant seawater is a more expensive solution used in
coastal aridclimates.
The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery
or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the
needy at no charge.
Reducing usage by using drinking (potable) water only for human consumption is another
option. In some cities such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets
citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources.
Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits
other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the
polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market
costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account. Thus other
people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to
the local population, victims of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often
end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if
they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.
Municipal and industrial wastewater are typically treated at wastewater treatment plants.
Mitigation of polluted surface runoff is addressed through a variety of prevention and
treatment techniques. (See Surface runoff#Mitigation and treatment.)
A water-carrier in India, 1882. In many places where running water is not available, water has to be
transported by people.source; http://www.harappa.com/hawkshaw/67.html
A manual water pump in China ,
Source; Shizhao2005 - Own work
Water purification facility
Source; File:Usine Bret MG 1648.jpg

Original file (4,368 × 2,912 pixels, file size: 2.46 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg);
ZoomViewer: flash/no flash
Reverse osmosis (RO) desalinationplant in Barcelona, Spain
Source; James Grellier - Own work

A view across a reverse osmosis desalination plant.
Industrial applications
Many industrial processes rely on reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension
of solids in water slurries or using water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash
products or process equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp
bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing, and cooling of power
plants use large amounts of water, requiring a dedicated water source, and often cause
significant water pollution.
Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower.
Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator.
Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is
supplied by the motion of water. Typically a dam is constructed on a river, creating an
artificial lake behind it. Water flowing out of the lake is forced through turbines that turn
generators.
Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-electric power station.
Source;Three Gorges Dam, Sandouping, Hubei Province, China. Photographed 2004/07/26

by w:User:Nowozin.
File:200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-
4.med.jpg
From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository
Size of this preview: 800 × 240 pixels. Other resolutions: 640 × 192 pixels | 1,024 × 307 pixels | 1,280 × 384 pixels | 4,096 × 1,228
pixels.
Original file (4,096 × 1,228 pixels, file size: 744 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg);
ZoomViewer: flash/no flash
Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure
water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not
harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent
overheating, or prevent saw blades from overheating.
Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam
turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of
untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes
(chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure
water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water
supply and discharge.
Food processing
Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing
food in water or its gaseous state, steam.[66] Water is also used for dishwashing. Water also
plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is important for a food scientist to
understand the roles that water plays within food processing to ensure the success of their
products.[citation needed]
Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical properties of water. The
boiling and freezing points of water are affected by solutes, as well as air pressure, which is
in turn affected by altitude. Water boils at lower temperatures with the lower air pressure that
occurs at higher elevations. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water raises the
boiling point of water by 0.51 °C (0.918 °F), and one mole of salt per kg raises the boiling
point by 1.02 °C (1.836 °F); similarly, increasing the number of dissolved particles lowers
water's freezing point.[67]
Solutes in water also affect water activity that affects many chemical reactions and the
growth of microbes in food.[68] Water activity can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure
of water in a solution to the vapor pressure of pure water.[67] Solutes in water lower water
activity—this is important to know because most bacterial growth ceases at low levels of
water activity.[68] Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of food, but also the
preservation and shelf life of food.
Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing and may be altered or treated by
using a chemical ion exchange system. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product, as
well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on concentration of
calcium carbonate the water contains. Water is classified as soft if it contains less than
100 mg/l (UK)[69] or less than 60 mg/l (US).[70]
According to a report published by the Water Footprint organization in 2010, a single
kilogram of beef requires 15 thousand liters (3.3×103 imp gal; 4.0×103 U.S. gal) of water;
however, the authors also make clear that this is a global average and circumstantial factors
determine the amount of water used in beef production.[71]
Water can be used to cook foods such as noodles

Source; Cuisson des pâtes. Voir b:fr:Cuisine:Recettes de pâtes Par Antoine.
Medical use
Water for injection is on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines.[72]
The WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (EML), published by the World Health
Organization (WHO), contains the medications considered to be most effective and safe to
meet the most important needs in a health system. The list is frequently used by countries to
help develop their own local lists of essential medicine.[1] As of 2016, more than 155 countries
have created national lists of essential medicines based on the World Health Organization's
model list.[2] This includes countries in both the developed and developing world.[1]
The list is divided into core items and complementary items. The core items are deemed to be
the most cost effective options for key health problems and are usable with little additional
health care resources. The complementary items either require additional infrastructure such
as specially trained health care providers or diagnostic equipment or have a lower cost-
benefit ratio.[3] About 25% of items are in the complementary list.[4]Some medications are
listed as both core and complementary.[5] While most medications on the list are available
as generic products, being under patent does not preclude inclusion.[6]
The first list was published in 1977 and included 212 medications.[1][7] The WHO updates the
list every two years.[8] The 14th list was published in 2005 and contained 306 medications.[9] In
2015 the 19th edition of the list was published and contains around 410 medications.[8] The
20th edition was published in 2017 and comprises 433 drugs.[10][11] The national lists contain
between 334 and 580 medications.[4]
A separate list for children up to 12 years of age, known as the WHO Model List of Essential
Medicines for Children (EMLc), was created in 2007 and is in its 6th edition.[8][12] It was created
to make sure that the needs of children were systematically considered such as availability of
proper formulations.[13][14] Everything in the children's list is also included in the main
list.[15] The list and notes are based on the 19th and 20th edition of the main
list.[3][10] An α indicates a medicine is only on the complementary list.[3]
Sterile water for injection
Water for injection is on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines.
Source
Doc James - Own work
Sterile water
; [72]
Distribution in nature
In the universe
Much of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. The formation of
stars is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of
material eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress
and heat the gas. The water observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas.[74]
On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor
containing "140 trillion times more water than all of Earth's oceans combined" around
a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth. According to the researchers, the
"discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entire
existence".[75][76]
Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way.[77] Water
probably exists in abundance in other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen and
oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Based on models of
the formation and evolution of the Solar System and that of other star systems, most
other planetary systems are likely to have similar ingredients.
Band 5 ALMA receiver is an instrument specifically designed to detect water in the universe.
Source; ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), N. Tabilo - http://www.eso.org/public/images/ann15059a/

Band 5 receiver integrated into a Front End with all the others Bands (3 to 10).
.[73]
Water vapor
Water is present as vapor in:
 Atmosphere of the Sun: in detectable trace amounts[78]
 Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury's exosphere[79]
 Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%[80]
 Earth's atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface; as well
as that of the Moon in trace amounts[81]
 Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%[82]
 Atmosphere of Ceres[83]
 Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%[84] – in ices only; and that of its moon Europa[85]
 Atmosphere of Saturn – in ices only; and that of its moons Titan (stratospheric),[citation
needed]
Enceladus: 91%[86] and Dione(exosphere)[citation needed]
 Atmosphere of Uranus – in trace amounts below 50 bar
 Atmosphere of Neptune – found in the deeper layers[87]
 Extrasolar planet atmospheres: including those of HD 189733 b[88] and HD 209458 b,[89] Tau
Boötis b,[90] HAT-P-11b,[91][92] XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.[93]
 Stellar atmospheres: not limited to cooler stars and even detected in giant hot stars such
as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares and Arcturus.[92][94]
 Circumstellar disks: including those of more than half of T Tauri stars such as AA
Tauri[92] as well as TW Hydrae,[95][96] IRC +10216[97] and APM 08279+5255,[75][76]VY Canis
Majoris and S Persei.[94]
Liquid water
Liquid water is present on Earth, covering 71% of its surface.[1] Liquid water is also
occasionally present in small amounts on Mars.[citation needed] Scientists believe liquid water is
present in the Saturnian moons of Enceladus, as a 10-kilometre thick ocean approximately
30–40 kilometres below Enceladus' south polar surface,[98][99]and Titan, as a subsurface layer,
possibly mixed with ammonia.[100] Jupiter's moon Europa has surface characteristics which
suggest a subsurface liquid water ocean.[101] Liquid water may also exist on Jupiter's
moon Ganymede as a layer sandwiched between high pressure ice and rock.[102]
Water ice
Water is present as ice on:
South Polar ice cap of Mars during Martian South summer 2000
Source; NASA/JPL/MSSS -
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02393 http://www.msss.com/mars_images/moc/4_27_
00_spcap/ file
This is the south polar cap of Mars as it appeared to the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS)
Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) on April 17, 2000. The polar cap from left to right is about
420 km (260 mi) across.
 Mars: under the regolith and at the poles.[103][104]
 Earth-Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth and in Lunar craters and volcanic
rocks[105] NASA reported the detection of water molecules by NASA's Moon Mineralogy
Mapper aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in
September 2009.[106]
 Ceres[107][108][109]
 Jupiter's moons: Europa's surface and also that of Ganymede[110] and Callisto[111][112]
 Saturn: in the planet's ring system[113] and on the surface and mantle
of Titan[114] and Enceladus[115]
 Pluto-Charon system[113]
 Comets[116][117] and other related Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects[118]
And is also likely present on:
 Mercury's poles[119]
 Tethys[120]
Exotic forms
Water and other volatiles probably comprise much of the internal structures
of Uranus and Neptune and the water in the deeper layers may be in the form of ionic waterin
which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper still
as superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float about freely
within the oxygen lattice.[121]
Water and habitable zone

Water distribution on Earth
The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are
vital to the existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable
zone of the solar system; if it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or
about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present
simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.[122][123]
Earth's gravity allows it to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a
relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were smaller, a thinner atmosphere would
allow temperature extremes, thus preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice
caps (as on Mars).[citation needed]
The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite
varying levels of incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process
governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or
atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.[citation needed]
The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the
planet's gravity. If a planet is sufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high
temperatures, because of the high pressure caused by gravity, as it was observed on
exoplanets Gliese 436 b[124] and GJ 1214 b.[125]
Law, politics, and crisis

WatWater politics is politics affected by water and water resources. For this reason, water is
a strategic resource in the globe and an important element in many political conflicts. It
causes health impacts and damage to biodiversity.
Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the
world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion
lack access to adequate sanitation.[126] However, some observers have estimated that by 2025
more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability.[127] A report,
issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world,
water demand will exceed supply by 50%.[128]
1.6 billion people have gained access to a safe water source since 1990.[129] The proportion of
people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from
30% in 1970[130] to 71% in 1990, 79% in 2000 and 84% in 2004. This trend is projected to
continue.[126] To halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water is one of the Millennium Development Goals. This goal is projected to be
reached.[citation needed]
A 2006 United Nations report stated that "there is enough water for everyone", but that
access to it is hampered by mismanagement and corruption.[131] In addition, global initiatives
to improve the efficiency of aid delivery, such as the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness,
have not been taken up by water sector donors as effectively as they have in education and
health, potentially leaving multiple donors working on overlapping projects and recipient
governments without empowerment to act.[132]
The authors of the 2007 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in
Agriculture cited poor governance as one reason for some forms of water scarcity. Water
governance is the set of formal and informal processes through which decisions related to
water management are made. Good water governance is primarily about knowing what
processes work best in a particular physical and socioeconomic context. Mistakes have
sometimes been made by trying to apply 'blueprints' that work in the developed world to
developing world locations and contexts. The Mekong river is one example; a review by
the International Water Management Institute of policies in six countries that rely on the
Mekong river for water found that thorough and transparent cost-benefit analyses and
environmental impact assessments were rarely undertaken. They also discovered that
Cambodia's draft water law was much more complex than it needed to be.[133]
The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment
Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is
predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh
water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from waterborne
diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UK
charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-
related diseases; often this means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet.[citation needed]
Organizations concerned with water protection include the International Water
Association (IWA), WaterAid, Water 1st, and the American Water Resources Association.
The International Water Management Institute undertakes projects with the aim of using
effective water management to reduce poverty. Water related conventions are United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), International Convention for the Prevention
of Pollution from Ships, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar
Convention. World Day for Water takes place on 22 March and World Ocean Day on 8
June.[citation needed]
er law, Water right, and Water crisis
An estimate of the share of people in developing countries with access to potable water 1970–2000
Source;Original: GifTagger Vector: Jynto - Own work based on: Access to drinking water in third
world.GIF by GifTagger.. Derived from Björn Lomborg (2001), The Skeptical
Environmentalist (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0521010683, p. 22, archived
fromhttp://www.lomborg.com/dyn/files/basic_items/69-file/skeptenvironChap1.pdf. The line has
been simplified; please see the original. Percentage of people in the Third World with access to
drinking water [...], 1970–2000. ... [The line here] is a logistic best fit line – a reasonable attempt to
map out the best guess of development among very different definitions. Source: World Bank
1994:26 (1975–90), WHO 1986:15–18 (1970–83), Gleick 1998:262, 264 (1980–90, 1990–4), Annan
2000:5 (1990–2000).
Best estimate of the share of people in developing countries with access to drinking
water 1970–2000.
In culture
Religion
Water and religion
Water is considered a purifier in most religions. Faiths that incorporate ritual washing
(ablution) include Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, the Rastafari
movement, Shinto, Taoism, and Wicca. Immersion (or aspersion or affusion) of a person in
water is a central sacrament of Christianity (where it is called baptism); it is also a part of the
practice of other religions, including Islam (Ghusl), Judaism (mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit
Sanskar). In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions
including Islam and Judaism. In Islam, the five daily prayers can be done in most cases after
completing washing certain parts of the body using clean water (wudu), unless water is
unavailable (see Tayammum). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person
or an area (e.g., in the ritual of misogi).
In Christianity, holy water is water that has been sanctified by a priest for the purpose
of baptism, the blessing of persons, places, and objects, or as a means of repelling evil.[134][135]
In Zoroastrianism, water (āb) is respected as the source of life.[136]
Philosophy
The Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical
elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of
the universe. Thales, who was portrayed by Aristotle as an astronomer and an engineer,
theorized that the earth, which is denser than water, emerged from the water. Thales,
a monist, believed further that all things are made from water. Plato believed the shape of
water is an icosahedron which accounts for why it is able to flow easily compared to the
cube-shaped earth.[137]
In the theory of the four bodily humors, water was associated with phlegm, as being cold and
moist. The classical element of water was also one of the five elements in traditional Chinese
philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal.
Water is also taken as a role model in some parts of traditional and popular Asian
philosophy. James Legge's 1891 translation of the Dao De Jing states, "The highest
excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things,
and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike.
Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao" and "There is nothing in the world more soft and
weak than water, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that
can take precedence of it—for there is nothing (so effectual) for which it can be
changed."[138] Guanzi in "Shui di" 水地 chapter further elaborates on symbolism of water,
proclaiming that "man is water" and attributing natural qualities of the people of different
Chinese regions to the character of local water resources.[139]
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax

Dihydrogen monoxide hoax
Water's technically correct but rarely used chemical name, "dihydrogen monoxide", has been
used in a series of hoaxes and pranks that mock scientific illiteracy. This began in 1983,
when an April Fools' Day article appeared in a newspaper in Durand, Michigan. The false
story consisted of safety concerns about the substance.
Dihydrogen monoxide parody

"
The subject of the parody, water, has a molecule consisting of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom, thus the name dihydrogen monoxide.
The dihydrogen monoxide parody involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name
"dihydrogen monoxide" (DHMO), or "hydroxylic acid" in some cases, and listing some of
water's well-known effects in a particularly alarming manner, such as accelerating
corrosion and causing suffocation. The parody often calls for dihydrogen monoxide to be
banned, regulated, and labeled as dangerous. It illustrates how a lack of scientific
literacy and an exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears.
The parody gained renewed popularity in the late 1990s when a 14-year-old student, Nathan
Zohner,[1] collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility.[2] The story has
since been used in science education to encourage critical thinking and discussion of
the scientific method.[3][4]
History of Dihydrogen monoxide parody
A 1983 April Fools' Day edition of the Durand Express, a weekly newspaper in Durand,
Michigan, reported that "dihydrogen oxide" had been found in the city's water pipes, and
warned that it was fatal if inhaled, and could produce blistering vapors.[5] The first appearance
of the parody on the Internet was attributed by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette to the so-called
"Coalition to Ban Dihydrogen Monoxide",[6][7] a parody organization at UC Santa Cruz
following on-campus postings and newsgroupdiscussions in 1990.[8]
This new version of the parody was created by Eric Lechner, Lars Norpchen, and Matthew
Kaufman—housemates while attending the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1989–
1990,[6][8][better source needed] revised by Craig Jackson in 1994,[6] and brought to widespread public
attention in 1997 when Nathan Zohner, a 14-year-old student, gathered petitions to ban
"DHMO" as the basis of his science project, titled "How Gullible Are We?"[2]
Jackson's original site included the following warning:[9]
Dihydrogen monoxide:
 is also known as hydroxyl acid, and is the major component of acid rain.
 contributes to the "greenhouse effect".
 may cause severe burns.
 contributes to the erosion of our natural landscape.
 accelerates corrosion and rusting of many metals.
 may cause electrical failures and decreased effectiveness of automobile brakes.
 has been found in excised tumors of terminal cancer patients.
Despite the danger, dihydrogen monoxide is often used:
 as an industrial solvent and coolant.

 in nuclear power plants.
 in the production of styrofoam.
 as a fire retardant.
 in many forms of cruel animal research.
 in the distribution of pesticides. Even after washing, produce remains contaminated by this
chemical.
 as an additive in certain "junk-foods" and other food products.
A mock material safety data sheet has also been created for H2O.[10][11]
Molecular terminology and naming conventions

The water molecule has the chemical formula H2O, meaning each molecule of water is
composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Literally, the term "dihydrogen
monoxide" means "two hydrogen, one oxygen", consistent with its molecular formula: the
prefix di- in dihydrogen means "two", the prefix mon- in monoxidemeans "one", and
an oxide is an oxygen atom attached to another atom in an ionic compound.[12]
Using chemical nomenclature, various names for water are in common use within the
scientific community. Some such names include hydrogen oxide, as well as an alkali name
of hydrogen hydroxide, and several acid names such as hydric acid, hydroxic acid, hydroxyl
acid, and hydroxilic acid. The term "hydroxyl acid" used in the original text is a non-
standard name.[13][not in citation given]
Under the 2005 revisions of IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, there is no single
correct name for every compound.[14] The primary function of chemical nomenclature is to
ensure that each name refers, unambiguously, to a single substance. It is considered less
important to ensure that each substance should have a single unambiguous name, although
the number of acceptable names is limited.[14] Water is one acceptable name for this
compound, even though it is neither a systematic nor an international name and is specific to
just one phase of the compound (its liquid form). The other IUPAC recommendation
is oxidane,[15] which is used by hoax industry groups promoting DHMO as a safe industrial
chemical while hinting at dangers and government conspiracies.[16]
Public efforts involving the DHMO parody

 In 1989–1990, several students circulated a dihydrogen monoxide contamination warning
on the University of California, Santa Cruz, campus via photocopied fliers.[6][17]
 In 1994, Craig Jackson created a web page for the Coalition to Ban DHMO.[6][9]
 The Friends of Hydrogen Hydroxide website was created by Dan Curtis Johnson; partly
as a foil on the Coalition page, claiming to oppose its "subversive agenda". The site
points out that hydrogen hydroxide is "environmentally safe" and "enhances the
functionality, growth, and health of many forms of life".[18]
 In 1997, Nathan Zohner, a 14-year-old student at Eagle Rock Junior High School in Idaho
Falls, Idaho, gathered 43 votes to ban the chemical, out of 50 ninth-graders surveyed.
Zohner received the first prize at Greater Idaho Falls Science Fair for analysis of the
results of his survey.[2] In recognition of his experiment, journalist James K.
Glassman coined the term "Zohnerism" to refer to "the use of a true fact to lead a
scientifically and mathematically ignorant public to a false conclusion".[19]
 In late 1997, drawing inspiration from Jackson's web page and Zohner's research, Tom
Way created a website at DHMO.org, including links to some legitimate sites such as
the Environmental Protection Agency and National Institutes of Health.[20]
 On April 1, 1998 (April Fools' Day), a member of the Australian Parliament announced a
campaign to ban dihydrogen monoxide internationally.[21]
 In 2001, a staffer in New Zealand Green Party MP Sue Kedgley's office responded to a
request for support for a campaign to ban dihydrogen monoxide by saying she was
"absolutely supportive of the campaign to ban this toxic substance". This was criticized
in a press release by the National Party,[22] one of whose MPs fell for the very same joke
six years later.[23]
 In 2002, radio talk show host Neal Boortz mentioned on the air that the Atlanta water
system had been checked and found to be contaminated with dihydrogen monoxide, and
set about relating the hazards associated with that "dangerous" chemical. A local TV
station even covered the 'scandal'. A spokesperson for the city's water system told the
reporter that there was no more dihydrogen monoxide in the system than what was
allowed under the law.[24]
 The idea was used for a segment of an episode of the Penn & Teller show Penn & Teller:
Bullshit!, in which actress Kris McGaha and a camera crew gathered signatures from
people considering themselves "concerned environmentalists" to sign a petition to ban
DHMO.[25]
 In March 2004, Aliso Viejo, California, almost considered banning the use of foam
containers at city-sponsored events because dihydrogen monoxide is part of their
production. A paralegal had asked the city council to put it on the agenda; he later
attributed it to poor research.[26] The bill was pulled from the agenda before it could come
to a vote, but not before the city received a raft of bad publicity.[2]
Tongue-in-cheek warning sign in Louisville, Kentucky
 In 2006, in Louisville, Kentucky, David Karem, executive director of the Waterfront

Development Corporation, a public body that operates Waterfront Park, wished to deter
bathers from using a large public fountain. "Counting on a lack of understanding about
water's chemical makeup", he arranged for signs reading: "DANGER! – WATER
CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF HYDROGEN – KEEP OUT" to be posted on the fountain at
public expense.[27]
 Occasionally, petitions on the UK Government e-petitions website on this subject have
been closed or rejected.[28]
 In 2007 Jacqui Dean, New Zealand National Party MP, fell for the joke, writing a letter to
Associate Minister of Health Jim Anderton asking "Does the Expert Advisory Committee
on Drugs have a view on the banning of this drug?"[23][29][30]
 On April 1, 2009, a Canadian Conservative Member of Parliament, Andrew Scheer, used
the DHMO parody as the basis for an April Fool's Day "media release" on his website, in
which he claimed to have presented a bill to ban the substance from all federal
government buildings.[31]
 In February 2011, during the campaign of the Finnish parliamentary election, a voting
advice application asked the candidates whether the availability of "hydric acid also
known as dihydrogen monoxide" should be restricted. 49% of the candidates answered in
favor of the restriction.[32]
 In April 2013, two radio personalities at Gator Country 101.9, a station in Lee County,
Florida, told listeners that dihydrogen monoxide was coming out of their water taps as
part of an April Fool's Day prank and were suspended for a few days.[33][34]The prank
resulted in several calls by consumers to the local utility company, which sent out a
release stating that the water was safe.[35]
.[140]
LORENTZ FORCE AND NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION SPACE CRAFT.
Lorentz force.
In physics (specifically in electromagnetism) the Lorentz force (or electromagnetic force) is the
combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. A particle
of charge q moving with a velocity v in an electric field E and a magnetic field B experiences a force
(in SI units[1][2]). Variations on this basic formula describe the magnetic force on a current-carrying
wire (sometimes called Laplace force), the electromotive force in a wire loop moving through a
magnetic field (an aspect of Faraday's law of induction), and the force on a charged particle which
might be traveling near the speed of light (relativistic form of the Lorentz force).
The first derivation of the Lorentz force is commonly attributed to Oliver Heaviside in
1889,[3] although other historians suggest an earlier origin in an 1865 paper by James Clerk
Maxwell.[4] Hendrik Lorentz derived it in 1895,[5] a few years after Heaviside.
Trajectories of particles due to the Lorentz force
Guiding center
Charged particle drifts in a homogeneous magnetic field. (A) No disturbing force (B) With an electric
field, E (C) With an independent force, F (e.g. gravity) (D) In an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad H
In many cases of practical interest, the motion in a magnetic field of an electrically charged particle
(such as an electron or ion in a plasma) can be treated as the superposition of a relatively fast circular
motion around a point called the guiding center and a relatively slow drift of this point. The drift
speeds may differ for various species depending on their charge states, masses, or temperatures,
possibly resulting in electric currents or chemical separation.
Significance of the Lorentz force
While the modern Maxwell's equations describe how electrically charged particles and currents or
moving charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz force law completes that
picture by describing the force acting on a moving point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic
fields.[6][22] The Lorentz force law describes the effect of E and B upon a point charge, but such
electromagnetic forces are not the entire picture. Charged particles are possibly coupled to other
forces, notably gravity and nuclear forces. Thus, Maxwell's equations do not stand separate from
other physical laws, but are coupled to them via the charge and current densities. The response of a
point charge to the Lorentz law is one aspect; the generation of E and B by currents and charges is
another.
In real materials the Lorentz force is inadequate to describe the collective behavior of charged
particles, both in principle and as a matter of computation. The charged particles in a material
medium not only respond to the E and B fields but also generate these fields. Complex transport
equations must be solved to determine the time and spatial response of charges, for example,
the Boltzmann equation or the Fokker–Planck equation or the Navier–Stokes equations. For example,
see magnetohydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, electrohydrodynamics, superconductivity, stellar
evolution. An entire physical apparatus for dealing with these matters has developed. See for
example, Green–Kubo relations and Green's function (many-body theory).
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION PERMIT.
Website ;www.nasa.gov.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent
agency of the United States Federal Government responsible for the civilian space program,
as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.[note 1]
NASA was established in 1958, succeeding the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency was to have a distinctly civilian orientation,
encouraging peaceful applications in space science.[7][8][9] Since its establishment, most
US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon
landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. NASA is supporting
the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose
Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crewvehicles. The agency is also
responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations
and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing
System;[10] advancing heliophysicsthrough the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's
Heliophysics Research Program;[11] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with
advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons;[12] and
researching astrophysicstopics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and
associated programs.[13]
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Seal
Emblem
Flag
Agency overview
Formed July 29, 1958; 60 years ago
 NACA (1915–1958)[1]
Preceding
agency
Jurisdiction US Federal Government
Headquarters Two Independence Square, Washington,
D.C., US
38°52′59″N 77°0′59″WCoordinates:
38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W
Motto For the Benefit of All[2]
Employees 17,336 (2018)[3]
Annual budget US$20.7 billion (2018)[4]
Agency  Jim Bridenstine, Administrator
executives  James Morhard, Deputy Administrator
 Jeff DeWit, Chief Financial Officer
Website www.nasa.gov
Part of a series of articles on the
Space policy of the United States
 NASA
 Space policy of the United States
 Apollo program
US manned space programs
US space probes
Expendable launch vehicles
Notable figures
Astronauts
Creation
Creation of NASA
From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA) had been experimenting
with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1.[14] In the early 1950s, there was challenge
to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for
this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's first
artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned
toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to
national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged
immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled
more deliberate measures. On January 12, 1958, NACA organized a "Special Committee on
Space Technology", headed by Guyford Stever.[9] On January 14, 1958, NACA Director Hugh
Dryden published "A National Research Program for Space Technology" stating:[15]
William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA
Administrator James E. Webb (background) discussing the Mariner program, with a model presented.
A short documentary about the beginings of Nasa
It is of great urgency and importance to our country both from consideration of our prestige
as a nation as well as military necessity that this challenge [Sputnik] be met by an energetic
program of research and development for the conquest of space ... It is accordingly proposed
that the scientific research be the responsibility of a national civilian agency ... NACA is
capable, by rapid extension and expansion of its effort, of providing leadership in space
technology.[15]
While this new federal agency would conduct all non-military space activity, the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space
technology for military application.[16]
On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing
NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 43-year-old NACA
intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research
laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis
Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities.[17] A NASA seal was approved by
President Eisenhower in 1959.[18]Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United
States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to
NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German
rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army Ballistic
Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American
scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works.[19] Earlier research efforts within the US Air
Force[17] and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.[20] In
December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility
operated by the California Institute of Technology.[17]
Staff and leadership

List of Administrators and Deputy Administrators of NASA
Jim Bridenstine official NASA portrait, April 26, 2018 at NASA Headquarters, Washington D.C
The agency's leader, NASA's administrator, is nominated by the President of the United
States subject to approval of the US Senate, and reports to him or her and serves as senior
space science advisor. Though space exploration is ostensibly non-partisan, the appointee
usually is associated with the President's political party (Democratic or Republican), and a
new administrator is usually chosen when the Presidency changes parties. The only
exceptions to this have been:
 Democrat Thomas O. Paine, acting administrator under Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson,

stayed on while Republican Richard Nixontried but failed to get one of his own choices to
accept the job. Paine was confirmed by the Senate in March 1969 and served through
September 1970.[21]
 Republican James C. Fletcher, appointed by Nixon and confirmed in April 1971, stayed
through May 1977 into the term of Democrat Jimmy Carter.
 Daniel Goldin was appointed by Republican George H. W. Bush and stayed through the
entire administration of Democrat Bill Clinton.
 Robert M. Lightfoot, Jr., associate administrator under Democrat Barack Obama, was
kept on as acting administrator by Republican Donald Trump until Trump's own
choice Jim Bridenstine, was confirmed in April 2018.[22] Though the agency is
independent, the survival or discontinuation of projects can depend directly on the will of
the President.[23]
The first administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan appointed by Republican President Dwight D.
Eisenhower. During his term he brought together the disparate projects in American space
development research.[24]
The second administrator, James E. Webb (1961–1968), appointed by President John F.
Kennedy, was a Democrat who first publicly served under President Harry S. Truman. In
order to implement the Apollo program to achieve Kennedy's Moon landing goal by the end
of the 1960s, Webb directed major management restructuring and facility expansion,
establishing the Houston Manned Spacecraft (Johnson) Center and the Florida Launch
Operations (Kennedy) Center. Capitalizing on Kennedy's legacy, President Lyndon
Johnson kept continuity with the Apollo program by keeping Webb on when he succeeded
Kennedy in November 1963. But Webb resigned in October 1968 before Apollo achieved its
goal, and Republican President Richard M. Nixon replaced Webb with Republican Thomas O.
Paine.
Organizational structure of NASA (2015)
James Fletcher was responsible for early planning of the Space Shuttle program during his
first term as administrator under President Nixon. He was appointed for a second term as
administrator from May 1986 through April 1989 by President Ronald Reagan to help the
agency recover from the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
Former astronaut Charles Bolden served as NASA's twelfth administrator from July 2009 to
January 20, 2017.[25] Bolden is one of three former astronauts who became NASA
administrators, along with Richard H. Truly (served 1989–1992) and Frederick D.
Gregory (acting, 2005).
The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and
provides overall guidance and direction.[26] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA
civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United States.[27]
Space flight programs
Main article: List of NASA missions
At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von Braun is at center.
A documentary about spaceflight in NASA
NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its
history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit
for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets
of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including "grand tours" of the outer
planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space
Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in
the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed
LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations
including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects,
such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent
unmanned to Jupiter.
Manned programs
Some of NASA's first African-American astronauts including Dr. Ronald McNair, Guy Bluford and Fred
Gregory from the class of 1978 selection of astronauts.
The experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA
as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program,
and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige
and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the Soviet Union, in 1961
President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by
the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by
the Apollo program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned
mission to Mars. However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities
almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention
to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In
the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space
station in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival,
post-Soviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on
rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,
260,000 feet (80 km).[28]
X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)
Main article: North American X-15
X-15 in powered flight
The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed
in conjunction with the US Air Force and Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with
fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.[29] Requests
for proposal were issued on December 30, 1954, for the airframe, and February 4, 1955, for
the rocket engine. The airframe contract was awarded to North American Aviation in
November 1955, and the XLR30 engine contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, and
three planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched from the wing of one of two
NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number 52-003, and NB52B, tail number 52-
008 (known as the Balls 8). Release took place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and
a speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h).
Twelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air Force, Navy, and NACA (later
NASA). A total of 199 flights were made between 1959 and 1968, resulting in the official world
record for the highest speed ever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current as of 2014),
and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4,519 miles per hour (7,273 km/h).[30] The altitude record
for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).[31] Eight of the pilots were awarded Air Force astronaut
wings for flying above 260,000 feet (80 km), and two flights by Joseph A. Walker exceeded
100 kilometers (330,000 ft), qualifying as spaceflight according to the International
Aeronautical Federation. The X-15 program employed mechanical techniques used in the
later manned spaceflight programs, including reaction control system jets for controlling the
orientation of a spacecraft, space suits, and horizon definition for
navigation.[31] The reentry and landing data collected were valuable to NASA for designing
the Space Shuttle.[29]
Project Mercury (1958–1963)
Main article: Project Mercury
John Glenn on Friendship 7: first US orbital flight, 1962
Shortly after the Space Race began, an early objective was to get a person into Earth orbit as
soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing
rockets was favored. The US Air Force's Man in Space Soonestprogram considered many
manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, to small ballistic space
capsules.[32] By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic
capsule.[33]
When NASA was created that same year, the Air Force program was transferred to it and
renamed Project Mercury. The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from
the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan
Shepard became the first American in space aboard Freedom 7, launched by a Redstone
booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight.[34] John Glenn became the first American to
be launched into orbit, by an Atlas launch vehicleon February 20, 1962,
aboard Friendship 7.[35] Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights
were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight Faith 7, May 15–16, 1963.[36]
The Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own single-pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They sent
the first man in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into a single Earth orbit
aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, one month before Shepard's flight.[37] In August 1962, they
achieved an almost four-day record flight with Andriyan Nikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also
conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.
Project Gemini (1961–1966)
Main article: Project Gemini
Ed White on Gemini 4: first US spacewalk, 1965
Based on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration flights,

developing space rendezvous techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini was
started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome the Soviets' lead and to support the
Apollo manned lunar landing program, adding extravehicular activity (EVA)
and rendezvous and docking to its objectives. The first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3, was
flown by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965.[38] Nine missions followed in 1965
and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous,
docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on
humans.[39][40]
Under the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by
converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in
launching two manned flights before Gemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight
in 1963 and the first EVA in 1964. After this, the program was canceled, and Gemini caught up
while spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft, their answer to
Apollo.
Apollo program (1961–1972)
Apollo program
Apollo 11: Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, 1969.
The U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in the space race (by putting the first man into
space) motivated President John F. Kennedy to ask the Congress on May 25, 1961, to commit
the federal government to a program to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s,
which effectively launched the Apollo program.[41]
Apollo was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It cost more than
$20 billion in 1960s dollars[42] or an estimated $218 billion in present-day US dollars.[43] (In
comparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $27.8 billion, accounting for inflation.)[43][44] It
used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for
previous projects.[45] The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined
command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be
left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would
eventually return to Earth.[note 2]
The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around
the Moon in December 1968.[46]Shortly before, the Soviets had sent an unmanned spacecraft
around the Moon.[47] On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the
Moon landing were practiced[48][49] and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo
11 mission in July 1969.[50]
Apollo 17: LRV-003, 1972.
The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed by Buzz Aldrin,
while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts
on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve
men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7
kilograms (842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included soil
mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar
wind.[51] The Moon landing marked the end of the space race; and as a gesture, Armstrong
mentioned mankind when he stepped down on the Moon.[52]
Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned
missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body.[53] Apollo
8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the
last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit to date. The program
spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned
spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest
in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for
the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at
various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space
Museums.
Skylab (1965–1979)
Skylab
Skylab in 1974, seen from the departing Skylab 4 CSM.
Skylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station.[54] Conceived in
1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB upper stage, the
169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973, atop
the first two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the
equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-
generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a
total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974.[54] It included a laboratory for
studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.[54] NASA planned to have a
Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was
not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979.[55]
To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled
Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts
to and from the station. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28,
59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet (320 m3), which was 30.7
times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.[55]
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–1975)
Main article: Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
Soviet and American crews with spacecraft model, 1975.
On May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed
an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future
international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other.[56] This authorized
the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of
a surplus Apollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place
in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the Space
Shuttle in April 1981.[57]
The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful
engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle Mir
Program[58] and the International Space Station.
Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)
Space Shuttle program
Launch of a Space Shuttle.
Mae Jemison working in Spacelab in 1992. Spacelab was a major NASA collaboration with Europe's
space agencies
The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned
as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built
by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981,[59] the 20th anniversary of the
first known human space flight.[60]
Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid-fuel
launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was
the only major component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–
643 km (115–400 miles)[61] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg
(54,000 lb).[62]Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8
astronauts.[61]
On 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, designed in cooperation with
the European Space Agency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight,
but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through
an airlock.[63] Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful
repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.[64]
In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle Mir missions (1995–1998).
Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space
station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as two of the
biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The
strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began
relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the
shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986,
and Columbia in 2003.[65] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space
Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace
the second loss.[65] NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program
ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center
on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.[66]
International Space Station (1993–present)
International Space Station
Animation of assembly of the ISS
The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with
the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the
Japanese Kibō laboratory module.[67] NASA originally planned in the 1980s to
develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a
single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space
Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space
Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).[68][69] The station consists of
pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been
launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.[67] It is currently
being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of
the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital
Segment is expected by 2016.[70] The ownership and use of the space station is established in
intergovernmental treaties and agreements[72] which divide the station into two areas and
allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of
Zarya),[73][74] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.[72]
The International Space Station as seen by the final STS mission
Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew
members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.[75] The initial expedition crew
size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May
2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.[76] Crew size is expected to be
increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew
Program becomes operational.[77] The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past
18 years and 71 days, having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited
by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.[78][79]
The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2019, is the largest
artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous
space station.[80] The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-
year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service
the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the
European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer
Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the
American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also
used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did
not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US
manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space
Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz.[81] The highest number of people occupying the ISS has
been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[82]
The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020, and may be extended beyond
2028.[83]
Commercial programs (2006–present)
Main articles: Commercial Resupply Services and Commercial Crew Development
Dragon being berthed to the ISS in May 2012
Cygnus berthed to the ISS in September 2013
The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with
the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service
the ISS.[84] The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based
program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones
with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successfully
completed the milestone.[85] Companies were also required to raise an unspecified amount of
private investment for their proposal.[86]
On December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts
to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation.[87] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon
spacecraft.[88] Orbital Sciences uses its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first
Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012.[89] The first Cygnus resupply
mission occurred in September 2013.[90] The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS
cargo needs; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the
European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[91]
Dragon V2
Rendering of CST-100 in orbit
The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was started in 2010 with the purpose of
creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least
four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to
Earth.[92] It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private
space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace.[93] Like COTS, CCDev is also a
fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.[85]
In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million
was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human
spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the
second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four
companies.[94] In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA
provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew
transportation systems.[95] In 2014, the winners of the final round were
announced.[96] SpaceX's Dragon V2 (planned to be launched on a Falcon 9 v1.1) received a
contract valued up to $2.6 billion and Boeing's CST-100 (to be launched on an Atlas V)
received a contract valued up to $4.2 billion.[97] NASA expects these vehicles to begin
transporting humans to the ISS in 2019.[98]
Beyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010–2017)
For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the Space
Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low Earth
orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed
eliminating public funds for the Constellation programand shifting greater responsibility of
servicing the ISS to private companies.[99] During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on
April 15, 2010, Obama proposed a new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerly
planned Ares V.[100] In his speech, Obama called for a manned mission to an asteroid as soon
as 2025, and a manned mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[100] The NASA Authorization
Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and signed into law on October 11, 2010.[101] The act
officially canceled the Constellation program.[101]
The Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV be chosen within 90 days of its
passing; the launch vehicle was given the name "Space Launch System". The new law also
required the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft.[102] The Orion spacecraft,
which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this
role.[103] The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary
hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.[104] The SLS is to be upgraded over time with
more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 mt
into LEO. It is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130
mt.[103][105] Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module,
was launched on December 5, 2014, atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket.[105] Exploration Mission-
1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a circumlunar
trajectory, which is planned for 2019.[105]
NASA Graphic for the Journey to Mars
NASA's next major space initiative is to be the construction of the Lunar Orbital Platform-
Gateway (LOP-G, formerly known as the "Deep Space Gateway"). This initiative is to involve
the construction of a new "Space-Station" type of habitation, which will have many features
in common with the current International Space Station, except that it will be in orbit about
the Moon, instead of the Earth.[106] This space station will be designed primarily for non-
continuous human habitation. The first tentative steps of returning to manned lunar missions
will be Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2), which is to include the Orion crew module, propelled by
the SLS, and is to launch in 2022. This mission is to be a 10- to 14-day mission planned to
briefly place a crew of four into Lunar orbit.[105] The construction of the "Lunar Orbital
Platform" is to begin with the following Exploration Mission-3 (EM-3), which is planned to
deliver a crew of 4 to Lunar orbit along with the first module(s) of the new space-station. This
mission will last for up to 26 days.
On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced plans to also build a series of new X-planes
over the next 10 years.[107] One of the planes will be the Quiet Supersonic Technology project,
burning low-carbon biofuels and generating quiet sonic booms.[107]
NASA plans to build full scale deep space habitats such as the Lunar Orbital Platform and
the Nautilus-X as part of its Next Space Technologies for Exploration
Partnerships (NextSTEP) program.[108]
In 2017, NASA was directed by the congressional NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017
to get humans to Mars-orbit (or to the Martian surface) by 2033.[109][110]
Unmanned programs
Main article: Unmanned NASA missions
Pioneer 3 and 4 launched in 1958 and 1959, respectively
JWST main mirror assembled, November 2016

More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar
system.[111] Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by
NASA.[112] The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space
shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.
The first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during
the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik.
At the creation of NASA, the Explorer project was transferred to the agency and still
continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring
magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects.[113] A more recent Earth mission, not
related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above
was brought into orbit in 1990.[114]
The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The
first was Mariner in the 1960s and '70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and
one to Mercury. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a
planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from another planet (Mariner 4), the first
planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner 10).
This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets
to reach its destination.[115]
The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover
was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.[116]
Many of the unmanned missions were used to explore the outer reaches of space as seen in this video
Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years
later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to
orbit the planet.[117] Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979,
with Voyager 2 making the first (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and
1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983. For
a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both Voyager
1 and Voyager 2.[118]
Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to
extraterrestrial life.[119][120] Communication can be difficult with deep space travel. For instance,
it took about three hours for a radio signal to reach the New Horizonsspacecraft when it was
more than halfway to Pluto.[121] Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes
continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and
interstellar space.[122]
On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched
for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began
its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.[123][124][125]
Activities (2010–2017)
Radioisotope within a graphite shell that goes into the generator.
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and
Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions
are Juno for Jupiter, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawnfor the asteroid
belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including
Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas
Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini(1997–2017), and Juno(2011–). In the early 2000s,
NASA was put on course for the Moon, however in 2010 this program was cancelled
(see Constellation program). As part of that plan the Shuttle was going to be replaced,
however, although it was retired its replacement was also cancelled, leaving the US with no
human spaceflight launcher for the first time in over three decades.
The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby
of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007,
examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby.
On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout
Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[126]
On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent Moon base.[127] The goal
was to start building the Moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that
would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However, in 2009,
the Augustine Committee found the program to be on an "unsustainable trajectory."[128] In
2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a
generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for
the International Space Station.[129]
Since 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been[130]
 Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system

 Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe
 Create innovative new space technologies
 Advance aeronautics research
 Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA's aeronautics and space
activities
 Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities to
participate
In August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two space telescopes from the National
Reconnaissance Office. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to
the Hubble Space Telescope.[131]
In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to
develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch
the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth
asteroids, and one day Mars.[132] The Orion MPCV conducted an unmanned test launch on
a Delta IV Heavy rocket in December 2014.[133]
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is currently scheduled to launch in May 2020.[134]
Curiosity's wheel on Mars, 2012
Curiosity's battered wheel after several years of exploration, 2017
On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars. On August 27,
2012, Curiosity transmitted the first pre-recorded message from the surface of Mars back to
Earth, made by Administrator Charlie Bolden:
Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking to you via the broadcast
capabilities of the CuriosityRover, which is now on the surface of Mars.
Since the beginning of time, humankind's curiosity has led us to constantly seek new life ...
new possibilities just beyond the horizon. I want to congratulate the men and women of our
NASA family as well as our commercial and government partners around the world, for taking
us a step beyond to Mars.
This is an extraordinary achievement. Landing a rover on Mars is not easy others have
tried – only America has fully succeeded. The investment we are making ... the knowledge we
hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about the
possibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own
planet. Curiosity will bring benefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and
explorers, as it prepares the way for a human mission in the not too distant future. Thank
you.[135]
Recent and planned activities
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and
Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions
are Juno for Jupiter, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawnfor the asteroid
belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including
Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas
Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997–2017), and Juno(2011–).
The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby
of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007,
examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby.
On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout
Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[126]
There was a new executive administration in the United States, which directed NASA to send
Humans to Mars by the year 2033.[109][136] Foci in general for NASA were noted as human space
exploration, space science, and technology.[136] The Europa Clipper and Mars 2020 continue to
be supported for their planned schedules.[137]
In 2018, NASA alongside with other companies including Sensor Coating Systems, Pratt &
Whitney, Monitor Coating and UTRC have launched the project CAUTION (CoAtings for Ultra
High Temperature detectION). This project aims to enhance the temperature range of
the Thermal History Coating up to 1,500C and beyond. The final goal of this project is
improving the safety of jet engines as well as increasing efficiency and reducing CO2
emissions.[138]
Recent and planned activities include:
 InSight, Launched and landed on Mars in 2018

 New Horizons, Kuiper belt object (486958) 2014 MU69 flyby on January 1, 2019[139]
 Osiris-Rex, en route for asteroid sample return on September 24, 2023[140]
 Mars 2020 rover (planned)[141]
 Europa Clipper (planned)
 Misc. Discovery Missions[
 Misc. Explorer Missions[
 New Frontier mission including New Horizons, Juno, and Osiris-
 Earth Observation, Solar and Astronomical observatories[
 James Webb Space Telescope (planned)
 Parker Solar Probe, launched August 2018
 Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), launched in April 2018
 Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) (planned)[142]
NASA Advisory Council

In response to the Apollo 1 accident which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed
NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator
on safety issues and hazards in NASA's aerospace programs. In the aftermath of
the Shuttle Columbia accident, Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to
the NASA Administrator and to Congress.[143] By 1971, NASA had also established the Space
Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the
administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form
the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).[144]
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014 reaffirmed the
importance of ASAP.
Directives
Further information: Space policy of the United States
Artistic rendition of Space Station Freedom with the Orbiter Vehicle
Some of the major NASA directives were to land people on the Moon, build the space shuttle,
and build a large space station. Typically, the major directives had the intervention of the
science advisory, political, funding, and public interest that synergized into various waves of
effort often heavily swayed by technical, funding, and worldwide events. For example, there
was a major push to build Space Station Freedom in the 1980s, but when the Cold War ended,
the Russians, the Americans and other international partners came together to build
the International Space Station.
In the 2010s, the major shift was the retirement of the Space Shuttle and the development of a
new manned heavy lift rocket, the Space Launch System. Missions for the new System have
varied but overall, they were similar as it primarily involved the desire to send a human into
the space. The Space Exploration Initiative of the 1980s opened newer avenues of galaxy
exploration.
In the coming decades, the focus is gradually shifting towards exploration of planet Mars;
however, some differences exist over the technologies to develop and focus on for the
exploration.[145] One of the options considered was the Asteroid Redirect
Mission (ARM).[145] ARM had largely been defunded in 2017, but the key technologies
developed for ARM would be utilized for future exploration, especially on a solar electric
propulsion system.[146][145]
Longer project execution timelines means its up to the future officials to execute on a
directive, which often leads to directional mismanagement. For example, a Shuttle
replacement has numerous components involved, each making some headway before being
called off for various reasons including the National Aerospace Plane, Venture Star, Orbital
Space Plane, Ares I, and others. The asteroid mission was not a major directive in the 2010s.
Instead, the general support rested with the long-term goal of getting humans to Mars. The
space shuttle was retired and much of the existing road map was shelved including the then
planned Lunar Return and Ares I human launch vehicle.
Previously, in the early 2000s, there was a plan called the Constellation Program but this was
defunded in the early 2010s.[147][148][149][150] In the 1990s, there was a plan called "Faster, Better,
Cheaper"[151] In the 1980s, there was a directive to build a manned space station.[152]
NASA Authorization Act of 2017
Orion at ISS artwork
The NASA Authorization Act of 2017, which included $19.5 billion in funding for that fiscal
year, directed NASA to get humans near or on the surface of Mars by the early 2030s.[153]
Space Policy Directive 1

In December 2017, on the 45th anniversary of the last manned mission to the Lunar surface,
President Donald Trumpapproved a directive that includes a lunar mission on the pathway to
Mars and beyond.[145]
We'll learn. The directive I'm signing today will refocus America's space program on human
exploration and discovery. It marks an important step in returning American astronauts to the
Moon for the first time since 1972 for long-term exploration and use. This time, we will not
only plant our flag and leave our footprint, we will establish a foundation for an eventual
mission to Mars. And perhaps, someday, to many worlds beyond.
— President Trump, 2017[154]

New NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine addressed this directive in an August 2018 speech
where he focused on the sustainability aspects going to the Moon to stay that are explicit in
the directive, including taking advantage of US commercial space capability that did not exist
even five years ago, which have driven down costsand increased access to space.[155]
Research
Main article: NASA research
For technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA, see NASA spinoff technologies.
NASA developed this hard-suit in the 1980s at the Ames Research Center
NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate conducts aeronautics research.

NASA has made use of technologies such as the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric
Generator (MMRTG), which is a type of Radioisotope thermoelectric generator used on space
missions.[156] Shortages of this material have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of
the millennia.[157] An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of
this material was New Horizons 2.[157]
The earth science research program was created and first funded in the 1980s under the
administrations of Ronald Reaganand George H.W. Bush.[158][159]
NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named Cubes in Space.[160] It is jointly organized
by NASA and the global education company I Doodle Learning, with the objective of teaching
school students aged 11–18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into
space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017 the world's smallest satellite, Kalam
SAT, built by an Indian team, was launched.
Climate study
NASA also researches and publishes on climate change.[161] Its statements concur with the
global scientific consensus that the global climate is warming.[162] Bob Walker, who has
advised the 45th President of the United States Donald Trump on space issues, has
advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study
operations should be transferred to other agencies such as NOAA. Former NASA
atmospheric scientist J. Marshall Shepherd countered that Earth science study was built into
NASA's mission at its creation in the 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act.[163]
Facilities
Jet Propulsion Laboratorycomplex in Pasadena, California
Vehicle Assembly and Launch Control at Kennedy Space Center
NASA facilities
NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions.
Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA
also operates a short-line railroad at the Kennedy Space Center and uses special aircraft.
John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been
the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights
are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch
facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape
Canaveral Air Force Station.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr.
Mission Control Center, where all flight control is managed for manned space missions. JSC
is the lead NASA center for activities regarding the International Space Station and also
houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains, and provides astronauts as crew
members for US and international space missions.
FCR 1 in 2009 during the STS-128mission, JSC in Houston
Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the
Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed.[164] The JPL worked together with ABMA, one of
the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.
The ten NASA field centers are:
 John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

 Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
 Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Facility),
Edwards, California
 Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland
 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, near Pasadena, California
 Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
 Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
 John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio
 George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
 John C. Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi
Numerous other facilities are operated by NASA, including the Wallops Flight Facility in
Wallops Island, Virginia; the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana; the White
Sands Test Facility in Las Cruces, New Mexico; and Deep Space Network stations in Barstow,
California; Madrid, Spain; and Canberra, Australia.
Budget
NASA's budget from 1958 to 2012 as a percentage of federal budget
An artist's conception, from NASA, of an astronaut planting a US flag on Mars. A manned mission to
Mars has been discussed as a possible NASA mission since the 1960s.
Main article: Budget of NASA

NASA's share of the total federal budget peaked at approximately 4.41% in 1966 during
the Apollo program, then rapidly declined to approximately 1% in 1975, and stayed around
that level through 1998.[23][165] The percentage then gradually dropped, until leveling off again
at around half a percent in 2006 (estimated in 2012 at 0.48% of the federal budget).[166] In a
March 2012 hearing of the United States Senate Science Committee, science
communicator Neil deGrasse Tyson testified that "Right now, NASA's annual budget is half a
penny on your tax dollar. For twice that a penny on a dollar we can transform the country
from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its
20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow."[167][168]
Despite this, public perception of NASA's budget differs significantly: a 1997 poll indicated
that most Americans believed that 20% of the federal budget went to NASA.[169]
For Fiscal Year 2015, NASA received an appropriation of US$18.01 billion from Congress
$549 million more than requested and approximately $350 million more than the 2014 NASA
budget passed by Congress.[170]
In Fiscal Year 2016, NASA received $19.3 billion.[136]
President Donald Trump signed the NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 in March,
which set the 2017 budget at around $19.5 billion.[136] The budget is also reported as $19.3
billion for 2017, with $20.7 billion proposed for FY2018.[171][172]
Examples of some proposed FY2018 budgets:[172]
 Exploration: $4.79 billion

 Planetary science: $2.23 billion
 Earth science: $1.92 billion
 Aeronautics: $0.685 billion
Environmental impact
The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and
in space, can adversely effect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolicrocket propellants,
such as hydrazine, are highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic
compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release
carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.[173] However, carbon dioxide emissions are
insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed
802,620,000 US gallons (3.0382×109 L) gallons of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a
single Falcon 9 rocket first stage burns around 25,000 US gallons (95,000 L) of kerosene fuel
per launch.[174][175] Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent
0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally,
the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the SSME, is almost entirely water
vapor.[176] NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled Constellation
program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.[177] In contrast, ion
engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion.[178][179]
On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal
agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities the Goddard
Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.[180]
An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally,
the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.[181]
Gallery
Observations

Plot of orbits of known Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (size over 460 feet (140 m) and passing
6
within 4.7 million miles (7.6×10 km) of Earth's orbit)
Various nebulae observed from a NASA space telescope
1 Ceres
Pluto
Jupiter
Spacecraft

[note 3]
Hardware comparison of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury
Hubble Space Telescope, astronomy observatory in Earth orbit since 1990. Also visited by
the Space Shuttle
Curiosity rover, roving Mars since 2012
Planned spacecraft

James Webb Space Telescope rendering in orbit
Orion spacecraft design as of January 2013


Space Launch Systemconcept art
Mars 2020 rover design art
Concepts
NASA has developed oftentimes elaborate plans and technology concepts, some of which
become worked into real plans.
Langley's Mars Ice Dome

Space Tug concept, 1970s
design for a Mars habitat,
2010s
Vision mission for an
interstellar precursor
spacecraft by NASA, 2000s
Examples of missions by target

Here are some selected examples of missions to planetary-sized objects. Other major targets
of study are the Earth itself, the Sun, and smaller solar system bodies like asteroids and
comets. In addition, the moons of the planets or body are also studied.
Examples of robotic missions
Launc
Mercu Venu Jupit Satur Uran Neptu Plut
Spacecraft h Mars
ry s er n us ne o
year
Mariner 2 1962 Flyby
Mariner 6 and 7 1969 Flyby
Orbite
Mariner 9 1971
r
Pioneer 10 1972 Flyby
Pioneer 11 1973 Flyby Flyby
Mariner 10 1973 Flyby Flyby
Viking Orbite
1975
1 and Viking 2 rs
Lande
rs
Voyager 1 1977 Flyby Flyby
Voyager 2 1977 Flyby Flyby Flyby Flyby
Orbit
Galileo 1989 Flyby
er
Orbit
Magellan 1989
er
Mars Global Orbite

1996
Surveyor r
Orbit
Cassini 1997 Flyby Flyby
er
Orbite
Mars Odyssey 2001
r
Spirit and Opportu Rover

2003
nity s
Orbite
MESSENGER 2004 Flyby
r
Mars
Orbite
Reconnaissance 2005
r
Orbiter
Flyb
New Horizons 2006 Flyby
y
Orbit
Juno 2011
er
Curiosity (Mars
Science 2011 Rover
Laboratory)
Orbite
MAVEN 2013
r
Launc
Mercu Venu Jupit Satur Uran Neptu Plut
Spacecraft h Mars
ry s er n us ne o
year
Examples of missions for the Sun
 Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

 Solar Dynamics Observatory
 STEREO
 Ulysses (spacecraft)
 Parker Solar Probe
Examples of missions to small solar system bodies (e.g. Comets and asteroids)
 NEAR Shoemaker
 Dawn (spacecraft)
 OSIRIS-REx
Examples of missions to the Moon
 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

 LADEE
APPARATUS;
Gregorian calendar
. The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used civil calendar in the world.[1][2][Note 1] It is
named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582. The calendar spaces leap
years to make the average year 365.2425 days long, approximating the 365.2422 day tropical
year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. The rule for leap years is as
follows:
Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly
divisible by 100, but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by 400.
For example, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the year 2000 is.[3]
The calendar was developed as a correction to the Julian calendar,[4] shortening the average
year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes. To deal
with the 10 days' difference (between calendar and reality) that this drift had already reached,
the date was advanced so that 4 October 1582 was followed by 15 October 1582. There was
no discontinuity in the cycle of weekdays or of the Anno Domini calendar era.[Note 2] The reform
also altered the lunar cycle used by the Church to calculate the date for Easter (computus),
restoring it to the time of the year as originally celebrated by the early Church.
The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas
possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries
also moved to what they called the Improved calendar, with Greece being the last European
country to adopt the calendar in 1923.[6] To unambiguously specify a date during the
transition period, dual dating is sometimes used to specify both Old Style and New Style
dates. Due to globalization in the 20th century, the calendar has also been adopted by most
non-Western countries for civil purposes. The calendar era carries the alternative secular
name of "Common Era".
2019 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar 2019
MMXIX
Ab urbe condita 2772
Armenian calendar 1468

ԹՎՌՆԿԸ
Assyrian calendar 6769
Bahá'í calendar 175–176
Balinese saka calendar 1940–1941
Bengali calendar 1426
Berber calendar 2969

British Regnal year 67 Eliz. 2 – 68 Eliz. 2
Buddhist calendar 2563
Burmese calendar 1381
Byzantine calendar 7527–7528
Chinese calendar 戊戌年 (Earth Dog)
4715 or 4655
— to —
己亥年 (Earth Pig)
4716 or 4656
Coptic calendar 1735–1736
Discordian calendar 3185
Ethiopian calendar 2011–2012
Hebrew calendar 5779–5780
Hindu calendars
- Vikram Samvat 2075–2076
- Shaka Samvat 1940–1941
- Kali Yuga 5119–5120
Holocene calendar 12019
Igbo calendar 1019–1020

Iranian calendar 1397–1398
Islamic calendar 1440–1441
Japanese calendar Heisei 31

(平成３１年)
Javanese calendar 1952–1953
Juche calendar 108
Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days
Korean calendar 4352
Minguo calendar ROC 108

民國108年
Nanakshahi calendar 551
Thai solar calendar 2562
Tibetan calendar 阳土狗年
(male Earth-Dog)
2145 or 1764 or 992
— to —
阴土猪年
(female Earth-Pig)
2146 or 1765 or 993
Unix time 1546300800 – 1577836799
DESCRIPTION OF GREGORIAN CALLENDER.

The Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar with 12 months of 28–31 days each. A regular
Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but in certain years known as leap years, a leap day is
added to February. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers.[7] A calendar
date is fully specified by the year (numbered according to a calendar era, in this case Anno
Domini or Common Era), the month (identified by name or number), and the day of the month
(numbered sequentially starting from 1). Although the calendar year currently runs from 1
January to 31 December, at previous times year numbers were based on a different starting
point within the calendar (see the "beginning of the year" section below).
A year is divided into twelve months
No. Name Length in days
1 January 31
2 February 28 (29 in leap years)
3 March 31
4 April 30
5 May 31
6 June 30
7 July 31
8 August 31
9 September 30
10 October 31
11 November 30
12 December 31
In the Julian calendar, a leap year occurred every 4 years, and the leap day was inserted by
doubling 24 February. The Gregorian reform omitted a leap day in three of every 400 years
and left the leap day unchanged. However, it has become customary in the modern period to
number the days sequentially with no gaps, and 29 February is typically considered as the
leap day. Before the 1969 revision of the Roman Calendar, the Roman Catholic Church
delayed February feasts after the 23rd by one day in leap years; Masses celebrated according
to the previous calendar still reflect this delay.[8]
Calendar cycles repeat completely every 400 years, which equals 146,097 days.[Note 3][Note 4] Of
these 400 years, 303 are regular years of 365 days and 97 are leap years of 366 days. A mean
calendar year is 365 97/400 days = 365.2425 days, or 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12
seconds.[
Pope Gregory XIII in an early 17th-century engraving
Esaias van Hulsen - Engraving, 30.5 x 18.6 cm / Sheet: 32.1 x 20.6 cm. Retrieved from the
Smithsonian Institution Libraries,Gregory XIII, Pope (1502 - 1585)
Gregory XIII, Pope (1502 - 1585)
Christopher Clavius (1538–1612), one of the main authors of the
reform
Francesco Villamena - Immediate source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/hst/scientific-
identity/fullsize/SIL14-C4-02a.jpg (note engraving has "CHRISTOPHORVS CLAVIVS
BAMBERGENSIS" and "Franciscus Villamoena Fe. Rome Anno 1606") Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by Francisco Villamena. (source for artist: [1])
Christopher Clavius (1538–1612), German mathematician and astronomer.
Gregorian reform
The Gregorian calendar was a reform of the Julian calendar. It was instituted in 1582 by Pope
Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by papal bull Inter gravissimas dated 24
February 1582.[4] The motivation for the adjustment was to bring the date for the celebration
of Easter to the time of year in which it was celebrated when it was introduced by the early
Church. The error in the Julian calendar (its assumption that there are exactly 365.25 days in
a year) had led to the date of the equinox according to the calendar drifting from the
observed reality, and thus an error had been introduced into the calculation of the date of
Easter. Although a recommendation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 specified that all
Christians should celebrate Easter on the same day, it took almost five centuries before
virtually all Christians achieved that objective by adopting the rules of the Church of
Alexandria (see Easter for the issues which arose).[Note 6]
Background
Computus
Because the date of Easter was tied to the Spring Equinox, the Roman Catholic Church
considered the seasonal drift in the date of Easter undesirable. The Church of Alexandria
celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the moon (computed using the Metonic
cycle) that falls on or after the vernal equinox, which they placed on 21 March. However, the
Church of Rome still regarded 25 March (Lady Day) as the equinox (until 342), and used a
different cycle to compute the day of the moon.[10] In the Alexandrian system, since the 14th
day of the Easter moon could fall at earliest on 21 March its first day could fall no earlier than
8 March and no later than 5 April. This meant that Easter varied between 22 March and 25
April. In Rome, Easter was not allowed to fall later than 21 April, that being the day of
the Parilia or birthday of Rome and a pagan festival. The first day of the Easter moon could
fall no earlier than 5 March and no later than 2 April.
Easter was the Sunday after the 15th day of this moon, whose 14th day was allowed to
precede the equinox. Where the two systems produced different dates there was generally a
compromise so that both churches were able to celebrate on the same day. By the 10th
century all churches (except some on the eastern border of the Byzantine Empire) had
adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March,
although Bede had already noted its drift in 725—it had drifted even further by the 16th
century.[11]
Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by
a 19-year cycle. That approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by the
16th century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days.
European scholars had been well aware of the calendar drift since the early medieval
period. Bede, writing in the 8th century, showed that the accumulated error in his day was
more than three days. Roger Bacon in c. 1200 estimated the error at seven or eight
days. Dante, writing c. 1300, was aware of the need of a calendar reform. The first attempt to
go forward with such a reform was undertaken by Pope Sixtus IV, who in 1475
invited Regiomontanus to the Vatican for this purpose. However, the project was interrupted
by the death of Regiomontanus shortly after his arrival in Rome.[12] The increase of
astronomical knowledge and the precision of observations towards the end of the 15th
century made the question more pressing. Numerous publications over the following
decades called for a calendar reform, among them two papers sent to the Vatican by
the University of Salamanca in 1515 and 1578,[13]but the project was not taken up again until
the 1540s, and implemented only under Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585).
First page of the papal bull Inter gravissimas
Source;Pope Gregory XIII - http://www.henk-reints.nl/cal/gregcal.htm

The first page of the papal bull "Inter Gravissimas" by which Pope Gregory XIII
introduced his calendar.
Detail of the pope's tomb by Camillo Rusconi (completed 1723); Antonio Lilio is genuflecting before the
pope, presenting his printed calendar.
Source;amillo Rusconi (1658–1728); photograph de:User:Rsuessbr - Own work

Inscription on the grave of Gregory XIII, St. Peter's Basilica, gregorian calendar
Preparation
In 1545, the Council of Trent authorized Pope Paul III to reform the calendar, requiring that the
date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of
Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This
would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter.
In 1577, a Compendium was sent to expert mathematicians outside the reform commission
for comments. Some of these experts, including Giambattista Benedetti and Giuseppe
Moleto, believed Easter should be computed from the true motions of the sun and moon,
rather than using a tabular method, but these recommendations were not adopted.[14] The
reform adopted was a modification of a proposal made by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius
Lilius (or Lilio).[15]
Lilius's proposal included reducing the number of leap years in four centuries from 100 to 97,
by making three out of four centurial years common instead of leap years. He also produced
an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the
annual date of Easter, solving a long-standing obstacle to calendar reform.
Ancient tables provided the sun's mean longitude.[16][17] The German
mathematician Christopher Clavius, the architect of the Gregorian calendar, noted that the
tables agreed neither on the time when the sun passed through the vernal equinox nor on the
length of the mean tropical year. Tycho Brahe also noticed discrepancies.[18][19]The Gregorian
leap year rule (97 leap years in 400 years) was put forward by Petrus Pitatus of Verona in
1560. He noted that it is consistent with the tropical year of the Alfonsine tables and with the
mean tropical year of Copernicus (De revolutionibus) and Erasmus Reinhold (Prutenic
tables). The three mean tropical years in Babylonian sexagesimals as the excess over 365
days (the way they would have been extracted from the tables of mean longitude) were
14,33,9,57 (Alfonsine), 14,33,11,12 (Copernicus) and 14,33,9,24 (Reinhold). All values are the
same to two places (14:33) and this is also the mean length of the Gregorian year. Thus
Pitatus' solution would have commended itself to the astronomers.[20]
Lilius's proposals had two components. Firstly, he proposed a correction to the length of the
year. The mean tropical year is 365.24219 days long.[21] A commonly used value in Lilius's
time, from the Alfonsine tables, is 365.2425463 days.[22] As the average length of a Julian year
is 365.25 days, the Julian year is almost 11 minutes longer than the mean tropical year. The
discrepancy results in a drift of about three days every 400 years. Lilius's proposal resulted
in an average year of 365.2425 days (see Accuracy). At the time of Gregory's reform there had
already been a drift of 10 days since the Council of Nicaea, resulting in the vernal equinox
falling on 10 or 11 March instead of the ecclesiastically fixed date of 21 March, and if
unreformed it would drift further. Lilius proposed that the 10-day drift should be corrected by
deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences over a period of forty years,
thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to 21 March.
Lilius's work was expanded upon by Christopher Clavius in a closely argued, 800-page
volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors. Clavius's opinion was
that the correction should take place in one move, and it was this advice which prevailed with
Gregory.
The second component consisted of an approximation which would provide an accurate yet
simple, rule-based calendar. Lilius's formula was a 10-day correction to revert the drift since
the Council of Nicaea, and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1
year in 4. The proposed rule was that years divisible by 100 would be leap years only if they
were divisible by 400 as well.
The 19-year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300
or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years that are no longer
leap years (i.e., 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc.). In fact, a new method for computing the date of
Easter was introduced.
When the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the
Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of 10 days. The Julian calendar day Thursday,
4 October 1582 was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October
1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected).
Adoption
Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
Although Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church,
the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church and the Papal States. The changes that
he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no authority. They
required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect.
The bull Inter gravissimas became the law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not
recognised by Protestant Churches, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox
Churches, and a few others. Consequently, the days on which Easter and related holidays
were celebrated by different Christian Churches again diverged.
A month after having decreed the reform, the pope with a brief of 3 April 1582 granted to
Antonio Lilio, the brother of Luigi Lilio, the exclusive right to publish the calendar for a period
of ten years. The Lunario Novo secondo la nuova riforma printed by Vincenzo Accolti, one of
the first calendars printed in Rome after the reform, notes at the bottom that it was signed
with papal authorization and by Lilio (Con licentia delli Superiori... et permissu Ant(onii) Lilij).
The papal brief was later revoked, on 20 September 1582, because Antonio Lilio proved
unable to keep up with the demand for copies.[23]
On 29 September 1582, Philip II of Spain decreed the change from the Julian to the Gregorian
calendar.[24] This affected much of Roman Catholic Europe, as Philip was at the time ruler
over Spain and Portugal as well as much of Italy. In these territories, as well as in the Polish–
Lithuanian Commonwealth[citation needed] (ruled by Anna Jagiellon) and in the Papal States, the
new calendar was implemented on the date specified by the bull, with Julian Thursday, 4
October 1582, being followed by Gregorian Friday, 15 October 1582.
The Spanish and Portuguese colonies followed somewhat later de facto because of delay in
communication.[25]
Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some
Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. For
example, the British could not bring themselves to adopt the Catholic system explicitly: the
Annexe to their Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 established a computation for the date of
Easter that achieved the same result as Gregory's rules, without actually referring to him.[26]
Britain and the British Empire (including the eastern part of what is now the United States)
adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752. Sweden followed in 1753.
Prior to 1917, Turkey used the lunar Islamic calendar with the Hegira era for general purposes
and the Julian calendar for fiscal purposes. The start of the fiscal year was eventually fixed at
1 March and the year number was roughly equivalent to the Hegira year (see Rumi calendar).
As the solar year is longer than the lunar year this originally entailed the use of "escape
years" every so often when the number of the fiscal year would jump. From 1 March 1917 the
fiscal year became Gregorian, rather than Julian. On 1 January 1926 the use of the Gregorian
calendar was extended to include use for general purposes and the number of the year
became the same as in most other countries.
Adoption of the Gregorian Calendar
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
1582: Spain, Portugal, 1610: 1700: 'Germany',[Note 1873: 1912: China,

France, Poland, Italy, Prussia 7]
Swiss Cantons, Japan Albania
Catholic Low 1648: Alsace Protestant Low 1875: 1915: Latvia,
Countries, Luxemburg, 1682: Countries, Norway, Egypt Lithuania
and colonies Strasbourg Denmark 1896: 1916: Bulgaria
1584: Kingdom of 1752: Great Britain and Korea 1918: Russia,
Bohemia colonies Estonia
1753: Sweden and 1919: Romania,
Finland Yugoslavia[Note 8]
1923: Greece
1926: Turkey
Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar

dates
Conversion from Julian to Gregorian dates.[27]
Gregorian range Julian range Difference
From 15 October 1582 From 5 October 1582 10 days

to 28 February 1700 to 18 February 1700
From 1 March 1700 From 19 February 1700

11 days

12 days

13 days

14 days
Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between Gregorian and
Julian calendar dates has increased by three days every four centuries (all date ranges are
inclusive):
This section always places the intercalary day on 29 February even though it was always
obtained by doubling 24 February (the bissextum (twice sixth) or bissextile day) until the
late Middle Ages. The Gregorian calendar is proleptic before 1582 (assumed to exist before
1582).
The following equation gives the number of days (actually, dates) that the Gregorian calendar
is ahead of the Julian calendar, called the secular difference between the two calendars. A
negative difference means the Julian calendar is ahead of the Gregorian calendar.[28]
where is the secular difference and is the year using astronomical year
numbering, that is, use (year BC) − 1 for BC years. means that if the result of the
division is not an integer it is rounded down to the nearest integer. Thus during the
1900s, 1900/400 = 4, while during the −500s, −500/400 = −2.
The general rule, in years which are leap years in the Julian calendar but not the
Gregorian, is as follows:
Up to 28 February in the calendar you are converting from add one day less or subtract
one day more than the calculated value. Remember to give February the appropriate
number of days for the calendar you are converting into. When you are subtracting days
to move from Julian to Gregorian be careful, when calculating the Gregorian equivalent of
29 February (Julian), to remember that 29 February is discounted. Thus if the calculated
value is −4 the Gregorian equivalent of this date is 24 February.[29][30]
Beginning of the year

Start numbered year Adoption of
Country
on 1 January Gregorian calendar
Denmark Gradual change from 1700

Start numbered year Adoption of
Country
on 1 January Gregorian calendar
13th to 16th centuries[31]
Holy Roman Empire (Catholic states) 1544 1583
Spain, Poland, Portugal 1556 1582
Holy Roman Empire (Protestant states) 1559 1700[Note 7]
Sweden 1559 1753
France 1564[33] 1582[n 1]
Southern Netherlands 1576[34] 1582
Lorraine 1579 1582[Note 9]
Dutch Republic 1583 1582
Scotland 1600[35][36] 1752
Russia 1700[37] 1918
Tuscany 1750[38][39] 1582[40]
Great Britain and the British Empire

1752[35] 1752
except Scotland
Venice 1797[41] 1582
The year used in dates during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was the
consular year, which began on the day when consuls first entered office probably 1 May
before 222 BC, 15 March from 222 BC and 1 January from 153 BC.[42] The Julian calendar,
which began in 45 BC, continued to use 1 January as the first day of the new year. Even
though the year used for dates changed, the civil year always displayed its months in the
order January to December from the Roman Republican period until the present.
During the Middle Ages, under the influence of the Catholic Church, many Western
European countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian
festivals 25 December (supposed Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (Annunciation), or Easter
(France),[43] while the Byzantine Empire began its year on 1 September and Russia did so
on 1 March until 1492 when the new year was moved to 1 September.[44]
In common usage, 1 January was regarded as New Year's Day and celebrated as
such,[45] but from the 12th century until 1751 the legal year in England began on 25 March
(Lady Day).[46] So, for example, the Parliamentary record lists the execution of Charles I on
30 January as occurring in 1648 (as the year did not end until 24 March),[47] although later
histories adjust the start of the year to 1 January and record the execution as occurring in
1649.[48]
Most Western European countries changed the start of the year to 1 January before they
adopted the Gregorian calendar. For example, Scotland changed the start of the Scottish
New Year to 1 January in 1600 (this means that 1599 was a short year). England, Ireland
and the British colonies changed the start of the year to 1 January in 1752 (so 1751 was a
short year with only 282 days) though in England the start of the tax year remained at 25
March (O.S.), 5 April (N.S.) until 1800, when it moved to 6 April. Later in 1752 in September
the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies (see
the section Adoption). These two reforms were implemented by the Calendar (New Style)
Act 1750.[49]
In some countries, an official decree or law specified that the start of the year should be 1
January. For such countries a specific year when a 1 January-year became the norm can
be identified. In other countries the customs varied, and the start of the year moved back
and forth as fashion and influence from other countries dictated various customs.
Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly fix such a date, though it is
implied by two tables of saint's days, one labelled 1582 which ends on 31 December, and
another for any full year that begins on 1 January. It also specifies its epact relative to 1
January, in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to 22 March. The
old date was derived from the Greek system: the earlier Supputatio Romana specified it
relative to 1 January.
1. ^ In 1793 France abandoned the Gregorian calendar in favour of the French Republican
Calendar. This change was reverted in 1805.
Dual dating
During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar,
and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate
the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for
example, "10/21 February 1750/51", where the dual year accounts for some countries
already beginning their numbered year on 1 January while others were still using some
other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the
different beginnings of the year in various countries. Woolley, writing in his biography
of John Dee (1527–1608/9), notes that immediately after 1582 English letter writers
"customarily" used "two dates" on their letters, one OS and one NS.
.[
A 16th-century portrait by an unknown artis
50]
Old Style and New Style dates

Old Style and New Style dates and Dual dating
"Old Style" (OS) and "New Style" (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which
calendar reference system is used for the date given. In Britain and its Colonies, where
the Calendar Act of 1750 altered the start of the year,[Note 10] and also aligned the British
calendar with the Gregorian calendar, there is some confusion as to what these terms
mean. They can indicate that the start of the Julian year has been adjusted to start on 1
January (NS) even though contemporary documents use a different start of year (OS); or
to indicate that a date conforms to the Julian calendar (OS), formerly in use in many
countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar (NS).[48][51][52][53]
Proleptic Gregorian calendar

Proleptic Gregorian calendar
Extending the Gregorian calendar backwards to dates preceding its official introduction
produces a proleptic calendar, which should be used with some caution. For ordinary
purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as
they appeared in the Julian calendar, with the year starting on 1 January, and no
conversion to their Gregorian equivalents. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is
universally considered to have been fought on 25 October 1415 which is Saint Crispin's
Day.
Usually, the mapping of new dates onto old dates with a start of year adjustment works
well with little confusion for events that happened before the introduction of the
Gregorian calendar. But for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian
calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there
can be considerable confusion between events in continental western Europe and in
British domains in English language histories.
Events in continental western Europe are usually reported in English language histories
as happening under the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is
always given as 13 August 1704. Confusion occurs when an event affects both. For
example, William III of England set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November 1688
(Gregorian calendar) and arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November 1688 (Julian
calendar).
Shakespeare and Cervantes seemingly died on exactly the same date (23 April 1616), but
Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by ten days in real time (as Spain used the
Gregorian calendar, but Britain used the Julian calendar). This coincidence
encouraged UNESCO to make 23 April the World Book and Copyright Day.
Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the Julian day number.
For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in
the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the
Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2, ... both
for years AD and BC. Thus the traditional time line is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO
8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers
before it. Thus the ISO 8601 time line is −0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002.
Months
The Gregorian calendar continued to employ the Julian months, which have Latinate
names and irregular numbers of days:
 January (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Iānuārius, "Month of Janus",[54] the Roman
god of gates, doorways, beginnings and endings
 February (28 days in common and 29 in leap years), from Latin mēnsis Februārius,
"Month of the Februa", the Roman festival of purgation and
purification,[55][56]cognate with fever,[55] the Etruscan death god Februus ("Purifier"),
]
and the PIE word for sulfur[55]
 March (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Mārtius, "Month of Mars",[57] the Roman war god[56]
 April (30 days), from Latin mēnsis Aprīlis, of uncertain meaning[58] but usually derived
from some form of the verb aperire ("to open")[59] or the name of the
goddess Aphrodite[56][63]
 May (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Māius, "Month of Maia",[64] a Roman vegetation
goddess[56] whose name is cognate with Latin magnus ("great")[64] and English major
 June (30 days), from Latin mēnsis Iūnius, "Month of Juno",[65] the Roman goddess
of marriage, childbirth, and rule[56]
 July (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Iūlius, "Month of Julius Caesar", the month of
Caesar's birth, instituted in 44 BC[66] as part of his calendrical reforms[56]
 August (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Augustus, "Month of Augustus", instituted by
Augustus in 8 BC in agreement with July and from the occurrence during the month of
several important events during his rise to power[67]
 September (30 days), from Latin mēnsis september, "seventh month", from its
position in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[68]
 October (31 days), from Latin mēnsis octōber, "eighth month",[69] from its position in
the Roman calendar before 153 BC[68]
 November (30 days), from Latin mēnsis november, "ninth month",[70] from its position
in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[68]
 December (31 days), from Latin mēnsis december, "tenth month",[71] from its position
in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[68]
Europeans sometimes attempt to remember the number of days in each month by
memorizing some form of the traditional verse "Thirty Days Hath September". It appears
in Latin,[72][73] Italian,[74] and French,[75] and belongs to a broad oral tradition but the earliest
currently attested form of the poem is the English marginalia inserted into a calendar of
saints c. 1425:[76][77][78]
Thirti dayes hath novembir Thirty days have November,

April june and Septembir. April, June, and September.
Of xxviij is but oon Of 28 is but one
And alle the remenaunt xxx and j[77] And all the remnant 30 and 1.
The knuckle mnemonic for the days of the months of the year
Source;Tijmen Stam / IIVQ - Own work

Image to remember how many days a month has. This pattern also correlates to the
white & black keys of the twelve notes in the musical scale on a piano. An alternative
hand mnemonic for the months in the Gregorian calendar is here:Calendar Hand
Mnemonic - Musical white keys-black keys.png
Variations appeared in Mother Goose and continue to be taught at schools. The

unhelpfulness of such involved mnemonicshas been parodied as "Thirty days hath
September / But all the rest I can't remember"[79] but it has also been called "probably the
only sixteenth-century poem most ordinary citizens know by heart".[80] A common
nonverbal alternative is the knuckle mnemonic, considering the knuckles of
one's hands as months with 31 days and the lower spaces between them as the months
with fewer days. Using two hands, one may start from either pinkie knuckle as January
and count across, omitting the space between the index knuckles (July and August). The
same procedure can be done using the knuckles of a single hand, returning from the last
(July) to the first (August) and continuing through. A similar mnemonic is to move up
a piano keyboard in semitones from an F key, taking the white keys as the longer months
and the black keys as the shorter ones.
Weeks
Main article: Seven-day week
In conjunction with the system of months there is a system of weeks. A physical or

electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday, and shows
multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very
simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system. When the Gregorian
calendar was adopted by each country, the weekly cycle continued uninterrupted. For
example, in the case of the few countries that adopted the reformed calendar on the date
proposed by Gregory XIII for the calendar's adoption, Friday, 15 October 1582, the
preceding date was Thursday, 4 October 1582 (Julian calendar).
Opinions vary about the numbering of the days of the week. ISO 8601, in common use
worldwide, starts with Monday=1; printed monthly calendar grids often list Mondays in
the first (left) column of dates and Sundays in the last. In North America, the week
typically begins on Sunday and ends on Saturday.
Accuracy
The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by
skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of
365.2425 mean solar days long.[81] This approximation has an error of about one day per
3,030 years[82] with respect to the current value of the mean tropical year. However,
because of the precession of the equinoxes, which is not constant, and the movement of
the perihelion (which affects the Earth's orbital speed) the error with respect to
the astronomical vernal equinox is variable; using the average interval between vernal
equinoxes near 2000 of 365.24237 days[83] implies an error closer to 1 day every 7,700
years. By any criterion, the Gregorian calendar is substantially more accurate than the 1
day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days).
In the 19th century, Sir John Herschel proposed a modification to the Gregorian calendar
with 969 leap days every 4000 years, instead of 970 leap days that the Gregorian calendar
would insert over the same period.[84] This would reduce the average year to 365.24225
days. Herschel's proposal would make the year 4000, and multiples thereof, common
instead of leap. While this modification has often been proposed since, it has never been
officially adopted.[85]
On time scales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the
astronomical seasons because the slowing down of the Earth's rotation makes each day
slightly longer over time (see tidal acceleration and leap second) while the year maintains
a more uniform duration.
Calendar seasonal error

This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the astronomical
seasons.
The y-axis is the date in June and the x-axis is Gregorian calendar years.
Each point is the date and time of the June solstice in that particular year. The error shifts
by about a quarter of a day per year. Centurial years are ordinary years, unless they are
divisible by 400, in which case they are leap years. This causes a correction in the years
1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300.
For instance, these corrections cause 23 December 1903 to be the latest December
solstice, and 20 December 2096 to be the earliest solstice—about 2.35 days of variation
compared with the seasonal event.
Proposed reforms
The following are proposed reforms of the Gregorian calendar:
 Holocene calendar
 International Fixed Calendar (also called the International Perpetual calendar)
 World Calendar
 World Season Calendar
 Leap week calendars
 Pax Calendar
 Symmetry454
 Hanke–Henry Permanent Calendar
LUNAR CALENDAR.
A lunar calendar is a calendar based upon the monthly cycles of the Moon's phases (synodic months), in contrast
to solar calendars, whose annual cycles are based only directly upon the solar year. The most commonly used
calendar, the Gregorian calendar, is a solar calendar system that originally evolved out of a lunar calendar system.
A purely lunar calendar is also distinguished from a lunisolar calendar, whose lunar months are brought into
alignment with the solar year through some process of intercalation. The details of when months begin varies from
calendar to calendar, with some using new, full, or crescent moons and others employing detailed calculations.
Since each lunation is approximately 29 1⁄2 days (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds, or 29.530588 days), it is
common for the months of a lunar calendar to alternate between 29 and 30 days. Since the period of twelve such
lunations, a lunar year, is only 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 34 seconds (354.367056 days), purely lunar calendars
lose around 11 days per year relative to the Gregorian calendar. In purely lunar calendars like the Islamic calendar,
the lack of intercalation causes the lunar months to cycle through all the seasons of the Gregorian year over the
course of a 33 lunar-year cycle.
Although the Gregorian calendar is in common and legal use in most countries, traditional lunar and lunisolar
calendars continue to be used throughout the Old Worldto determine religious festivals and national holidays.
Examples of such holidays include Ramadan (Islamic calendar); Easter,
the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Mongolian New Year (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese,
and Mongolian calendars); the Nepali New Year (Nepali calendar); the Mid-Autumn
Festival and Chuseok (Chinese and Korean calendars); Loi Krathong (Thai
calendar); Sunuwar calendar; Vesak/Buddha's Birthday (Buddhist calendar); Diwali (Hindu calendars); and Rosh
Hashanah (Hebrew calendar).
A Spanish lunar calendar for 2017
Fernando de Gorocica - Own work y datos del "M1 Sistema Astronómico"©.
CALENDARIO LUNAR 2017 . Las 4 fases lunares en todo el año 2017 y para observadores del hemisferio Sur.
Para cada fase se describe: día del mes, día de la semana, hora de la fase en Tiempo Universal (Greenwich) y
constelación.
History of lunar calendar

The earliest known lunar calendar was found at Warren Field in Scotland and has been dated to c. 8000 BC, during
its Mesolithic period.[1] Some scholars argue for lunar calendars still further back—Rappenglück in the marks on
a c. 17,000 year-old cave painting at Lascaux and Marshack in the marks on a c. 27,000 year-old bone baton—but
their findings remain controversial.[2][3]
Lunisolar calendars
Lunisolar calendar
Most calendars referred to as "lunar" calendars are in fact lunisolar calendars. Their months are based on
observations of the lunar cycle, with intercalation being used to bring them into general agreement with the solar
year. The solar "civic calendar" that was used in ancient Egypt showed traces of its origin in the earlier lunar
calendar, which continued to be used alongside it for religious and agricultural purposes. Present-day lunisolar
calendars include the Chinese, Hindu, and Thaicalendars.
Synodic months are 29 or 30 days in length, making a lunar year of 12 months about 11 days shorter than a solar
year. Some lunar calendars do not use intercalation, such as most Islamic calendars. For those that do, such as
the Hebrew calendar, the most common form of intercalation is to add an additional month every second or third
year. Some lunisolar calendars are also calibrated by annual natural events which are affected by lunar cycles as
well as the solar cycle. An example of this is the lunar calendar of the Banks Islands, which includes three months
in which the edible palolo worm mass on the beaches. These events occur at the last quarter of the lunar month, as
the reproductive cycle of the palolos is synchronized with the moon. [4]
Start of the lunar month

Lunar and lunisolar calendars differ as to which day is the first day of the month. In some lunisolar calendars, such
as the Chinese calendar, the first day of a month is the day when an astronomical new moon occurs in a particular
time zone. In others, such as some Hindu calendars, each month begins on the day after the full moon or the new
moon. Others were based in the past on the first sighting of a lunar crescent, such as the Hebrew calendar and
the Hijri calendar.
Length of the lunar month

The length of each lunar cycle varies slightly from the average value. In addition, observations are subject to
uncertainty and weather conditions. Thus to avoid uncertainty about the calendar, there have been attempts to
create fixed arithmetical rules to determine the start of each calendar month.
The average length of the synodic month is 29.530587981 days. Thus it is convenient if months generally alternate
between 29 and 30 days (sometimes termed respectively “hollow” and “full”). The distribution
of hollow and full months can be determined using continued fractions, and examining successive approximations
for the length of the month in terms of fractions of a day. In the list below, after the number of days listed in the
numerator, an integer number of months as listed in the denominator have been completed:
Fraction Approximate duration
29/1 1 day after about 2 months
30/1 1 day after about 2 months
59/2 1 day after about 2.6 years
443/15 1 day after about 30 years
1447/49 1 day after about 3 millennia
Not accurate due to the multi-millennial

25101/850
change of the synodic month length.
These fractions can be used to construct a lunar calendar, or in combination with a solar calendar to produce
a lunisolar calendar. A 49-month cycle was proposed as the basis of an alternative Easter computation by Isaac
Newton around 1700.[5] The tabular Islamic calendar's 360-month cycle is equivalent to 24×15 months, minus a
correction of one day.
APPARATUS.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

. The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,[1] is a satellite-
based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by
the United States Air Force.[2] It is a global navigation satellite system that
provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.[3] Obstacles such
as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.
The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any
telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of
the GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to
military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created
the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.[4]
The GPS project was launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973 for use by the
United States military and became fully operational in 1995. It was allowed for civilian use in
the 1980s. Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to
efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites
and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX).[5] Announcements from Vice
President Al Goreand the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S.
Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. During the 1990s, GPS quality was
degraded by the United States government in a program called "Selective Availability"; this
was discontinued in May 2000 by a law signed by President Bill Clinton.[6]
The GPS system is provided by the United States government, which can selectively deny
access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War, or
degrade the service at any time.[7] As a result, several countries have developed or are in the
process of setting up other global or regional satellite navigation systems. The Russian
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS,
but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s.[8] GLONASS can be
added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed
more quickly and accurately, to within two meters (6.6 ft).[9] China's BeiDou Navigation
Satellite System is due to achieve global reach in 2020. There are also the European
Union Galileo positioning system, and India's NAVIC. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite
System (scheduled to commence in November 2018) will be a GPS satellite-based
augmentation system to enhance GPS's accuracy.
When selective availability was lifted in 2000, GPS had about a five-meter (16 ft) accuracy.
The latest stage of accuracy enhancement uses the L5 band and is now fully deployed. GPS
receivers released in 2018 that use the L5 band can have much higher accuracy, pinpointing
to within 30 centimetres or 11.8 inches.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Country/ies of origin United States

Operator(s) AFSPC
Type Military, civilian
Status Operational
Coverage Global
Accuracy 500–30 cm (20–1 ft)
Constellation size
Total satellites 33
Satellites in orbit 31
First launch February 1978; 40 years ago
Total launches 72
Orbital characteristics
Regime(s) 6x MEO planes
Orbital height 20,180 km (12,540 mi)

Artist's conception of GPS Block II-F satellite in Earth orbit.
Source;NASA - http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/ftp/gps/ggeninfo/gps-iif.tif[dead link] (Wayback Machine)
Artist's conception of GPS Block II-F satellite in Earth orbit.
OBSERVATIONS;
INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL
UNION PERMIT.
The International Astronomical Union (IAU; French: Union astronomique internationale, UAI)
is an international association of professional astronomers, at the PhD level and beyond,
active in professional research and education in astronomy.[2] Among other activities, it acts
as the internationally recognized authority for assigning designations and names to celestial
bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.) and any surface features on them.[3]
The IAU is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU). Its main objective is to
promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international
cooperation. The IAU maintains friendly relations with organizations that include amateur
astronomers in their membership. The IAU has its head office on the second floor of the
Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris in the 14th arrondissement of Paris.[4] Working groups
include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains
the astronomical naming conventions and planetary nomenclature for planetary bodies, and
the Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), which catalogs and standardizes proper names
for stars. The IAU is also responsible for the system of astronomical telegrams which are
produced and distributed on its behalf by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams.
The Minor Planet Center also operates under the IAU, and is a "clearinghouse" for all non-
planetary or non-moon bodies in the Solar System.[5] The Working Group for Meteor Shower
Nomenclature and the Meteor Data Center coordinate the nomenclature of meteor showers.
International Astronomical Union (IAU)
Union astronomique internationale (UAI)
National members from 79 countries
Formation 28 July 1919; 99 years ago
Headquarters Paris, France
Membership 79 national members
12,664 individual members[1]
President Ewine van Dishoeck
General Secretary Maria Teresa Lago
Website IAU.org
History of IAU.
The IAU was founded on 28 July 1919, at the Constitutive Assembly of the International
Research Council (now International Council for Science) held in Brussels, Belgium.[6][7] Two
subsidiaries of the IAU were also created at this assembly: the International Time
Commission seated at the International Time Bureau in Paris, France, and the International
Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams initially seated in Copenhagen, Denmark.[6] The 7
initial member states were Belgium, Canada, France, Great Britain, Greece, Japan, and the
United States, soon to be followed by Italy and Mexico.[6] The first executive committee
consisted of Benjamin Baillaud (President, France), Alfred Fowler (General Secretary, UK),
and four vice presidents: William Campbell (USA), Frank Dyson (UK), Georges
Lecointe (Belgium), and Annibale Riccò (Italy).[6] Thirty-two Commissions (referred to initially
as Standing Committees) were appointed at the Brussels meeting and focused on topics
ranging from relativity to minor planets. The reports of these 32 Commissions formed the
main substance of the first General Assembly, which took place in Rome, Italy, 2–10 May
1922. By the end of the first General Assembly, ten additional nations (Australia, Brazil,
Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, South Africa, and
Spain) had joined the Union, bringing the total membership to 19 countries. Although the
Union was officially formed eight months after the end of World War I, international
collaboration in astronomy had been strong in the pre-war era (e.g., the Astronomische
Gesellschaft Katalog projects since 1868, the Astrographic Catalogue since 1887, and the
International Union for Solar research since 1904).[6]
The first 50 years of the Union's history are well documented.[6][7] Subsequent history is
recorded in the form of reminiscences of past IAU Presidents and General Secretaries.
Twelve of the fourteen past General Secretaries in the period 1964-2006 contributed their
recollections of the Union's history in IAU Information Bulletin No. 100.[8] Six past IAU
Presidents in the period 1976–2003 also contributed their recollections in IAU Information
Bulletin No. 104.[9]
Composition
The IAU includes a total of 12,664 individual members who are professional astronomers
from 96 countries worldwide.[10] 83% of all individual members are male, while 17% are female,
among them the union's former president, Mexican astronomer Silvia Torres-Peimbert.
Membership also includes 79 national members, professional astronomical communities
representing their country's affiliation with the IAU. National members include the Australian
Academy of Science, the Chinese Astronomical Society, the French Academy of Sciences,
the Indian National Science Academy, the National Academies (United States), the National
Research Foundation of South Africa, the National Scientific and Technical Research
Council (Argentina), KACST (Saudi Arabia), the Council of German Observatories, the Royal
Astronomical Society (United Kingdom), the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand,
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Science
Council of Japan, among many others.[11]
The sovereign body of the IAU is its General Assembly, which comprises all members. The
Assembly determines IAU policy, approves the Statutes and By-Laws of the Union (and
amendments proposed thereto) and elects various committees.
The right to vote on matters brought before the Assembly varies according to the type of
business under discussion. The Statutes consider such business to be divided into two
categories:
 issues of a "primarily scientific nature" (as determined by the Executive Committee),

upon which voting is restricted to individual members, and
 all other matters (such as Statute revision and procedural questions), upon which voting
is restricted to the representatives of national members.
On budget matters (which fall into the second category), votes are weighted according to the
relative subscription levels of the national members. A second category vote requires a
turnout of at least two-thirds of national members in order to be valid. An absolute majority is
sufficient for approval in any vote, except for Statute revision which requires a two-thirds
majority. An equality of votes is resolved by the vote of the President of the Union.
The IAU includes member organizations from 79 countries (designated as National Members)[11]
General Assemblies
Since 1922, the IAU General Assembly meets every three years, with the exception of the
period between 1938 and 1948, due to World War II. After a Polish request in 1967, and by a
controversial decision of the then President of the IAU, an Extraordinary IAU General
Assembly was held in September 1973 in Warsaw, Poland,[12] to commemorate the 500th
anniversary of the birth of Nicolaus Copernicus, soon after the regular 1973 GA had been
held in Sydney, Australia.
Meeting Year Venue
Ist IAU General Assembly (1st) 1922 Rome, Italy
IInd IAU General Assembly (2nd) 1925 Cambridge, England, United Kingdom
IIIrd IAU General Assembly (3rd) 1928 Leiden, Netherlands
IVth IAU General Assembly (4th) 1932 Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
Vth IAU General Assembly (5th) 1935 Paris, France
VIth IAU General Assembly (6th) 1938 Stockholm, Sweden
VIIth IAU General Assembly (7th) 1948 Zürich, Switzerland
VIIIth IAU General Assembly (8th) 1952 Rome, Italy
IXth IAU General Assembly (9th) 1955 Dublin, Ireland
Xth IAU General Assembly (10th) 1958 Moscow, Soviet Union
XIth IAU General Assembly (11th) 1961 Berkeley, California, United States
XIIth IAU General Assembly (12th) 1964 Hamburg, West Germany
XIIIth IAU General Assembly (13th) 1967 Prague, Czechoslovakia
XIVth IAU General Assembly (14th) 1970 Brighton, England, United Kingdom
XVth IAU General Assembly (15th) 1973 Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
XVIth IAU General Assembly (16th) 1976 Grenoble, France
XVIIth IAU General Assembly (17th) 1979 Montreal, Quebec, Canada
XVIIIth IAU General Assembly (18th) 1982 Patras, Greece
XIXth IAU General Assembly (19th) 1985 New Delhi, India

XXth IAU General Assembly (20th) 1988 Baltimore, Maryland, United States
XXIst IAU General Assembly (21st) 1991 Buenos Aires, Argentina
XXIInd IAU General Assembly (22nd) 1994 The Hague, Netherlands
XXIIIrd IAU General Assembly (23rd) 1997 Kyoto, Kansai, Japan
XXIVth IAU General Assembly (24th) 2000 Manchester, England, United Kingdom
XXVth IAU General Assembly (25th) 2003 Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
XXVIth IAU General Assembly (26th) 2006 Prague, Czech Republic
XXVIIth IAU General Assembly (27th) 2009 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
XXVIIIth IAU General Assembly (28th) 2012 Beijing, China
XXIXth IAU General Assembly (29th) 2015 Honolulu, Hawaii, United States
XXXth IAU General Assembly (30th) 2018 Vienna, Austria
XXXIst IAU General Assembly (31st) 2021 Busan, South Korea
List of the Presidents of the IAU

Sources.[13][14]
 (1919–1922)  (1958–1961) Jan Oort  (1991–1994)

Benjamin Baillaud  (1961–1964) Victor Aleksandr Boyarchuk
 (1922–1925) William Ambartsumian  (1994–1997)
Wallace Campbell  (1964–1967) Pol Lodewijk Woltjer
 (1925–1928) Willem Swings  (1997–2000) Robert
de Sitter  (1967–1970) Otto Kraft
 (1928–1932) Frank Heckmann  (2000–2003) Franco
Watson Dyson  (1970–1973) Bengt Pacini
 (1932–1935) Frank Strömgren  (2003–2006)
Schlesinger  (1973–1976) Leo Ronald Ekers
 (1935–1938) Ernest Goldberg  (2006–2009)
Esclangon  (1976–1979) Adriaan Catherine Cesarsky
 (1938–1944) Arthur Blaauw  (2009–2012) Robert
Eddington  (1979–1982) Vainu Williams
 (1944–1948) Harold Bappu  (2012–2015) Norio
Spencer Jones  (1982–1985) Robert Kaifu
 (1948–1952) Bertil Hanbury Brown  (2015–2018) Silvia
Lindblad  (1985–1988) Jorge Torres-Peimbert
 (1952–1955) Otto Sahade  (since 2018) Ewine
Struve van Dishoeck
 (1988–1991)
 (1955–1958) André- Yoshihide Kozai
Louis Danjon
Commission 46: Education in astronomy

Commission 46 is a Committee of the Executive Committee of the IAU, playing a special role
in the discussion of astronomy development with governments and scientific academies. The
IAU is affiliated with the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a non-governmental
organization representing a global membership that includes both national scientific bodies
and international scientific unions. They often encourage countries to become members of
the IAU. The Commission further seeks to development, information or improvement of
astronomical education. Part of Commission 46, is Teaching Astronomy for Development
(TAD) program in countries where there is currently very little astronomical education.
Another program is named the Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP), being a project of
the International Year of Astronomy 2009, among which Hands-On Universethat will
concentrate more resources on education activities for children and schools designed to
advance sustainable global development. GTTP is also concerned with the effective use and
transfer of astronomy education tools and resources into classroom science curricula. A
strategic plan for the period 2010-2020 has been published.
COMPUTATIONAL ASTROPHYSICS.
Computational astrophysics refers to the methods and computing tools developed and used in
astrophysics research. Like computational chemistry or computational physics, it is both a specific
branch of theoretical astrophysics and an interdisciplinary field relying on computer science,
mathematics, and wider physics. Computational astrophysics is most often studied through an applied
mathematics or astrophysics programme at PhD level.
Well-established areas of astrophysics employing computational methods include

magnetohydrodynamics, astrophysical radiative transfer, stellar and galactic dynamics, and
astrophysical fluid dynamics. A recently developed field with interesting results is numerical relativity.
Research
Many astrophysicists use computers in their work, and a growing number of astrophysics departments
now have research groups specially devoted to computational astrophysics. Important research
initiatives include the US Department of Energy (DoE) SciDAC collaboration for astrophysics[1] and the
now defunct European AstroSim collaboration.[2] A notable active project is the international Virgo
Consortium, which focuses on cosmology.
In August 2015 during the general assembly of the International Astronomical Union a new commission
C.B1 on Computational Astrophysics was inaugurated, therewith recognizing the importance of
astronomical discovery by computing.
Important techniques of computational astrophysics include particle-in-cell (PIC) and the closely
related particle-mesh (PM), N-body simulations, Monte Carlo methods, as well as grid-free (with
smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) being an important example) and grid-based methods for
fluids. In addition, methods from numerical analysis for solving ODEs and PDEs are also used.
Simulation of astrophysical flows is of particular importance as many objects and processes of

astronomical interest such as stars and nebulae involve gases. Fluid computer models are often
coupled with radiative transfer, (Newtonian) gravity, nuclear physics and (general) relativity to study
highly energetic phenomena such as supernovae, relativistic jets, active galaxies and gamma-ray
bursts[3] and are also used to model stellar structure, planetary formation, evolution of stars and of
galaxies, and exotic objects such as neutron stars, pulsars, magnetars and black holes.[4] Computer
simulations are often the only means to study stellar collisions, galaxy mergers, as well as galactic and
black hole interactions.[5][6]
In recent years the field has made increasing use of parallel and high performance computers.[7]
Tools
Computational astrophysics as a field makes extensive use of software and hardware technologies.
These systems are often highly specialized and made by dedicated professionals, and so generally find
limited popularity in the wider (computational) physics community.
Hardware
Like other similar fields, computational astrophysics makes extensive use of supercomputers and
computer clusters . Even on the scale of a normal desktop it is possible to accelerate the hardware.
Perhaps the most notable such computer architecture built specially for astrophysics is the GRAPE
(gravity pipe) in Japan.
As of 2010, the biggest N-body simulations, such as DEGIMA, do general-purpose computing on

graphics processing units.[8]
Software
Many codes and software packages, exist along with various researchers and consortia maintaining
them. Most codes tend to be n-body packages or fluid solvers of some sort. Examples of n-body codes
include ChaNGa, MODEST,[9] nbodylab.org[10] and Starlab [11].
For hydrodynamics there is usually a coupling between codes, as the motion of the fluids usually has
some other effect (such as gravity, or radiation) in astrophysical situations. For example, for SPH/N-
body there is GADGET and SWIFT[12]; for grid-based/N-body RAMSES,[13] ENZO,[14] FLASH,[15] and
ART.[16]
AMUSE [3],[17] takes a different approach (called Noah's Arc [18]) than the other packages by
providing an interface structure to a large number of publicly available astronomical codes for
addressing stellar dynamics, stellar evolution, hydrodynamics and radiative transport.
See also
Millennium Simulation, Eris, and Bolshoi Cosmological Simulation are astrophysical supercomputer
simulations
Plasma modeling
Computational physics
Theoretical astronomy and theoretical astrophysics

Center for Computational Relativity and Gravitation
University of California High-Performance AstroComputing Center
GEODESY.
Geodesy (/dʒiːˈɒdɪsi/), is the earth science of accurately measuring and understanding
[1][
the Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field. The field also
[2]
incorporates studies of how these properties change over time and equivalent measurements
for other planets (known as planetary geodesy). Geodynamical phenomena
include crustalmotion, tides, and polar motion, which can be studied by designing global and
national control networks, applying space and terrestrial techniques, and relying
on datums and coordinate systems.
The word "geodesy" comes from the Ancient Greek word γεωδαισία geodaisia (literally,
"division of the Earth").
It is primarily concerned with positioning within the temporally varying gravity field. Geodesy
in the German-speaking world is divided into "higher geodesy" ("Erdmessung" or "höhere
Geodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring the Earth on the global scale, and "practical
geodesy" or "engineering geodesy" ("Ingenieurgeodäsie"), which is concerned with
measuring specific parts or regions of the Earth, and which includes surveying. Such
geodetic operations are also applied to other astronomical bodies in the solar system. It is
also the science of measuring and understanding the earth's geometric shape, orientation in
space, and gravity field.
To a large extent, the shape of the Earth is the result of its rotation, which causes
its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of
plates and of volcanism, resisted by the Earth's gravity field. This applies to the solid surface,
the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography) and the Earth's atmosphere. For this
reason, the study of the Earth's gravity field is called physical geodesy.
An old geodetic pillar (1855) at Ostend, Belgium

History of geodesy
Geodesy (/dʒiːˈɒdɨsi/), also named geodetics, is the scientific discipline that deals with the
measurement and representation of the Earth. The history of geodesy began in pre-scientific
antiquity and blossomed during the Age of Enlightenment.
Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat (see flat Earth), and the
heavens a physical dome spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were
that lunar eclipses were seen as circular shadows which could only be caused by a spherical
Earth, and that Polaris is seen lower in the sky as one travels South
Geodesy
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center's brief history of geodesy.[1]
Hellenic world
The early Greeks, in their speculation and theorizing, ranged from the flat disc advocated
by Homer to the spherical body postulated by Pythagoras. Pythagoras's idea was supported
later by Aristotle. Pythagoras was a mathematician and to him the most perfect figure was
[2]
a sphere. He reasoned that the gods would create a perfect figure and therefore the Earth was
created to be spherical in shape. Anaximenes, an early Greek philosopher, believed strongly
that the Earth was rectangular in shape.
Since the spherical shape was the most widely supported during the Greek Era, efforts to
determine its size followed. Aristotle reported that mathematicians had calculated the
circumference of the Earth (which is slightly over 40,000 km) to be 400,000 stadia (between
62,800 and 74,000 km or 46,250 and 39,250 mi) while Archimedes stated an upper bound of
3,000,000 stadia (483,000 km or 300,000 mi) using the Hellenic stadion which scholars
generally take to be 185 meters or ⁄ of a geographical mile.
1
9
Hellenistic world
In Egypt, a Greek scholar and philosopher, Eratosthenes (276 BCE – 195 BCE), devised a
method for a more explicit measurement of the earth's size. Reports from the ancient city of
Swenett, later known as Syene, stated that on the day of the summer solstice, the midday sun
shone to the bottom of a well. He observed in Alexandria, that the sun was not directly
overhead. Instead, it cast a shadow with the vertical equal to 1/50th of a circle (7° 12'). To
these observations, Hellenistic Astronomy and knowledge of the local geography had already
established that; (1) on the day of the summer solstice, the midday sun was directly over
the Tropic of Cancer; (2) Syene was on this tropic; (3) Alexandria and Syene lay on a direct
north-south line; (4) The sun was a relatively long way away (which would later be known as
the astronomical unit). He determined that distance between Alexandria and Syene was 5000
stadia, (possibly by having hired someone to walk and measure the distance, but more likely
using reports of travelers of the distance) or at the usual Hellenic 185 m per stadion, about
925 km.
Eratosthenes' method for determining the size of the Earth
From these observations, measurements, and/or "known" facts, Eratosthenes concluded that
since the angular deviation of the sun from the vertical direction at Alexandria was also the
angle of the subtended arc (see illustration), the linear distance between Alexandria and
Syene was 1/50 of the circumference of the Earth which thus must be 50×5000 = 250,000
stadia or probably 25,000 geographical miles. The circumference of the Earth is 24,902 mi
(40,075.16 km). Over the poles it is more precisely 40,008 km or 24,860 mi. The actual unit of
measure used by Eratosthenes was the stadion. No one knows for sure what his stadion
equals in modern units, possibly it was the Hellenic 185 m stadion.
Had the experiment been carried out as described, it would not be remarkable if it agreed with
actuality. What is remarkable is that the result was probably only about 0.4% too high. His
measurements were subject to several inaccuracies: (1) though at the summer solstice the
noon sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, Syene was not exactly on the tropic (which
was at 23° 43' latitude in that day) but about 22 geographical miles to the north; (2) the
difference of latitude between Alexandria (31.2 degrees north latitude) and Syene (24.1
degrees) is really 7.1 degrees rather than the perhaps rounded (1/50 of a circle) value of 7° 12'
that Eratosthenes used; (3) the actual solstice zenith distance of the noon sun at Alexandria
was 31° 12' − 23° 43' = 7° 29' or about 1/48 of a circle not 1/50 = 7° 12', an error closely
consistent with use of a vertical gnomon which fixes not the sun's center but the solar
upper limb 16' higher; (4) the most importantly flawed element, whether he measured or
adopted it, was the latitudinal distance from Alexandria to Syene (or the true Tropic
somewhat further south) which appears to have caused the overestimate that relates to most
of the error in his resulting circumference of the earth.
A parallel later ancient measurement of the size of the Earth was made by another Greek
scholar, Posidonius. He noted that the star Canopus was hidden from view in most parts of
Greece but that it just grazed the horizon at Rhodes. Posidonius is supposed to have
measured the angular elevation of Canopus at Alexandria and determined that the angle was
1/48 of circle. He used a distance from Alexandria to Rhodes, 5000 stadia, and so he
computed the Earth's circumference in stadia as 48 times 5000 = 240,000. Some scholars
[3]
see these results as luckily semi-accurate due to cancellation of errors. But since the
Canopus observations are both mistaken by over a degree, the "experiment" may be not
much more than a recycling of Eratosthenes's numbers, while altering 1/50 to the correct 1/48
of a circle. Later, either he or a follower appears to have altered the base distance to agree
with Eratosthenes's Alexandria-to-Rhodes figure of 3750 stadia since Posidonius's final
circumference was 180,000 stadia, which equals 48×3750 stadia. The 180,000 stadia
[4]
circumference of Posidonius is suspiciously close to that which results from another method
of measuring the earth, by timing ocean sunsets from different heights, a method which is
inaccurate due to horizontal atmospheric refraction.
The abovementioned larger and smaller sizes of the Earth were those used by Claudius
Ptolemy at different times, 252,000 stadia in his Almagest and 180,000 stadia in his
later Geography. His midcareer conversion resulted in the latter work's systematic
exaggeration of degree longitudes in the Mediterranean by a factor close to the ratio of the
two seriously differing sizes discussed here, which indicates that the conventional size of
[5]
the earth was what changed, not the stadion.
Ancient India
The Indian mathematician Aryabhata (AD 476–550) was a pioneer of mathematical astronomy.
He describes the earth as being spherical and that it rotates on its axis, among other things
in his work Āryabhaṭīya. Aryabhatiya is divided into four sections. Gitika, Ganitha
(mathematics), Kalakriya (reckoning of time) and Gola (celestial sphere). The discovery that
the earth rotates on its own axis from west to east is described in Aryabhatiya (Gitika 3,6;
Kalakriya 5; Gola 9,10;). For example, he explained the apparent motion of heavenly bodies
[6]
is only an illusion (Gola 9), with the following simile;

Just as a passenger in a boat moving downstream sees the stationary (trees on the
river banks) as traversing upstream, so does an observer on earth see the fixed stars
as moving towards the west at exactly the same speed (at which the earth moves from
west to east.)
Aryabhatiya also estimates the circumference of Earth, with an error of less than 1%. He
gave the circumference of the earth as 4 967 yojanas and its diameter as 1 5811/24
yojanas. Since 1 yojana = 5 miles this gives the circumference as 24 835 miles, which is
an excellent approximation to the currently accepted value of 24 902 miles. Aryabhata
[7]
gives the radii of the orbits of the planets in terms of the Earth-Sun distance as
essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He also gave the correct explanation
of lunar and solar eclipses and that the Moon shines by reflecting sunlight.[6]
Islamic world
Geography and cartography in medieval Islam: Mathematical geography and geodesy
The Muslim scholars, who held to the spherical Earth theory, used it to calculate the
distance and direction from any given point on the earth to Mecca. This determined
the Qibla, or Muslim direction of prayer. Muslim mathematicians developed spherical
trigonometry which was used in these calculations. [8]
Around AD 830 Caliph al-Ma'mun commissioned a group of astronomers led by Al-

Khwarizmi to measure the distance from Tadmur (Palmyra) to Raqqa, in modern Syria.
They found the cities to be separated by one degree of latitude and the distance between
them to be 66 ⁄ miles and thus calculated the Earth's circumference to be
2
3
[
24,000 miles. Another estimate given was 56 ⁄ Arabic miles per degree, which
[9] 2
3
corresponds to 111.8 km per degree and a circumference of 40,248 km, very close to the
currently modern values of 111.3 km per degree and 40,068 km circumference,
respectively.[10]
Muslim astronomers and geographers were aware of magnetic declination by the 15th
century, when the Egyptian astronomer 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i (d. 1469/1471) measured it
as 7 degrees from Cairo. [11]
Medieval Europe
Revising the figures attributed to Posidonius, another Greek philosopher determined
18,000 miles as the Earth's circumference. This last figure was promulgated
by Ptolemy through his world maps. The maps of Ptolemy strongly influenced the
cartographers of the Middle Ages. It is probable that Christopher Columbus, using such
maps, was led to believe that Asia was only 3 or 4 thousand miles west of Europe. [
Ptolemy's view was not universal, however, and chapter 20 of Mandeville's Travels (c.
1357) supports Eratosthenes' calculation.
It was not until the 16th century that his concept of the Earth's size was revised. During
that period the Flemish cartographer, Mercator, made successive reductions in the size of
the Mediterranean Sea and all of Europe which had the effect of increasing the size of the
earth.
Early modern period

The invention of the telescope and the theodolite and the development of logarithm
tables allowed exact triangulation and grade measurement.
Europe
In 1505 the cosmographer and explorer Duarte Pacheco Pereira calculated the value of
the degree of the meridian arc with a margin of error of only 4%, when the current error at
the time varied between 7 and 15%. [12]
Jean Picard performed the first modern meridian arc measurement in 1669–1670. He
measured a baseline using wooden rods, a telescope (for his angular measurements),
and logarithms (for computation). Jacques Cassini later continued Picard's arc (Paris
meridian arc) northward to Dunkirk and southward to the Spanish border. Cassini divided
the measured arc into two parts, one northward from Paris, another southward. When he
computed the length of a degree from both chains, he found that the length of one degree
of latitude in the northern part of the chain was shorter than that in the southern part (see
illustration).
Cassini's ellipsoid; Huygens' theoretical ellipsoid
This result, if correct, meant that the earth was not a sphere, but a prolate spheroid (taller
than wide). However, this contradicted computations by Isaac Newton and Christiaan
Huygens. In 1659, Christiaan Huygens was the first to derive the now standard formula
for the centripetal force in his work De vi centrifuga. The formula played a central role
in classical mechanics and became known as the second of Newton's laws of motion.
Newton's theory of gravitation combined with the rotation of the Earth predicted the Earth
to be an oblate spheroid (wider than tall), with a flattening of 1:230.
[13]
The issue could be settled by measuring, for a number of points on earth, the relationship
between their distance (in north-south direction) and the angles between their zeniths. On
an oblate Earth, the meridional distance corresponding to one degree of latitude will grow
toward the poles, as can be demonstrated mathematically.
The French Academy of Sciences dispatched two expeditions. One expedition (1736–37)
under Pierre Louis Maupertuis was sent to Torne Valley (near the Earth's northern pole).
The second mission (1735–44) under Pierre Bouguer was sent to what is modern-
day Ecuador, near the equator. Their measurements demonstrated an oblate Earth, with a
flattening of 1:210. This approximation to the true shape of the Earth became the
new reference ellipsoid.
In 1787 the first precise trigonometric survey to be undertaken within Britain was
the Anglo-French Survey. Its purpose was to link the Greenwich and Paris'
observatories. The survey is very significant as the forerunner of the work of
[14]
the Ordnance Survey which was founded in 1791, one year after William Roy's death.
Between 1792 and 1798 Pierre Méchain and Jean-Baptiste Delambre surveyed the Paris
meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona. They extrapolated from this measurement
the distance from the North Pole to the Equator which was 5 130 740 toises. As
the metre had to be equal to one ten-million of this distance, it was defined as 0,513074
toises or 443,296 lignes of the Toise of Peru (see below). [15]
Asia and Americas
In South America Bouguer noticed, as did George Everest in the 19th century Great
Trigonometric Survey of India, that the astronomical vertical tended to be pulled in the
direction of large mountain ranges, due to the gravitational attraction of these huge piles
of rock. As this vertical is everywhere perpendicular to the idealized surface of mean sea
level, or the geoid, this means that the figure of the Earth is even more irregular than an
ellipsoid of revolution. Thus the study of the "undulation of the geoid" became the next
great undertaking in the science of studying the figure of the Earth.
19th century
Archive with lithography plates for maps of Bavaria in the Landesamt für Vermessung und Geoinformation in Munich
Negative lithography stone and positive print of a historic map of Munich
Louis Puissant, Traité de géodésie, 1842
In the late 19th century the Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung (Central European Arc
Measurement) was established by several central European countries and a Central
Bureau was set up at the expense of Prussia, within the Geodetic Institute at Berlin. One [16]
of its most important goals was the derivation of an international ellipsoid and
a gravity formula which should be optimal not only for Europe but also for the whole
world. The Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung was an early predecessor of the International
Association of Geodesy (IAG) one of the constituent sections of the International Union
of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) which was founded in 1919. [17][18]
Geodesy and standards of length

In 1811 Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was selected to direct the U. S. coast survey, and sent
on a mission to France and England to procure instruments and standards of
measurement. The unit of length to which all distances measured in the U. S. coast
[19]
survey were referred is the French metre, of which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had
brougth a copy in the United States in 1805. [20][21]
In the early 19th century, the Paris meridian's arc was recalculated with greater precision
between Shetland and the Balearic Islands by the French astronomers François
Arago and Jean-Baptiste Biot. In 1821 they published their work as a fourth volume
following the three volumes of "Bases du système métrique décimal ou mesure de l'arc
méridien compris entre les parallèles de Dunkerque et Barcelone" (Basis for the
decimal metric system or measurement of the meridian arc comprised
between Dunkirk and Barcelona) by Delambre and Méchain. [22]
In 1860, the Russian Government at the instance of Otto Sturves invited the Governments
of Belgium, France, Prussia and England to connect their triangulations in order to
measure the length of an arc of parallel in latitude 52° and to test the accuracy of the
figure and dimensions of the Earth, as derived from the measurements of arc of meridian.
In order to combine the measurements, it was necessary to compare the geodetic
standards of length used in the different countries. The British Government invited those
of France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, Austria, Spain, United States and
Cape of Good Hope to send their standards to the Ordnance Survey office in
Southampton. Notably the standards of France, Spain and United States were based on
the metric system, whereas those of Prussia, Belgium and Russia where calibrated
against the toise, of which the oldest physical representative was the Toise of Peru. The
Toise of Peru had been constructed in 1735 for Bouguer and De La Condamine as their
standard of reference in the French Geodesic Mission, conducted in actual Ecuador from
1735 to 1744 in collaboration with the Spanish officers Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa.
Alexander Ross Clarke and Henry James published the first results of the standards'
comparisons in 1867. The same year Russia, Spain and Portugal joined the "Europäische
Gradmessung" and the General Conference of the association proposed the metre as a
uniform length standard for the Arc Measurement and recommended the establishment of
an International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
The Europäische Gradmessung decided the creation of an international geodetic
standard at the General Conference held in Paris in 1875. The Metre Convention was
signed in 1875 in Paris and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was
created under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures.
The first president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures was the
Spanish geodesist Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero. He also was the president of the
Permanent Commission of the "Europäische Gradmessung" from 1874 to 1886. In 1886
the association changed name for the International Geodetic Association and Carlos
Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was reelected as president. He remained in this position until his
death in 1891. During this period the International Geodetic Association gained worldwide
importance with the joining of United States, Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Japan. In 1883
the General Conference of the "Europäische Gradmessung" proposed to select
the Greenwich meridian as the prime meridian in the hope that Great Britain would
accede to the Metre Convention.
Geodesy and mathematics
Most of the relevant theories were derived by the German geodesist Friedrich Robert
Helmert in his famous books Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der
höheren Geodäsie, Einleitung und 1. Teil (1880) and 2. Teil] (1884); English
translation: Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy, Vol. 1 and 2. Helmert
also derived the first global ellipsoid in 1906 with an accuracy of 100 meters (0.002
percent of the Earth's radii). The US geodesist Hayford derived a global ellipsoid in ~1910,
based on intercontinental isostasy and an accuracy of 200 m. It was adopted by the IUGG
as "international ellipsoid 1924".
Geoid and reference ellipsoid
: Geoid
The geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographical features. It is
an idealized equilibrium surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence
of currents and air pressure variations, and continued under the continental masses. The
geoid, unlike the reference ellipsoid, is irregular and too complicated to serve as the
computational surface on which to solve geometrical problems like point positioning. The
geometrical separation between the geoid and the reference ellipsoid is called the
geoidal undulation. It varies globally between ±110 m, when referred to the GRS 80 ellipsoid.
A reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size (volume) as the geoid, is
described by its semi-major axis (equatorial radius) a and flattening f. The quantity f = a − b/a ,
where b is the semi-minor axis (polar radius), is a purely geometrical one. The mechanical
ellipticity of the Earth (dynamical flattening, symbol J ) can be determined to high precision
2
by observation of satellite orbit perturbations. Its relationship with the geometrical flattening
is indirect. The relationship depends on the internal density distribution, or, in simplest
terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.
The 1980 Geodetic Reference System (GRS 80) posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a
1:298.257 flattening. This system was adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). It is essentially the basis for
geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System (GPS) and is thus also in widespread
use outside the geodetic community. The numerous systems that countries have used to
create maps and charts are becoming obsolete as countries increasingly move to global,
geocentric reference systems using the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid.
The geoid is "realizable", meaning it can be consistently located on the Earth by suitable
simple measurements from physical objects like a tide gauge. The geoid can therefore be
considered a real surface. The reference ellipsoid, however, has many possible instantiations
and is not readily realizable, therefore it is an abstract surface. The third primary surface of
geodetic interest—the topographic surface of the Earth is a realizable surface.
Coordinate systems in space

Geodetic system
The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most conveniently described by
three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, X, Y and Z. Since the advent of satellite
positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric: the Z-axis is aligned with the
Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.
Prior to the era of satellite geodesy, the coordinate systems associated with a
geodetic datum attempted to be geocentric, but their origins differed from the geocenter by
hundreds of meters, due to regional deviations in the direction of the plumbline (vertical).
These regional geodetic data, such as ED 50 (European Datum 1950) or NAD 27 (North
American Datum 1927) have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional "best fits" to
the geoids within their areas of validity, minimizing the deflections of the vertical over these
areas.
It is only because GPS satellites orbit about the geocenter, that this point becomes naturally
the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite
positions in space are themselves computed in such a system.
Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes:
1. Inertial reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative
to the fixed stars, or equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal gyroscopes; the X-axis
points to the vernal equinox
2. Co-rotating, also ECEF ("Earth Centred, Earth Fixed"), where the axes are attached to
the solid body of the Earth. The X-axis lies within
the Greenwichobservatory's meridian plane.
The coordinate transformation between these two systems is described to good
approximation by (apparent) sidereal time, which takes into account variations in the Earth's
axial rotation (length-of-day variations). A more accurate description also takes polar
motion into account, a phenomenon closely monitored by geodesists.
Coordinate systems in the plane
A Munich archive with lithographyplates of maps of Bavaria
In surveying and mapping, important fields of application of geodesy, two general types of
coordinate systems are used in the plane:
1. Plano-polar, in which points in a plane are defined by a distance s from a specified

point along a ray having a specified direction α with respect to a base line or axis;
2. Rectangular, points are defined by distances from two perpendicular axes
called x and y. It is geodetic practice contrary to the mathematical convention to let
the x-axis point to the north and the y-axis to the east.
Rectangular coordinates in the plane can be used intuitively with respect to one's current
location, in which case the x-axis will point to the local north. More formally, such
coordinates can be obtained from three-dimensional coordinates using the artifice of a map
projection. It is not possible to map the curved surface of the Earth onto a flat map surface
without deformation. The compromise most often chosen called a conformal projection
preserves angles and length ratios, so that small circles are mapped as small circles and
small squares as squares.
An example of such a projection is UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator). Within the map
plane, we have rectangular coordinates x and y. In this case the north direction used for
reference is the map north, not the local north. The difference between the two is
called meridian convergence.
It is easy enough to "translate" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let,
as above, direction and distance be α and s respectively, then we have
The reverse transformation is given by:

Heights
In geodesy, point or terrain heights are "above sea level", an irregular, physically defined
surface. Therefore, a height should ideally not be referred to as a coordinate. It is more like a
physical quantity, and though it can be tempting to treat height as the vertical coordinate z, in
addition to the horizontal coordinates x and y, and though this actually is a good
approximation of physical reality in small areas, it quickly becomes invalid for regional
considerations. [specify]
Heights come in the following variants:
1. Orthometric heights
2. Normal heights
3. Geopotential heights
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are
heights in metres above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential
energy (unit: m s ) and not metric. Orthometric and normal heights differ in the precise way
2 −2
in which mean sea level is conceptually continued under the continental masses. The
reference surface for orthometric heights is the geoid, an equipotential surface
approximating mean sea level.
None of these heights is in any way related to geodetic or ellipsoidial heights, which express
the height of a point above the reference ellipsoid. Satellite positioning receivers typically
provide ellipsoidal heights, unless they are fitted with special conversion software based on
a model of the geoid.
Geodetic data
Because geodetic point coordinates (and heights) are always obtained in a system that has
been constructed itself using real observations, geodesists introduce the concept of a
"geodetic datum": a physical realization of a coordinate system used for describing point
locations. The realization is the result of choosing conventional coordinate values for one or
more datum points.
In the case of height data, it suffices to choose one datum point: the reference benchmark,
typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical data like the NAP (Normaal
Amsterdams Peil), the North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD 88), the Kronstadt datum,
the Trieste datum, and so on.
In case of plane or spatial coordinates, we typically need several datum points. A regional,
ellipsoidal datum like ED 50 can be fixed by prescribing the undulation of the geoid and the
deflection of the vertical in one datum point, in this case the Helmert Tower in Potsdam.
However, an overdetermined ensemble of datum points can also be used.
Changing the coordinates of a point set referring to one datum, so to make them refer to
another datum, is called a datum transformation. In the case of vertical data, this consists of
simply adding a constant shift to all height values. In the case of plane or spatial coordinates,
datum transformation takes the form of a similarity or Helmert transformation, consisting of a
rotation and scaling operation in addition to a simple translation. In the plane, a Helmert
transformation has four parameters; in space, seven.
A note on terminology
In the abstract, a coordinate system as used in mathematics and geodesy is called a
"coordinate system" in ISO terminology, whereas the International Earth Rotation and
Reference Systems Service (IERS) uses the term "reference system". When these
coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO says
"coordinate reference system", while IERS says "reference frame". The ISO term for a datum
transformation again is a "coordinate transformation". [3]
Point positioning
Geodetic Control Mark (example of a deep benchmark)
Point positioning is the determination of the coordinates of a point on land, at sea, or in

space with respect to a coordinate system. Point position is solved by computation from
measurements linking the known positions of terrestrial or extraterrestrial points with the
unknown terrestrial position. This may involve transformations between or among
astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems. The known points used for point positioning
can be triangulation points of a higher-order network or GPS satellites.
Traditionally, a hierarchy of networks has been built to allow point positioning within a
country. Highest in the hierarchy were triangulation networks. These were densified into
networks of traverses (polygons), into which local mapping surveying measurements, usually
with measuring tape, corner prism, and the familiar red and white poles, are tied.
[where?]
Nowadays all but special measurements (e.g., underground or high-precision engineering

measurements) are performed with GPS. The higher-order networks are measured with static
GPS, using differential measurement to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These
vectors are then adjusted in traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently
operating GPS stations under the auspices of the IERS is used to define a single global,
geocentric reference frame which serves as the "zero order" global reference to which
national measurements are attached.
For surveying mappings, frequently Real Time Kinematic GPS is employed, tying in the
unknown points with known terrestrial points close by in real time.
One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for mapping
measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control. In every country, thousands
of such known points exist and are normally documented by national mapping agencies.
Surveyors involved in real estate and insurance will use these to tie their local
measurements.
Geodetic problems
Geodesics on an ellipsoid
In geometric geodesy, two standard problems exist the first (direct or forward) and the
second (inverse or reverse).
First (direct or forward) geodetic problem
Given a point (in terms of its coordinates) and the direction (azimuth) and distance from that
point to a second point, determine (the coordinates of) that second point.
Second (inverse or reverse) geodetic problem
Given two points, determine the azimuth and length of the line (straight line, arc or geodesic)
that connects them.
In plane geometry (valid for small areas on the Earth's surface), the solutions to both
problems reduce to simple trigonometry. On a sphere, however, the solution is significantly
more complex, because in the inverse problem the azimuths will differ between the two end
points of the connecting great circle, arc.
On the ellipsoid of revolution, geodesics may be written in terms of elliptic integrals, which
are usually evaluated in terms of a series expansion see, for example, Vincenty's formulae. In
the general case, the solution is called the geodesic for the surface considered.
The differential equations for the geodesic can be solved numerically.
Geodetic observational concepts

Here we define some basic observational concepts, like angles and coordinates, defined in
geodesy (and astronomy as well), mostly from the viewpoint of the local observer.
 Plumbline or vertical: the direction of local gravity, or the line that results
by following it.
 Zenith: the point on the celestial sphere where the direction of the gravity
vector in a point, extended upwards, intersects it. More correct is to call it
a directionrather than a point.
 Nadir: the opposite point—or rather, direction—where the direction of
gravity extended downward intersects the (invisible) celestial sphere.
 Celestial horizon: a plane perpendicular to a point's gravity vector.
 Azimuth: the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically
counted clockwise from the north (in geodesy and astronomy) or south (in
France).
 Elevation: the angular height of an object above the horizon,
Alternatively zenith distance, being equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.
 Local topocentric coordinates: azimuth (direction angle within the plane
of the horizon), elevation angle (or zenith angle), distance.
 North celestial pole: the extension of the Earth's (precessing and nutating)
instantaneous spin axis extended northward to intersect the celestial
sphere. (Similarly for the south celestial pole.)
 Celestial equator: the intersection of the (instantaneous) Earth equatorial
plane with the celestial sphere.
 Meridian plane: any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and
containing the celestial poles.
 Local meridian: the plane containing the direction to the zenith and the
direction to the celestial pole.
Geodetic measurements
Satellite geodesy, Geodetic astronomy, Surveying, Gravimetry, and Levelling
A NASA project manager talks about his work for the Space Geodesy Project, including an overview of its
four fundamental techniques: GPS, VLBI, SLR, and DORIS.
The level is used for determining height differences and height reference systems, commonly
referred to mean sea level. The traditional spirit level produces these practically most useful
heights above sea leveldirectly; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height
determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the geoid, as GPS only gives
heights above the GRS80 reference ellipsoid. As geoid knowledge accumulates, one may
expect use of GPS heighting to spread.
The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to target points. These
angles are referred to the local vertical. The tacheometer additionally determines,
electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target, and is highly automated to even
robotic in its operations. The method of free station position is widely used.
For local detail surveys, tacheometers are commonly employed although the old-fashioned
rectangular technique using angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative.
Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques are used as well. Data collected are tagged and
recorded digitally for entry into a Geographic Information System (GIS) database.
Geodetic GPS receivers produce directly three-dimensional coordinates in
a geocentric coordinate frame. Such a frame is, e.g., WGS84, or the frames that are regularly
produced and published by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
(IERS).
GPS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base
network surveys. For planet-wide geodetic surveys, previously impossible, we can still
mention satellite laser ranging (SLR) and lunar laser ranging (LLR) and very-long-baseline
interferometry (VLBI) techniques. All these techniques also serve to monitor irregularities in
the Earth's rotation as well as plate tectonic motions.
Gravity is measured using gravimeters, of which there are two kinds. First, "absolute
gravimeters" are based on measuring the acceleration of free fall (e.g., of a reflecting prism in
a vacuum tube). They are used to establish the vertical geospatial control and can be used in
the field. Second, "relative gravimeters" are spring-based and are more common. They are
used in gravity surveys over large areas for establishing the figure of the geoid over these
areas. The most accurate relative gravimeters are called "superconducting" gravimeters,
which are sensitive to one-thousandth of one-billionth of Earth surface gravity. Twenty-some
superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide for studying Earth's tides, rotation, interior,
and ocean and atmospheric loading, as well as for verifying the Newtonian constant
of gravitation.
In the future gravity, and altitude, will be measured by relativistic time dilation measured
by strontium optical clocks.
Units and measures on the ellipsoid

Geographical latitude and longitude are stated in the units degree, minute of arc, and second
of arc. They are angles, not metric measures, and describe the directionof the local normal to
the reference ellipsoid of revolution. This is approximately the same as the direction of the
plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason,
astronomical position determination – measuring the direction of the plumbline by
astronomical means – works fairly well provided an ellipsoidal model of the figure of the
Earth is used.
One geographical mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922
m. One nautical mile is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the
ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and the shortest at the equator as
is the nautical mile.
A metre was originally defined as the 10-millionth part of the length from equator to North
Pole along the meridian through Paris (the target was not quite reached in actual
implementation, so that is off by 200 ppm in the current definitions). This means that one
kilometre is roughly equal to (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, which equals
0.54 nautical mile, though this is not exact because the two units are defined on different
bases (the international nautical mile is defined as exactly 1,852 m, corresponding to a
rounding of 1,000/0.54 m to four digits).
Temporal change
In geodesy, temporal change can be studied by a variety of techniques. Points on the Earth's
surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:
 Continental plate motion, plate tectonics

 Episodic motion of tectonic origin, especially close to fault lines
 Periodic effects due to tides
 Postglacial land uplift due to isostatic adjustment
 Mass variations due to hydrological changes
 Anthropogenic movements such as reservoir construction
or petroleum or water extraction
The science of studying deformations and motions of the Earth's crust and
the solid Earth as a whole is called geodynamics. Often, study of the Earth's
irregular rotation is also included in its definition.
Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on the global scale include:
 Satellite positioning by GPS

 Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI)
 Satellite and lunar laser ranging
 Regionally and locally precise levelling
 Precise tacheometers
 Monitoring of gravity change
 Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) using satellite images
Notable geodesists
Mathematical geodesists before 1900
 Pythagoras 580–490 BC, ancient Greece [4]
 Eratosthenes 276–194 BC, ancient Greece

 Hipparchus c. 190–120 BC, ancient Greece
 Posidonius c. 135–51 BC, ancient Greece
 Claudius Ptolemy c. AD 83–168, Roman Empire(Roman Egypt)
 Al-Ma'mun 786–833, Baghdad (Iraq/Mesopotamia)
 Abu Rayhan Biruni 973–1048, Khorasan(Iran/Samanid Dynasty)
 Muhammad al-Idrisi 1100–1166, (Arabia & Sicily)
 Regiomontanus 1436–1476, (Germany/Austria)
 Abel Foullon 1513–1563 or 1565, (France)
 Pedro Nunes 1502–1578 (Portugal)
 Gerhard Mercator 1512–1594 (Belgium & Germany)
 Snellius (Willebrord Snel van Royen) 1580–1626, Leiden (Netherlands)
 Christiaan Huygens 1629–1695 (Netherlands)
 Pierre Bouguer 1698–1758, (France & Peru)
 Pierre de Maupertuis 1698–1759 (France)
 Alexis Clairaut 1713–1765 (France)
 Johann Heinrich Lambert 1728–1777 (France)
 Roger Joseph Boscovich 1711–1787, (Rome/ Berlin/ Paris)
 Ino Tadataka 1745–1818, (Tokyo)
 Georg von Reichenbach 1771–1826, Bavaria(Germany)
 Pierre-Simon Laplace 1749–1827, Paris (France)
 Adrien Marie Legendre 1752–1833, Paris (France)
 Johann Georg von Soldner 1776–1833, Munich(Germany)
 George Everest 1790–1866 (England and India)
 Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 1784–1846, Königsberg(Germany)
 Heinrich Christian Schumacher 1780–1850 (Germany & Estonia)
 Carl Friedrich Gauss 1777–1855, Göttingen (Germany)
 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve 1793–1864, Dorpat and Pulkovo (Russian
Empire)
 J. H. Pratt 1809–1871, London (England)
 Friedrich H. C. Paschen 1804–1873, Schwerin(Germany)
 Johann Benedikt Listing 1808–1882 (Germany)
 Johann Jacob Baeyer 1794–1885, Berlin(Germany)
 Sir George Biddell Airy 1801–1892, Cambridge & London
 Karl Maximilian von Bauernfeind 1818–1894, Munich (Germany)
 Wilhelm Jordan 1842–1899, (Germany)
 Hervé Faye 1814–1902 (France)
 George Gabriel Stokes 1819–1903 (England)
 Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero 1825–1891, Barcelona (Spain)
 Henri Poincaré 1854–1912, Paris (France)
 Alexander Ross Clarke 1828–1914, London(England)
 Charles Sanders Peirce 1839–1914 (United States)
 Friedrich Robert Helmert 1843–1917, Potsdam(Germany)
 Heinrich Bruns 1848–1919, Berlin (Germany)
 Loránd Eötvös 1848–1919 (Hungary)
20th century geodesists
 John Fillmore Hayford, 1868–1925, (US)

 Feodosy Nikolaevich Krasovsky, 1878–1948, (Russian Empire, USSR)
 Alfred Wegener, 1880–1930, (Germany and Greenland)
 William Bowie, 1872–1940, (US)
 Friedrich Hopfner, 1881–1949, Vienna, (Austria)
 Tadeusz Banachiewicz, 1882–1954, (Poland)
 Felix Andries Vening-Meinesz, 1887–1966, (Netherlands)
 Martin Hotine, 1898–1968, (England)
 Yrjö Väisälä, 1889–1971, (Finland)
 Veikko Aleksanteri Heiskanen, 1895–1971, (Finland and US)
 Karl Ramsayer, 1911–1982, Stuttgart, (Germany)
 Buckminster Fuller, 1895–1983 (United States)
 Harold Jeffreys, 1891–1989, London, (England)
 Reino Antero Hirvonen, 1908–1989, (Finland)
 Mikhail Sergeevich Molodenskii, 1909–1991, (Russia)
 Maria Ivanovna Yurkina, 1923-2010, (Russia)
 Guy Bomford, 1899-1996, (India?)
[5]
 Antonio Marussi, 1908-1984, (Italy)

 Hellmut Schmid, 1914–1998, (Switzerland)
 William M. Kaula, 1926–2000, Los Angeles, (US)
 John A. O'Keefe, 1916–2000, (US)
 Thaddeus Vincenty, 1920–2002, (Poland)
 Willem Baarda, 1917–2005, (Netherlands)
 Irene Kaminka Fischer, 1907–2009, (US)
 Arne Bjerhammar, 1917–2011, (Sweden)
 Karl-Rudolf Koch 1935, Bonn, (Germany)
 Helmut Moritz, 1933, Graz, (Austria)
 Petr Vaníček, 1935, Fredericton, (Canada)
 Erik Grafarend, 1939, Stuttgart, (Germany)
 Hans-Georg Wenzel (1949-1999), (Germany)
21ST CENTURY
.Astronomer Ariny Amos or Kipsang Arap Tarus , Author of this Book (1982-present.)
RESULTS OF THE ASTRONOMER ARINY AMOS LUNAR THEORY EXPERIMENT.
Results of the theories of lunar theory

The lunar theorists used (and invented) many different mathematical approaches to analyse
the gravitational problem. Not surprisingly, their results tended to converge. From the time of
the earliest gravitational analysts among Newton's
successors, Euler, Clairaut and d'Alembert, it was recognized that nearly all of the main lunar
perturbations could be expressed in terms of just a few angular arguments and coefficients.
These can be represented by:[33]
• the mean motions or positions of the Moon and the Sun, together with three coefficients
and three angular positions, which together define the shape and location of their
apparent orbits:
• the two eccentricities ( , about 0.0549, and , about 0.01675) of the ellipses that
approximate to the apparent orbits of the Moon and the Sun;
• the angular direction of the perigees ( ) (or their opposite points the apogees) of
the two orbits; and
• the angle of inclination ( ,mean value about 18523") between the planes of the two
orbits, together with the direction ( ) of the line of nodes in which those two planes
intersect. The ascending node () is the node passed by the Moon when it is tending
northwards relative to the ecliptic.
From these basic parameters, just four basic differential angular arguments are enough to
express, in their different combinations, nearly all of the most significant perturbations of the
lunar motions. They are given here with their conventional symbols due to 38Delaunay; they
are sometimes known as the Delaunay arguments:
• the Moon's mean anomaly (distance of the mean longitude of the Moon from the mean
• the Sun's mean anomaly (distance of the mean longitude of the Sun from the mean
• the Moon's mean argument of latitude (distance of the mean longitude of the Moon
from the mean longitude of its ascending (northward-bound) node );
• the Moon's mean (solar) elongation (distance of the mean longitude of the Moon from
the mean longitude of the Sun).
This work culminated into Brown's lunar theory (1897-1908)[34][35][36][37][38] and Tables of the
Motion of the Moon (1919).[32]These were used in the American Ephemeris and Nautical
Almanac until 1968, and in a modified form until 1984. Ariny Amos experiments contributed
the equal results of Sir Isaac Newton.
DISCUSSION.
OBSERVED
YOUNG MOON FORMED AND OBSERVED THE MOON IN KAMPALA, SOROTI, ARUA, NAIROBI , DAR ES
SALAM ( 1982-2019)
SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S LUNAR THEORY
Astronomers in the 17th century to 21st century understood that the motion of the Moon was far
more complex than those of the planets. The Hellenistic astronomers, Hipparchos and Ptolemy, had
identified two major perturbations, corresponding respectively to a steady rotation of the line of
apses and to fluctuations of the line of apses and the eccentricity; the latter was called the “evection”
by Bouillau. Tycho Brahe had found a further anomaly, the “variation”. Jeremiah Horrocks
(1673) proposed a model of the Moon's orbit as a rotating ellipse that was successful for its day. The
orbit is distorted from a simple ellipse by the variation and the evection, the major axis (apse line)
advances through 2π in about 9 years, the nodes regress by 2π upon the ecliptic in about 18 years,
and there are further lesser perturbations. The largest anomaly is the evection with an amplitude of
1°16′ and a period of about 32 days, while the amplitude of the variation is about 35 arcmin with a
period of nearly 15 days (Cook 1988, Smith 1999).
Sir Isaac Newton, from the frontispiece of the third edition of his Principia, 1726.
Unpublished theory
In Book I, Prop. LXVI of the first edition of Philosophiae naturalis principia

mathematica, Newton (1687) discussed the dynamical problem of three bodies in a general way,
and then in Book III he asserted that the vagaries of the Moon's motion could be accounted for by
the gravitational attraction of the Sun. He recognized that he needed to develop the theory further,
and summarized his later results in The theory of the Moon's motionof 1702 (Cohen 1975).
He continued to refine his treatment up to the publication of the second edition
of Principia (Newton 1712), some sections of which differ greatly from the first edition. He made
almost no further changes of his own in the third edition, but added a scholium by Machin (1726)
on the motion of the nodes. The pubtlished account of the rotation of the apse line, much the same
in all versions, was seriously wrong, but even before 1690 Newton had developed a somewhat more
satisfactory treatment, with which, however, he remained dissatisfied and never pubtlished
(Whiteside 1976). (Since this article was prepared, the new English translation of
the Principia by Cohen and Whitman (1999) has appeared. It is a translation of the third edition
of 1726, which differs significantly in a few places from the first and second editions, as will be
indicated.)
Flamsteed prepared a set of astronomical tables that included some of the Moon's motion based on
the parameters in Newton's tract of 1702, but did not himself pubtlish them. Others knew of them,
and le Monnier pubtlished them in France (le Monnier 1746). Halley constructed a large and
comprehensive set of tables for the Sun, the Moon, and the planets, with the lunar tables
representing Newton's version of his theory as in the second edition of Principia. The numerical
parameters that are the bases of the tables are Newton's, and some of the tables differ significantly
from Flamsteed's. Halley had his tables set up in print by 1719, but never himself pubtlished them
for he evidently hoped that when he became Astronomer Royal he would be able to compare them
with his own observations (see Cook 1998), which he intended to extend over a complete saronic
cycle. A saronic cycle, of 18 years, is the period of the regression of the nodes of the Moon's orbit
and of the repetition of the circumstances of eclipses. Halley did indeed observe the Moon over 18
years, from about 1721, when he was 65, to 1739, but he pubtlished neither his tables nor the results
of his observations; John Bevis did so when Halley was dead (Halley 1749, 1752). Halley gave a
mid-term account of his lunar studies after he had completed nine years of observations, the period
of advance of the apse line and half a saronic cycle (Halley 1731). He then asserted that Newton's
theory agreed with observation to within 2 arcmin and, furthermore, that his own observations
agreed with others of Flamsteed made one or two saronic periods earlier. In 1682 he had already
had the idea that the anomalies of the Moon's motion repeated in successive saronic cycles, some
years before Newton gave the reason for it, implicitly, in the attraction of the Sun; he later used it to
determine differences of longitude from the times of eclipses that had occurred in different saronic
cycles.
Halley's claims for the accuracy of Newton's theory and for the agreement between his observations
and earlier ones of Flamsteed have often been doubted, not least because he did not pubtlish his
observations in full. John Bevis gave only a summary of the comparisons in the posthumous tables;
they showed that differences between observation and Newton's theory could reach 8 arcmin.
Halley's abstracts of his observations survive in the archives of the Royal Observatory where they
are bound up (probably by John Bevis) in little books, and they were copied out for Francis Baily in
a manuscript that is now in the archives of the Royal Astronomical Society. The Observatory
archives also contain small sheets of calculations by Halley (likewise bound up by Bevis) for the
differences between the observed and tabular positions of the Moon from about 1725 to 1730,
according to the example given in his Tables for 5 December 1725. The calculations are roughly
written out and not always easy to read.
Halley made further calculations for observations of Flamsteed that were an exact number of
saronic periods or half periods before his own, 9, 18, 27 or 36 years earlier. Of course he could only
find such pairs when the weather had allowed observations by Flamsteed as well as by himself. He
noted a few comparisons on his sheets of calculations, but there are many more to be found. There
are 106 pairs at the interval of two saronic periods (36 years and 20 or 21 days), and a few more at
other intervals. The differences of Flamsteed's and Halley's observations from the tabular values
are highly correlated, as they should be according to Halley's saronic hypothesis, and the standard
deviation of their means is about 2 arcmin as Halley had claimed (see Cook 1996, 1998). Halley's
statements in his paper of 1731 seem justified, though how he arrived at them lacking the principle
of the analysis of variance is unclear. He no doubt undertook the calculations in preparation for the
paper.
Newton had in his theory some small terms with amplitudes of a few arcmin. He said he had found
them from gravitational theory. People have doubted his claim. Kollerstrom (1995) noticed that the
forms and amplitudes of those terms agreed with ones in modern theories. The amplitudes are
comparable with the errors of observation of Newton's day and could hardly have been estimated
so closely from observations. Newton's claim must be taken seriously. Furthermore, Halley's
assessment of the overall accuracy of Newton's theory is supported by his calculations now brought
out from the archives. It is time to reappraise Newton's lunar theory.
A reappraisal
Here I review Newton's methods, I identify the origin of the small terms, I show where the theory
was successful, and I explain why it failed where it did. Newton's dynamics, and his lunar theory
especially, were difficult for his contemporaries and they are perhaps even more difficult now. He
wrote in Latin, which few now read. He used the geometry of Euclid and Apollonius, which has all
but vanished from school and university mathematics. (Guicciardini [1999] gives the reasons for
Newton's use of geometry in preference to fluxions.) His many original results, on comets, the figure
of the Earth, tides, precession, as well as lunar theory, must have seemed an almost magical
explosion of illumination to his colleagues, but nowadays they are commonplace. Lunar theory itself
has become a subject of computer algebra. Yet for all that, Newton's lunar theory is still well worth
our attention. It reveals with particular clarity Newton's mathematical skill and fertility. Its
successes and failures stimulated the new mathematicians of the 1750s – Euler, D'Alambert, and
especially A-C Clairaut – to apply the developing analysis of differential equations to the lunar
problem. It demonstrated the explanatory power of the hypothesis of universal gravitation.
Newton's lunar results fall into three groups. He gives full, explicit successful treatments of the
variation (for a circular orbit), of the motion of the node, and of the oscillations of the inclination.
He states the results of his gravitational calculations of some small terms. Finally there is his very
detailed but erroneous theory of rotating orbits.
Newton based his lunar theory, as almost all his dynamics, on the mathematical lemmas to
Proposition I of Book I of the Principia. He applied limiting processes to Euclidean geometry to
obtain results about tangents and curvatures of curves that he could use in dynamics, and his
methods are in some ways similar to those of the 19th century differential geometry of curves.
Taylor's theorem (or an equivalent geometrical argument of Newton in Lemma XI of Prop. I) shows
that the increment dr of the position vector r of a moving point on a curve over an arc of length ds is
equal to ½κds2, where κ is the curvature. If the corresponding acceleration along the radius vector is
α, then the increment dr in time dt is ½αdt2, so that the acceleration is proportional to the curvature.
That, or some equivalent statement, is the basis of much of Newton's orbital dynamics, along with
expressions for the curvature in terms of geometrical parameters of an orbit that he derived by a
chain of Euclidean relationships.
Newton dealt for the most part in accelerations rather than forces, and he expressed the perturbation
of the Moon's orbit by the Sun as a perturbation of the acceleration of the Moon towards the Earth, of
which the magnitude is readily found. Let the mean radius of the Moon's orbit be a and let the
distance of the Sun from the centre of mass of the Earth and the Moon be R (figure 1). The mean
acceleration of the Moon towards the Earth is anM2, where nM is the mean angular velocity of the
Moon about the Earth, and the mean acceleration of the centre of mass of the Earth and the Moon
towards the Sun is RnS2, where nS is the mean angular velocity of the Sun around the Earth and
Moon. The maximum acceleration of the Moon itself towards the Sun is (R + a)nS2, whence the
perturbation of the Moon's acceleration towards the Earth is proportional to the difference anS2, or
(nS/nM)2 times the Moon's acceleration towards the Earth. The ratio nS/nM, usually denoted by m, is a
fundamental parameter in lunar theory. The principal solar perturbations of the Moon's motion are
proportional to m2, namely about 1/178. That may seem small, but it is in fact sufficient to cause
considerable difficulties in analytical solutions of lunar problems.
1;
Magnitude of the perturbing solar acceleration. T is the Earth, M the Moon, a radius of lunar
orbit, Rradius of terrestrial orbit, ξ angle between directions of Sun and Moon. The net acceleration of
the Moon towards the Sun is acosξnS2
Newton resolved the net attraction of the Sun on the Moon into components along the radius vector
of the Moon from the Earth, at right angles to the radius vector in the plane of the orbit, and
perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. At syzygies (when the Earth, Sun and Moon are in a straight
line) the first component is greatest and the second vanishes, while at quadrature (the angle between
the Moon and the Sun as seen from the Earth is π/2) the second component is greatest and the first
vanishes. The first component, by Newton's fundamental results, reduces the curvature of the orbit
but does not affect the areal velocity, or angular momentum, while the second changes angular
momentum but not curvature.
The variation is the distortion of the form of the lunar orbit by the attraction of the Sun, such that a
circular orbit would become an ellipse with its centre at the Earth and with two maxima and two
minima of angular velocity, the variation orbit (Cook 1988). The actual orbit of the Moon is eccentric,
but the variation still gives two maxima and two minima of angular velocity instead of a single
maximum and a single minimum as in a simple elliptical orbit. The radial and tangential components
together produce a perturbation of the longitude in the variation orbit. Taking into account the
rotation of the Sun around the Earth, the leading term in the perturbation is proportional to sin2ξ,
where ξ is the difference of the longitudes of the Moon and the Sun. Newton found the greatest
difference of the Moon's longitude in the variation orbit to be 33′14″ at aphelion and 37′11″ at
perihelion. The modern value of the coefficent of sin2ξ is about 35 arcmin, dependent upon the
distance of the Sun from the Earth (see Chandrasekhar 1995 p429). Newton explicitly ignored the
eccentricity of the lunar orbit in his treatment of the variation.
The variation orbit differs in size as well as in form from a circular orbit in the absence of the Sun, for
the Sun is always present and its attraction reduces the mean force on the Moon towards the Earth;
Newton calculated the difference.
Nodes and inclination

The orbit of the Moon lies in a plane inclined to the plane of the Earth's orbit about the Sun (the
ecliptic plane) by about 5°. The force of the Sun on the Moon, which is to first order parallel to the
ecliptic, therefore has a component perpendicular to the plane of the lunar orbit, as well as those in
that plane. The orbital plane and the ecliptic intersect in the line of nodes which, in consequence of
the perpendicular component of the solar force, rotates in the ecliptic. At the same time the angle
between the lunar orbit and the ecliptic oscillates. Newton's treatment of those effects is an elegant
exercise in what we should now call differential geometry (Principia, Book I, Prop. LXVI, Cor 10, 11
and Book III, Props. XXXIII to XXXV, also Chandrasekhar 1995, p430–448).
Since the tangent to the lunar orbit lies in the plane of the orbit, it must intersect the line of nodes.
Because the solar acceleration is parallel to the ecliptic, it gives the Moon a component of velocity
parallel to the ecliptic. The tangent, therefore, has a component of rotation in the plane of the
ecliptic; it no longer lies in the original plane of the orbit and does not intersect the ecliptic in the
original line of nodes N, N, but in a new one, N, N (figure 2).
2;
The displacement of the tangent of the orbit. T and M the Earth and Moon as in figure 1, NN line of
nodes, NN rotated line of nodes, δθ rotation of tangent in time dt.
Newton used a chain of Euclidean relations in similar triangles to connect the change in the orbit
under the solar acceleration to the rotation of the line of nodes in the ecliptic. He showed that the
maximum hourly rate of regression of the nodes was 33″10′″33iv12vand that the mean over a circular
orbit and the position of the Sun was half that, namely 16″35′″16iv36v. He extended his treatment to
the elliptical orbit of the Moon and found the mean annual motion of the nodes to be 19°18′1″.3, very
close to the observed rate and to modern theories.
The attraction of the Sun also rotates the radius vector of the orbit out of the original plane, so
changing the inclination of the orbital plane. Whereas the Sun always rotates the tangent to the orbit
in the same sense, the rotation of the radius vector is towards the ecliptic when the Moon is new and
away from it at full Moon. Thus the inclination oscillates around a constant mean value, about 5°.
Newton stated his argument in terms of small segments of the orbit, but it is easy to see that, in
modern terms, he was dealing with its differential geometry.
Small terms in the longitude

At the end of his section on the Moon's motion, Newton described some small terms that he said he
had found from gravitational theory (scholium to Prop. XXXV of Book III of the Principia). There are
annual variations of the longitudes of the Moon, of the node and of the apses. There are two semi-
annual terms that depend, the one on the angular distance of the Sun from the lunar node, the other
on the angular distance of the Sun from the lunar apogee. Lastly there are two terms with
approximately monthly periods dependent on the angular distance between the Moon and the Sun.
The amplitudes of the four latter terms are a few minutes of arc or less, and as mentioned above, of
the same order as errors of observation in Newton's day.
The theory of the annual terms is straightforward. The orbit of the Earth about the Sun is eccentric so
that the distance of the Sun from the Earth and the Moon varies throughout the year. Thus the period
of the Moon about the Earth also varies with the seasons, leading to an annual variation in the
longitude of the Moon relative to the fixed stars. Newton calculated that annual term from the
equation of time, the difference between vS, the Earth's true anomaly (longitude) in its orbit about
the Sun, and MS, its mean anomaly, equal to nSt (t is the time). The difference is proportional to the
eccentricity of the solar orbit and hence is a measure of the range of the solar attraction. Newton's
value was 11′″, more or less, depending on the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit about the Sun. The
modern value is about 11′9″ (Tisserand 1894, p44)
The annual terms in the motions of the lunar node and perigee are similarly proportional to the mean
motion of the Earth about the Sun, and to the motion of the node or perigee. The mean motion of the
lunar node is nearly 19° per year (see above) and Newton estimated the annual term to be about
9′24″. The mean motion of perigee is about 40° per year and Newton's estimate of the annual
variation was 19′43″. Those values are again close to modern observation and theory. Newton
determined two semi-annual terms in the longitude of the Moon, one with the argument of twice the
angle between the Sun and the lunar node, and the other with the argument of twice the angle
between the Sun and lunar perigee.
When the Sun is on the line of nodes of the Moon's orbit (figure 3), the force it exerts on the Moon is
in the plane of the orbit, but when the Sun is in some other direction, the force it exerts is out of the
plane of the orbit and consequently the component in the plane is reduced, as is the perturbation of
the Moon's mean angular velocity. The amplitude of the variation in the Moon's longitude is
proportional to m2 and to (1 – cosI), where I is the inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic. (1 –
cosI) is about 4 × 10-3 and the amplitude of the variation is about 45″. Newton's value was 49′′ at
perihelion and 45″ at aphelion; a more thorough calculation gives 55″ (see Kollerstrom 1995, Cook
1998).
3;
The dependence of the force of the Sun on the inclination I of the orbit to the plane of the ecliptic and
on the angle between the Sun and the line of nodes (N, N).
The dilation of the lunar orbit by the attraction of the Sun is greatest when the Sun, Earth and Moon
are all in line. Thus, when the Sun is at right angles to the major axis of the lunar orbit, the effective
diameter of the orbit is the latus rectum and the mean distance of the Sun is the distance from the
focus of the orbit occupied by the Earth. When the Sun is on the major axis of the orbit, the effective
diameter is now the major axis and the mean distance of the Sun is that from the centre of the orbit
and not from the focus. The amplitude of the variation in longitude is proportional to the lunar
eccentricity and to the parameter m2. Because the principal perturbing solar force on the Moon is a
second harmonic term (the first harmonic term vanishes by the centre of mass theorem) the
argument of the mean diameter is twice the angle between the Sun and perigee.
Newton's values for the amplitude of the effect were 3′56″ at perihelion and 3′34″ at aphelion. The
current value is 3′32″ (see Kollerstrom 1995, Cook 1998).
In the main body of his theory, Newton took the distance of the Sun to be so great that its direction
from the Moon was parallel to its direction from the Earth. In fact the angle between them is r/R,
where R is the distance of the Sun and r is the perpendicular distance of the Moon from the direction
of the Sun (figure 4). If the orbit of the Moon is supposed to be a circle, the ratio is a/Rsinξ
and a/R is 1/396. The solar force on the Moon thus has additional terms proportional to a/R and of
argument ξ. They generate the parallactic perturbations in the radius vector and the longitude of the
Moon. Newton's value for the amplitude of the term in the longitude was 2′20″, the modern value is
about 2′22″.
4:
The parallactic correction. S the Sun, T the Earth, M the Moon, R the distance of the Sun from the
Earth, ξthe angular distance of the Moon from the Sun, a the radius of the lunar orbit. r is asinξ.
Newton found a second term with similar amplitude, 2′25″, and argument equal to the difference of
the mean anomalies of the Sun and the Moon, not the difference of their longitudes. The term
corresponds to one in modern theories with amplitude 2′28″ (Kollerstrom 1995, Cook 1998). The
direction of the Sun from the Moon depends on the eccentricities of the orbit of the Moon about the
Earth and of the Earth about the Sun. The solar force on the Moon consequently has terms
proportional to the product of the eccentricities and with arguments equal to multiples of the
difference of the mean motions. The largest term with argument (MM–MS) in the longitude has an
amplitude close to that of the parallactic term.
Newton's statements in the scholium to Prop. XXXV of Book III of the Principia are confusing. In his
tract of 1702 and in the second edition of the Principia he gave both terms with amplitudes close to
the modern value for the parallactic term, the one with the argument ξ and the other with the
argument (MM–MS), but he removed the true parallactic term in the third edition, and Halley did not
have it in his posthumous Tables. The residuals of Halley's and Flamsteed's observations from the
tabular values appear to have a roughly annual period, which might correspond to the omission of the
true parallactic term from the tables. Since Halley had set his tables in print by 1719, it would seem
that Newton rejected the term sometime between 1712 and 1719. His treatment is obscure.
The apse line and eccentricity
In the first edition of the Principia, (Book I, Props. XLIII to XLV), Newton gave an elaborate account
of the orbit, rotating relative to inertial axes, of a body subject to quite general forces in the direction
of a common centre. Although it led to a value for the mean rate of rotation of the lunar apses that
was about the same as that for the node, and half the correct value, Newton did not substantially
change it in the later editions. Whittaker (1927) presented an analytical version.
Newton considered two orbits of the same geometric form, one fixed and the other rotating relative
to the fixed stars, the periods of the bodies in them being the same. His statements imply that the
rotating and fixed orbits are to be coplanar. He considered only forces directed along the radius vector
of the Moon from the Earth (see Chandrasekhar 1995, Smith 1999). Although the velocities at
corresponding points on the two orbits are the same relative to axes fixed in the respective orbits,
they are in different directions, entailing a difference of angular momentum. Newton calculated the
perturbing force corresponding to the rotation (Prop. XLIV) by means of Prop. VI of Book I of
the Principia and its corollaries. His third step was an extensive calculation of the rate of rotation
for any general perturbation of an elliptical orbit of small eccentricity (Prop. XLV). Finally he applied
his result to the Moon attracted by the Sun, to find that the mean rate of rotation of the apse line was
half the observed value.
Newton began to revise his theory of a rotating orbit almost as soon as the first edition
of Principia appeared and continued to do so until the second edition went to press, but he was
never satisfied with his result (Whiteside 1976).
Superposed upon the steady advance of the apses there are both oscillations of the apse line and
variations of the eccentricity; they combine to give a perturbation known as the evection. Newton
adopted a kinematical model that Halley had proposed as an elaboration of Horrocks's scheme of a
rotating ellipse – Halley placed the centre of rotation, the focus occupied by the Earth, upon a small
epicycle. Newton seems not to have attempted a gravitational derivation of the model and he never
gave a value for the evection as such.
Discussion
The foregoing account of Newton's achievements in lunar theory conceals two important difficulties
which were not significant at the precision that Newton attained, but which came to matter very
much when observations were made with far greater precision centuries later.
Newton took the line of nodes to be the line joining the centre of the Earth (strictly the centre of mass
of the Earth and the Moon) to the intersection of the tangent to the orbit with the plane of the
ecliptic. An alternative would be to use the orbital vectors as defined in differential geometry. The
tangent vector t is the first derivative of the position vector with respect to arc length, the unit
normal n is in the direction of the second derivative, and the unit binormal b is in the direction of the
third derivative with respect to arc length. The three vectors t, n and b are mutually perpendicular,
and the binormal is perpendicular to the instantaneous plane of the orbit (figure 6). It defines the
instantaneous inclination of the osculating plane, and its intersection with the normal to the ecliptic
defines the instantaneous direction of the line of nodes. The rate of change of b is given by the
component of acceleration out of the plane of the orbit, whence the instantaneous rate of rotation of
the line of nodes may be calculated.
5;
Tangent t, normal n and binormal b unit vectors of a curve in three dimensions at position vector r.
The two definitions of the line of nodes are not equivalent. In Newton's definition, the plane of the
radius vector and the tangent necessarily contains the centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system. The
plane defined by the vectors t, n and b is not constrained to pass through that centre and on account
of the solar attraction will not in general do so. Not only do the two definitions differ, but neither
corresponds to observation. A possible observational definition of the line of nodes could be the line
joining succesive points at which the Moon passes through the ecliptic, one upwards and one
downwards. Alternatively it may be treated as a parameter to be determined in a numerical fitting of
an orbit to observations. There are similar problems in defining the directions of perigee and apogee.
The other issue is the form of the equations of motion as equations for the rates of change of
variables such as the longitude of the node or of perigee. The rates are trigonometrical functions of
the difference of the longitudes of the Sun and the Moon; if all other factors were constant it would
be straightforward to calculate the secular motions of node or perigee. But all other factors are not
constant. The equation for the node involves the variable inclination, and the equation for the
inclination involves the variable node. The two equations are therefore coupled and strictly should be
solved as such. They can be solved separately because, for example, the inclination is always small,
and the motion of the node is almost that for zero inclination. (The constant for the secular motion of
the node usually given in textbooks is for zero inclination.) Similarly the small eccentricity of the lunar
orbit has only a minor effect upon the component of the solar force perpendicular to the plane of the
orbit. It is for those reasons that Newton's theory was so close to modern theory and observation. The
situation is otherwise for the rotation of the apse line.
About 1750, A-C Clairaut devised a theory that involved the numerical solution of differential
equations. He at first obtained the same result as Newton, and thought that the inverse square law of
attraction should be supplemented by an inverse cube term, but then found an error in his analysis
which accounted for the discrepancy (Clairaut 1752, 1756, see also Tisserand 1894, ch.3, Cook 1988).
Clairaut had assumed that the orbit of the Moon would have the polar equation
of an ellipse referred to axes rotating at the rate (1 – c); c is a constant to be determined from the
analysis. That is equivalent to Newton's assumption.
When he substituted that expression in an equation for the time as a function of true longitude,
Clairaut, not surprisingly, obtained the same result as Newton. He realized that he should take a
better approximation for the radius vector, namely
λ is another constant to be determined.
He then found a satisfactory result for the rotation of the apse line (Tisserand 1894, pp57–59).
The reasons for Newton's failure will now be clear. Clairaut's solution for the rotating curve is not an
ellipse in a fixed frame – instead of a single periodic term, the reciprocal radius, referred to fixed axes,
has an infinite number of incommensurable periodic components and is not a closed curve. By
constraining the rotating orbit to be of the same form as the fixed one, Newton imposed a condition
inconsistent with the dynamics – it can only be satisfied with an inverse-cube force. Furthermore, he
considered only the radial component of the disturbing force and ignored the tangential component.
It is curious that his treatment of the variation orbit seems inconsistent with those assumptions.
There he took into account the tangential as well as the radial components of the disturbing force,
while his diagrams showing the adjustment for the motion of the Sun around the Earth (in Prop.
XXVIII, Prob. IX and Prop. XXIX, Prob. X) might indicate that he realized that the variation orbit was
not a closed curve. Evidently the motion of perigee cannot be found independently of a complete
integration of the equations of motion for the perturbed orbit, in contrast to the theory of the node
which is to first order independent of the form of a nearly circular orbit. Expressions for the
perturbations of the orbit, of the eccentricity and the rotation of the apse line, can be derived
geometrically, but the integration would again involve coupled equations and is not straightforward.
GEODYNAMO THEORY.
This theory is used to explain the presence of anomalously long-lived magnetic fields in astrophysical
bodies. The conductive fluid in the geodynamo is liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar dynamo
is ionized gas at the tachocline. In physics, the dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a
celestial body such as Earth or a star generates a magnetic field. The dynamo theory describes the
process through which a rotating, convecting, and electricallyconducting fluid can maintain a magnetic
field over astronomical time scales. A dynamo is thought to be the source of the Earth's magnetic
fieldand the magnetic fields of other planets.
History of Geodynamo theory.
When William Gilbert published de Magnete in 1600, he concluded that the Earth is magnetic and
proposed the first hypothesis for the origin of this magnetism: permanent magnetism such as that
found in lodestone. In 1919, Joseph Larmorproposed that a dynamo might be generating the
field.[2][3] However, even after he advanced his hypothesis, some prominent scientists advanced
alternative explanations. Einstein believed that there might be an asymmetry between the charges of
the electron and proton so that the Earth's magnetic field would be produced by the entire Earth.
The Nobel Prize winner Patrick Blackett did a series of experiments looking for a fundamental relation
between angular momentum and magnetic moment, but found none.[4][5]
Walter M. Elsasser, considered a "father" of the presently accepted dynamo theory as an explanation of
the Earth's magnetism, proposed that this magnetic field resulted from electric currents induced in the
fluid outer core of the Earth. He revealed the history of the Earth's magnetic field through pioneering
the study of the magnetic orientation of minerals in rocks.
In order to maintain the magnetic field against ohmic decay (which would occur for the dipole field in
20,000 years), the outer core must be convecting. The convection is likely some combination of thermal
and compositional convection. The mantle controls the rate at which heat is extracted from the core.
Heat sources include gravitational energy released by the compression of the core, gravitational
energy released by the rejection of light elements (probably sulfur, oxygen, or silicon) at the inner core
boundary as it grows, latent heat of crystallization at the inner core boundary, and radioactivity
of potassium, uranium and thorium.[6]
At the dawn of the 21st century, numerical modeling of the Earth's magnetic field has not been
successfully demonstrated, but appears to be in reach. Initial models are focused on field generation
by convection in the planet's fluid outer core. It was possible to show the generation of a strong, Earth-
like field when the model assumed a uniform core-surface temperature and exceptionally high
viscosities for the core fluid. Computations which incorporated more realistic parameter values yielded
magnetic fields that were less Earth-like, but also point the way to model refinements which may
ultimately lead to an accurate analytic model. Slight variations in the core-surface temperature, in the
range of a few millikelvins, result in significant increases in convective flow and produce more realistic
magnetic fields.[7][8]
Formal definition
Dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically
conducting fluid acts to maintain a magnetic field. This theory is used to explain the presence of
anomalously long-lived magnetic fields in astrophysical bodies. The conductive fluid in the geodynamo
is liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar dynamo is ionized gas at the tachocline. Dynamo theory
of astrophysical bodies uses magnetohydrodynamic equations to investigate how the fluid can
continuously regenerate the magnetic field.[9]
It was once believed that the dipole, which comprises much of the Earth's magnetic field and is
misaligned along the rotation axis by 11.3 degrees, was caused by permanent magnetization of the
materials in the earth. This means that dynamo theory was originally used to explain the Sun's
magnetic field in its relationship with that of the Earth. However, this hypothesis, which was initially
proposed by Joseph Larmor in 1919, has been modified due to extensive studies of magnetic secular
variation, paleomagnetism (including polarity reversals), seismology, and the solar system's
abundance of elements. Also, the application of the theories of Carl Friedrich Gauss to magnetic
observations showed that Earth's magnetic field had an internal, rather than external, origin.
There are three requisites for a dynamo to operate:
 An electrically conductive fluid medium

 Kinetic energy provided by planetary rotation
 An internal energy source to drive convective motions within the fluid.[10]
In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is induced and constantly maintained by the convection of
liquid iron in the outer core. A requirement for the induction of field is a rotating fluid. Rotation in the
outer core is supplied by the Coriolis effectcaused by the rotation of the Earth. The Coriolis force tends
to organize fluid motions and electric currents into columns (also see Taylor columns) aligned with the
rotation axis. Induction or creation of magnetic field is described by the induction equation.
The tachocline is the transition region of the Sun between the radiative interior and the differentially
rotating outer convective zone. It is in the outer third of the Sun (by radius). This causes the region to
have a very large shear as the rotation rate changes very rapidly. The convective exterior rotates as a
normal fluid with differential rotation with the poles rotating slowly and the equator rotating quickly.
The radiative interior exhibits solid-body rotation, possibly due to a fossil field. The rotation rate
through the interior is roughly equal to the rotation rate at mid-latitudes, i.e. in-between the rate at
the slow poles and the fast equator. Recent results from helioseismology indicate that the tachocline
is located at a radius of at most 0.70 times the Solar radius (measured from the core, i.e., the surface
is at 1 solar radius), with a thickness of 0.04 times the solar radius. This would mean the area has a
very large shear profile that is one way that large scale magnetic fields can be formed.
The geometry and width of the tachocline are thought to play an important role in models of the solar
dynamo by winding up the weaker poloidal field to create a much stronger toroidal field. Recent radio
observations of cooler stars and brown dwarfs, which do not have a radiative core and only have a
convective zone, demonstrate that they maintain large-scale, solar-strength magnetic fields and
display solar-like activity despite the absence of tachoclines. This suggests that the convective zone
alone may be responsible for the function of the solar dynamo.
Internal rotation in the Sun, showing differential rotation in the outer convective region and almost
uniform rotation in the central radiative region. The transition between these regions is called the
tachocline.
Source;Global Oscillation Network Group - http://gong.nso.edu/
Internal rotation in the Sun, showing differential rotation in the outer convective region and almost
uniform rotation in the central radiative region. The transition between these regions is called the
tachocline. Image courtesy of GONG: http://gong.nso.edu/.
MOON THOUGHT TO PLAY MAJOR ROLE IN MAINTAINING EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
The gravitational effects associated with the presence of the Moon and Sun cause cyclical
deformation of the Earth’s mantle and wobbles in its rotation axis. This mechanical forcing
applied to the whole planet causes strong currents in the outer core, which is made up of a
liquid iron alloy of very low viscosity. Such currents are enough to generate the Earth’s
magnetic field. Illustration credit: © Julien Monteux and Denis Andrault.The Earth’s
magnetic field permanently protects us from the charged particles and radiation that originate in the
Sun. This shield is produced by the geodynamo, the rapid motion of huge quantities of liquid iron alloy
in the Earth’s outer core. To maintain this magnetic field until the present day, the classical model
required the Earth’s core to have cooled by around 3,000 °C over the past 4.3 billion years. Now, a team
of researchers from CNRS and Université Blaise Pascal suggests that, on the contrary, its temperature
has fallen by only 300 °C. The action of the Moon, overlooked until now, is thought to have
compensated for this difference and kept the geodynamo active. Their work was published on 30 March
2016 in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
The classical model of the formation of Earth’s magnetic field raised a major paradox. For the
geodynamo to work, the Earth would have had to be totally molten four billion years ago, and its core
would have had to slowly cool from around 6,800 °C at that time to 3,800 °C today. However, recent
modelling of the early evolution of the internal temperature of the planet, together with geochemical
studies of the composition of the oldest carbonatites and basalts, do not support such cooling. With
such high temperatures being ruled out, the researchers propose another source of energy in their
study.
The Earth has a slightly flattened shape and rotates about an inclined axis that wobbles around the
poles. Its mantle deforms elastically due to tidal effects caused by the Moon. The researchers show
that this effect could continuously stimulate the motion of the liquid iron alloy making up the outer
core, and in return generate Earth’s magnetic field. The Earth continuously receives 3,700 billion watts
of power through the transfer of the gravitational and rotational energy of the Earth-Moon-Sun system,
and over 1,000 billion watts is thought to be available to bring about this type of motion in the outer
core. This energy is enough to generate the Earth’s magnetic field, which together with the Moon,
resolves the major paradox in the classical theory. The effect of gravitational forces on a planet’s
magnetic field has already been well documented for two of Jupiter’s moons, Io and Europa, and for a
number of exoplanets.
Since neither the Earth’s rotation around its axis, nor the direction of its axis, nor the Moon’s orbit are
perfectly regular, their combined effect on motion in the core is unstable and can cause fluctuations in
the geodynamo. This process could account for certain heat pulses in the outer core and at its
boundary with the Earth’s mantle.
Over the course of time, this may have led to peaks in deep mantle melting and possibly to major
volcanic events at the Earth’s surface. This new model shows that the Moon’s effect on the Earth goes
well beyond merely causing tides.
In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is induced and constantly maintained by the convection of
liquid iron in the outer core. A requirement for the induction of field is a rotating fluid. Rotation in the
outer core is supplied by the Coriolis effectcaused by the rotation of the Earth. The Coriolis force tends
to organize fluid motions and electric currents into columns (also see Taylor columns) aligned with the
rotation axis. Induction or creation of magnetic field is described by the induction equation:
where u is velocity, B is magnetic field, t is time, and is the magnetic diffusivity with
electrical conductivity and permeability. The ratio of the second term on the right hand side to the
first term gives the Magnetic Reynolds number, a dimensionless ratio of advection of magnetic field to
diffusion.
Tidal heating supporting a dynamo

Tidal forces between celestial orbiting bodies cause friction that heats up their interiors. This is known
as tidal heating, and it helps keep the interior in a liquid state. A liquid interior that can conduct
electricity is required to produce a dynamo. Saturn's Enceladus and Jupiter's Io have enough tidal
heating to liquify their inner cores, but they may not create a dynamo because they cannot conduct
electricity.[11][12] Mercury, despite its small size, has a magnetic field, because it has a conductive liquid
core created by its iron composition and friction resulting from its highly elliptical orbit.[13] It is
theorized that the Moon once had a magnetic field, based on evidence from magnetized lunar rocks,
due to its short-lived closer distance to Earth creating tidal heating.[14] An orbit and rotation of a planet
helps provide a liquid core, and supplements kinetic energy that supports a dynamo action.
Kinematic dynamo theory

In kinematic dynamo theory the velocity field is prescribed, instead of being a dynamic variable. This
method cannot provide the time variable behavior of a fully nonlinear chaotic dynamo but is useful in
studying how magnetic field strength varies with the flow structure and speed.
Using Maxwell's equations simultaneously with the curl of Ohm's law, one can derive what is basically
the linear eigenvalue equation for magnetic fields (B) which can be done when assuming that the
magnetic field is independent from the velocity field. One arrives at a critical magnetic Reynolds
number above which the flow strength is sufficient to amplify the imposed magnetic field, and below
which it decays.
The most functional feature of kinematic dynamo theory is that it can be used to test whether a velocity
field is or is not capable of dynamo action. By applying a certain velocity field to a small magnetic field,
it can be determined through observation whether the magnetic field tends to grow or not in reaction to
the applied flow. If the magnetic field does grow, then the system is either capable of dynamo action or
is a dynamo, but if the magnetic field does not grow, then it is simply referred to as non-dynamo.
The membrane paradigm is a way of looking at black holes that allows for the material near their
surfaces to be expressed in the language of dynamo theory.
As a spontaneous breakdown of topological supersymmetry

Kinematic dynamo can be also viewed as the phenomenon of the spontaneous breakdown of the
topological supersymmetry of the associated stochastic differential equation related to the flow of the
background matter.[15] Within supersymmetric theory of stochastics, this supersymmetry is an intrinsic
property of all stochastic differential equations, its meaning is the preservation of the continuity of the
phase space of the model by continuous time flows, and its spontaneous breakdown is the stochastic
generalization of the concept of deterministic chaos.[16] In other words, kinematic dynamo is a
manifestation of the chaoticity of the underlying flow of the background matter.
Nonlinear dynamo theory
The kinematic approximation becomes invalid when the magnetic field becomes strong enough to
affect the fluid motions. In that case the velocity field becomes affected by the Lorentz force, and so
the induction equation is no longer linear in the magnetic field. In most cases this leads to a quenching
of the amplitude of the dynamo. Such dynamos are sometimes also referred to as hydromagnetic
dynamos.[17] Virtually all dynamos in astrophysics and geophysics are hydromagnetic dynamos.
The main idea of the theory is that any small magnetic field existing in the outer core, creates currents
in the moving fluid there due to Lorenz force. These currents create further magnetic field due
to Ampere's law. With the fluid motion, the currents are carried in a way that the magnetic field gets
stronger (as long as is negative[18]). Thus a "seed" magnetic field can get stronger and
stronger until it reaches some value that is related to existing non-magnetic forces.
Numerical models are used to simulate fully nonlinear dynamos. The following equations are used:
 The induction equation, presented above.

 Maxwell's equations for negligible electric field:
The continuity equation for conservation of mass, for which the Boussinesq
approximation is often used:
 The Navier-Stokes equation for conservation of momentum, again in the same

approximation, with the magnetic force and gravitation force as the external forces:
where is the kinematic viscosity, is the mean density and is the relative density
perturbation that provides buoyancy (for thermal convection where
is coefficient of thermal expansion), is the rotation rate of the Earth, and is the
electric current density.
 A transport equation, usually of heat (sometimes of light element

concentration):
where T is temperature, is the thermal diffusivity with k thermal conductivity,

heat capacity, and
density, and is an optional heat source. Often the pressure is the dynamic pressure,
with the hydrostatic pressure and centripetal potential removed.
These equations are then non-dimensionalized, introducing the non-dimensional parameters,
where Ra is the Rayleigh number, E the Ekman number, Pr and Pm the Prandtl and magnetic Prandtl
number. Magnetic field scaling is often in Elsasser number units .
Energy conversion between magnetic and kinematic energy[edit]

The scalar product of the above form of Navier-Stokes equation with gives the rate of increase of
kinetic energy density, , on the left-hand side. The last term on the right-hand side is
then , the local contribution to the kinetic energy due to Lorentz force.
The scalar product of the induction equation with gives the rate of increase of the magnetic
energy density, , on the left-hand side. The last term on the right-hand side is then
Since the equation is volume-integrated, this term is equivalent up to a

boundary term (and with the double use of the scalar triple product identity) to
(where one of Maxwell's equations was used).
This is the local contribution to the magnetic energy due to fluid motion.
Thus the term is the rate of transformation of kinetic energy to magnetic energy. This
has to be non-negative at least in part of the volume, for the dynamo to produce magnetic field.[18]
Order of magnitude of the magnetic field created by Earth's

dynamo
The above formula for the rate of conversion of kinetic energy to magnetic energy, is equivalent to a
rate of work done by a force of on the outer core matter, whose velocity is This work is
the result of non-magnetic forces acting on the fluid.
Of those, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force are conservative and therefore have no
overall contribution to fluid moving in closed loops. Ekman number (defined above), which is the ratio
between the two remaining forces, namely the viscosity and Coriolis force, is very low inside Earth's
outer core, because its viscosity is low (1.2-1.5 x10−2 pascal-second [19]) due to its liquidity.
Thus the main time-averaged contribution to the work is from Coriolis
force, whose size is though this quantity and are related only indirectly and are
not in general equal locally (thus they affect each other but not in the same place and time).
The current density J is itself the result of the magnetic field according to Ohm's law. Again, due to
matter motion and current flow, this is not necessarily the field at the same place and time. However
these relations can still be used to deduce orders of magnitude of the quantities in question.
In terms of order of magnitude, and giving or:

The exact ratio between both sides is the square root of Elsasser number.
Note that the magnetic field direction cannot be inferred from this approximation (at least not its sign)
as it appears squared, and is, indeed, sometimes reversed, though in general it lies on a similar axis to
that of
For earth outer core, ρ is approximately 104 kg/m3,[19] Ω=2π/day = 7.3x10−5 seconds and σ is
approximately 107Ω−1m−1.[20]This gives 2.7x10−4 Tesla.
The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole has an inverse cubic dependence in distance, so its order of
magnitude at the earth surface can be approximated by multiplying the above result with (Router
−5 −5 Tesla
core/REarth) = (2890/6370) = 0.093, giving 2.5x10 Tesla, not far from to the measured value of 3x10
3 3
at the equator.
Numerical models
The equations for the geodynamo are enormously difficult to solve, and the realism of the solutions is
limited mainly by computer power. For decades, theorists were confined to kinematic dynamo models
described above, in which the fluid motion is chosen in advance and the effect on the magnetic field
calculated. Kinematic dynamo theory was mainly a matter of trying different flow geometries and
seeing whether they could sustain a dynamo.
The first self-consistent dynamo models, ones that determine both the fluid motions and the magnetic
field, were developed by two groups in 1995, one in Japan[21] and one in the United States.[22][23] The latter
received significant attention because it successfully reproduced some of the characteristics of the
Earth's field, including geomagnetic reversals.[18]
GIANT -IMPACT HYPOTHESIS.

The giant-impact hypothesis, sometimes called the Big Splash, or the Theia Impact suggests
that the Moon formed out of the debris left over from a collision between Earth and an
astronomical body the size of Mars, approximately 4.5 billion years ago, in the Hadean eon;
about 20 to 100 million years after the solar system coalesced. The colliding body is
[1]
sometimes called Theia, from the name of the mythical Greek Titan who was the mother
of Selene, the goddess of the Moon. Analysis of lunar rocks, published in a 2016 report,
[2]
suggests that the impact may have been a direct hit, causing a thorough mixing of both
parent bodies. [3]
The giant impact hypothesis is currently the favored scientific hypothesis for the formation of
the Moon. Supporting evidence includes:
[4]
Earth's spin and the Moon's orbit have similar orientations. [5]
Moon samples indicate that the Moon's surface was once molten.
The Moon has a relatively small iron core.

The Moon has a lower density than Earth.
There is evidence in other star systems of similar collisions, resulting in debris disks.
Giant collisions are consistent with the leading theories of the formation of the Solar System.
The stable-isotope ratios of lunar and terrestrial rock are identical, implying a common
origin. [6]
However, there remain several questions concerning the best current models of the giant-
impact hypothesis. The energy of such a giant impact is predicted to have heated Earth to
[7]
produce a global magma ocean, and evidence of the resultant planetary differentiation of the
heavier material sinking into Earth's mantle has been documented. However, as of 2015there [8]
is no self-consistent model that starts with the giant-impact event and follows the evolution
of the debris into a single moon. Other remaining questions include when the Moon lost its
share of volatile elements and why Venus—which experienced giant impacts during its
formation—does not host a similar moon.
"Big splash"
Artist's depiction of a collision between two planetary bodies. Such an impact between Earth and a Mars-sized object likely formed
the Moon.
Source;NASA/JPL-Caltech -
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1454.html
This artist's concept shows a celestial body about the size of our moon slamming at great speed into a body
the size of Mercury. NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope found evidence that a high-speed collision of this sort
occurred a few thousand years ago around a young star, called HD 172555, still in the early stages of planet
formation. The star is about 100 light-years from Earth.
Giant- impact hypothesis,
In 1898, George Darwin made the suggestion that the Earth and Moon were once a single
body. Darwin's hypothesis was that a molten Moon had been spun from the Earth because
of centrifugal forces, and this became the dominant academic explanation. Using Newtonian
[9]
mechanics, he calculated that the Moon had orbited much more closely in the past and was
drifting away from the Earth. This drifting was later confirmed
by American and Soviet experiments, using laser ranging targets placed on the Moon.
Nonetheless, Darwin's calculations could not resolve the mechanics required to trace the
Moon backward to the surface of the Earth. In 1946, Reginald Aldworth Daly of Harvard
University challenged Darwin's explanation, adjusting it to postulate that the creation of the
Moon was caused by an impact rather than centrifugal forces. Little attention was paid to
[10]
Professor Daly's challenge until a conference on satellites in 1974, during which the idea was
reintroduced and later published and discussed in Icarus in 1975 by Drs. William K.
Hartmann and Donald R. Davis. Their models suggested that, at the end of the planet
formation period, several satellite-sized bodies had formed that could collide with the planets
or be captured. They proposed that one of these objects may have collided with the Earth,
ejecting refractory, volatile-poor dust that could coalesce to form the Moon. This collision
could potentially explain the unique geological and geochemical properties of the Moon. [11]
A similar approach was taken by Canadian astronomer Alastair G. W. Cameron and American
astronomer William R. Ward, who suggested that the Moon was formed by the tangential
impact upon Earth of a body the size of Mars. It is hypothesized that most of the outer
silicates of the colliding body would be vaporized, whereas a metallic core would not. Hence,
most of the collisional material sent into orbit would consist of silicates, leaving the
coalescing Moon deficient in iron. The more volatile materials that were emitted during the
collision probably would escape the Solar System, whereas silicates would tend to
coalesce.[12]
Theia
Theia (planet)
The name of the hypothesized protoplanet is derived from the

mythical Greek titan Theia /ˈθiːə/, who gave birth to the Moon goddess Selene. This
designation was proposed initially by the English geochemist Alex N. Halliday in 2000 and
has become accepted in the scientific community. According to modern theories of planet
[2][13]
formation, Theia was part of a population of Mars-sized bodies that existed in the Solar
System 4.5 billion years ago. One of the attractive features of the giant-impact hypothesis is
that the formation of the Moon and Earth align; during the course of its formation, the Earth is
thought to have experienced dozens of collisions with planet-sized bodies. The Moon-
forming collision would have been only one such "giant impact" but certainly the last
significant impactor event. The Late Heavy Bombardment by much smaller asteroids
occurred later - approximately 3.9 billion years ago.
Basic model
;Simplistic representation of the giant-impact hypothesis.
Source;Citronade - Own work
Astronomers think the collision between Earth and Theia happened at about 4.4 to 4.45 bya;
about 0.1 billion years after the Solar System began to form. In astronomical terms, the
[14][15]
impact would have been of moderate velocity. Theia is thought to have struck the Earth at
an oblique angle when the Earth was nearly fully formed. Computer simulations of this "late-
impact" scenario suggest an impact angle of about 45° and an initial impactor velocity below
4 km/s. However, oxygen isotope abundance in lunar rock suggests "vigorous mixing" of
[16]
Theia and Earth, indicating a steep impact angle. Theia's iron core would have sunk into
[3][17]
the young Earth's core, and most of Theia's mantle accreted onto the Earth's mantle.
However, a significant portion of the mantle material from both Theia and the Earth would
have been ejected into orbit around the Earth (if ejected with velocities between orbital
velocity and escape velocity) or into individual orbits around the sun (if ejected at higher
velocities). The material in orbits around the Earth quickly coalesced into the Moon (possibly
within less than a month, but in no more than a century). The material in orbits around the
sun stayed on its Kepler orbits, which are stable in space, and was thus likely to hit the earth-
moon system sometime later (because the Earth-Moon system's Kepler orbit around the sun
also remains stable). Estimates based on computer simulations of such an event suggest
that some twenty percent of the original mass of Theia would have ended up as an orbiting
ring of debris around the Earth, and about half of this matter coalesced into the Moon. The
Earth would have gained significant amounts of angular momentum and mass from such a
collision. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth's rotation before the impact, it would
have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact, and the Earth's equator and
the Moon's orbit would have become coplanar. [18]
Not all of the ring material need have been swept up right away: the thickened crust of the
Moon's far side suggests the possibility that a second moon about 1,000 km in diameter
formed in a Lagrange point of the Moon. The smaller moon may have remained in orbit for
tens of millions of years. As the two moons migrated outward from the Earth, solar tidal
effects would have made the Lagrange orbit unstable, resulting in a slow-velocity collision
that "pancaked" the smaller moon onto what is now the far side of the Moon, adding material
to its crust. Lunar magma cannot pierce through the thick crust of the far side, causing
[19][20]
lesser lunar maria, while the near side has a thin crust displaying the large maria visible from
Earth.[21]
Composition
In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institution of Washington reported that the rocks from
the Apollo program carried an isotopic signature that was identical with rocks from Earth,
and were different from almost all other bodies in the Solar System. [6]
In 2014, a team in Germany reported that the Apollo samples had a slightly different isotopic
signature from Earth rocks. The difference was slight, but statistically significant. One
[22]
possible explanation is that Theia formed near the Earth. [23]
Energetic aftermath theory

In 2007, researchers from the California Institute of Technology showed that the likelihood of
Theia having an identical isotopic signature as the Earth was very small (less than 1
percent). They proposed that in the aftermath of the giant impact, while the Earth and the
[24]
proto-lunar disk were molten and vaporized, the two reservoirs were connected by a common
silicate vapor atmosphere and that the Earth– Moon system became homogenized by
convective stirring while the system existed in the form of a continuous fluid. Such an
"equilibration" between the post-impact Earth and the proto-lunar disk is the only proposed
scenario that explains the isotopic similarities of the Apollo rocks with rocks from the Earth's
interior. For this scenario to be viable, however, the proto-lunar disk would have to endure for
about 100 years. Work is ongoing to determine whether or not this is possible.
Synestia model
Further modelling of the transient structure has given rise to the concept of a synestia, a
doughnut-shaped body that existed for a century before it cooled down and gave birth to the
Earth and the moon. [25][26]
Evidence
Indirect evidence for the giant impact scenario comes from rocks collected during the Apollo
Moon landings, which show oxygen isotope ratios nearly identical to those of Earth. The
highly anorthositic composition of the lunar crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich
samples, suggest that a large portion of the Moon once was molten; and a giant impact
scenario could easily have supplied the energy needed to form such a magma ocean. Several
lines of evidence show that if the Moon has an iron-rich core, it must be a small one. In
particular, the mean density, moment of inertia, rotational signature, and magnetic induction
response of the Moon all suggest that the radius of its core is less than about 25% the radius
of the Moon, in contrast to about 50% for most of the other terrestrial bodies. Appropriate
impact conditions satisfying the angular momentum constraints of the Earth– Moon system
yield a Moon formed mostly from the mantles of the Earth and the impactor, while the core of
the impactor accretes to the Earth. It is noteworthy that the Earth has the highest density of
[4]
all the planets in the Solar system; the absorption of the core of the impactor body explains
this observation, given the proposed properties of the early Earth and Theia.
Comparison of the zinc isotopic composition of Lunar samples with that of Earth
and Mars rocks provides further evidence for the impact hypothesis. Zinc is
[27]
strongly fractionated when volatilized in planetary rocks, but not during

[28][29]
normal igneous processes, so zinc abundance and isotopic composition can distinguish
[30]
the two geological processes. Moon rocks contain more heavy isotopes of zinc, and overall
less zinc, than corresponding igneous Earth or Mars rocks, which is consistent with zinc
being depleted from the Moon through evaporation, as expected for the giant impact origin. [27]
Collisions between ejecta escaping Earth's gravity and asteroids would have left impact
heating signatures in stony meteorites; analysis based on assuming the existence of this
effect has been used to date the impact event to 4.47 billion years ago, in agreement with the
date obtained by other means. [31]
Warm silica-rich dust and abundant SiO gas, products of high velocity (> 10 km/s) impacts
between rocky bodies, have been detected by the Spitzer Space Telescope around the nearby
(29 pc distant) young (~12 My old) star HD172555 in the Beta Pictoris moving group. A belt [32]
of warm dust in a zone between 0.25AU and 2AU from the young star HD 23514 in
the Pleiades cluster appears similar to the predicted results of Theia's collision with the
embryonic Earth, and has been interpreted as the result of planet-sized objects colliding with
each other. A similar belt of warm dust was detected around the star BD +20°307 (HIP 8920,
[33]
SAO 75016). [34]
Difficulties
This lunar origin hypothesis has some difficulties that have yet to be resolved. For example,
the giant-impact hypothesis implies that a surface magma ocean would have formed
following the impact. Yet there is no evidence that the Earth ever had such a magma ocean
and it is likely there exists material that has never been processed in a magma ocean. [35]
Composition
A number of compositional inconsistencies need to be addressed.
The ratios of the Moon's volatile elements are not explained by the giant impact hypothesis. If
the giant-impact hypothesis is correct, they must be due to some other cause. [35]
The presence of volatiles such as water trapped in lunar basalts is more difficult to explain if
the Moon was caused by a high-temperature impact. [36]
The iron oxide (FeO) content (13%) of the Moon, intermediate between that of Mars (18%) and
the terrestrial mantle (8%), rules out most of the source of the proto-lunar material from the
Earth's mantle. [37]
If the bulk of the proto-lunar material had come from an impactor, the Moon should be
enriched in siderophilic elements, when, in fact, it is deficient in those.
[38]
The Moon's oxygen isotopic ratios are essentially identical to those of Earth. Oxygen
[6]
isotopic ratios, which may be measured very precisely, yield a unique and distinct signature
for each solar system body. If a separate proto-planet Theia had existed, it probably would
[39]
have had a different oxygen isotopic signature than Earth, as would the ejected mixed
material.
[40]
The Moon's titanium isotope ratio ( Ti/ Ti) appears so close to the Earth's (within 4 ppm), that
50 47
little if any of the colliding body's mass could likely have been part of the Moon. [41][42]
Lack of a Venusian moon

If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may
have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this
process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred
there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a
second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first
impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to
[43]
destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow
rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometers in diameter
would likely have spiraled inwards and collided with Venus. [44]
Simulations of the chaotic period of terrestrial planet formation suggest that impacts like
those hypothesized to have formed the Moon were common. For typical terrestrial planets
with a mass of 0.5 to 1 Earth masses, such an impact typically results in a single moon
containing 4% of the host planet's mass. The inclination of the resulting moon's orbit is
random, but this tilt affects the subsequent dynamic evolution of the system. For example,
some orbits may cause the moon to spiral back into the planet. Likewise, the proximity of the
planet to the star will also affect the orbital evolution. The net effect is that it is more likely for
impact-generated moons to survive when they orbit more distant terrestrial planets and are
aligned with the planetary orbit. [45]
Possible origin of Theia

One suggested pathway for the Big Splash as viewed from the direction of the south pole
In 2004, Princeton University mathematician Edward Belbruno and astrophysicist J. Richard

Gott III proposed that Theia coalesced at the L or L Lagrangian pointrelative to Earth (in
4 5
about the same orbit and about 60° ahead or behind), similar to a trojan asteroid. Two-
[46][47] [5]
dimensional computer models suggest that the stability of Theia's proposed trojan
orbit would have been affected when its growing mass exceeded a threshold of
approximately 10% of the Earth's mass (the mass of Mars). In this scenario, gravitational
[46]
perturbations by planetesimals caused Theia to depart from its stable Lagrangian location,
and subsequent interactions with proto-Earth led to a collision between the two bodies. [46]
In 2008, evidence was presented that suggests that the collision may have occurred later
than the accepted value of 4.53 Gya, at approximately 4.48 Gya. A 2014 comparison of [48]
computer simulations with elemental abundance measurements in the Earth's mantle

indicated that the collision occurred approximately 95 My after the formation of the Solar
System. [49]
It has been suggested that other significant objects may have been created by the impact,
which could have remained in orbit between the Earth and Moon, stuck in Lagrangian points.
Such objects may have stayed within the Earth–Moon system for as long as 100 million
years, until the gravitational tugs of other planets destabilized the system enough to free the
objects. A study published in 2011 suggested that a subsequent collision between the Moon
[50]
and one of these smaller bodies caused the notable differences in physical characteristics
between the two hemispheres of the Moon. This collision, simulations have supported,
[51]
would have been at a low enough velocity so as not to form a crater; instead, the material
from the smaller body would have spread out across the Moon (in what would become its far
side), adding a thick layer of highlands crust. The resulting mass irregularities would
[52]
subsequently produce a gravity gradient that resulted in tidal locking of the Moon so that
today, only the near side remains visible from Earth. However, mapping by
the GRAIL mission has apparently ruled out this scenario.
Lagrangian point
In celestial mechanics, the Lagrangian points (/ləˈɡrɑːndʒiən/ also Lagrange points, L- [1]
points, or libration points) are the points near two large bodies in orbit where a smaller object
will maintain its position relative to the large orbiting bodies. At other locations, a small
object would go into its own orbit around one of the large bodies, but at the Lagrangian
points the gravitational forces of the two large bodies, the centripetal force of orbital motion,
and (for certain points) the Coriolis acceleration all match up in a way that cause the small
object to maintain a stable or nearly stable position relative to the large bodies.
There are five such points, labeled L to L , all in the orbital plane of the two large bodies, for
1 5
each given combination of two orbital bodies. For instance, there are five Lagrangian points
L to L for the Sun-Earth system, and in a similar way there are five different Langrangian
1 5
points for the Earth-Moon system. L , L , and L are on the line through the centers of the two
1 2 3
large bodies. L and L each form an equilateral triangle with the centers of the large bodies.
4 5
L and L are stable, which implies that objects can orbit around them in a rotating coordinate
4 5
system tied to the two large bodies.

Several planets have trojan satellites near their L and L points with respect to the
4 5
Sun. Jupiter has more than a million of these trojans. Artificial satellites have been placed at
L and L with respect to the Sunand Earth, and with respect to the Earth and the Moon. The
1 2
[2]
Lagrangian points have been proposed for uses in space exploration.

"Lagrange Point" redirects here. For the video game, see Lagrange Point (video game).
Smaller objects (green) at the Lagrange points each remain in the same relative position. At any other point, gravitational forces
would pull a small object into an orbit around either one of the two bodies, in a non-stable position relative to the other body.
Lagrange points in the Sun–Earth system (not to scale) – a small object at any one of the five points will hold its relative position.
An example of a spacecraft at Sun–Earth L2

WMAP · Earth
History of langragian point,
The three collinear Lagrange points (L , L , L ) were discovered by Leonhard Euler a few years
1 2 3
before Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovered the remaining two. [3][4]
In 1772, Lagrange published an "Essay on the three-body problem". In the first chapter he
considered the general three-body problem. From that, in the second chapter, he
demonstrated two special constant-pattern solutions, the collinear and the equilateral, for
any three masses, with circular orbits. [5]
Lagrange points
The five Lagrangian points are labeled and defined as follows:
L point
1
The L point lies on the line defined by the two large masses M and M , and between them. It
1 1 2
is the most intuitively understood of the Lagrangian points: the one where the gravitational
attraction of M partially cancels M 's gravitational attraction.
2 1
Explanation
An object that orbits the Sun more closely than Earth would normally have a shorter orbital
period than Earth, but that ignores the effect of Earth's own gravitational pull. If the object is
directly between Earth and the Sun, then Earth's gravitycounteracts some of the Sun's pull
on the object, and therefore increases the orbital period of the object. The closer to Earth the
object is, the greater this effect is. At the L point, the orbital period of the object becomes
1
exactly equal to Earth's orbital period. L is about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth, or
1
0.01 au, 1/100th the distance to the Sun. [6]
L point
2
The L point lies on the line through the two large masses, beyond the smaller of the two.
2
Here, the gravitational forces of the two large masses balance the centrifugal effect on a body
at L .
2
Explanation
On the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, the orbital period of an object would normally be
greater than that of Earth. The extra pull of Earth's gravity decreases the orbital period of the
object, and at the L point that orbital period becomes equal to Earth's. Like L , L is about
2 1 2
1.5 million kilometers or 0.01 au from Earth.
L point
3
The L point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the larger of the two.
3
Explanation
L in the Sun–Earth system exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little outside Earth's orbit
3
and slightly further to the Sun than Earth is. (This apparent contradiction is because the Sun
is also affected by Earth's gravity, and so orbits around the two bodies' barycenter, which is,
however, well inside the body of the Sun.) At the L point, the combined pull of Earth and Sun
3
again causes the object to orbit with the same period as Earth.
Gravitational accelerations at L4
L and L points
4 5
The L and L points lie at the third corners of the two equilateral triangles in the plane of orbit
4 5
whose common base is the line between the centers of the two masses, such that the point
lies behind (L ) or ahead (L ) of the smaller mass with regard to its orbit around the larger
5 4
mass.
The triangular points (L and L ) are stable equilibria, provided that the ratio of M /M is greater
4 5 1 2
than 24.96. This is the case for the Sun–Earth system, the Sun–Jupiter system, and, by
[note 1][7]
a smaller margin, the Earth–Moon system. When a body at these points is perturbed, it moves
away from the point, but the factor opposite of that which is increased or decreased by the
perturbation (either gravity or angular momentum-induced speed) will also increase or
decrease, bending the object's path into a stable, kidney bean-shaped orbit around the point
(as seen in the corotating frame of reference).
In contrast to L and L , where stable equilibrium exists, the points L , L , and L are positions
4 5 1 2 3
of unstable equilibrium. Any object orbiting at L , L , or L will tend to fall out of orbit; it is
1 2 3
therefore rare to find natural objects there, and spacecraft inhabiting these areas must
employ station keeping in order to maintain their position.
Natural objects at Lagrangian points

List of objects at Lagrangian points
It is common to find objects at or orbiting the L and L points of natural orbital systems.
4 5
These are commonly called "trojans". In the 20th century, asteroids discovered orbiting at the
Sun–Jupiter L and L points were named after characters from Homer's Iliad. Asteroids at the
4 5
L point, which leads Jupiter, are referred to as the "Greek camp", whereas those at the
4
L point are referred to as the "Trojan camp".

5
Other examples of natural objects orbiting at Lagrange points:

The Sun–Earth L and L points contain interplanetary dust and at least one asteroid, 2010
4 5
TK7, detected in October 2010 by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) and announced
during July 2011. [8][9]
The Earth–Moon L and L points contain interplanetary dust in what are called Kordylewski
4 5
clouds. Although the Hitenspacecraft's Munich Dust Counter (MDC) detected no increase in
dust during its passes through these points in 1992, their presence was confirmed in 2018 by
a team of Hungarian astronomers and physicists . Stability at these specific points is
[10] [11]
greatly complicated by solar gravitational influence. [12]
Recent observations suggest that the Sun–Neptune L and L points, known as the Neptune
4 5
trojans, may be very thickly populated, containing large bodies an order of magnitude more
[13]
numerous than the Jupiter trojans.

Several asteroids also orbit near the Sun-Jupiter L point, called the Hilda family.
3
The Saturnian moon Tethys has two smaller moons in its L and 4
L points, Telesto and Calypso. The Saturnian moon Dione also has two Lagrangian co-
5
orbitals, Helene at its L point and Polydeuces at L . The moons wander azimuthallyabout the
4 5
Lagrangian points, with Polydeuces describing the largest deviations, moving up to 32° away
from the Saturn–Dione L point. Tethys and Dione are hundreds of times more massive than
5
their "escorts" (see the moons' articles for exact diameter figures; masses are not known in
several cases), and Saturn is far more massive still, which makes the overall system stable.
One version of the giant impact hypothesis suggests that an object named Theia formed at
the Sun–Earth L or L points and crashed into Earth after its orbit destabilized, forming the
4 5
Moon.
Mars has four known co-orbital asteroids (5261 Eureka, 1999 UJ7, 1998 VF31 and 2007 NS2), all
at its Lagrangian points.
Earth's companion object 3753 Cruithne is in a relationship with Earth that is somewhat
trojan-like, but that is different from a true trojan. Cruithne occupies one of two regular solar
orbits, one of them slightly smaller and faster than Earth's, and the other slightly larger and
slower. It periodically alternates between these two orbits due to close encounters with Earth.
When it is in the smaller, faster orbit and approaches Earth, it gains orbital energy from Earth
and moves up into the larger, slower orbit. It then falls farther and farther behind Earth, and
eventually Earth approaches it from the other direction. Then Cruithne gives up orbital
energy to Earth, and drops back into the smaller orbit, thus beginning the cycle anew. The
cycle has no noticeable impact on the length of the year, because Earth's mass is over
20 billion (2×10 ) times more than that of 3753 Cruithne.
10
Epimetheus and Janus, satellites of Saturn, have a similar relationship, though they are of
similar masses and so actually exchange orbits with each other periodically. (Janus is
roughly 4 times more massive but still light enough for its orbit to be altered.) Another similar
configuration is known as orbital resonance, in which orbiting bodies tend to have periods of
a simple integer ratio, due to their interaction.
In a binary star system, the Roche lobe has its apex located at L ; if a star overflows its Roche
1
lobe, then it will lose matter to its companion star.

A contour plot of the effective potential due to gravity and the centrifugal force of a two-body system in a rotating frame of
reference. The arrows indicate the gradients of the potential around the five Lagrange points—downhill toward them (red) or away
from them (blue). Counterintuitively, the L4 and L5 points are the high points of the potential. At the points themselves these forces
are balanced.
Visualisation of the relationship between the Lagrangian points (red) of a planet (blue) orbiting a star (yellow) anticlockwise, and
the effective potential in the plane containing the orbit (grey rubber-sheet model with purple contours of equal potential).[14]
Click for animation.
Mathematical details
Lagrangian points are the constant-pattern solutions of the restricted three-body problem.
For example, given two massive bodies in orbits around their common barycenter, there are
five positions in space where a third body, of comparatively negligible mass, could be placed
so as to maintain its position relative to the two massive bodies. As seen in a rotating
reference frame that matches the angular velocity of the two co-orbiting bodies,
the gravitational fields of two massive bodies combined providing the centripetal force at the
Lagrangian points, allowing the smaller third body to be relatively stationary with respect to
the first two. [15]
L1
The location of L is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the
1
centripetal force:
where r is the distance of the L point from the smaller object, R is the distance between the
1
two main objects, and M and M are the masses of the large and small object, respectively.
1 2
Solving this for r involves solving a quintic function, but if the mass of the smaller object (M ) 2
is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M ) then L and L are at approximately
1 1 2
equal distances r from the smaller object, equal to the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:
This distance can be described as being such that the orbital period, corresponding to a
circular orbit with this distance as radius around M in the absence of M , is that
2 1
of M around M , divided by √3 ≈ 1.73:

2 1
L2
2
centripetal force:
with parameters defined as for the L case. Again, if the mass of the smaller object (M ) is
1 2
much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M ) then L is at approximately the radius of
1 2
the Hill sphere, given by:
L3
3
centripetal force:
with parameters defined as for the L and L cases except that r now indicates how much
1 2
closer L is to the more massive object than the smaller object. If the mass of the smaller
3
object (M ) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M ) then :
2 1
[16]
L4 and L5
Trojan (celestial body)
The reason these points are in balance is that, at L and L , the distances to the two masses
4 5
are equal. Accordingly, the gravitational forces from the two massive bodies are in the same
ratio as the masses of the two bodies, and so the resultant force acts through
the barycenter of the system; additionally, the geometry of the triangle ensures that
the resultantacceleration is to the distance from the barycenter in the same ratio as for the
two massive bodies. The barycenter being both the center of mass and center of rotation of
the three-body system, this resultant force is exactly that required to keep the smaller body at
the Lagrange point in orbital equilibrium with the other two larger bodies of system. (Indeed,
the third body need not have negligible mass.) The general triangular configuration was
discovered by Lagrange in work on the three-body problem.
Net radial acceleration of a point orbiting along the Earth-Moon line.
Radial acceleration
The radial acceleration a of an object in orbit at a point along the line passing through both
bodies is given by:
Where r is the distance from the large body M and sgn(x) is the sign function of x. The terms
1
in this function represent respectively: force from M ; force from M ; and centrifugal force.
1 2
The points L , L , L occur where the acceleration is zero — see chart at right.
3 1 2
Stability
Although the L , L , and L points are nominally unstable, there are (unstable) periodic orbits
1 2 3
called "halo" orbits around these points in a three-body system. A full n-body dynamical
system such as the Solar System does not contain these periodic orbits, but does contain
quasi-periodic (i.e. bounded but not precisely repeating) orbits following Lissajous-
curvetrajectories. These quasi-periodic Lissajous orbits are what most of Lagrangian-point
space missions have used until now. Although they are not perfectly stable, a modest effort
of station keeping keeps a spacecraft in a desired Lissajous orbit for a long time. Also, for
Sun–Earth-L missions, it is preferable for the spacecraft to be in a large-amplitude (100,000–
1
200,000 km or 62,000–124,000 mi) Lissajous orbit around L than to stay at L , because the line
1 1
between Sun and Earth has increased solar interference on Earth–spacecraft

communications. Similarly, a large-amplitude Lissajous orbit around L keeps a probe out of 2
Earth's shadow and therefore ensures continuous illumination of its solar panels.
The L and L points are stable provided that the mass of the primary body (e.g. the Earth) is
4 5
at least 25 times the mass of the secondary body (e.g. the Moon).
[note 1]
The Earth is over 81 [17][18]
times the mass of the Moon (the Moon is 1.23% of the mass of the Earth ). Although the [19]
L and L points are found at the top of a "hill", as in the effective potential contour plot above,
4 5
they are nonetheless stable. The reason for the stability is a second-order effect: as a body
moves away from the exact Lagrange position, Coriolis acceleration (which depends on the
velocity of an orbiting object and cannot be modeled as a contour map) curves the [18]
trajectory into a path around (rather than away from) the point. [18][20]
Solar System values

This table lists sample values of L , L , and L within the solar system. Calculations assume
1 2 3
the two bodies orbit in a perfect circle with separation equal to the semimajor axis and no
other bodies are nearby. Distances are measured from the larger body's center of mass with
L showing a negative location. The percentage columns show how the distances compare to
3
the semimajor axis. E.g. for the Moon, L is located 326400 km from Earth's center, which is
1
84.9% of the Earth-Moon distance or 15.1% in front of the Moon; L is located 448900 km from 2
Earth's center, which is 116.8% of the Earth-Moon distance or 16.8% beyond the Moon; and
L is located −381700 km from Earth's center, which is 99.3% of the Earth-Moon distance or
3
0.7084% in front of the Moon's 'negative' position.
Lagrangian points in Solar System
1−
Semimajor axis L2/SMA − 1 + L3/SMA
Body pair L1 L1/SMA L2 L3
(SMA) 1 (%) (%)
(%)
Earth-
3.844×108 m 3.2639×108 m 15.09 4.489×108 m 16.78 −3.8168×108 m 0.7084
Moon
Sun-
5.7909×1010 m 5.7689×1010 m 0.3806 5.813×1010 m 0.3815 −5.7909×1010 m 0.000009683
Mercury
Sun-
1.0821×1011 m 1.072×1011 m 0.9315 1.0922×1011 m 0.9373 −1.0821×1011 m 0.0001428
Venus
Sun-Earth 1.496×1011 m 1.4811×1011 m 0.997 1.511×1011 m 1.004 −1.496×1011 m 0.0001752
Sun-Mars 2.2794×1011 m 2.2686×1011 m 0.4748 2.2903×1011 m 0.4763 −2.2794×1011 m 0.00001882
Sun-
7.7834×1011 m 7.2645×1011 m 6.667 8.3265×1011 m 6.978 −7.7791×1011 m 0.05563
Jupiter
Sun-
1.4267×1012 m 1.3625×1012 m 4.496 1.4928×1012 m 4.635 −1.4264×1012 m 0.01667
Saturn
Sun-
2.8707×1012 m 2.8011×1012 m 2.421 2.9413×1012 m 2.461 −2.8706×1012 m 0.002546
Uranus
Sun-
4.4984×1012 m 4.3834×1012 m 2.557 4.6154×1012 m 2.602 −4.4983×1012 m 0.003004
Neptune
Spaceflight applications
Sun–Earth
The satellite ACE in an orbit around Sun-Earth L1.
SOURCE;The satellite ACE in an orbit around Sun-Earth L1.

Unknown - http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/ace/gallery.html
ACE in its orbit around L1.
Sun–Earth L is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are
1
never shadowed by Earth or the Moon and, if observing Earth, always view the sunlit
hemisphere. The first mission of this type was the International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3)
mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances. Since
June 2015, DSCOVR has orbited the L point. Conversely it is also useful for space-
1
based solar telescopes, because it provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun and any space
weather(including the solar wind and coronal mass ejections) reaches L a few hours before 1
Earth. Solar telescopes currently located around L include the Solar and Heliospheric
1
Observatory and Advanced Composition Explorer.

Sun–Earth L is a good spot for space-based observatories. Because an object around L will
2 2
maintain the same relative position with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and
calibration are much simpler. It is, however, slightly beyond the reach of Earth's umbra, so [21]
solar radiation is not completely blocked at L . (Real spacecraft generally orbit around L ,
2 2
avoiding partial eclipses of the Sun to maintain a constant temperature.) From locations near
L , the Sun, Earth and Moon are relatively close together in the sky; this means that a large
2
sunshade with the telescope on the dark-side can allow the telescope to cool passively to
around 50 K – this is especially helpful for infrared astronomy and observations of
the cosmic microwave background. The James Webb Space Telescope is due to be
positioned at L . 2
Sun–Earth L was a popular place to put a "Counter-Earth" in pulp science fiction and comic
3
books. Once space-based observation became possible via satellites and probes, it was
[22]
shown to hold no such object. The Sun–Earth L is unstable and could not contain a natural
3
object, large or small, for very long. This is because the gravitational forces of the other
planets are stronger than that of Earth (Venus, for example, comes within 0.3 AU of this
L every 20 months).
3
A spacecraft orbiting near Sun–Earth L would be able to closely monitor the evolution of
3
active sunspot regions before they rotate into a geoeffective position, so that a 7-day early
warning could be issued by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center. Moreover, a satellite
near Sun–Earth L would provide very important observations not only for Earth forecasts,
3
but also for deep space support (Mars predictions and for manned mission to near-Earth
asteroids). In 2010, spacecraft transfer trajectories to Sun–Earth L were studied and several
3
designs were considered. [23]
Missions to Lagrangian points generally orbit the points rather than occupy them directly.
Another interesting and useful property of the collinear Lagrangian points and their
associated Lissajous orbits is that they serve as "gateways" to control the chaotic
trajectories of the Interplanetary Transport Network.
Earth–Moon
Earth–Moon L allows comparatively easy access to Lunar and Earth orbits with minimal
1
change in velocity and this has as an advantage to position a half-way manned space station
intended to help transport cargo and personnel to the Moon and back.
Earth–Moon L has been used for a communications satellite covering the Moon's far side, for
2
example Queqiao launched in May 2018 , and would be "an ideal location" for a propellant
[24]
depot as part of the proposed depot-based space transportation architecture. [25]
Sun–Venus
Scientists at the B612 Foundation are planning to use Venus's L point to position their
3
planned Sentinel telescope, which aims to look back towards Earth's orbit and compile a
catalogue of near-Earth asteroids. [26]
Sun–Mars
In 2017, Nasa proposed the idea of positioning a magnetic dipole shield at the Sun-Mars
L point for use as an artificial magnetosphere for Mars. The idea is that this would protect
1
[27]
the planet's atmosphere from the Sun's radiation and solar winds.
Lagrangian spacecraft and missions

List of objects at Lagrangian points
Spacecraft at Sun–Earth L1
International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) began its mission at the Sun–Earth L before 1
leaving to intercept a comet in 1982. The Sun–Earth L is also the point to which the Reboot
1
ISEE-3 mission was attempting to return the craft as the first phase of a recovery mission (as
of September 25, 2014 all efforts have failed and contact was lost). [28]
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is stationed in a halo orbit at L , and 1
the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) in a Lissajous orbit. WIND is also at L . 1
Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), launched on 11 February 2015, began orbiting
L on 8 June 2015 to study the solar wind and its effects on Earth. DSCOVR is unofficially
1
[29]
known as GORESAT, because it carries a camera always oriented to Earth and capturing full-
frame photos of the planet similar to the Blue Marble. This concept was proposed by then-
Vice President of the United States Al Gore in 1998 and was a centerpiece in his film An
[30]
Inconvenient Truth.[31]
LISA Pathfinder (LPF) was launched on 3 December 2015, and arrived at L on 22 January 1
2016, where, among other experiments, it will test the technology needed by (e)LISA to detect
gravitational waves. LISA Pathfinder uses an instrument consisting of two small gold alloy
cubes.
Spacecraft at Sun–Earth L2
Spacecraft at the Sun–Earth L point are in a Lissajous orbit until decommissioned, when
2
they are sent into a heliocentricgraveyard orbit.
1 October 2001 – October 2010: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe [32]
November 2003 – April 2004: WIND, then it returned to Earth orbit before going to L where it 1
still remains
July 2009 – 29 April 2013: Herschel Space Telescope [33]
3 July 2009 – 21 October 2013: Planck Space Observatory

25 August 2011 – April 2012: Chang'e 2, [34][35]
from where it travelled to 4179 Toutatis and then
into deep space
January 2014 – 2018: Gaia Space Observatory
2020: Euclid Space Telescope
2021: James Webb Space Telescope will use a halo orbit
2024: Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) will use a halo orbit
2028: Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics (ATHENA) will use a halo orbit
Spacecraft at Earth–Moon L2
Queqiao entered orbit around the Earth–Moon L in 14 June 2018. It will serve as a relay
2
satellite for the Chang'e 4 lunar far-side lander, which cannot communicate directly with
Earth.
Past and current missions
Color key:
Unflown or Mission en route or in progress(including Mission at Lagrangian point completed

planned mission mission extensions) successfully (or partially successfully)
Lagrangian
Mission Agency Description
point
Launched in 1978, it was the first spacecraft to be put into orbit around a
libration point, where it operated for four years in a halo orbit about the
L1Sun–Earth point. After the original mission ended, it was commanded to
International Sun–Earth
Sun–Earth L1 NASA leave L1 in September 1982 in order to investigate comets and the
Explorer 3(ISEE-3)
Sun.[36] Now in a heliocentric orbit, an unsuccessful attempt to return to
halo orbit was made in 2014 when it made a flyby of the Earth–Moon
system.[37][38]
Advanced Composition Launched 1997. Has fuel to orbit near L1 until 2024. Operational as of
Sun–Earth L1 NASA
Explorer(ACE) 2016.[39][needs update]
Deep Space Climate Launched on 11 February 2015. Planned successor of the Advanced
Sun–Earth L1 NASA
Observatory(DSCOVR) Composition Explorer (ACE) satellite. Operational as of 2016.[40][needs update]
Launched one day behind revised schedule (planned for the 100th
ESA, anniversary of the publication of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity),
LISA Pathfinder(LPF) Sun–Earth L1
NASA on 3 December 2015. Arrived at L1 on 22 January 2016.[41] LISA Pathfinder
was deactivated on 30 June 2017.[42]
Lagrangian
point
Solar and Heliospheric ESA,

Sun–Earth L1 Orbiting near L1 since 1996. Operational as of 2017.[43]
Observatory(SOHO) NASA
WIND Sun–Earth L1 NASA Arrived at L1 in 2004 with fuel for 60 years. Operational as of 2017.[44]
Wilkinson Microwave
Arrived at L2 in 2001. Mission ended 2010,[45] then sent to solar orbit
Anisotropy Sun–Earth L2 NASA
outside L2.[46]
Probe(WMAP)
Arrived at L2 July 2009. Ceased operation on 29 April 2013; will be moved

Herschel Space Telescope Sun–Earth L2 ESA
to a heliocentric orbit.[47][48]
Arrived at L2 July 2009. Mission ended on 23 October 2013; Planck has

PlanckSpace Observatory Sun–Earth L2 ESA
been moved to a heliocentric parking orbit.[49]
Arrived in August 2011 after completing a lunar mission before departing

Chang'e 2 Sun–Earth L2 CNSA
en route to asteroid 4179 Toutatis in April 2012.[35]
Arrived in a Lissajous orbit with period of 14 days around the EM-L2 point
Chang'e 5-T1 service Earth–Moon on November 27, 2014 after its primary mission, the re-entry
CNSA
module L2 demonstration of the sample return capsule was completed. It left the
EM-L2 orbit on January 4, 2015 and returned to lunar orbit on January 13.
Mission consists of two spacecraft, which were the first spacecraft to

ARTEMIS mission Earth–Moon
NASA reach Earth–Moon Lagrangian points. Both moved through Earth–Moon
extension of THEMIS L1 and L2
Lagrangian points, and are now in lunar orbit.[50][51]
WIND Sun–Earth L2 NASA Arrived at L2 in November 2003 and departed April 2004.
Gaia Space Observatory Sun–Earth L2 ESA Launched 19 December 2013. Operational as of 24 January 2017.[52][53][needs
update]
Queqiao Earth–Moon CNSA Launched on 21 May 2018, en route to L2 halo orbit.[54]

Future and proposed emissions table above.
Lagrangian
point
Proposed in 1968 for

communications on
the far side of the
Moon during the Apollo
"Lunar Far-Side program,
Earth–
Communication NASA mainly to enable an
Moon L2
Satellites" Apollo landing on the
far side—neither the
satellites nor the
landing were ever
realized.[55]
First proposed in 1974

Space Earth– — by Gerard K.
colonizationand Moon L4 or
O'Neill[56] and
manufacturing L5 subsequently advocated
by the L5 Society.
6U CubeSat, launch
planned in 2019 as a
Earth- University of
EQUULEUS secondary payload
Moon L2 Tokyo, JAXA
onboard SLS Exploration
Mission 1.[57]
James Webb Space Sun–Earth NASA, As of 2018, launch is

Telescope(JWST) L2 ESA, CSA planned for 2021.[58]
Sun–Earth As of 2013, launch is

Euclid ESA, NASA
L2 planned in 2020.[59]
Launch planned for

2021; it will be going to
a point 1.5 million
kilometers away from
Sun–Earth Earth, from where it will
Aditya-L1 ISRO
L1 observe the Sun
constantly and study
the solar corona, the
region around the Sun's
surface.[60]
Candidate for JAXA's

Demonstration and
next "Competitively-
Experiment of
Earth– Chosen Medium-Sized
Space Technology JAXA
Moon L2 Focused Mission",
for INterplanetary
possible launch in the
voYage (DESTINY)
early 2020s.[61]
Exploration Earth–
NASA Proposed in 2011.[63]
Gateway Platform Moon L2[62]
As of 2013, in a "pre-
Wide Field Infrared formulation" phase
Sun–Earth
Survey NASA, USDOE until at least early 2016;
L2
Telescope(WFIRST) possible launch in the
early 2020s.[64]
As of 2015, one of two

finalists for JAXA's next
Sun–Earth "Strategic Large
LiteBIRD JAXA, NASA
L2[65] Mission"; would be
launched in 2024 if
selected.[66]
Planetary Transits Planned for launch in

Sun–Earth
and Oscillations of ESA 2024 for an initial six-
L2
stars (PLATO) year mission.[67]
Space Infrared As of 2015, awaiting

Sun–Earth JAXA,
Telescope for approval from both
Cosmology L2 ESA, SRON Japanese and European
and side, launch proposed
Astrophysics(SPICA) for 2025.[68]
Advanced
Telescope for High
Sun–Earth Launch planned for
Energy ESA
L2 2028.[69]
Astrophysics
(ATHENA)
Alternative hypotheses
Origin of the Moon hypothesis.
Other mechanisms that have been suggested at various times for the Moon's origin are that
the Moon was spun off from the Earth's molten surface by centrifugal force; that it was
[9]
formed elsewhere and was subsequently captured by the Earth's gravitational field; or that
[54]
the Earth and the Moon formed at the same time and place from the same accretion disk.
None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth-Moon
system.[18]
Another hypothesis attributes the formation of the Moon to the impact of a large asteroid with
the Earth much later than previously thought, creating the satellite primarily from debris from
Earth. In this hypothesis, the formation of the Moon occurs 60–140 million years after the
formation of the Solar System. Previously, the age of the Moon had been thought to be 4.527
± 0.010 billion years. The impact in this scenario would have created a magma ocean on
[55]
Earth and the proto-Moon with both bodies sharing a common plasma metal vapor
atmosphere. The shared metal vapor bridge would have allowed material from the Earth and
proto-Moon to exchange and equilibrate into a more common composition. [56][57]
Yet another hypothesis proposes that the Moon and the Earth have formed together instead
of separately like the giant-impact hypothesis suggests. The new model, developed by Robin
M. Canup, suggests that the Moon and the Earth have formed as a part of a massive collision
of two planetary bodies, each larger than Mars, which then re-collided to form what we now
call Earth. After the recollision, Earth was surrounded by a disk of material, which accreted to
form the Moon. This hypothesis could explain facts that others do not. [58]
Moon – Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms")
Ancient rift valleys – rectangular structure (visible – topography – GRAIL gravity gradients) (October 1, 2014).
Ancient rift valleys – context.
See also
Geologic time scale
Geology of the Moon
History of Earth
Lunar geologic timescale

Origin of the Moon
Roche limit
Theia (planet)
Nibiru (Babylonian astronomy)

Phaeton (hypothetical planet)
Zipf’s law.
Zipf's law (/zɪf/) is an empirical law formulated using mathematical statistics that refers to the
fact that many types of data studied in the physical and social sciences can be approximated
with a Zipfian distribution, one of a family of related discrete power law probability
distributions. Zipf distribution is related to the zeta distribution, but is not identical.
For example, Zipf's law states that given some corpus of natural language utterances, the
frequency of any word is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. Thus the
most frequent word will occur approximately twice as often as the second most frequent
word, three times as often as the third most frequent word, etc.: the rank-frequency
distribution is an inverse relation. For example, in the Brown Corpus of American English
text, the word the is the most frequently occurring word, and by itself accounts for nearly 7%
of all word occurrences (69,971 out of slightly over 1 million). True to Zipf's Law, the second-
place word of accounts for slightly over 3.5% of words (36,411 occurrences), followed
by and (28,852). Only 135 vocabulary items are needed to account for half the Brown
Corpus.[1]
The law is named after the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf (1902–1950), who
popularized it and sought to explain it (Zipf 1935, 1949), though he did not claim to have
originated it.[2] The French stenographer Jean-Baptiste Estoup (1868–1950) appears to have
noticed the regularity before Zipf.[3][not verified in body] It was also noted in 1913 by German
physicist Felix Auerbach[4] (1856–1933).
Other datasets
The same relationship occurs in many other rankings unrelated to language, such as the
population ranks of cities in various countries, corporation sizes, income rankings, ranks of
number of people watching the same TV channel,[5] and so on. The appearance of the
distribution in rankings of cities by population was first noticed by Felix Auerbach in
1913.[4] Empirically, a data set can be tested to see whether Zipf's law applies by checking the
goodness of fit of an empirical distribution to the hypothesized power law distribution with
a Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, and then comparing the (log) likelihood ratio of the power law
distribution to alternative distributions like an exponential distribution or lognormal
distribution.[6] When Zipf's law is checked for cities, a better fit has been found with
exponent s = 1.07; i.e. the largest settlement is the size of the largest settlement.
Zipf's law
Probability mass function
Zipf PMF for N = 10 on a log–log scale. The horizontal axis is

the index k . (Note that the function is only defined at integer
values of k. The connecting lines do not indicate continuity.)
Cumulative distribution function

Zipf CDF for N = 10. The horizontal axis is the index k . (Note
that the function is only defined at integer values of k. The
connecting lines do not indicate continuity.)
File:Zipf distribution PMF.png

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01:16, 23 April 1,300 × PAR~commonswiki (talk | cont Log-log

2005 975 (154 ribs) plot of the
KB) probabilit
y mass
function
for the
Zipf
distributio
n, N=10
and
s=1,2,3
and 4.
You cannot overwrite this file.
Source;From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.

Theoretical review
Zipf's law is most easily observed by plotting the data on a log-log graph, with the axes
being log (rank order) and log (frequency). For example, the word "the" (as described above)
would appear at x = log(1), y = log(69971). It is also possible to plot reciprocal rank against
frequency or reciprocal frequency or interword interval against rank.[2] The data conform to
Zipf's law to the extent that the plot is linear.
Formally, let:
N be the number of elements;

k be their rank;
s be the value of the exponent characterizing the distribution.
Zipf's law then predicts that out of a population of N elements, the normalized frequency of
elements of rank k, f(k;s,N), is:
Zipf's law holds if the number of elements with a given frequency is a random variable with
power law distribution [7]
It has been claimed that this representation of Zipf's law is more suitable for statistical
testing, and in this way it has been analyzed in more than 30,000 English texts. The
goodness-of-fit tests yield that only about 15% of the texts are statistically compatible with
this form of Zipf's law. Slight variations in the definition of Zipf's law can increase this
percentage up to close to 50%.[8]
In the example of the frequency of words in the English language, N is the number of words
in the English language and, if we use the classic version of Zipf's law, the exponent s is
1. f(k; s,N) will then be the fraction of the time the kth most common word occurs.
The law may also be written:
where HN,s is the Nth generalized harmonic number.

The simplest case of Zipf's law is a "1⁄f function." Given a set of Zipfian distributed
frequencies, sorted from most common to least common, the second most common
frequency will occur ½ as often as the first. The third most common frequency will occur ⅓
as often as the first. The fourth most common frequency will occur ¼ as often as the first.
The nth most common frequency will occur 1⁄n as often as the first. However, this cannot hold
exactly, because items must occur an integer number of times; there cannot be 2.5
occurrences of a word. Nevertheless, over fairly wide ranges, and to a fairly good
approximation, many natural phenomena obey Zipf's law.
In human languages, word frequencies have a very heavy-tailed distribution, and can
therefore be modeled reasonably well by a Zipf distribution with an s close to 1.
As long as the exponent s exceeds 1, it is possible for such a law to hold with infinitely many
words, since if s > 1 then
where ζ is Riemann's zeta function.

Statistical explanation
Although Zipf’s Law holds for all languages, even non-natural ones like Esperanto,[9] the
reason is still not well understood.[10]However, it may be partially explained by the statistical
analysis of randomly generated texts. Wentian Li has shown that in a document in which
each character has been chosen randomly from a uniform distribution of all letters (plus a
space character), the "words" follow the general trend of Zipf's law (appearing approximately
linear on log-log plot).[11] Vitold Belevitch in a paper, On the Statistical Laws of Linguistic
Distribution offered a mathematical derivation. He took a large class of well-
behaved statistical distributions (not only the normal distribution) and expressed them in
terms of rank. He then expanded each expression into a Taylor series. In every case
Belevitch obtained the remarkable result that a first-order truncation of the series resulted in
Zipf's law. Further, a second-order truncation of the Taylor series resulted in Mandelbrot's
law.[12][13]
The principle of least effort is another possible explanation: Zipf himself proposed that
neither speakers nor hearers using a given language want to work any harder than necessary
to reach understanding, and the process that results in approximately equal distribution of
effort leads to the observed Zipf distribution.[14] [15]
Similarly, preferential attachment (intuitively, "the rich get richer" or "success breeds
success") that results in the Yule–Simon distribution has been shown to fit word frequency
versus rank in language[16] and population versus city rank[17] better than Zipf's law. It was
originally derived to explain population versus rank in species by Yule, and applied to cities
by Simon.
A PLOT OF THE RANK VERSUS FREQUENCY FOR THE FIRST 10 MILLION WORDS
IN 30 WIKIPEDIAS (DUMPS FROM OCTOBER 2015) IN A LOG-LOG SCALE.
A plot of the rank versus frequency for the first 10 million words in 30 Wikipedias (dumps
from October 2015) in a log-log scale.
Source;SergioJimenez - Own work
RELATED LAWS.
Zipf's law in fact refers more generally to frequency distributions of "rank data," in which the
relative frequency of the nth-ranked item is given by the Zeta distribution, 1/(nsζ(s)), where the
parameter s > 1 indexes the members of this family of probability distributions. Indeed, Zipf's
law is sometimes synonymous with "zeta distribution," since probability distributions are
sometimes called "laws". This distribution is sometimes called the Zipfian distribution.
A generalization of Zipf's law is the Zipf–Mandelbrot law, proposed by Benoît Mandelbrot,
whose frequencies are:
The "constant" is the reciprocal of the Hurwitz zeta function evaluated at s. In practice, as
easily observable in distribution plots for large corpora, the observed distribution can be
modelled more accurately as a sum of separate distributions for different subsets or
subtypes of words that follow different parameterizations of the Zipf–Mandelbrot distribution,
in particular the closed class of functional words exhibit s lower than 1, while open-ended
vocabulary growth with document size and corpus size require s greater than 1 for
convergence of the Generalized Harmonic Series.[2]
Zipfian distributions can be obtained from Pareto distributions by an exchange of variables.[7]
The Zipf distribution is sometimes called the discrete Paretodistribution[18] because it is

analogous to the continuous Pareto distribution in the same way that the discrete uniform
distribution is analogous to the continuous uniform distribution.
The tail frequencies of the Yule–Simon distribution are approximately
for any choice of ρ > 0.
In the parabolic fractal distribution, the logarithm of the frequency is a quadratic polynomial
of the logarithm of the rank. This can markedly improve the fit over a simple power-law
relationship.[19] Like fractal dimension, it is possible to calculate Zipf dimension, which is a
useful parameter in the analysis of texts.[20]
It has been argued that Benford's law is a special bounded case of Zipf's law,[19] with the
connection between these two laws being explained by their both originating from scale
invariant functional relations from statistical physics and critical phenomena.[21] The ratios of
probabilities in Benford's law are not constant. The leading digits of data satisfying Zipf's law
with s = 1 satisfy Benford's law.
PLOT OF WORD FREQUENCY IN WIKIPEDIA-DUMP 2006-11-27. THE PLOT IS MADE

IN LOG-LOG COORDINATES. X IS RANK OF A WORD IN THE FREQUENCY TABLE; Y
IS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF THE WORD’S OCCURENCES. MOST POPULAR WORDS
ARE “THE”, “OF” AND “AND”, AS EXPECTED :)
A plot of word frequency in Wikipedia (November 27, 2006). The plot is in log-
log coordinates. x is rank of a word in the frequency table; y is the total number of the
word’s occurrences. Most popular words are "the", "of" and "and", as expected. Zipf's
law corresponds to the middle linear portion of the curve, roughly following the green
(1/x) line, while the early part is closer to the magenta (1/x0.5) line while the later part is
closer to the cyan (1/(k + x)2.0) line. These lines correspond to three distinct
parameterizations of the Zipf–Mandelbrot distribution, overall a broken power law with
three segments: a head, middle, and tail.
Source;Victor Grishchenko - Victor Grishchenko [1]
Permission details;
LGPL
BENFORD’S LAW
Benford's law, also called Newcomb-Benford's law, law of anomalous numbers, and first-digit
law, is an observation about the frequency distribution of leading digits in many real-life sets
of numerical data. The law states that in many naturally occurring collections of numbers, the
leading significant digit is likely to be small.[1] For example, in sets that obey the law, the
number 1 appears as the leading significant digit about 30% of the time, while 9 appears as
the leading significant digit less than 5% of the time. If the digits were distributed uniformly,
they would each occur about 11.1% of the time.[2] Benford's law also makes predictions about
the distribution of second digits, third digits, digit combinations, and so on.
The graph to the right shows Benford's law for base 10. There is a generalization of the law to
numbers expressed in other bases (for example, base 16), and also a generalization from
leading 1 digit to leading n digits.
It has been shown that this result applies to a wide variety of data sets, including electricity
bills, street addresses, stock prices, house prices, population numbers, death rates, lengths
of rivers, physical and mathematical constants[3]. Like other general principles about natural
data — for example the fact that many data sets are well approximated by a normal
distribution — there are illustrative examples and explanations that cover many of the cases
where Benford's law applies, though there are many other cases where Benford's law applies
that resist a simple explanation.[1] It tends to be most accurate when values are distributed
across multiple orders of magnitude, especially if the process generating the numbers is
described by a power law(which are common in nature).
It is named after physicist Frank Benford, who stated it in 1938 in a paper titled "The Law of
Anomalous Numbers",[4] although it had been previously stated by Simon Newcomb in
1881.[5][6]
.
The distribution of first digits, according to Benford's law. Each bar represents a digit,
and the height of the bar is the percentage of numbers that start with that digit.
Source;Gknor - Own work
Benford's distribution
Frequency of first significant digit of physical constants plotted against Benford's law
Source;Drnathanfurious at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons
by Tam0031 using CommonsHelper.
Plot of Benford's Law vs the first significant digit of a set of physical constants. Data
from http://physics.nist.gov/constants. Created by Aaron Webster.
Bedfords law definition.
A set of numbers is said to satisfy Benford's law if the leading digit d (d ∈ {1, ..., 9}) occurs
with probability
The leading digits in such a set thus have the following distribution:
The quantity is proportional to the space between d and d + 1 on a logarithmic scale.
Therefore, this is the distribution expected if the mantissae of the logarithms of the numbers
(but not the numbers themselves) are uniformly and randomly distributed.
For example, a number x, constrained to lie between 1 and 10, starts with the digit 1
if 1 ≤ x < 2, and starts with the digit 9 if 9 ≤ x < 10. Therefore, x starts with the digit 1
if log 1 ≤ log x < log 2, or starts with 9 if log 9 ≤ log x < log 10. The interval [log 1, log 2] is
much wider than the interval [log 9, log 10] (0.30 and 0.05 respectively); therefore if log x is
uniformly and randomly distributed, it is much more likely to fall into the wider interval than
the narrower interval, i.e. more likely to start with 1 than with 9; the probabilities are
proportional to the interval widths, giving the equation above (as well as the generalization to
other bases besides decimal).
Benford's law is sometimes stated in a stronger form, asserting that the fractional part of the
logarithm of data is typically close to uniformly distributed between 0 and 1; from this, the
main claim about the distribution of first digits can be derived.
HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/BENFORD%27S_LAW#/MEDIA/FILE:LOGARITHMIC_SCAL
E.PNG
A logarithmic scale bar. Picking a random x position uniformly on this number line,
roughly 30% of the time the first digit of the number will be 1.
Source;HB at French Wikipedia - Transferred from fr.wikipedia to Commons
by Esp2008 using CommonsHelper.
Exemple d'échelle logarithmique à trois modules. Image personnelle créée avec

gnuplot et gimp. Domaine public.
Benford's law in other bases

Graphs of P (d ) for initial digit din various bases.[7] The dotted line shows P (d ) were the
distribution uniform. In the SVG image, hover over a graph to show the value for each
point.
Source;
Cmglee - Own work
Graphs of probability P that an arbitrary number starts with digit d in various bases
by CMG Lee. The dotted line shows the probability were the distribution uniform. The
graphs should be bars but are shown as lines for clarity. Hover over a graph to
highlight it and click it to load its Wikipedia article.
An extension of Benford's law predicts the distribution of first digits in

other bases besides decimal; in fact, any base b ≥ 2. The general form is:
For b = 2 (the binary number system), Benford's law is true but trivial: All binary numbers
(except for 0) start with the digit 1. (On the other hand, the generalization of Benford's law to
second and later digits is not trivial, even for binary numbers.)
Example
DISTRIBUTION OF FIRST DIGITS (IN %, RED BARS) IN THE POPULATION OF THE 237
COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AS OF JULY 2010. BLACK DOTS INDICATE THE
DISTRIBUTION PREDICTED BY BENFORD'S LAW.
Source;
Jakob.scholbach - Own work
illustration of Benford's law, using the population of the countries of the world. The
chart depicts the percentage of countries having the corresponding digit as first digit
of their population (red bars). For example, 64 countries of 237 (=27%) have 1 as
leading digit of the population. Black points indicate what is predicted by Benford's
law. the data is from CIA Worldbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html, accessed August 07, 2010 Rank|| country
Population Date of Information ||1 China ||1,330,141,295|| ||July 2010 2 India
||1,173,108,018|| ||July 2010 3 United States ||310,232,863|| ||July 2010 4 Indonesia
||242,968,342|| ||July 2010 5 Brazil ||201,103,330|| ||July 2010 6 Pakistan ||177,276,594||
||July 2010 7 Bangladesh ||158,065,841|| ||July 2010 8 Nigeria ||152,217,341|| ||July
2010 9 Russia ||139,390,205|| ||July 2010 10 Japan ||126,804,433|| ||July 2010 11
Mexico ||112,468,855|| ||July 2010 12 Philippines ||99,900,177|| ||July 2010 13 Vietnam
||89,571,130|| ||July 2010 14 Ethiopia ||88,013,491|| ||July 2010 15 Germany
||82,282,988|| ||July 2010 16 Egypt ||80,471,869|| ||July 2010 17 Turkey ||77,804,122||
||July 2010 18 Congo, Democratic Republic of the ||70,916,439|| ||July 2010 19 Iran
||67,037,517|| ||July 2010 20 Thailand ||66,404,688|| ||July 2010 21 France ||64,057,792||
||July 2010 22 United Kingdom ||61,284,806|| ||July 2010 23 Italy ||58,090,681|| ||July
2010 24 Burma ||53,414,374|| ||July 2010 25 South Africa ||49,109,107|| ||July 2010 26
Korea, South ||48,636,068|| ||July 2010 27 Ukraine ||45,415,596|| ||July 2010 28
Colombia ||44,205,293|| ||July 2010 29 Sudan ||41,980,182|| ||July 2010 30 Tanzania
||41,892,895|| ||July 2010 31 Argentina ||41,343,201|| ||July 2010 32 Spain ||40,548,753||
||July 2010 33 Kenya ||40,046,566|| ||July 2010 34 Poland ||38,463,689|| ||July 2010 35
Algeria ||34,586,184|| ||July 2010 36 Canada ||33,759,742|| ||July 2010 37 Uganda
||33,398,682|| ||July 2010 38 Morocco ||31,627,428|| ||July 2010 39 Peru ||29,907,003||
||July 2010 40 Iraq ||29,671,605|| ||July 2010 41 Saudi Arabia ||29,207,277|| ||July 2010
42 Afghanistan ||29,121,286|| ||July 2010 43 Nepal ||28,951,852|| ||July 2010 44
Uzbekistan ||27,865,738|| ||July 2010 45 Venezuela ||27,223,228|| ||July 2010 46
Malaysia ||26,160,256|| ||July 2010 47 Ghana ||24,339,838|| ||July 2010 48 Yemen
||23,495,361|| ||July 2010 49 Taiwan ||23,024,956|| ||July 2010 50 Korea, North
||22,757,275|| ||July 2010 51 Syria ||22,198,110|| ||July 2010 52 Romania ||22,181,287||
||July 2010 53 Mozambique ||22,061,451|| ||July 2010 54 Australia ||21,515,754|| ||July
2010 55 Sri Lanka ||21,513,990|| ||July 2010 56 Madagascar ||21,281,844|| ||July 2010
57 Cote d'Ivoire ||21,058,798|| ||July 2010 58 Cameroon ||19,294,149|| ||July 2010 59
Netherlands ||16,783,092|| ||July 2010 60 Chile ||16,746,491|| ||July 2010 61 Burkina
Faso ||16,241,811|| ||July 2010 62 Niger ||15,878,271|| ||July 2010 63 Kazakhstan
||15,460,484|| ||July 2010 64 Malawi ||15,447,500|| ||July 2010 65 Ecuador ||14,790,608||
||July 2010 66 Cambodia ||14,753,320|| ||July 2010 67 Senegal ||14,086,103|| ||July 2010
68 Mali ||13,796,354|| ||July 2010 69 Guatemala ||13,550,440|| ||July 2010 70 Angola
||13,068,161|| ||July 2010 71 Zambia ||12,056,923|| ||July 2010 72 Zimbabwe
||11,651,858|| ||July 2010 73 Cuba ||11,477,459|| ||July 2010 74 Rwanda ||11,055,976||
||July 2010 75 Greece ||10,749,943|| ||July 2010 76 Portugal ||10,735,765|| ||July 2010
77 Tunisia ||10,589,025|| ||July 2010 78 Chad ||10,543,464|| ||July 2010 79 Belgium
||10,423,493|| ||July 2010 80 Guinea ||10,324,025|| ||July 2010 81 Czech Republic
||10,201,707|| ||July 2010 82 Somalia ||10,112,453|| ||July 2010 83 Bolivia ||9,947,418||
||July 2010 84 Hungary ||9,880,059|| ||July 2010 85 Burundi ||9,863,117|| ||July 2010 86
Dominican Republic ||9,794,487|| ||July 2010 87 Belarus ||9,612,632|| ||July 2010 88
Haiti ||9,203,083|| ||July 2010 89 Sweden ||9,074,055|| ||July 2010 90 Benin ||9,056,010||
||July 2010 91 Azerbaijan ||8,303,512|| ||July 2010 92 Austria ||8,214,160|| ||July 2010 93
Honduras ||7,989,415|| ||July 2010 94 Switzerland ||7,623,438|| ||July 2010 95 Tajikistan
||7,487,489|| ||July 2010 96 Israel ||7,353,985|| ||July 2010 97 Serbia ||7,344,847|| ||July
2010 98 Bulgaria ||7,148,785|| ||July 2010 99 Hong Kong ||7,089,705|| ||July 2010 100
Laos ||6,993,767|| ||July 2010 101 Libya ||6,461,454|| ||July 2010 102 Jordan
||6,407,085|| ||July 2010 103 Paraguay ||6,375,830|| ||July 2010 104 Togo ||6,199,841||
||July 2010 105 Papua New Guinea ||6,064,515|| ||July 2010 106 El Salvador
||6,052,064|| ||July 2010 107 Nicaragua ||5,995,928|| ||July 2010 108 Eritrea ||5,792,984||
||July 2010 109 Denmark ||5,515,575|| ||July 2010 110 Kyrgyzstan ||5,508,626|| ||July
2010 111 Slovakia ||5,470,306|| ||July 2010 112 Finland ||5,255,068|| ||July 2010 113
Sierra Leone ||5,245,695|| ||July 2010 114 United Arab Emirates ||4,975,593|| ||July
2010 115 Turkmenistan ||4,940,916|| ||July 2010 116 Central African Republic
||4,844,927|| ||July 2010 117 Singapore ||4,701,069|| ||July 2010 118 Norway
||4,676,305|| ||July 2010 119 Bosnia and Herzegovina ||4,621,598|| ||July 2010 120
Georgia ||4,600,825|| ||July 2010 121 Costa Rica ||4,516,220|| ||July 2010 122 Croatia
||4,486,881|| ||July 2010 123 Moldova ||4,317,483|| ||July 2010 124 New Zealand
||4,252,277|| ||July 2010 125 Ireland ||4,250,163|| ||July 2010 126 Congo, Republic of
the ||4,125,916|| ||July 2010 127 Lebanon ||4,125,247|| ||July 2010 128 Puerto Rico
||3,977,663|| ||July 2010 129 Liberia ||3,685,076|| ||July 2010 130 Albania ||3,659,616||
||July 2010 131 Lithuania ||3,545,319|| ||July 2010 132 Uruguay ||3,510,386|| ||July 2010
133 Panama ||3,410,676|| ||July 2010 134 Mauritania ||3,205,060|| ||July 2010 135
Mongolia ||3,086,918|| ||July 2010 136 Oman ||2,967,717|| ||July 2010 137 Armenia
||2,966,802|| ||July 2010 138 Jamaica ||2,847,232|| ||July 2010 139 Kuwait ||2,789,132||
||July 2010 140 West Bank ||2,514,845|| ||July 2010 141 Latvia ||2,217,969|| ||July 2010
142 Namibia ||2,128,471|| ||July 2010 143 Macedonia ||2,072,086|| ||July 2010 144
Botswana ||2,029,307|| ||July 2010 145 Slovenia ||2,003,136|| ||July 2010 146 Lesotho
||1,919,552|| ||July 2010 147 Gambia, The ||1,824,158|| ||July 2010 148 Kosovo
||1,815,048|| ||July 2010 149 Gaza Strip ||1,604,238|| ||July 2010 150 Guinea-Bissau
||1,565,126|| ||July 2010 151 Gabon ||1,545,255|| ||July 2010 152 Swaziland ||1,354,051||
||July 2010 153 Mauritius ||1,294,104|| ||July 2010 154 Estonia ||1,291,170|| ||July 2010
155 Trinidad and Tobago ||1,228,691|| ||July 2010 156 Timor-Leste ||1,154,625|| ||July
2010 157 Cyprus ||1,102,677|| ||July 2010 158 Fiji ||957,780|| ||July 2010 159 Qatar
||840,926|| ||July 2010 160 Comoros ||773,407|| ||July 2010 161 Guyana ||748,486||
||July 2010 162 Djibouti ||740,528|| ||July 2010 163 Bahrain ||738,004|| ||July 2010 164
Bhutan ||699,847|| ||July 2010 165 Montenegro ||666,730|| ||July 2010 166 Equatorial
Guinea ||650,702|| ||July 2010 167 Solomon Islands ||609,794|| ||July 2010 168 Macau
||567,957|| ||July 2010 169 Cape Verde ||508,659|| ||July 2010 170 Luxembourg
||497,538|| ||July 2010 171 Western Sahara ||491,519|| ||July 2010 172 Suriname
||486,618|| ||July 2010 173 Malta ||406,771|| ||July 2010 174 Maldives ||395,650|| ||July
2010 175 Brunei ||395,027|| ||July 2010 176 Belize ||314,522|| ||July 2010 177 Bahamas,
The ||310,426|| ||July 2010 178 Iceland ||308,910|| ||July 2010 179 French Polynesia
||291,000|| ||July 2010 180 Barbados ||285,653|| ||July 2010 181 Mayotte ||231,139||
||July 2010 182 New Caledonia ||229,993|| ||July 2010 183 Netherlands Antilles
||228,693|| ||July 2010 184 Vanuatu ||221,552|| ||July 2010 185 Samoa ||192,001|| ||July
2010 186 Sao Tome and Principe ||175,808|| ||July 2010 187 Saint Lucia ||160,922||
||July 2010 188 Tonga ||122,580|| ||July 2010 189 Virgin Islands ||109,775|| ||July 2010
190 Grenada ||107,818|| ||July 2010 191 Micronesia, Federated States of ||107,154||
||July 2010 192 Aruba ||104,589|| ||July 2010 193 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
||104,217|| ||July 2010 194 Kiribati ||99,482|| ||July 2010 195 Jersey ||91,812|| ||July
2010 196 Seychelles ||88,340|| ||July 2010 197 Antigua and Barbuda ||86,754|| ||July
2010 198 Andorra ||84,525|| ||July 2010 199 Isle of Man ||76,913|| ||July 2010 200
Dominica ||72,813|| ||July 2010 201 Bermuda ||68,268|| ||July 2010 202 American
Samoa ||66,432|| ||July 2010 203 Marshall Islands ||65,859|| ||July 2010 204 Guernsey
||65,632|| ||July 2010 205 Greenland ||57,637|| ||July 2010 206 Cayman Islands
||50,209|| ||July 2010 207 Saint Kitts and Nevis ||49,898|| ||July 2010 208 Faroe Islands
||49,057|| ||July 2010 209 Northern Mariana Islands ||48,317|| ||July 2010 210
Liechtenstein ||35,002|| ||July 2010 211 San Marino ||31,477|| ||July 2010 212 Monaco
||30,586|| ||July 2010 213 Saint Martin ||30,235|| ||July 2010 214 Gibraltar ||28,877||
||July 2010 215 British Virgin Islands ||24,939|| ||July 2010 216 Turks and Caicos
Islands ||23,528|| ||July 2010 217 Palau ||20,879|| ||July 2010 218 Akrotiri ||15,700|| ||NA
219 Dhekelia ||15,700|| ||NA 220 Wallis and Futuna ||15,343|| ||July 2010 221 Anguilla
||14,764|| ||July 2010 222 Nauru ||14,264|| ||July 2010 223 Cook Islands ||11,488|| ||July
2010 224 Tuvalu ||10,472|| ||July 2010 225 Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da
Cunha ||7,670|| ||July 2010 226 Saint Barthelemy ||7,406|| ||July 2010 227 Saint Pierre
and Miquelon ||6,010|| ||July 2010 228 Montserrat ||5,118|| ||July 2010 229 Falkland
Islands (Islas Malvinas) ||3,140|| ||July 2008 230 Norfolk Island ||2,155|| ||July 2010 231
Svalbard ||2,067|| ||July 2010 232 Christmas Island ||1,402|| ||July 2010 233 Tokelau
||1,400|| ||July 2010 234 Niue ||1,354|| ||July 2010 235 Holy See (Vatican City) ||829||
||July 2010 236 Cocos (Keeling) Islands ||596|| ||July 2010 237 Pitcairn Islands ||48||
||July 2010 est. Mathematica source code of the chart: In[1]:= <<Graphics`Graphics`
In[2]:= list1=Table[{d,100*(Log[10,d+1]-Log[10,d])},{d,1,9}]; In[3]:=
Show[{BarChart[{64,43,24,31,15,20,17,11,12}/2.37], ListPlot[list1,
PlotStyle\[Rule]PointSize[0.02]]}]
Examining a list of the heights of the 60 tallest structures in the world by category shows that
1 is by far the most common leading digit, irrespective of the unit of measurement (cf. "scale
invariance", below):
meters feet
In Benford's
Leading digit
law
Count % Count %
1 26 43.3% 18 30.0% 30.1%
2 7 11.7% 8 13.3% 17.6%
3 9 15.0% 8 13.3% 12.5%
4 6 10.0% 6 10.0% 9.7%
5 4 6.7% 10 16.7% 7.9%
6 1 1.7% 5 8.3% 6.7%
7 2 3.3% 2 3.3% 5.8%
8 5 8.3% 1 1.7% 5.1%
9 0 0.0% 2 3.3% 4.6%
Another example is the leading digit of 2n:
1, 2, 4, 8, 1, 3, 6, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 1, 3, 6, 1... (sequence A008952 in the OEIS)
History of benford’s law,

The discovery of Benford's law goes back to 1881, when the American astronomer Simon
Newcomb noticed that in logarithm tables the earlier pages (that started with 1) were much
more worn than the other pages.[5] Newcomb's published result is the first known instance of
this observation and includes a distribution on the second digit, as well. Newcomb proposed
a law that the probability of a single number N being the first digit of a number was equal to
log(N + 1) − log(N).
The phenomenon was again noted in 1938 by the physicist Frank Benford,[4] who tested it on
data from 20 different domains and was credited for it. His data set included the surface areas
of 335 rivers, the sizes of 3259 US populations, 104 physical constants, 1800 molecular
weights, 5000 entries from a mathematical handbook, 308 numbers contained in an issue
of Reader's Digest, the street addresses of the first 342 persons listed in American Men of
Science and 418 death rates. The total number of observations used in the paper was 20,229.
This discovery was later named after Benford (making it an example of Stigler's Law).
In 1995, Ted Hill proved the result about mixed distributions mentioned below.[8]
Explanations
Overview
Benford's law tends to apply most accurately to data that are distributed uniformly across
several orders of magnitude. As a rule of thumb, the more orders of magnitude that the data
evenly covers, the more accurately Benford's law applies. For instance, one can expect that
Benford's law would apply to a list of numbers representing the populations of UK
settlements, or representing the values of small insurance claims. But if a "village" is defined
as a settlement with population between 300 and 999, or a "small insurance claim" is defined
as a claim between $50 and $99, then Benford's law will not apply.[9][10]
Consider the probability distributions shown below, referenced to a log scale.[11] In each case,
the total area in red is the relative probability that the first digit is 1, and the total area in blue
is the relative probability that the first digit is 8.
A broad probability distribution of the log of a variable, shown on a log scale

Source;
Sbyrnes321 - Own work
A broad probability distribution on a log scale, with bars colored in to show why
Benford's law holds
.[11]
A narrow probability distribution of the log of a variable, shown on a log scale
Source;
Sbyrnes321 - Own work
A narrow probability distribution plotted on a log scale, to demonstrate a

case where Benford's law does not hold. This is to be contrasted with
BenfordBroad.gif.
[11]
For the left distribution, the size of the areas of red and blue are approximately proportional
to the widths of each red and blue bar. Therefore, the numbers drawn from this distribution
will approximately follow Benford's law. On the other hand, for the right distribution, the ratio
of the areas of red and blue is very different from the ratio of the widths of each red and blue
bar. Rather, the relative areas of red and blue are determined more by the height of the bars
than the widths. Accordingly, the first digits in this distribution do not satisfy Benford's law
at all.[10]
Thus, real-world distributions that span several orders of magnitude rather uniformly (e.g.
populations of villages / towns / cities, stock-market prices), are likely to satisfy Benford's
law to a very high accuracy. On the other hand, a distribution that is mostly or entirely within
one order of magnitude (e.g. heights of human adults, or IQ scores) is unlikely to satisfy
Benford's law very accurately, or at all.[9][10] However, it is not a sharp line: As the distribution
gets narrower, the discrepancies from Benford's law typically increase gradually.
In terms of conventional probability density (referenced to a linear scale rather than log scale,
i.e. P(x)dx rather than P(log x) d(log x)), the equivalent criterion is that Benford's law will be
very accurately satisfied when P(x) is approximately proportional to 1/x over several orders-
of-magnitude variation in x.[11]
This discussion is not a full explanation of Benford's law, because we have not
explained why we so often come across data-sets that, when plotted as a probability
distribution of the logarithm of the variable, are relatively uniform over several orders of
magnitude.[12]
Multiplicative fluctuations
Many real-world examples of Benford's law arise from multiplicative fluctuations.[13] For
example, if a stock price starts at $100, and then each day it gets multiplied by a randomly
chosen factor between 0.99 and 1.01, then over an extended period the probability
distribution of its price satisfies Benford's law with higher and higher accuracy.
The reason is that the logarithm of the stock price is undergoing a random walk, so over time
its probability distribution will get more and more broad and smooth (see above).[13] (More
technically, the central limit theorem says that multiplying more and more random variables
will create a log-normal distribution with larger and larger variance, so eventually it covers
many orders of magnitude almost uniformly.) To be sure of approximate agreement with
Benford's Law, the distribution has to be approximately invariant when scaled up by any
factor up to 10; a lognormally distributed data set with wide dispersion would have this
approximate property.
Unlike multiplicative fluctuations, additive fluctuations do not lead to Benford's law: They
lead instead to normal probability distributions (again by the central limit theorem), which do
not satisfy Benford's law. For example, the "number of heartbeats that I experience on a
given day" can be written as the sum of many random variables (e.g. the sum of heartbeats
per minute over all the minutes of the day), so this quantity is unlikely to follow Benford's
law. By contrast, that hypothetical stock price described above can be written as
the product of many random variables (i.e. the price change factor for each day), so
is likely to follow Benford's law quite well.
Multiple probability distributions

Formann provided an alternative explanation by directing attention to the interrelation
between the distribution of the significant digits and the distribution of the observed variable.
He showed in a simulation study that long right-tailed distributions of a random variable are
compatible with the Newcomb-Benford law, and that for distributions of the ratio of two
random variables the fit generally improves.[14] For numbers drawn from certain distributions
(IQ scores, human heights) the Law fails to hold because these variates obey a normal
distribution which is known not to satisfy Benford's law,[6] since normal distributions can't
span several orders of magnitude and the mantissae of their logarithms will not be (even
approximately) uniformly distributed. However, if one "mixes" numbers from those
distributions, for example by taking numbers from newspaper articles, Benford's law
reappears. This can also be proven mathematically: if one repeatedly "randomly" chooses
a probability distribution (from an uncorrelated set) and then randomly chooses a number
according to that distribution, the resulting list of numbers will obey Benford's Law.[8][15] A
similar probabilistic explanation for the appearance of Benford's Law in everyday-life
numbers has been advanced by showing that it arises naturally when one considers mixtures
of uniform distributions.[16]
Scale invariance
If there is a list of lengths, the distribution of first digits of numbers in the list may be
generally similar regardless of whether all the lengths are expressed in metres, or yards, or
feet, or inches, etc.
This is not always the case. For example, the height of adult humans almost always starts
with a 1 or 2 when measured in meters, and almost always starts with 4, 5, 6, or 7 when
measured in feet.
But consider a list of lengths that is spread evenly over many orders of magnitude. For
example, a list of 1000 lengths mentioned in scientific papers will include the measurements
of molecules, bacteria, plants, and galaxies. If one writes all those lengths in meters, or writes
them all in feet, it is reasonable to expect that the distribution of first digits should be the
same on the two lists.
In these situations, where the distribution of first digits of a data set is scale invariant (or
independent of the units that the data are expressed in), the distribution of first digits is
always given by Benford's Law.[17][18]
For example, the first (non-zero) digit on this list of lengths should have the same distribution
whether the unit of measurement is feet or yards. But there are three feet in a yard, so the
probability that the first digit of a length in yards is 1 must be the same as the probability that
the first digit of a length in feet is 3, 4, or 5; similarly the probability that the first digit of a
length in yards is 2 must be the same as the probability that the first digit of a length in feet is
6, 7, or 8. Applying this to all possible measurement scales gives the logarithmic distribution
of Benford's law.
Applications
Accounting fraud detection

In 1972, Hal Varian suggested that the law could be used to detect possible fraud in lists of
socio-economic data submitted in support of public planning decisions. Based on the
plausible assumption that people who make up figures tend to distribute their digits fairly
uniformly, a simple comparison of first-digit frequency distribution from the data with the
expected distribution according to Benford's Law ought to show up any anomalous
results.[19] Following this idea, Mark Nigrini showed that Benford's Law could be used
in forensic accounting and auditing as an indicator of accounting and expenses fraud.[20] In
practice, applications of Benford's Law for fraud detection routinely use more than the first
digit.[20]
Legal status
In the United States, evidence based on Benford's law has been admitted in criminal cases at
the federal, state, and local levels.[21]
Election data
Benford's Law has been invoked as evidence of fraud in the 2009 Iranian elections,[22] and
also used to analyze other election results. However, other experts consider Benford's Law
essentially useless as a statistical indicator of election fraud in general.[23][24]
Macroeconomic data
Similarly, the macroeconomic data the Greek government reported to the European Union
before entering the eurozone was shown to be probably fraudulent using Benford's law,
albeit years after the country joined.[25]
Price digit analysis

Benford's law as a benchmark for the investigation of price digits has been successfully
introduced into the context of pricing research. The importance of this benchmark for
detecting irregularities in prices was first demonstrated in a Europe-wide study[26] which
investigated consumer price digits before and after the euro introduction for price
adjustments. The introduction of the euro in 2002, with its various exchange rates, distorted
existing nominal price patterns while at the same time retaining real prices. While the first
digits of nominal prices distributed according to Benford's Law, the study showed a clear
deviation from this benchmark for the second and third digits in nominal market prices with a
clear trend towards psychological pricing after the nominal shock of the euro introduction.
Genome data
The number of open reading frames and their relationship to genome size differs
between eukaryotes and prokaryotes with the former showing a log-linear relationship and
the latter a linear relationship. Benford's law has been used to test this observation with an
excellent fit to the data in both cases.[27]
Scientific fraud detection

A test of regression coefficients in published papers showed agreement with Benford's
law.[28] As a comparison group subjects were asked to fabricate statistical estimates. The
fabricated results failed to obey Benford's law.
Statistical tests
Although the chi squared test has been used to test for compliance with Benford's law it has
low statistical power when used with small samples.
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and the Kuiper test are more powerful when the sample size is
small particularly when Stephens's corrective factor is used.[29] These tests may be overly
conservative when applied to discrete distributions. Values for the Benford test have been
generated by Morrow.[30] The critical values of the test statistics are shown below:
α
0.10 0.05 0.01
Test
Kuiper Test 1.191 1.321 1.579

Kolmogorov–Smirnov 1.012 1.148 1.420
These critical values provide the minimum test statistic values required to reject the
hypothesis of compliance with Benford's law at the given significance levels.
Two alternative tests specific to this law have been published: first, the max (m) statistic[31] is
given by
and secondly, the distance (d) statistic[32] is given by
where FSD is the First Significant Digit and N is the sample size. Morrow has determined the
critical values for both these statistics, which are shown below:[30]
⍺
0.10 0.05 0.01
Statistic
Leemis' m 0.851 0.967 1.212
Cho–Gaines' d 1.212 1.330 1.569
Nigrini[33] has suggested the use of a z statistic
with
where |x| is the absolute value of x, n is the sample size, 1/2n is a continuity correction
factor, pe is the proportion expected from Benford's law and po is the observed proportion in
the sample.
Morrow has also shown that for any random variable X (with a continuous pdf) divided by its
standard deviation (σ), a value A can be found such that the probability of the distribution of
the first significant digit of the random variable (X/σ)A will differ from Benford's Law by less
than ε > 0.[30] The value of A depends on the value of ε and the distribution of the random
variable.
A method of accounting fraud detection based on bootstrapping and regression has been
proposed.[34]
If the goal is to conclude agreement with the Benford's law rather than disagreement, then
the goodness-of-fit tests mentioned above are inappropriate. In this case the specific tests
for equivalence should be applied. An empirical distribution is called equivalent to the
Benford's law if a distance (for example total variation distance or the usual Euclidean
distance) between the probability mass functions is sufficiently small. This method of testing
with application to Benford's law is described in Ostrovski (2017).[35]
Log-log graph of the probability that a number starts with the digit(s) n, for a distribution
satisfying Benford's law. The points show the exact formula, P(n)=log10(1+1/n). The graph
tends towards the dashed asymptote passing through (1, log10 e) with slope −1 in log-log
scale. The example in yellow shows that the probability of a number starts with 314 is
around 0.00138. The dotted lines show the probabilities for a uniform distribution for
comparison. In the SVG image, hover over a point to show its values.
Source;
Cmglee - Own work
Log-log graphs of the probability that a number from a distribution obeying Benford's
law starts with the digit(s) n from 1 to 200 by CMG Lee. The graph tends towards the
dashed asymptote passing through (1, log10 e) with slope −1 in log-log scale. The
example in yellow shows that the probability of a number starts with 314 is around
0.00138. The dotted lines show the probabilities if the distribution were uniform
instead. In the SVG image, hover over a point to show its values. In the SVG
image, hover over a point to show its values.
Generalization to digits beyond the first
It is possible to extend the law to digits beyond the first.[36] In particular, the probability of
encountering a number starting with the string of digits n is given by:
For example, the probability that a number starts with the digits 3, 1, 4
is log10(1 + 1/314) ≈ 0.00138, as in the figure on the right.
This result can be used to find the probability that a particular digit occurs at a given position
within a number. For instance, the probability that a "2" is encountered as the second digit
is[36]
And the probability that d (d = 0, 1, ..., 9) is encountered as the n-th (n > 1) digit is
The distribution of the n-th digit, as n increases, rapidly approaches a uniform distribution
with 10% for each of the ten digits, as shown below.[36] Four digits is often enough to assume
a uniform distribution of 10% as '0' appears 10.0176% of the time in the fourth digit while '9'
appears 9.9824% of the time.
Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1st N/A 30.1% 17.6% 12.5% 9.7% 7.9% 6.7% 5.8% 5.1% 4.6%
2nd 12% 11.4% 10.9% 10.4% 10% 9.7% 9.3% 9% 8.8% 8.5%
3rd 10.2% 10.1% 10.1% 10.1% 10% 10% 9.9% 9.9% 9.9% 9.8%
Tests with common distributions

Benford's law was empirically tested against the numbers (up to the 10th digit) generated by
a number of important distributions, including the uniform distribution, the exponential
distribution, the half-normal distribution, the right-truncated normal, the normal distribution,
the chi square distribution and the log normal distribution.[6] In addition to these the ratio
distribution of two uniform distributions, the ratio distribution of two exponential
distributions, the ratio distribution of two half-normal distributions, the ratio distribution of
two right-truncated normal distributions, the ratio distribution of two chi-square distributions
(the F distribution) and the log normaldistribution were tested.
The uniform distribution as might be expected does not obey Benford's law. In contrast, the
ratio distribution of two uniform distributions is well described by Benford's law. Benford's
law also describes the exponential distribution and the ratio distribution of two exponential
distributions well. Although the half-normal distribution does not obey Benford's law, the
ratio distribution of two half-normal distributions does. Neither the right-truncated normal
distribution nor the ratio distribution of two right-truncated normal distributions are well
described by Benford's law. This is not surprising as this distribution is weighted towards
larger numbers. Neither the normal distribution nor the ratio distribution of two normal
distributions (the Cauchy distribution) obey Benford's law. The fit of chi square distribution
depends on the degrees of freedom (df) with good agreement with df = 1 and decreasing
agreement as the df increases. The F distribution is fitted well for low degrees of freedom.
With increasing dfs the fit decreases but much more slowly than the chi square distribution.
The fit of the log-normal distribution depends on the mean and the variance of the
distribution. The variance has a much greater effect on the fit than does the mean. Larger
values of both parameters result in better agreement with the law. The ratio of two log normal
distributions is a log normal so this distribution was not examined.
Other distributions that have been examined include the Muth distribution, Gompertz
distribution, Weibull distribution, gamma distribution, log-logistic distribution and
the exponential power distribution all of which show reasonable agreement with the
law.[31][37] The Gumbel distribution – a density increases with increasing value of the random
variable – does not show agreement with this law.[37]
Distributions known to obey Benford's law

Some well-known infinite integer sequences provably satisfy Benford's Law exactly (in
the asymptotic limit as more and more terms of the sequence are included). Among these are
the Fibonacci numbers,[38][39] the factorials,[40] the powers of 2,[41][42] and the powers
of almost any other number.[41]
Likewise, some continuous processes satisfy Benford's Law exactly (in the asymptotic limit
as the process continues through time). One is an exponential growth or decay process: If a
quantity is exponentially increasing or decreasing in time, then the percentage of time that it
has each first digit satisfies Benford's Law asymptotically (i.e. increasing accuracy as the
process continues through time).
Distributions known to disobey Benford's law

Square roots and reciprocals do not obey this law.[43] Also, Benford's law does not apply
to unary systems such as tally marks. Telephone directories violate Benford's law because
the numbers have a mostly fixed length and do not have the initial digit 1.[44] Benford's law is
violated by the populations of all places with population at least 2500 from five US states
according to the 1960 and 1970 censuses, where only 19% began with digit 1 but 20% began
with digit 2, for the simple reason that the truncation at 2500 introduces statistical bias.[43] The
terminal digits in pathology reports violate Benford's law due to rounding, and the fact that
terminal digits are never expected to follow Benford's law in the first place.[45]
Criteria for distributions expected and not expected to obey Benford's Law
A number of criteria—applicable particularly to accounting data—have been suggested where
Benford's Law can be expected to apply and not to apply.[46]
Distributions that can be expected to obey Benford's Law
When the mean is greater than the median and the skew is positive
Numbers that result from mathematical combination of numbers: e.g. quantity × price
Transaction level data: e.g. disbursements, sales
Numbers produced when doing any multiplicative calculations with an Oughtred slide rule,
since the answers naturally fall into the right logarithmic distribution.
Distributions that would not be expected to obey Benford's Law
Where numbers are assigned sequentially: e.g. check numbers, invoice numbers
Where numbers are influenced by human thought: e.g. prices set by psychological
thresholds ($1.99)
Accounts with a large number of firm-specific numbers: e.g. accounts set up to record $100
refunds
Accounts with a built-in minimum or maximum
Where no transaction is recorded
Moments
Moments of random variables for the digits 1 to 9 following this law have been calculated:[47]
mean 3.440
variance 6.057
skewness 0.796
kurtosis −0.548
For the first and second digit distribution these values are also known:[48]
mean 38.590
variance 621.832
skewness 0.772
kurtosis −0.547
A table of the exact probabilities for the joint occurrence of the first two digits according to
Benford's law is available,[48] as is the population correlation between the first and second
digits:[48] ρ = 0.0561.
Applications of zipf’s law.

In information theory, a symbol (event, signal) of probability contains bits of
information. Hence, Zipf law for natural numbers: is equivalent with number
containing bits of information. To add information from a symbol of
probability into information already stored in a natural number we should go to

such that , or equivalently For instance, in
standard binary system we would have , what is optimal
for probability distribution. Using rule for a

general probability distribution is the base of Asymmetric Numeral Systems family of entropy
coding methods used in data compression, which state distribution is also governed by Zipf
law.
Zipf's law also has been used for extraction of parallel fragments of texts out of comparable
corpora.[22]
SUPERSYMMETRIC THEORY OF STOCHASTIC DYNAMICS
Supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics or stochastics (STS) is an exact theory of stochastic

(partial) differential equations (SDEs), the class of mathematical models with the widest applicability
covering, in particular, all continuous time dynamical systems, with and without noise. The main
utility of the theory from the physical point of view is a rigorous theoretical explanation of the
ubiquitous spontaneous long-range dynamical behavior that manifests itself across disciplines via
such phenomena as 1/f, flicker, and crackling noises and the power-law statistics, or Zipf's law, of
instantonic processes like earthquakes and neuroavalanches. From the mathematical point of view,
STS is interesting because it bridges the two major parts of mathematical physics – the dynamical
systems theory and topological field theories. Besides these and related disciplines such as algebraic
topology and supersymmetric field theories, STS is also connected with the traditional theory
of stochastic differential equations and the theory of pseudo-Hermitian operators.
The theory begun with the application of BRST gauge fixing procedure to Langevin SDEs,[1][2] that
was later adapted to classical mechanics[3][4][5][6] and its stochastic generalization,[7] higher-order
Langevin SDEs,[8] and, more recently, to SDEs of arbitrary form,[9] which allowed to link BRST
formalism to the concept of transfer operators and recognize spontaneous breakdown of BRST
supersymmetry as a stochastic generalization of dynamical chaos.
The main idea of the theory is to study, instead of trajectories, the SDE-defined temporal evolution
of differential forms. This evolution has an intrinsic BRST or topological supersymmetry representing
the preservation of topology and/or the concept of proximity in the phase space by continuous time
dynamics. The theory identifies a model as chaotic, in the generalized, stochastic sense, if its ground
state is not supersymmetric, i.e., if the supersymmetry is broken spontaneously. Accordingly, the
emergent long-range behavior that always accompanies dynamical chaos and its derivatives such
as turbulence and self-organized criticality can be understood as a consequence of the Goldstone
theorem.
History and relation to other theories
The first relation between supersymmetry and stochastic dynamics was established by Giorgio
Parisi and Nicolas Sourlas[1][2] who demonstrated that the application of the BRST gauge fixing
procedure to Langevin SDEs, i.e., to SDEs with linear phase spaces, gradient flow vector fields, and
additive noises, results in N=2 supersymmetric models. Since then, the so-emerged supersymmetry of
Langevin SDEs has been studied rather extensively.[10][11][12][13][8] Relations between this
supersymmetry and a few physical concepts have been established including the fluctuation
dissipation theorems,[13] Jarzynski equality,[14] Onsager principle of microscopic
reversibility,[15] solutions of Fokker-Planck equations,[16] self-organization,[17] etc.
Similar approach was used to establish that classical mechanics,[3][4] its stochastic
generalization,[7] and higher-order Langevin SDEs[8] also have supersymmetric representations. Real
dynamical systems, however, are never purely Langevin or classical mechanical. In addition, physically
meaningful Langevin SDEs never break supersymmetry spontaneously. Therefore, for the purpose of
the identification of the spontaneous supersymmetry breaking as dynamical chaos, the generalization
of the Parisi-Sourlas approach to SDEs of general form is needed. This generalization could come only
after a rigorous formulation of the theory of pseudo-Hermitian operators[18] because the stochastic
evolution operator is pseudo-Hermitian in the general case. Such generalization[9] showed that all
SDEs possess N=1 BRST or topological supersymmetry (TS) and this finding completes the story of
relation between supersymmetry and SDEs.
In parallel to the BRST procedure approach to SDEs, mathematicians working in the dynamical
systems theory introduced and studied the concept of generalized transfer operator defined for
random dynamical systems.[19][20] This concept underlies the most important object of the STS, the
stochastic evolution operator, and provides it with a solid mathematical meaning.
STS has a close relation with algebraic topology and its topological sector belongs to the class of
models known as Witten-type topological or cohomological field theory.[21][22][23][24][25] As a
supersymmetric theory, BRST procedure approach to SDEs can be viewed as one of the realizations of
the concept of Nicolai map.[26][27]
Parisi–Sourlas approach to Langevin SDEs
In the context of supersymmetric approach to stochastic dynamics, the term Langevin SDEs denotes
SDEs with Euclidean phase space {\displaystyle X=\mathbb {R} ^{n}} gradient flow vector
field, and additive Gaussian white noise,
{\displaystyle {\dot {x}}(t)=-\partial U(x(t))+(2\Theta )^{1/2}\xi (t),}
where {\displaystyle x\in X} , {\displaystyle \xi \in \mathbb {R} ^{n}}is the noise
variable{\displaystyle \Theta } i s the noise intensity, and {\displaystyle \partial U(x)},

which in coordinates {\displaystyle (\partial U(x))^{i}\equiv \delta
^{ij}\partial _{j}U(x)} and {\displaystyle \partial _{i}U(x)\equiv \partial
U(x)/\partial x^{i}} is the gradient flow vector field with {\displaystyle U(x)} being the Langevin
function often interpreted as the energy of the purely dissipative stochastic dynamical system.
The Parisi-Sourlas method is a way of construction of the path integral representation of the Langevin
SDE. It can be thought of as a BRST gauge fixing procedure that uses the Langevin SDE as a gauge
condition. Namely, one considers the following functional integral,
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}=\left\langle \int \dots \int J\left(\prod \nolimits _{\tau }\delta ({\dot
{x}}(\tau )-{\mathcal {F}}(x(\tau )))\right)Dx\right\rangle _{\text{noise}},}
where {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} denotes the r.h.s. of the Langevin SDE,
{\displaystyle \textstyle \langle \cdot \rangle _{\text{noise}}\equiv \int
\dots \int \cdot P(\xi )D\xi } is the operation of stochastic averaging with
{\displaystyle P(\xi )\propto e^{-\int _{t'}^{t}d\tau \xi ^{2}(\tau )/2}} being the normalized
distribution of noise configurations,
{\displaystyle \textstyle J=\operatorname {Det} {\frac {\delta ({\dot {x}}(\tau )-{\mathcal {F}}(x(\tau
)))}{\delta x(\tau ')}}}
is the Jacobian of the corresponding functional derivative, and the path integration is over all closed
paths, {\displaystyle x(t)=x(t')} where {\displaystyle t'} {\displaystyle

t>t'}are the initial and final moments of temporal evolution.
Topological interpretation.
Topological aspects of the Parisi-Sourlas construction can be briefly outlined in the following
manner.[21] The delta-functional, i.e., the collection of the infinite number of delta-functions, ensures
that only solutions of the Langevin SDE contribute to {\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}} In the
context of BRST procedure, these solutions can be viewed as Gribov copies. Each solution contributes
either positive or negative unity: {\textstyle {\mathcal {W}}=\textstyle
\left\langle I_{N}(\xi )\right\rangle _{\text{noise}}}with {\textstyle

I_{N}(\xi )=\sum _{\text{solutions}}\operatorname {sign} J} being the index of the so-called Nicolai
map, {\textstyle \xi =({\dot {x}}+\partial U)/(2\Theta )^{1/2}}, which in
this case is the map from the space of closed paths in {\textstyle X} to the space of noise
configurations, a map that provides a noise configuration at which a given closed path is a solution of
the Langevin SDE. {\textstyle I_{N}(\xi )} can be viewed as a realization of Poincaré–Hopf
theorem on the infinite-dimensional space of close paths with the Langevin SDE playing the role of the
vector field and with the solutions of Langevin SDE playing the role of the critical points with index
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sign} J}. {\textstyle I_{N}(\xi )} is independent of the noise

configuration because it is of topological character. The same it true for its stochastic average
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}}, which is not the partition function of the model but, instead, its Witten
index.
Path integral representation

With the help of a standard field theoretic technique that involves introduction of additional field called
Lagrange multiplier, and a pair of fermionic fields called Faddeev–Popov ghosts, ,the Witten
index can be given the following form,
where denotes collection of all the fields, p.b.c. stands for periodic boundary conditions, the so-called
gauge fermion, , with and ,
and the BRST symmetry defined via its action on arbitrary functional
as . In the BRST formalism, the Q-
exact pieces like, , serve as gauge fixing tools. Therefore, the path integral expression for
can be interpreted as a model whose action contains nothing else but the gauge fixing term. This is a
definitive feature of Witten-type topological field theories and in this particular case of BRST procedure
approach to SDEs, the BRST symmetry can be also recognized as the topological supersymmetry.[21]
A common way to explain the BRST procedure is to say that the BRST symmetry generates the fermionic
version of the gauge transformations, whereas its overall effect on the path integral is to limit the
integration only to configurations that satisfy a specified gauge condition. This interpretation also applies
to Parisi-Sourlas approach with the deformations of the trajectory and the Langevin SDE playing the roles
of the gauge transformations and the gauge condition respectively.
Operator representation
Physical fermions in the high-energy physics and condensed matter models have antiperiodic boundary
conditions in time. The unconventional periodic boundary conditions for fermions in the path integral
expression for the Witten index is the origin of the topological character of this object. These boundary
conditions reveal themselves in the operator representation of the Witten index as the alternating sign
operator,
where is the operator of the number of ghosts/fermions and the finite-time stochastic evolution
operator (SEO), where,
is the infinitesimal SEO with being the Lie derivative along the subscript vector field, being the
Laplacian, being the exterior derivative, which is the operator representative of the TS,
and
, where and
are bosonic and fermionic momenta, and with square brackets denoting bi-graded
commutator, i.e., it is an anticommutator if both operators are fermionic (contain odd total number
of and ) and a commutator otherwise. The exterior derivative and are supercharges. They
are nilpotent, e.g. and commutative with the SEO. In other words, Langevin SDEs possess N=2
supersymmetry. The fact that is a supercharge is accidental. For SDEs of arbitrary form, this is not true.
Hilbert space
The wavefunctions are functions not only of the bosonic variables , but also of the Grassmann
numbers or fermions, from the tangent space of The wavefunctions can be viewed
as differential forms on with the fermions playing the role of the differentials .[24] The
concept of infinitesimal SEO generalizes the Fokker–Planck operator, which is essentially the SEO acting on
top differential forms that have the meaning of the total probability distributions. Differential forms of
lesser degree can be interpreted, at least locally on , as conditional probability distributions.[28] Viewing
the spaces of differential forms of all degrees as wavefunctions of the model is a mathematical necessity.
Without it, the Witten index representing the most fundamental object of the model—the partition
function of the noise—would not exist and the dynamical partition function would not represent the
number of fixed points of the SDE (see below). The most general understanding of the wavefunctions is the
coordinate-free objects that contain information not only on trajectories but also on the evolution of the
differentials and/or Lyapunov exponents.[29]
Relation to nonlinear sigma model and algebraic topology
In Ref.,[24] a model has been introduced that can be viewed as a 1D prototype of the
topological nonlinear sigma models (TNSM),[22] a subclass of the Witten-type topological field
theories. The 1D TNSM is defined for Riemannian phase spaces while for Euclidean phase
spaces it reduces to the Parisi-Sourlas model. Its key difference from STS is the diffusion
operator which is the Hodge Laplacian for 1D TNSM and for STS . This difference in
unimportant in the context of relation between STS and algebraic topology, the relation
established by the theory of 1D TNSM (see, e.g., Refs.[24][21]).
The model is defined by the following evolution operator
where being the metric, is the Hodge Laplacian, and

the differential forms from the exterior algebra of the phase space, , are viewed as
wavefunctions. There exists a similarity transformation, , that
brings the evolution operator to the explicitly Hermitian form
with In the Euclidean case is the
Hamiltonian of a N=2 supersymmetric quantum mechanics. One can introduce two Hermitian
operators, and such
that . This demonstrates that the spectrum of and/or is real and

nonnegative. This is also true for SEOs of Langevin SDEs. For the SDEs of arbitrary form,
however, this is no longer true as the eigenvalues of the SEO can be negative and even
complex, which actually allows for the TS to be broken spontanenously.
The following properties of the evolution operator of 1D TNSM hold even for the SEO of the
SDEs of arbitrary form. The evolution operator commutes with the operator of the degree of
differential forms. As a result, , where
and is the space of differential forms of degree . Furthermore, due to the
presence of TS, where are the supersymmetric eigenstates,
non-trivial in de Rham cohomology whereas the rest are the pairs of non-
supersymmetric eigenstates of the form . All supersymmetric eigenstates have
exactly zero eigenvalue and, barring accidental situations, all non-supersymmetric states
have non-zero eigenvalues. Non-supersymmetric pairs of eigenstates do not contribute to the
Witten index, which equals the difference in the numbers of the supersymmetric states of
even and odd degrees, For compact each de Rham
cohomology class provides one supersymmetric eigenstate and the Witten index equals the
Euler characteristic of the phase space.
BRST procedure for SDEs of arbitrary form

The Parisi-Sourlas method of BRST procedure approach to Langevin SDEs have also been
adapted to classical mechanics,[3] stochastic generalization of classical mechanics,[7] higher
order Langevin SDEs,[8] and, more recently, to SDEs of arbitrary form.[9] While there exist
standard techniques that allow to consider models with colored noises, higher-dimensional
"base spaces" described by partial SDEs etc., the key elements of STS can be discussed
using the following basic class of SDEs,
where is a point in the phase space assumed for simplicity a closed topological
manifold, is a sufficiently smooth vector field, called flow vector field,
from the tangent space of is a set of sufficiently
smooth vector fields that specify how the system is coupled to the noise, which is
called additive/multiplicative depending on whether are independent/dependent on
the position on
Ambiguity of path integral representation and Ito–Stratonovich dilemma

BRST gauge fixing procedure goes along the same lines as in case of Langevin SDEs.
The topological interpretation of the BRST procedure is just the same and the path
integral representation of the Witten index is defined by the gauge fermion, given by
the same expression but with the generalized version of . There is

one important subtlety, however, that appears on the way to the operator representation
of the model. Unlike for Langevin SDEs, classical mechanics, and other SDEs with
additive noises, the path integral representation of the finite-time SEO is an ambiguous
object. This ambiguity originates from non-commutativity of momenta and position
operators, e.g., . As a result, in the path integral representation has
a whole one-parameter family of possible interpretations in the operator
representation, , where denotes an arbitrary

wavefunction. Accordingly, there is a whole -family of infinitesimal SEOs,
with , being the interior multiplication by the subscript vector
field, and the "shifted" flow vector field being .
Noteworthy, unlike in Langevin SDEs, is not a supercharge and STS cannot be

identified as a N=2 supersymmetric theory in the general case.
The path integral representation of stochastic dynamics is equivalent to the traditional
understanding of SDEs as of a continuous time limit of stochastic difference
equations where different choices of parameter are called "interpretations" of SDEs.
The choice , for which and which is known in quantum theory
as Weyl symmetrization rule, is known as the Stratonovich interpretation, whereas
as the Ito interpretation. While in quantum theory the Weyl symmetrization is preferred
because it guaranties hermiticity of Hamiltonians, in STS the Weyl-Stratonovich
approach is preferred because it corresponds to the most natural mathematical meaning
of the finite-time SEO discussed below—the stochastically averaged pullback induced by
the SDE-defined diffeomorphisms.
Eigensystem of stochastic evolution operator

The three possible types of SEO spectra on a 3D sphere. Each line of triples of graphs
represents . for the three types of spectra. Black dots at the origin for the first and the
last lines represent supersymmetric eigenstates from the zeroth and the third
cohomologies of the 3 sphere. For types b and c, the (fastest growing) ground
(eigen)states are non-supersymmetric because they have non-zero eigenvalues. TS is
broken spontaneously. Vertical arrowed lines visualize supersymmetry operator.
Source4; Vasilii Tiorkin - Own work
As compared to the SEO of Langevin SDEs, the SEO of a general form SDE is pseudo-
Hermitian.[18] As a result, the eigenvalues of non-supersymmetric eigenstates are not
restricted to be real positive, whereas the eigenvalues of supersymmetric eigenstates are
still exactly zero. Just like for Langevin SDEs and nonlinear sigma model, the structure
of the eigensystem of the SEO reestablishes the topological character of the Witten
index: the contributions from the non-supersymmetric pairs of eigenstates vanish and
only supersymmetric states contribute the Euler characteristic of (closed) Among
other properties of the SEO spectra is that and never break TS,
i.e., . As a result, there are three major types of the SEO spectra
presented in the figure on the right. The two types that have negative (real parts of)
eigenvalues correspond to the spontaneously broken TS. All types of the SEO spectra
are realizable as can be established, e.g., from the exact relation between the theory
of kinematic dynamo and STS.[30]
STS without BRST procedure
The mathematical meaning of stochastic evolution operator

The finite-time SEO can be obtained in another, more mathematical way based on the idea to study the
SDE-induced actions on differential forms directly, without going through the BRST gauge fixing procedure.
The so-obtained finite-time SEO is known in dynamical systems theory as the generalized transfer
operator[19][20] and it has also been used in the classical theory of SDEs (see, e.g., Refs.[31][32] ). The
contribution to this construction from STS[9] is the exposition of the supersymmetric structure underlying it
and establishing its relation to the BRST procedure for SDEs.
Namely, for any configuration of the noise, and an initial condition, SDE defines a
unique solution/trajectory, . Even for noise configurations that are non-differentiable with
respect to time the solution is differentiable with respect to the initial condition [33] In other
words, SDE defines the family of the noise-configuration-dependent diffeomorphisms of the phase space
to itself This object can be understood as a collection and/or definition of all the noise-
configuration-dependent trajectories, . The diffeomorphisms induce actions
or pullbacks, . Unlike, say, trajectories in , pullbacks are linear objects even
for nonlinear . Linear objects can be averaged and averaging over the noise configurations,
results in the finite-time SEO which is unique and corresponds to the Weyl-Stratonovich interpretation of
the BRST procedure approach to SDEs, .
Within this definition of the finite-time SEO, the Witten index can be recognized as the sharp trace of the
generalized transfer operator.[19][20] It also links the Witten index to the Lefschetz index,
, a topological constant that

equals the Euler characteristic of the (closed) phase space. Namely,
The meaning of supersymmetry and the butterfly effect
The N=2 supersymmetry of Langevin SDEs has been linked to the Onsager principle of microscopic
reversibility[15] and Jarzynski equality.[14] In classical mechanics, a relation between the corresponding N=2
supersymmetry and ergodicity has been proposed.[6] In general form SDEs, where physical arguments may
not be applicable, a lower level explanation of the TS is available. This explanation is based on
understanding of the finite-time SEO as a stochastically averaged pullback of the SDE-defined
diffeomorphisms (see subsection above). In this picture, the question of why any SDE has TS is the same as
the question of why exterior derivative commutes with the pullback of any diffeomorphism. The answer to
this question is differentiability of the corresponding map. In other words, the presence of TS is the
algebraic version of the statement that continuous-time flow preserves continuity of Two initially
close points will remain close during evolution, which is just yet another way of saying that is a
diffeomorphism.
In deterministic chaotic models, initially close points can part in the limit of infinitely long temporal
evolution. This is the famous butterfly effect, which is equivalent to the statement that losses
differentiability in this limit. In algebraic representation of dynamics, the evolution in the infinitely long
time limit is described by the ground state of the SEO and the butterfly effect is equivalent to the
spontaneous breakdown of TS, i.e., to the situation when the ground state is not supersymmetric.
Noteworthy, unlike traditional understanding of deterministic chaotic dynamics, the spontaneous
breakdown of TS works also for stochastic cases. This is the most important generalization because
deterministic dynamics is, in fact, a mathematical idealization. Real dynamical systems cannot be isolated
from their environments and thus always experience stochastic influence.
Spontaneous supersymmetry breaking and dynamical chaos
BRST gauge fixing procedure applied to SDEs leads directly to the Witten index. The Witten index is of
topological character and it does not respond to any perturbation. In particular, all response correlators
calculated using the Witten index vanish. This fact has a physical interpretation within the STS: the physical
meaning of the Witten index is the partition function of the noise[28] and since there is no backaction from
the dynamical system to the noise, the Witten index has no information on the details of the SDE. In
contrast, the information on the details of the model is contained in the other trace-like object of the
theory, the dynamical partition function,
where a.p.b.c. denotes antiperiodic boundary conditions for the fermionic fields and periodic boundary
conditions for bosonic fields. In the standard manner, the dynamical partition function can be promoted to
the generating functional by coupling the model to external probing fields.
For a wide class of models, dynamical partition function provides lower bound for the stochastically
averaged number of fixed points of the SDE-defined diffeomorphisms,
Here, index runs over "physical states", i.e., the eigenstates that grow fastest with the rate of the
exponential growth given as, and parameter can be viewed as

stochastic version of dynamical entropy such as topological entropy. Positive entropy is one of the key
signatures of deterministic chaos. Therefore, the situation with positive must be identified as chaotic
in the generalized, stochastic sense as it implies positive entropy: At the same time,
positive implies that TS is broken spontaneously, that is, the ground state in not supersymmetric
because its eigenvalue is not zero. In other words, positive dynamical entropy is a reason to identify
spontaneous TS breaking as the stochastic generalization of the concept of dynamical chaos. Noteworthy,
Langevin SDEs are never chaotic because the spectrum of their SEO is real non-negative.
The complete list of reasons why spontaneous TS breaking must be viewed as the stochastic generalization
of the concept of dynamical chaos is as follows.
Positive dynamical entropy.
According to the Goldstone's theorem, spontaneous TS breaking must tailor a long-range dynamical
behavior, one of the manifestations of which is the butterfly effect discussed above in the context of the
meaning of TS.
From the properties of the eigensystem of SEO, TS can be spontaneously broken only if .
This conclusion can be viewed as the stochastic generalization of the Poincare–Bendixson theorem for
deterministic chaos.
In the deterministic case, integrable models in the sense of dynamical systems have well-defined
global stable and unstable manifolds of {\displaystyle F} The bras/kets of the global ground states
of such models are the Poincare duals of the global stable/unstable manifolds. These ground states
are supersymmetric so that TS is not broken spontaneously. On the contrary, when the model is non-
integrable or chaotic, its global (un)stable manifolds are not well-defined topological manifolds, but
rather have a fractal, self-recurrent structure that can be captured using the concept of branching
manifolds.[34] Wavefunctions that can represent such manifolds cannot be supersymmetric.
Therefore, TS breaking is intrinsically related to the concept of non-integrability in the sense of
dynamical systems, which is actually yet another widely accepted definition of deterministic chaos.
All the above features of TS breaking work for both deterministic and stochastic models. This is in
contrast with the traditional deterministic chaos whose trajectory-based properties such as
the topological mixing cannot in principle be generalized to stochastic case because, just like in
quantum dynamics, all trajectories are possible in the presence of noise and, say, the topological
mixing property is satisfied trivially by all models with non-zero noise intensity.
STS as a topological field theory

The square acbd represents an instanton, i.e, the family of trajectories of deterministic flow (dotted
arrowed curves) leading from one critical point (b) to another (a). The bra/ket ( ) of the locally
supersymmetric ground states (vacua) corresponding to these critical points are the Poincare duals of
the local unstable/stable manifolds. Operators are Poincare duals of vertical/horizontal lines. The
value of the instantonic matrix element is the intersection number (the difference in the numbers of
positive (black) and negative (white) intersections). It is invariant under the temporal evolution due to
the flow,
source; Vasilii Tiorkin - Own work

Figure representing instanton matrix element in STS above.
The topological sector of STS can be recognized as a member of the Witten-type topological field
theories.[21][22][23][24][25] In other words, some objects in STS are of topological character with the Witten index
being the most famous example. There are other classes of topological objects. One class of objects is
related to instantons, i.e., transient dynamics. Crumpling paper, protein folding, and many other nonlinear
dynamical processes in response to quenches, i.e., to external (sudden) changes of parameters, can be
recognized as instantonic dynamics. From the mathematical point of view, instantons are families of
solutions of deterministic equations of motion, that lead from, say, less stable fixed point of
to a more stable fixed point. Certain matrix elements calculated on instantons are of topological nature.
An example of such matrix elements can be defined for a pair of critical points, and with being
more stable than ,
{\displaystyle \left.\int \dots \int _{x(\pm \infty )=a,b}\left(\prod \nolimits

_{i}O_{i}(t_{i})\right)e^{({\mathcal {Q}},\Psi )}D\Phi \right|_{\Theta \to 0}=\langle a|{\mathcal
{T}}\left(\prod \nolimits _{i}{\hat {O}}_{i}(t_{i})\right)|b\rangle .}
Here {\displaystyle \langle a|} and {\displaystyle |b\rangle } are the bra and ket of the
corresponding perturbative supersymmetric ground states, or vacua, which are the Poincare duals of
the local stable and unstable manifolds of the corresponding critical point; {\displaystyle
{\mathcal {T}}} denotes chronological ordering; {\displaystyle O} are observables that are the
Poincare duals of some closed submanifolds in {\displaystyle X};
{\displaystyle {\hat {O}}(t)={\hat {\mathcal {M}}}_{t_{0}t}{\hat {O}}{\hat {\mathcal
{M}}}_{t,t_{0}}} are the observables in the Heisenberg representation with {\displaystyle
t_{0}} being an unimportant reference time moment. The critical points have different indexes of
stability so that the states {\displaystyle |a\rangle } and {\displaystyle |b\rangle } are
topologically inequivalent as they represent unstable manifolds of different dimensionalities. The
above matrix elements are independent of {\displaystyle t_{i}'s} as they actually represent the
intersection number of {\displaystyle O}manifolds on the instanton as exemplified in the figure.
The above instantonic matrix elements are exact only in the deterministic limit. In the general
stochastic case, one can consider global supersymmetric states, {\displaystyle \theta } from
the De Rham cohomology classes of {\displaystyle X} and observables {\displaystyle \gamma }
that are Poincare duals of closed manifolds non-trivial in homology of {\displaystyle X}The
following matrix elements, {\displaystyle \textstyle \langle \theta _{\alpha

}|{\mathcal {T}}\left(\prod \nolimits _{i}{\hat {\gamma }}_{i}(t_{i})\right)|\theta _{\beta }\rangle
,} are topological invariants representative of the structure of De Rham cohomology ring of
{\displaystyle X}
Applications
Supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics can be interesting in different ways. For example, STS
offers a promising realization of the concept of supersymmetry. In general, there are two major
problems in the context of supersymmetry. The first is establishing connections between this
mathematical entity and the real world. Within STS, supersymmetry is the most common symmetry in
nature because it is pertinent to all continuous time dynamical systems. The second is
the spontaneous breakdown of supersymmetry. This problem is particularly important for particle
physics because supersymmetry of elementary particles, if exists at extremely short scale, must be
broken spontaneously at large scale. This problem is nontrivial because supersymmetries are hard to
break spontaneously, the very reason behind the introduction of soft or explicit supersymmetry
breaking.[35] Within STS, spontaneous breakdown of supersymmetry is indeed a nontrivial dynamical
phenomenon that has been variously known across disciplines as chaos, turbulence, self-organized
criticality etc.
A few more specific applications of STS are as follows.
Classification of stochastic dynamics
Stochastic dynamical systems can be classified according to whether TS is spontaneously broken or
not (ordered/symmetric) and whether the flow vector field is integrable or non-integrable (chaotic).
Symmetric phase can be identified as thermal equilibrium (T). Ordered non-integrable phase can be
called chaos (C) because it hosts conventional deterministic chaos. Ordered integrable phase can be
called noise-induced chaos (N) because TS broking involves antiinstantons that disappear in the
deterministic limit. The N-phase is also known in the literature as self-organized criticality.
Stochastic dynamical systems can be classified according to whether TS is spontaneously broken or

not (ordered/symmetric) and whether the flow vector field is integrable or non-integrable (chaotic).
Symmetric phase can be identified as thermal equilibrium (T). Ordered non-integrable phase can be
called chaos (C) because it hosts conventional deterministic chaos. Ordered integrable phase can be
called noise-induced chaos (N) because TS broking involves antiinstantons that disappear in the
deterministic limit. The N-phase is also known in the literature as self-organized criticality.
Source;Vasilii Tiorkin - Own work
STS Phase Diagram
STS provides classification for stochastic models depending on whether TS is broken and integrability of
flow vector field. In can be exemplified as a part of the general phase diagram at the border of chaos (see
figure on the right). The phase diagram has the following properties:
For physical models, TS gets restored eventually with the increase of noise intensity.
Symmetric phase can be called thermal equilibrium or T-phase because the ground state is the
supersymmetric state of steady-state total probability distribution.
In the deterministic limit, ordered phase is equivalent to deterministic chaotic dynamics with non-
integrable flow.
Ordered non-integrable phase can be called chaos or C-phase because ordinary deterministic chaos
belongs to it.
Ordered integrable phase can be called noise-induced chaos or N-phase because it disappears in the
deterministic limit. TS is broken by the condensation of (anti-)instantons (see below).
At stronger noises, the sharp N-C boundary must smear out into a crossover because (anti-)instantons lose
their individuality and it is hard for an external observer to tell one tunneling process from another.
Demystification of self-organized criticality

Many sudden (or instantonic) processes in nature, such as, e.g., crackling noise, exhibit scale-free statistics
often called the Zipf's law. As an explanation for this peculiar spontaneous dynamical behavior, it was
proposed to believe that some stochastic dynamical systems have a tendency to self-tune themselves into
a critical point, the phenomenological approach known as self-organized criticality (SOC).[36] STS offers an
alternative perspective on this phenomenon.[37] Within STS, SOC is nothing more than dynamics in the N-
phase. Specifically, the definitive feature of the N-phase is the peculiar mechanism of the TS breaking.
Unlike in the C-phase, where the TS is broken by the non-integrability of the flow, in the N-phase, the TS is
spontaneously broken due to the condensation of the configurations of instantons and noise-induced
antiinstantons, i.e., time-reversed instantons. These processes can be roughly interpreted as the noise-
induced tunneling events between, e.g., different attractors. Qualitatively, the dynamics in the N-phase
appears to an external observer as a sequence of sudden jumps or "avalanches" that must exhibit a scale-
free behavior/statistics as a result of the Goldstone theorem. This picture of dynamics in the N-phase is
exactly the dynamical behavior that the concept of SOC was designed to explain. In contrast with the
original understanding of SOC,[38] its STS interpretation has little to do with the traditional critical
phenomena theory where scale-free behavior is associated with unstable fixed points of
the renormalization group flow.
Kinematic dynamo theory

Magnetohydrodynamical phenomenon of kinematic dynamo can also be identified as the spontaneous
breakdown of TS.[30] This result follows from equivalence between the evolution operator of the magnetic
field and the SEO of the corresponding SDE describing the flow of the background matter. The so
emerged STS-kinematic dynamo correspondence proves, in particular, that both types of TS breaking
spectra are possible, with the real and complex ground state eigenvalues, because kinematic dynamo with
both types of the fastest growing eigenmodes are known.[39]
Transient dynamics
It is well known that various types of transient dynamics, such as quenches, exhibit spontaneous long-
range behavior. In case of quenches across phase transitions, this behavior is often attributed to the
proximity of criticality. At the same time, other quenches, not across a phase transition, are also known to
exhibit long-range characteristics with the best known examples being the Barkhausen effect and other
realizations of the concept of crackling noise. It is intuitively appealing that theoretical explanation for the
scale-free behavior in quenches must be the same disregard whether the quench is across a phase
transition or not. STS offers such an explanation. Namely, transient dynamics is essentially a composite
instanton and TS is intrinsically broken within instantons. Even though TS breaking within instantons is not
exactly the phenomenon of the spontaneous breakdown of a symmetry by a global ground state, this
effective TS breaking must also result in a scale-free behavior. This understanding is supported by the fact
that condensed instantons lead to appearance of logarithms in the correlation functions.[40] This picture of
transient dynamics explains computational efficiency of the digital memcomputing machines. [41]
Low energy effective theories for dynamical chaos

In physics, spontaneous symmetry breaking is known as "ordering". For example, the spontaneous
breakdown of translational symmetry in a liquid is the mathematical essence of crystallization or spatial
"ordering" of molecules into a lattice. Therefore, spontaneous TS breaking picture of chaotic dynamics is in
a certain sense opposite to the semantics of word "chaos". Due to its temporal character, it is
actually Chronos, not Chaos, that appears to be the primordial Greek deity closest in its spirit to the TS
breaking order. Perhaps, a more accurate identifier than "chaos" should be coined for TS breaking in the
future. As of this moment, this qualitatively new understanding of dynamical chaos already points into a
research direction that may lead to resolutions of some important problems such as turbulence and
neurodynamics. Namely, as in case of any other "ordering", a simplified yet accurate description of chaotic
dynamics can be achieved in terms of the low-energy effective theory for an order parameter. While the
low-energy effective description of chaotic dynamics may be very case specific, its order parameter must
always be a representative of the gapless fermions or goldstinos of the spontaneously broken TS.
CONCLUSION.
The source of the problem of the rotation of the apse line lies deep. Clairaut's solution, with
incommensurable periodic terms, is not periodic. We now know that apart from very restricted cases,
the three-body problem does not admit of finite integrals, far less of strictly periodic solutions.
Newton's approach to the problem was flawed from the outset by the condition he imposed. In other
problems, in particular his elegant theory of the node and inclination, the form of the orbit is not of
first importance, indeed most of his results apply as well to slightly eccentric orbits as to circular
orbits. The very definition of the apse line, on the other hand, depends upon the form of the orbit.
Could Newton's geometrical methods have been extended to higher orders of approximation? On the
face of it they depended on the geometrical properties of the elliptical orbit and could not easily be
adapted to give further approximations when deviations from the elliptical orbit had to be
incorporated. Newton's methods, however, by his use of limiting processes in geometrical arguments,
are close to differential geometry as developed in the 19th century. It is not dificult to write his
derivations in terms of unit tangents, unit normals and unit binormals – the theory of the node and
inclination is well adapted to that type of statement – and then more general geometric methods
would become available. It is no doubt true that analytical methods, married to computer
manipulation, are necessary if the precision of the theory is to approach that of observations of the
Moon now made by laser ranging, but geometrical methods have the advantage of revealing the
origin of particular anomalies in the motion of the Moon. Some of the earlier theories of artificial
satellites about the Earth did use geometrical methods not so different from those of Newton, and the
study of Newton's theory, the unsuccessful as well as the successful parts, is still rewarding, as the
discussion of the theory of the apse line shows.
Newton's failures should not obscure his great achievement in fundamental dynamics. He was the
first to attack the problem of three bodies each attracting the other. It could only have been
formulated on the basis of universal gravitation, which he introduced and maintained against the
powerful opposition of many, Huygens and Leibniz among them. The qualitative discussion in Bk I,
Prop. LXVI and its many corollaries is profound, and his mathematical developments in Bk III are
subtle. He provided for the first time a reasoned account of the origins of many of the anomalies of
the motion of the Moon, and his qualitative arguments and explanations in Prop. LXVI of Bk I retain
their value even though far more powerful mathematics and computation are now needed to keep up
with the exceptionally high precision of laser-ranging observations of the lunar orbit.
Newton's achievements go further. In Book III of the Principia he laid out for the first time our
modern scientific procedure of comparing numerically the results of a rigorous self-contained abstract
model with observations of the natural world. Where his mathematics and contemporary
observations were adequate, he had notable successes. Neither his mathematics nor the observations
of his day matched the complexities of the lunar problem, but his attempts upon it have helped to
show the way for physical science ever since.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
Applications of lunar theory.
Applications of lunar theory include the following:-
In the eighteenth century, comparison between lunar theory and observation was used to
test Newton's law of universal gravitation by the motion of the lunar apogee. Lunar Perigee and
Apogee ,The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical. The point of the orbit closest to Earth is called
perigee, while the point farthest from Earth is known as apogee The Moon's orbit around Earth is
elliptical, with one side closer to Earth than the other.
As a result, the distance between the Moon and Earth varies throughout the month and the year. On
average, the distance is about 382,900 kilometers (238,000 miles) from the Moon's center to the
center of Earth.
The point on the Moon's orbit closest to Earth is called the perigee and the point farthest away is the
apogee
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, navigational tables based on lunar theory, initially in
the Nautical Almanac, were much used for the determination of longitude at sea by the method of
lunar distances.
In the very early twentieth century, comparison between lunar theory and observation was used in
another test of gravitational theory, to test (and rule out) Simon Newcomb's suggestion that a well-
known discrepancy in the motion of the perihelion of Mercury might be explained by a fractional
adjustment of the power -2 in Newton's inverse square law of gravitation[1] (the discrepancy was later
successfully explained by the general theory of relativity).
In the mid-twentieth century, before the development of atomic clocks, lunar theory and observation
were used in combination to implement an astronomical time scale (ephemeris time) free of the
irregularities of mean solar time.
In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, modern developments of lunar theory are being
used in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Development Ephemeris series of models of the Solar System, in
conjunction with high-precision observations, to test the exactness of physical relationships
associated with the general theory of relativity, including the strong equivalence principle, relativistic
gravitation, geodetic precession, and the constancy of the gravitational constant.[2]
• .Natural Disaster Trigger as in fiction use. Although the Sun and the Moon’s alignment cause a
small increase in tectonic activity, the effects of the Supermoon on Earth are minor. Many
scientists have conducted studies and haven’t found anything significant that can link the Super
Moon to natural disasters.
• According to NASA, the combination of the Moon being at its closest and at Full Moon, should not
affect the internal energy balance of the Earth since there are lunar tides every day
• Elliptical Orbit.The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, with one side closer to Earth than the
other.As a result, the distance between the Moon and Earth varies throughout the month and the
year. On average, the distance is about 382,900 kilometers (238,000 miles) from the Moon's
center to the center of Earth.
• The Orbit. The point on the Moon's orbit closest to Earth is called the perigee and the point
farthest away is the apogee. The Moon's phase and the date of its approach to its perigee or
apogee are not synced. When a Full Moon or New Moon occurs close to the Moon's perigee, it is
known as a Supermoon. On the other hand, when a Full Moon or New Moon occurs close to the
Moon's apogee, it is known as a Micromoon.
• Moon Illusion.The Moon passes through the 2 extreme points–or apsides–perigee and apogee
about once a month. The time it takes for the Moon to travel from perigee to perigee, is called
the anomalistic month, and takes around 27.55455 days. This is not to be confused with the
synodic month, which lasts a little longer, and is the time it takes the Moon to orbit once around
Earth, from New Moon through all the Moon phases to the next New Moon.
• The Supermoon on November 14, 2016, was the closest a Full Moon has been to Earth since
January 26, 1948. The next time a Full Moon is even closer to Earth will be on November 25, 2034
(dates based on UTC time).
• Moonrise is the best time to view the Moon, weather permitting, of course. At this time, illusion
mixes with reality to make a low-hanging Moon that looks unnaturally large when compared to
foreground objects.
• Lunar Libration.In addition to its counterclockwise orbit around Earth, the Moon rotates around
its axis at a constant speed. Like all celestial objects with elliptical orbits, the Moon's speed varies
on its path around the Earth. It speeds up when it is at its perigee and slows down when it is at
the apogee. This means that at its perigee, the Moon's orbital speed is faster than its rotational
speed. When the Moon rocks slightly from north to south and wobbles a little from east to west,
it is called lunar libration. This motion makes it possible, over time, to see up to 58% of the
Moon’s surface from Earth, but only 50% at a time. The greatest difference between high and low
tide is around Full Moon and New Moon, known as spring tides or king tides. During these Moon
phases, the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun combine to pull the ocean’s water in the
same direction.
• Perigean spring tides have around 5 cm (2 inches) larger variation than regular spring tides, while
apogean spring tides have around 5 cm (2 inches) smaller variation than normal spring tides.
• REFERENCES.
Notes
 Between 18.29° and 28.58° to Earth's equator.[1]
 There are a number of near-Earth asteroids, including 3753 Cruithne, that are co-orbital with Earth: their orbits
bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term (Morais et al, 2002). These
are quasi-satellites – they are not moons as they do not orbit Earth. For more information, see Other moons of
Earth.
 The maximum value is given based on scaling of the brightness from the value of −12.74 given for an equator
to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km in the NASA factsheet reference to the minimum Earth–Moon distance
given there, after the latter is corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.
The minimum value (for a distant new moon) is based on a similar scaling using the maximum Earth–Moon
distance of 407 000 km (given in the factsheet) and by calculating the brightness of the earthshine onto such a
new moon. The brightness of the earthshine is [ Earth albedo × (Earth radius / Radius of Moon's orbit)2 ]
relative to the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full moon. (Earth albedo = 0.367; Earth radius =
(polar radius × equatorial radius)½ = 6 367 km.)
 The range of angular size values given are based on simple scaling of the following values given in the fact
sheet reference: at an Earth-equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km, the angular size is
1896 arcseconds. The same fact sheet gives extreme Earth–Moon distances of 407 000 km and 357 000 km.
For the maximum angular size, the minimum distance has to be corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of
6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.
 Lucey et al. (2006) give 107 particles cm−3 by day and 105 particles cm−3 by night. Along with equatorial surface
temperatures of 390 K by day and 100 K by night, the ideal gas law yields the pressures given in the infobox
(rounded to the nearest order of magnitude): 10−7 Pa by day and 10−10 Pa by night.
 More accurately, the Moon's mean sidereal period (fixed star to fixed star) is 27.321661 days (27 d 07 h 43 min
11.5 s), and its mean tropical orbital period (from equinox to equinox) is 27.321582 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7
s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).
 More accurately, the Moon's mean synodic period (between mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589 days (29 d
12 h 44 min 02.9 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).
 There is no strong correlation between the sizes of planets and the sizes of their satellites. Larger planets
tend to have more satellites, both large and small, than smaller planets.
 With 27% the diameter and 60% the density of Earth, the Moon has 1.23% of the mass of Earth. The
moon Charon is larger relative to its primary Pluto, but Pluto is now considered to be a dwarf planet.
 The Sun's apparent magnitude is −26.7, while the full moon's apparent magnitude is −12.7.
 See graph in Sun#Life phases. At present, the diameter of the Sun is increasing at a rate of about five percent
per billion years. This is very similar to the rate at which the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is
decreasing as it recedes from Earth.
 On average, the Moon covers an area of 0.21078 square degrees on the night sky.
Citations
 l
Wieczorek, Mark A.; et al. (2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior". Reviews in Mineralogy
and Geochemistry. 60 (1): 221–364. Bibcode:2006RvMG...60..221W. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3.
 Lang, Kenneth R. (2011), The Cambridge Guide to the Solar SystemArchived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback
Machine., 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press.
 Williams, Dr. David R. (2 February 2006). "Moon Fact Sheet". NASA/National Space Science Data
Center. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
 Williams, James G.; Newhall, XX; Dickey, Jean O. (1996). "Lunar moments, tides, orientation, and coordinate
frames". Planetary and Space Science. 44 (10): 1077–1080. Bibcode:1996P&SS...44.1077W. doi:10.1016/0032-
0633(95)00154-9.
 Makemson, Maud W. (1971); "Determination of Selenographic Positions", in The Moon, volume 2, issue 3, pp.
293-308, doi:10.1007/BF00561882, BibCode: 1971Moon....2..293M
 Haigh, I. D.; Eliot, M.; Pattiaratchi, C. (2011). "Global influences of the 18.61 year nodal cycle and 8.85 year
cycle of lunar perigee on high tidal levels". J. Geophys. Res. 116 (C6):
C06025. Bibcode:2011JGRC..116.6025H. doi:10.1029/2010JC006645.
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Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument
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p. 483).
 In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as
expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
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result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p. 212; Sharratt,
1994, p. 166; Drake, 1970, pp. 191–196). This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's
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February 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p. 81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him
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the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian
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 "Isaac Newton", by George Smith
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 "Newton's Philosophy", by Andrew Janiak
 "Newton's views on space, time, and motion", by Robert Rynasiewicz
 "Newton's Castle" – educational material
 "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton", research on his alchemical writings
 The "General Scholium" to Newton's Principia
 Kandaswamy, Anand M. "The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context"
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series
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and religion
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of which was owned by Isaac Newton, who marked salient passages by dog-earing the pages so that the
corners acted as arrows. The books can be compared side-by-side to show what interested Newton.
 Newspaper clippings about Isaac Newton in the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of
Economics (ZBW)
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 The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings
 Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg
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Jonathan Bennett
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 (1719) Optice – digital facsimile at the Linda Hall Library
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AUTHOR ; ARINY AMOS, 32 YEAR- 2014

ARINY AMOS ; 10 YEARS , 1992

occurring in 2006 in spaceflight, including major launches and EVAs. 2006

Author , Ariny Amos thanks God of his Natural parents Father ;

{\displaystyle +4586.45''\sin(2D-\ell )} where {\displaystyle D} is the

expression reduces to {\displaystyle +(22639.55-

Ways Earth Would Change If Our Moon Were Destroyed.

Origin of the Moon

The Moon's heavily cratered far-side

Formation of the moon.

Lunar sample 61016, better known as "Big Muley"

Ancient rift valleys– context.

Zipf PMF for N = 10 on a log–log scale. The horizontal axis is

the index k . (Note that the function is only defined at integer

values of k. The connecting lines do not indicate continuity.)

Cumulative distribution function

that the function is only defined at integer values of k. The

connecting lines do not indicate continuity.)

Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensio User Comment

curre 21:59, 2 October 1,300 × Cmdrjameson (talk | contribs) Compress

01:07, 2 May 2005 1,300 × PAR~commonswiki (talk | con Fixed axis

01:16, 23 April 1,300 × PAR~commonswiki (talk | con Log-log

 You cannot overwrite this file.

 N be the number of elements;

power law distribution [7]

where HN,s is the Nth generalized harmonic number.

where ζ is Riemann's zeta function.

Source;SergioJimenez - Own work

for any choice of ρ > 0.

PLOT OF WORD FREQUENCY IN WIKIPEDIA-DUMP 2006-11-27. THE PLOT IS MADE

Source;Victor Grishchenko - Victor Grishchenko [1]

Permision details LPG.

Earth and Moon to scale, 500 km per pixel

Thorium concentrations on the Moon, as mapped by Lunar Prospector

Additional theories and studies

Evolution of the Moon video by NASA circa 2012.[23]

Claimed moons of Earth

satellite stuck to a meteor gravitating to earth, early January 2019.

The orbits of Earth and the quasi-satellite Cruithne

including planetary geology (together

Galileo Galilei, portrait by Tintoretto.

Controversy over comets and The Assayer

Controversy over heliocentrism

Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

scratched on the wall of his prison cell

Close-up of an inner section of Kepler's model

House of Kepler and Barbara Müller in Gössendorf, near Graz (1597–1599)

Marriage to Barbara Müller

Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II

Astronomiae Pars Optica

Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604

Dioptrice, Somnium manuscript, and other work

Work in mathematics and physics

Personal and political troubles

Linz and elsewhere (1612–1630)

A statue of Kepler in Linz

Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, calendars, and the witch trial of

Rudolphine Tables and his last years

Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein

Reception of his astronomy

Historical and cultural legacy

Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic

Editions and translations

Popular science and historical fiction

Veneration and eponymy

The Kepler crater as photographed by Apollo 12 in 1969