THE PERFORMANCE OF VIOLONCELLO HARMONICS

by

Cláudio Urgel Pires Cardoso

An essay submitted in partial fulfihlment of the

requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts
degree in the Graduate Coliege of
The University of Iowa

December 1994

Essay supervisor: Professor Charles Gustav Wendt

 Copyright by
CLAUDIO URGEL PIRES CARDOS O
1994
Ali Rights Reserved
 Graduate Coliege
The University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa

CERT1FICATE OF APPROVAL

D.M.A. ESSAY

This is to certify that the D.M.A. essay of

c
Cláudio Urgel Pires Cardoso c
c
has been approved by the Examining Committee
for the essay requirement for the Doctor of
Musical Arts degree at the December 1994
graduation.

Essay committee:
Essay supervisor

Member

Member

r
Memb
M r
1
To my family: my wife, Bernadette,
my son, Tomás and my daughters,
Sofia and Laura

11
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

s Gustav O
1 wish to express sincere appreciation to my advisor Professor Charle O
Wendt for the encouragement he offered me in the preparation of both
my recitais and c
sors Michael
this essay. 1 also would like to thank the other committee members, Profes
specially Richard C
Eckert, Leopold La Fosse, Diaria Gannett for their suggestions and c
Hurtig for his time spent with me in his lab.
c
the text.
My gratitude is extended to Craig Swygard for his time spent in editing
of North Carolina C
Finally, 1 would like to thank Emilie MilIs, librarian of The University
pment of this C
at Greensboro, for making available to me important material for the develo
c
study.
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ix

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER

REVffiW OF SOME ASPECTS IN THE THEORY OF

PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE OF HARMONIC
TONES ON STRING TNSTRUMENTS 5

Musical Tones and Their Component Frequencies 5

Harrnonics as Members of a Series 9
String Vibration and Its Partiais 13
Names and Musical Notation of the Different Types of
Harmonic Tones 20
Natural Harmonics 20
Artificial Harmonics 27

II. A SURVEY OF THE PERFORMANCE OF HARMONIC TONES

ON THE VIOLONCELLO AS MANIFESTED IN 1TS
EARLY REPERTORY AND IN FOUR OF ITS MOST
TMPORTANT TREATISES 31

Early use of Harmonic Tones in the Violonceilo Repertory 35

Review of Four of the Most Important Treatises for
Violonceilo Regarding the Performance of Harmonic Tones 40
Michel Corrette’s Violonceilo Method 43
Jean Louis Duport’s Essay 43
Justus Johann Friedrich Dotzauer’ s Method of Playing
Harmonics 48
Diran Alexanian’s Treatise 57

ifi. THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL STUDY OF NATURAL

HARMONICS OBTAINABLE ON THE VTOLONCELLO.. 67

A Theoretical Study of the Natural Harmonics up to the

Sixteenth Partial of the Series 67

iv
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Sequential Order of Appearance for Ali Nodal Points of C
Natural Harmonics up to the Sixteenth Partia! of the
68
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Series r
Indication of Fixed Nodal Points with Stopped Notes 74
A Practical Study of Natural Harmonics 79
Selection of Natural Harmonics Suitable for C
Performance 79 C
Natural Harmonics Performed with the Double-Node
Technique 84 c
Remarks on Some Aspects of Piaying Technique of
Violonceilo Natural Harmonics 87
Left-hand Finger Placement 89 C
Bow-Bridge Distance for the Performance of Harmonic
Tones 90
Natural Harmonics as an Aid to Facilitate the
Performance of Stopped Notes 97
Intonation of Natural Harmonics 98

IV. THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL STUDY OF THE

ARTIFICIAL HARMONICS OBTAINABLE ON THE
VTOLONCELLO 101

A Theoretical Study of Artificial Harmonics 102

Artificial Harmonics Suitable for Performance 105
Employment of the Artificial Octave Harmonic 107
Employment of the Artificial Major-Sixth Harmonic 108
Employment of the Artificial Fifth Harmonic 109
Employment of the Artificial Fourth Harmonic 110
Employment of the Artificial Major-Third Harmonic 111

V. HARMONTC TONES PERFORMED SIMULTANEOUSLY OR

COMBINED WITH OPEN AND STOPPED STRINGS 115
(
Natural Harmonics Combined with Themselves 115
Natural Double Harmonics 115
Limits for Partial Combinations 116
The Limits of Reach (Extension) for the Left-hand
Fingers in One Position at Different Parts of the
Fingerboard for the Performance of Double
Natural Harmonics 118
Natural Harmonics Performed Simultaneously on Three
and Four Strings 123
Artificial Double Harmonics 129
Natural and Artificial Harmonics Performed Simultaneously 132
Simultaneous Performance of Harmonic Tones with open or
Stopped Strings 137

VI. HARMONIC TONES PERFORMED IN ASSOCIATION WITH

OTHER SPECIAL EFFECTS 142

Harmonic Tones Performed with Pizzicato 142

v
 Harmonic Tones Performed with the Col Legno Technique 146
Harmonic Tones Performed with Glissando 147
Harmonic Tones Performed with the Sul Tasto or Sul
Ponticeilo Effects 154
Harmonic Tones Performed with Vibrato 155
VII. SELECTED MUSICAL PASSAGES OF THE VIOLONCELLO
REPERTORY INVOLVING HARMONIC TONES WITH
THE DEMONSTRATION OF TREIR DIIikbRENT
PERFORMANCE POSSIBILITIES 157
CONCLUSION 180
APPENDIX APITCHES PLAYABLE ON THE VIOLONCELLO AS
HARMOMC TONES WITH THEIR DWFERENT
PERFORMANCE POSSIB1LITIES 183
APPENDIX B RECiTAL PROGRAMS PRESENTED AS PART OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DOCTOR OF MUSICAL
ARTS DEGREE IN PERFORMANCE AND PEDAGOGY. 201
BIBLIOGRAPHY 206

vi
 LIST OF TABLES C
c
Table Page c
The Harmonic Series of the Fundamental C 11
c
2. Nodes of a Vibrating String up to the Sixteenth Mode of Vibration.. 69

3. Sequential Ordering of Nodal Points up to the Sixteenth Mode of C

Vibration of a String 70 c
4. Natural Harmonics Present on the Nut-half Side of a String to be
Transposed to au Artificial Nut 103

5. Artificial Harmonics Theoretically Possible as Transposition of ali C

Natural Harmonics Present on the Nut-half Side of a String.. 104 c
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vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. The waveform and the frequency spectrum of an open D string of a
violonceilo, a cornplex tone with its component frequencies 7
2. The waveform and the frequency spectrum of a tuning-fork, a
simple periodic vibration without other component
frequencies, a pure tone 8
3. The waveform and the frequency spectrum of a natural second
harmonic of a violonceilo open D string 13
4. Superposition in a graphic representation of the harmonic spectra
of a violonceilo open D string and a natural second
harmonic of the sarne string up to its tenth partial 14
5. The first four modes of vibration of an open or stopped string and
their corresponding partial numbers 16

6. The first four modes of vibration of a string and their

corresponding partiais when a natural second harmonic or
an artificial octave harmonic is performed 17
7. The fourth mode of vibration of a string with the location of its
nodes indicated with fractions of the string length 19
8. Tromba Marina as seen in the Gabinetto Armonico by Filippo
Bonanni 32

9. The lowest mode of vibration or partial when the 1/2 and 1/3 nodes
are touched simultaneously 86

10. Bow-playing area as related to nodes and antinodes of the first two
modes of vibration of an open string or stopped note and
the natural third harrnonic 94

VIII
 LIST OF MIJSICAL EXAMPLES
c
Musical Examples Page c
1. A Musical passage with harmonic tones without specification of
types 24

2. Notation of natural harmonics at concert-pitch nodes 25

3. Notation of natural harmonics at nodes other than their concert

pitch nodes 26

4. Notation of natural double harmonics and natural hannonics with

tIie double-node technique 28

5. Notation of artificial harmonics 30

6. Mondonville’s Les sons Ilarinoniques sonatas 36

7. Duport’s indication of natural harmonics as related to the

arpeggiation of a major chord 45

8. Duport’s demonstration of an artificial harmonic 47

9. Dotzauer’s natural harmonics 52

10. Alexanian’s double-node technique 60

11. Alexanian ‘s double-node technique on artificial harmonics 62

12. Natural harmonics of a violonceilo open C string in their sequential

order of appearance up to the l6th partial of the series 73

13. Natural Harmonics up to the l6th partial as related to stopped notes

ofthe sarne string 77

14. Selection of natural harmonics of the C string suitable for

performance 80

15. Selection of natural harnionics on ali four strings 83

16. Double-node technique applied to the natural fourth, sixth and

eighth natural hannonics 88

17. Theoretical possibilities for artificial harmonics with the

fundamental d’ 106

ix
18. Selection of artificial harmonics suitable for performance 107

19. String range limits for the employment of the artificial octave
harrnonic 108

20. String range Iimits for the employment of the artificial major-sixth
harmonic 109

21. String range limits for the employment of the artificial fifth
harmonic 110

22. String range limits for the employment of the artificial fourth
harmonic 111

23. String range limits for the employment of the artificial major-third
harmonic 112

24. Double stops to practice the different types of artificial harmonics 114

25. Harmonic series of the four strings up to the twelfth partial 117

26. Limits that the ]eft-hand fingers can reach in one position on
the sarne string at different parts of the fingerboarci 119

27. Double natural harmonics perforrned with the natural fourth and
natural fifth harmonics on the C strig and O string 122

28. Selection of partiais for simultaneous performance of three and

four natural harmonics 124

29. Chords of stopped notes in which the first finger works as a nut or
capotasto 125

30. Simultaneous performance of natural harmonics in which the first

finger is placed on two or more adjacent strings 126

31. Chords of stopped notes in which two fingers are placed on a

perpendicular position at the sarne half step of adjacent
strings 127

32. Simultaneous performance of natural harmonics in which two

fingers are placed on a perpendicular position 127

33. Samples of chords of natural harrnonics on three and four strings 128

34. Theoretical study of possible artificial double harrnonics with the

five types of artificial harmonics selected in Chapter IV 130

35. String range lirnits for the employment of artificial double

harmonics 133

x
 e

e
e
36. Samples for simultaneous performance of natural and artificial e
harmonics 138 e
C
37. Samples of simultaneous performance of natural harmonics with
open or stopped strings 139 C

38. Samples of simultaneous performance of artificial harmonics with C

open or stopped strings 141

39. Snap pizzicato on harmonic tones 146

40. A pseudo glissando on some of the partiais of the harmonic series C

of a violoncelio D string 148 C

41. A glissando of natural harmonics on both halves of the A string 149

42. Sample of glissandos with natural harmonics 150

43. Sample of glissandos with artificial harmonics 151 C

44. Seaguil effect, glissando of artificial harmonics 151 c

45. Nodal points of the natural eighth harmonic 153

46. Study for the seaguil effect 153

47. Saint-Saëns’ A Minor Concerto 158

48. Performance options for Saint-Saëns’ A Minor Concerto, Op. 33,

third movement, measures 113-115 of the violonceilo solo
part 159

49. Exercise for Saint-Saëns’ A Minor Concerto, Op. 33, third (

movement, measures 113-115 of the violoncelio solo part .... 160

50. Prokofiev’s Violonceilo Sonata, Op. 119, second movement,

measure 107-108 of the violoncelio part 161

51. Prokofiev’ s Violoncelio Sonata, Op. 119, first movement, measure (

6 8-70 of the violoncelio part 163 (

52. Prokofiev’s Violonceilo Sonata, Op. 119, third movement, measure

18-21 of the violonceilo part 164

53. Britten’s Suite for Celio, Op. 72, fourth movement, measure 1 of (
the violoncello part 165 (

54. Shostakovich’s Violonceilo Concerto, Op. 107, second movement,

rehearsal numbers 57-60 of the violoncelio part 166

xl (

(.
55. Vilia-Lobos’ Duo for Violin and Violonceilo, second movement,
measures 44-51 170

56. Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time, first movement,

violonceilo part 171

57. Dallapiccola’s Dialoghi for Violoncelio and Orchestra, first

movement, measure 48 174

58. Eduardo Bértola’s Violonceilo Duo, measures 7 1-80 of

bothparts 175

59. Shostakovich’s Trio, Op. 67, first movement, measures 1-37 ofthe
violonceilo part 177

xii
 1

INTRODUCTION

Music scholars sometimes question if theory comes before it is used in C

c
compositions or vice versa. In performance practice the sarne question can be raised:

which comes first, theory or practice? In the performance of violoncelio harrnonics 1 can

assert that practice has been ahead of theory.

(
In my experience as a violoncelio piayer and teacher 1 have noticed that the c
performance of harmonics is a topic not cleariy understood by string players, teachers,

composers and other musicians. However, more innovative vioioncellists have been
1

playing musical passages requiring harmonic tones using new techniques and resources c
which no treatise or methodology book on violonceilo playing fully describes. In their

daily practice, looking for better ways to perform these passages, violoncellists have

changed fingerings, types of harmonics, i.e., natural to artificial or vice-versa, and types C

of artificial harmonics, e.g., from artificial fourth harmonic to artificial fifth. Composers

have also found new ways to use harmonics, such as col legno harmonics or sul tasto

harmonics. (

The first goal of this study is to update the resources of harmonic tones playable

on the violonceilo with ali their possibilities and new approaches. A review of the most

important treatises for violoncelio with regard to harmonic techniques will provide

information of what needs to be updated or reformulated. Besides violonceilo methods,

other string instruments may aiso provide information to develop a modem theory of the

performance of harmonics on the violoncelio. In terms of the performance of natural

harmonics double basses are the most capable. The long strings of the double bass enable
 2

more distance between nodal points. Therefore, it is easier to locate them and it is

possible to use more partiais. On the other hand, because of its long strings it is more

difficult to play artificial harmonics on the double bass. Violins are the most suitable for

the performance of artificial harmonics. Their short string length allows the hand to stay

in one position with one finger sustaining an artificial nut while other fingers can reach

further nodes. Violins can produce more different types of artificial harmonics, specially

double-artificial harmonics. On the other hand, their short strings make difficult to locate

higher partials of the series and their nodes. The nodal points of the violiri strings are very

dose to each other. Violoncelio, in terms of harmonic tones potential, presents

characteristics which are mid way between violin and double bass. Doubie bass has a

better potential for natural harmonics than violonceilo and vice versa in terms of artificial

harmonics. Compared to the violin, the violonceilo has a better potential in terms of

natural harmonics and vice versa in ternis of artificial hannonics. Both instruments,

double bass and violin, can provide inforrnation and resources to increase the potential of

the performance of harmonic tones on the violoncelio.

The second basic goal of this study is to apply the theoretical and practical studies

of harrnonic tones to important musical passages of the violonceilo repertory. When we

work with a musical passage, we are looking for the best resuits in terms of sound quality

and the least difficulty technical solutions. When working with a musical passage ali

instrumentalists strive for the best results with the Ieast effort.

Various factors influence the choice of fingering, strings and other parameters

related to each musical passage. It does not have always to be directed at obtaining the

most powerful results. For example, when violoncellists choose to play a musical passage

on the D string which would be possible on the A string, they are looking for a special

tone color. In the case of liannonic tones, identical pitches can be performed with
 c
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E
3
E
different types of harmonic tones: natural harmonics played on the sarne strings at c
different nodal points; natural harmonics played on different strings and therefore as

different partiais; played as natural or artificial harrnonics; various types of artificial E

E
harmonics. The difference in tone quality and in difficulty of playing similar pitches as

different types of hannonic tones will be considered in the suggestion for the performance

of each musical passage studied. E

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Each musical passage requires a specific technique to be performed. Technical E
problems related to the performance of musical passages requiring harmonic tones will be

considered. The technical problems involved in the performance of violoncelio harmonic E

E
tones require a variety of advanced techniques. Problems such as position changes, E
intonation and bow placement will be considered. The techniques for harmonic tones

performance and the different qualities and strengths of each type of harmonic tones will

be discussed and codified. A balance between quality of sound and comfortable playing E
will be the goal in working out these musical passages. The discussion of important

passages of the violonceilo literature requiring harmonic tones will demonstrate the range

of resources applicable to harmonic tones.

E
These new approaches in the use of harmonic tones and the changes violoncellists

may have to make in the original scores must be evaluated to determine what changes

perforrners can make while preserving the compose?s intention and style. Also,

violoncellists rnust inform composers about what is playable, and under which

conditions. Charts for the different types of harmonics and their combinations will be

presented with a study of each type and a selection of what is playable. The notation of E
E
harmonic tones is sometimes confusing and performers do not understand composers’

intentions. Suggestions for the best notation of harmonic tones will be presented as well.
 4

1 believe this work will be an aid to violoncellists, composers, teachers,

conductors and other musicians as a reference source with regard to the understanding

and performance of violoncelio harmonics.

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CHAPTER 1 c
REVIEW OF SOME ASPECTS IN THE THEORY OF PRODUCTION AND

PERFORMANCE OF HARMONIC TONES ON STRING TNSTRUMENTS E

E

Harmonics have been smdied by musicians and scientists with different

objectives, one being determining some of the properties of musical sounds, especially in E
E
terms of timbre and loudness. Harmonics have also been studied as a special musical c
device produced in performance of an instrument where they are played as tones. This

study is especially concerned with the second of these objectives.

lii order to discuss the performance of harmonic tones on the violonceilo, it will E
be important to define terms and concepts. This chapter will discuss terms to be used for

the different types of harmonic tones and their use in string instrument playing, and will E

include a review of the acoustical theory of their production in string instrument playing. E
E
The aspects discussed are only those that will be important for the understanding of the

terminology used in later chapters. A complete discussion of ali possibilities for the

performance of harrnonic tones in the violonceilo will be presented in later chapters. E

Musical Tones and Their Component Freguencies

Each musical sound can be described as having different parameters such as pitch,

duration, loudness and timbre. The description of musical sounds according to each of

these parameters is very complex especiaily because they influence each other. It is in the

timbre or tone color of a musical sound that harmonics play the most important role.

Every musical sound is composed of frequencies, called among other terms

harmonics. In spite of having more than one component frequency, most musical sounds
 6

are heard as one pitch. Our brain fuses these component frequencies, if they are in a
. The component
harmonic or quasi-harmonic relationship, into the musical sound heard
1

frequencies are said to be in a harmonic relationship when they are whole-number

multiples of the lowest component frequency. The pitch heard is that of the lowest of

these component frequencies. Campbell and Greated state that even if the lowest

frequency was filtered by an electronic device the pitch heard is still its frequency.
2

Pitched sounds produced by musical instruments are usually called tones. Musical

tones are said to have complex periodic vibration, having a complex waveform, therefore,

they are called complex tones. The upper part of Figure 1 (page 7) shows the waveform of

a complex tone and the lower part its frequency spectrum. Different from complex

periodic vibrations, simple periodic vibrations do not have other components and are

called pure tones. Isolated component frequencies of a musical tone are pure tones. The

upper part of Figure 2 (page 8) shows the waveform of a pure tone and the lower part its

frequency spectrum. In other words, one can say that complex tones are composed of pure

tones. With an analysis of the component frequencies of a tone (see lower part of Figure 1

and Figure 2) it is possible to see which frequencies are present, their number and

individual relative strength. Similar pitches are distinguished by the presence and relative

strength of each of these component frequencies, the so called timbre or tone color.

The most basic word that will be used in this study which needs to be defined is

harmonic. It has different connotations and synonyms. Words such as partial, flageolet,

overtone, harmonic are in a sense synonymous. Different fields of study use different

names with small variants for the sarne phenomenon. To avoid confusion, 1 will use only

Murray Campbell and Clive Greated, The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics

1
(London: 3. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1987), 85.

2
J bj, 85.
 7

G
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—
G
G
o
o
o
o
o
. c
c
. iii o
c
Figure 1. The waveform and the frequency spectrum of an open D string of a
violonceilo, a complex tone with its component frequencies
c
Note: Frequency numbers and amplitudes of each component will be reported in
Figure 4. The waveforms, their spectrum analysis, and their pictures, of this
and others presented in this study were done with the computer software
CSpeech. c
c
c
two of these words in this study, harmonic and partial. First of ali, the term harmonic is

used in a general sense referring to a device used in string instrument playing that can

also be called harmonic tones, the subject of this study. Harmonic is also used to identify

each of the component frequencies present in the waveform of a musical tone. The lowest

of these component frequencies is called first harmonic or fundamental and the others,

second harmonic, third harmonic, and so on.

Not ali instruments have the component frequencies of their tones in a harmonic

reiationship. In some percussion instruments, as an example, the components of a pitch

 8

VVN\fWvW\N\!\I\f\MJ\J\J\AI\N\f\A/V\

Figure 2. The waveform and the frequency spectrum of a tuning-fork, a simple

periodic vibration without other component frequencies, a pure tone

are not its exact multiples. These component frequencies are said to be in an inharmonic

relationship. Partial is a more general term which can be used to refer to ali kinds of

component frequencies present in the waveform of a sound, no matter if the relationship

among the components is harmonic, inharmonic or quasi-harmonie. The basic difference

is that the iowest frequency is called first partial and the others being second partial, third

partial, and so forth. If the component frequencies of a musical tone are in a harmonic

relationship, one can cail these components harmonics or partiais. However, one cannot

cali harmonics the component frequencies of a musical tone in which these components

are not in a harmonic relationship, they must be called partiais. 1 will use these two words

to avoid too much repetition of the word harmonic. It will also help in the distinction that

needs to be made between the harmonics performed as a musical tone, which will be

called harmonic tones, and harmonics as isolated components or partiais of a musical

 1

9 G
G
tone, i.e., pure tones. Harmonic tones performed on string instruments are not isolated c
pure tones, however, they are in a sense, partiais of another tone and at the sarne time

have their component frequencies. In other words, they are complex tones. In the €
e
following chapters, 1 will use the word partial to identify the component frequencies or c
members of a series which are present when any of the different types of harrnonic tones

are performed. In this sense, the performance of harmonic tones is the performance of C
G
other partiais (but not one isolated pure tone) than the first or fundamental of a given

musical tone. This is possible due to special peculiarities of the string vibration that will

be discussed later in this chapter. C

c
c
Harmonics as Members of a Series c
Most of musical instruments produce complex periodic vibrations which are

composed of component frequencies called harmonics. Using a theorem developed by C

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768—1830) musical tones can be analyzed to determine c
their components. The more common tenns are frequency analysis or spectrum analysis.

It is this sarne theorem that can expiam the relationship among the component C

frequencies of a musical tone. This theorem has been stated and used in many fields of

study such as electronics and musical acoustics. It may be defined as follows: “any curve

that repeats itself periodically, however complicated its shape, is equivalent to a set of

sine curves added together. ... Fourier’s remarkable result is that the complex curve is

equivalent to a sine curve with the fundamental frequency, plus another sine curve with

exactly twice the fundamental frequency, plus a third curve with just three times the

fundamental frequency ... and so 3

on.” Each component of this complex curve will have a C
c
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lbid., 18.
3
 10

4 In other
frequency that is ‘equal to a whole number times the fundamental frequency.”

words, the relationship among the component frequencies of a musical tone may be

described by a series of integer multiples of an individual frequency or fundamental. The

theorem explains the relationship of the frequency members of the so-called harmonic

series. In a musical tone with a frequency of 65 Hz., named fundamental, the members of

the series will have frequencies of 1, 2, 3, 4 ... times the fundamental frequency, i. e., 130

Hz. for the second component, called second harmonic or partial, 195 Hz. for the third

called third harmonic or third partial and so on. The harmonic tones performed on string

instruments are members of a harrnonic series. Table 1 shows the harmonic series of a

fundamental C, 65 Hz. It is the open fourth string of a violoncelio up to its sixteenth

partial. It also shows the number of the partiais with their frequencies, pitch names and

musical intervais between subsequent members (the frequencies of the fundamental and

members are an approximation).

The musical intervais of the harmonic series are also classified by their ratios. The

first and second partial are separated by the frequency ratio 2:1 or octave; the second and

third by the ratio 3:2 or perfect fifth; the third and fourth by the ratio 4:3 or perfect fourth;

the fourth and fifth by the ratio 5:4 or major third; and so on ( see Table 1). Some of these

intervais are considered pure orjust intervais. Many of them are used in different tuning

systems, such as just intonation or different historical temperaments. With the exception

of the octave, they are not used in equal temperarnent. Equal temperament is the tuning

system used in most modern fixed pitch instruments. In equal temperament, the natural

intervais of the harmonic series are rnodified. It would not be possible to tune a diatonic

scale using many different just intervais at the sarne time, and, especially, it would not be

bid., 18.
l4
 11

Table 1. The Harmonic Series of the Fundamental C

c
c
Numbers Frequency Pitch Name Musical Interval c
c
1 65Hz. C c
c
2 130 c Octave c
3 195 g Perfect Fifth
c
c
4 260 c’ PerfectFourth c
c
5 325 e’ Major Third c
c
6 390 g’ Minor Third c
7 455 b1’ Minor Third
c
c
8 520 c” Major Second c
c
9 585 d” Major Second c
c
10 650 e” Major Second c

11 715 fW’ Major Second c

c
12 780 g” Minor Second c
c
13 845 a” Minor Second c
14 910 bi” Major second
c
15 975 b” Minor Second c
c
16 1040 c” Minor Second c
c
c
Note: The system of pitch names used in this study is:
C (the lowest string of the violonceilo), c, c’
(a’ = 440 Hz.), e”, and so on.
E

possible to have enharrnonic equivalence for the twelve pitches of the octave, i. e., pitches

that have different names but sound exactly the sarne (e.g., C and B-sharp); what is
 12

crucial for modulation of distant keys and for modern instruments of fixed pitches. As an

example, the perfect fifth of theharmonic series, used, among others, in the Pythagorean

and just intonation tuning systems, is smailer than the perfect fifth of equal temperament.

The pure intervals of the harmonic series can be best used in instruments that are not

constituted only of fixed pitches such as the violin family, especialiy when double stops

are performed. The characteristics of the intervais in the harmonic series and different
tuning system in used today will be very important in the discussion of problems of

performance related to the intonation of harmonic tones.

The harmonic series establishes the partiais which may be present in a specific

musical tone. The harmonic series is an infinite series of numbers, but in musical sound it

is limited to our ability to hear frequencies which is in the range of 20 to 20,000 Hz.. The

partiais present in a specific musical tone are also limited by the individual characteristics

of each instrument, such as the string length or materiais of different string instrument.

Some of the partiais of the series may be also completely missing in a musical tone. Due

to specific characteristics of string vibration, it is possible to isolate some and to eliminate

other components of a given tone and piay them as musical tones, the so called harmonic

tones. Figure 3 (page 13) shows the waveform and frequency spectrum of the natural

second harmonic of a violonceilo D string.

By comparing the frequency spectrum of the open D string shown in Figure 1 and

the frequency spectrum of the natural second harmonics shown in Figure 3, one can see

which partials are eiiminated and which are present when the natural second harmonic is

performed. Figure 4 (page 14) shows a superposition in a graphic representation of both.

It is interesting to note that when the natural second harmonic is performed the amplitude

of the partials which are present in the waveform of both tones is different.
 c

13 c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
Figure 3. The waveform and the frequency spectrum of a natural second harmonic c
of a violonceilo open D string c
c
c
String Vibration and Its Partiais

Strings, as sound generators, are one of the best means to produce musical sounds.
c
It is not possible to understand the performance of harmonic tones without a discussion of ç.

how they are produced when a string vibrates.

E
In the violin family, the strings are stretched over a nut at one end and a bridge at E
the other. Campbell and Greated called the effective part of the string producing the note E
E
“speaking length”.
5 It is said that the string is open when the speaking length is from the E
E
nut to the bridge, i.e., no fingers of the left hand are used to stop the string at any point. In E
(
stopped strings, the speaking length of the string is from that point where it was shortened
(
by a finger to the bridge. The tones produced with stopped strings will be called
(
(
lbid., 192.
5 (
(
(

E
 14

60

50

40
o
30

20

10

o
1-150Hz. 2-300 3-450 4-600 5-750 6-900 7-1050 8-1200 9-1350 10-1500
Partial Numbers and Frequencies

Figure 4. Superposition in a graphic representation of the harmonic spectra of a

violonceilo open D string and a natural second harrnonic of the sarne
string up to its tenth partial

Note: The black columns represent the partiais (up to the tenth) of the open D string
and the gray columns represent the partiais left (up to the tenth of the open D
string) when the natural second harrnonic is performed. The frequency
nurnbers and the amplitude of each partial were obtained from the sarne
computer software used for the waveforms and the frequency analysis,
CSpeech. The numbers are approximations.

stopped notes in this study. The fixed ends of the string are called nodes. Partiais of an

open or stopped string are produced by different modes of vibration. Each mode of

vibration generates one different sound wave with its frequency, corresponding to a

partial of the harrnonic series. When a string is played, it vibrates with a superposition of

different modes of vibration.

6 The first mode of vibration has only two nodes, the nut and

lbjd., 193-194.
6
 15

bridge. In the other modes of vibration, the string is divided by other nodes which are the

ones used for the performance of harmonics, which 1 have called performance nodes.

Nodes are considered points of relative rest. The waves between two consecutive nodes

are called loops. The point of maximum amplitude of each loop of the string is called

antinode. Figure 5 (page 16) shows a graphic representation of some of the modes of

vibration present when a strings vibrates. To identify in this figure, the terms defined

above, one can say that the fourth mode of vibration, presented in Figure 5, has four loops

with three performance nodes (not counting the nut and bridge), and the sound heard will

be the fourth partial of the series. Each Ioop has its antinode at the point of its maximum

amplitude (see Figure 5 fourth mode of vibration).

When a harmonic tone is performed, players lightly touch one or more

performance nodes with the left-hand fingers instead of pressing them harder, which

would stop the string from that point to the bridge. The speaking length does not change;

however, the string vibrates with some of its possible modes of vibration and others are

damped out by this technique. Only the modes of vibration which have coincident nodes

at the specific nodal point touched are excited. Hence only the partiais corresponding to

the modes of vibration present will be part of the waveform of that specific harmonic

tone. In other words, a new harmonic series with another “fundamental” is formed. Figure

6 shows (page 17) the first four modes of vibration present when a natural second

harmonic or an artificial octave harmonic is performed. Some of the possible modes of

vibration and corresponding partials are absent because the nodal point touched is the
7 A new vibration
antinode point of one of the loops of the modes that are eliminated.

pattem is established and the lowest mode of vibration of the pattern of which a nodal

bid., 214.
]7
 16

point is being touched becomes a kind of “fundamental” since it will the pitch that is

heard. Figure 5 and Figure 6 may be compared with Figure 4 where the frequency spectra

of both, the operi D string and the natural second harrnonic of the sarne string are

presented.

nut or stopped point bridge

lst. mode lst. partial

2nd. mode 2nd. partial

3rd. mode 3rd. partial

4th. mode 4th. partial

4 loops, 4 antinodes and 3 performance nodes

Figure 5. The first four modes of vibration of an open or stopped string and their
corresponding partial numbers

Note: In the fourth mode, the numbers of loops, antinodes and performance nodes
are indicated.
 c
c
17 G
c
c
nut or stopped point bridge c
2nd. mode 2nd. partial C

4th. mode 4th partial C

c
c
c
c
6th. mode 6th. partial C
c
c
c
c
8th. mode zZ>(EZ><EZCEZz:ED)CED><CZD1 8th. partial C

Figure 6. The first four modes of vibration of a string and their corresponding partiais C
when a natural second harmonic or an artificial octave harmonic is performed
c
c
When a mode of vibration, other than the first and second, vibrates as the

“fundamental” (the lowest mode in a pattern) more than one node is available for

performance of harmonic tones on the sarne mode. Thus the sarne modes of vibration and

corresponding partiais caii be excited by touching any of these nodes. Numeric fractions

indicate the location of the nodal points on the string length and the mocle of vibration or

partial of which these nodes are part. The denominator of the fraction indicates the mode

of vibration or partial of the series. The nurnerator indicates each of its possible nodal

points. The location of nodal points are always calculated as the distance from the nut to

the bridge, e.g., the 1/4 node is the first node for the fourth mode of vibration or partial
E)
E)
E,
18

E)
E) which is located at one quarter of the string length away from the nut. First of ali,
E) fractions can be used to indicate the location where partiais of the harmonic series can be
E)
E) perforrned as stopped notes and at the sarne time as harmonic tones. 1 have called the
E)
E) nodal points located at these spots concert-pitch nodes. The harmonic tones performed at

these nodal points and lhe stopped notes located at the sarne spots have the sarne pitch.
E) The fractions that indicate the concert-pitch nodes are: the fundamental of the harmonic
E)
series or the first mode of vibration is 1/1; the second partial of the series is located at 1/2

of the string length which estabiishes the second mode of vibration; the third partial is

located at 2/3 of the string length establishing the third mode of vibration; the fourth is at

E) 3/4, and so on. These nodal points were named concert-pitch nodes as a distinction from
E)
-E) other nodes of the sarne mode of vibration where the sarne harmonic tone can be

perforrned. On nodal points other than the concert-pitch nodes, harmonic tones have

E) different pitches than stopped notes. Since hãrmonic tones or modes of vibration can be
E)
E) excited touching any of the nodes of a mode of vibration which has more than one node,
E) fractions are also used to indicate these other nodes. Figure 7 (page 19) shows one mode

E) of vibration and its corresponding partia! with the location of the nodal points indicated
E)
E) with fractions of the string length. In each mode of vibration, the closest nodal point to

the bridge is the concert-pitch nocle defined above. In the fourth mode of vibration
E) represented in Figure 7, it is the 3/4 node.
E)
E) As it was stated before, these modes of vibrations are not vibrating alone. It is not

possible to isolate only one mode of vibration or on!y one partia! (pure tone) on the
E) violoncelio strings. In spite of being re!ated to a fundamenta!, a harrnonic tone performed

) on string instruments becornes another “fundamental” since it is going to be the pitch

heard and a new series is forrned. The pitch heard is that of the lowest component since

lhe components are in harrnonic relationship.

 19

4th. mode nut bridge

or

4th partial 1/4 2/4 3/4

Concert-pitch node

c
Figure 7. The fourth mode of vibration of a string with the location of its nodes c
indicated with fractions of the string length c
c
c
According to the statement in early paragraphs, different modes of vibration have c
c
coincident nodes. Harmonic tones, like the fundamental of which they are a part, have c
c
component frequencies or partiais which are whole number multiples of them. This c
means that when a harmonic tone is performed, the partiais or modes of vibration which
c
sound with it have common nodes called coincident nodes. The coincident nodes are c
those on which one finds more than one node from different modes of vibration. The c
coincidence of nodal points is better seen by the fractions that indicate the location of
c
nodal points on the string. The coincident nodes are located at the nodal points of c
c
equivalent fractions of the string length, i.e., 1/2 = 2/4 = 3/6 and so forth.. This c
characteristic gives rise to a problem in the performance of harmonic tones. At a spot on c
the string with coincident nodes, the lowest mode of vibration, which has a nodal point at c
c
that spot, will always be predominant over the others and the harmonic tone produced c
c
(the pitch heard) will be always that of the lowest partial. As an example, the sixth partial c
or mode of vibration, which theoretically has 5 performance nodes, can be performed
c
c
only at the 1/6 and 5/6 nodes. The other three are coincident with lower modes: the 2/6 c
node is coincident with the 1/3 node of the third mode of vibration, the 3/6 is coincident c
c
(
(
(

(
c
 20

with the 1/2 of the second mode of vibration, and the 4/6 is coincident with the 2/3 of the

third mode.

Up to 110W, 1 have considered only the technique of touching one node at a time

for the performance of harmonic tones. With this technique, the nodal points which are

coincident to others of lower modes of vibration are lost as performance nodes. However,

it is still possible to recover these nodes and harmonic tones for performance. Instead of

one, two nodes from the sarne mode of vibration must be touched at the sarne time. This

technique, which 1 cail the double-node technique, is very useful and will be discussed in

detail later in this study.

Names and Musical Notation of lhe Different

Types of Harmonic Tones

Harmonic tones are classified into two basic types. The ones performed from open

strings are called natural harmonics. The ones performed from stopped strings or stopped

notes, also called artificial or movable nuts, are named artificial harmonics.

Natural Harmonics

The different types of natural harmonics are usually named according to their

position in the harmonic series or to the musical interval created by the mernbers of the

harmonic series. The second partial has one node located at 1/2 the string length and it is

called natural second harmonic or natural octave harmonic because it is one octave from

lhe fundamental. The third partial has two nodes located at the 1/3 and 2/3 the string

length and it is called natural third harmonic or natural fifth harrnonic (because the

musical interval of a fifth between the second and third partial of the series), it is one

octave and a fifth from the fundamental open string. The fourth partial has three nodes

located at 1/4, 2/4 and 3/4 the string length and it is called natural fourth harmonic, it is
 c
c
21
c
two octaves from the fundamental open string. The fifth partial has four nodes located at
c
c
1/5, 2/5, 3/5 and 4/5 the string length and is called natural fifth harmonic or the natural

major-third harmonic (because of the musical interval of a major third between the fourth C
and fifth partia! of the series), it is two octaves and a major third from the fundamental,
c
c
and so on. This nomenclature is sometimes confusing. As an example, when we say the

natural fifth harmonic, it could be understood as the third partial which has a perfect fifth C

as the musical interval between the second and third partial, or it could be understood as

the fifth partial of the series. The classification of harmonic tones with the musical

intervais between the members of the harmonic series generates another problem. In the C

music notation of the harmonic series, there is no distinction between the different thirds

or seconds or other musical intervais which are repeated in the series. There are different
c
seconds or thirds or other intervais in the harmonic series. Because of these problems, 1

think the best classification for natural harmonics is by the indication of its position in the (
series, i.e., natural second harmonic, natural third harmonic and so on. This is the
c
c
designation 1 will use in this study. c
Traditional musical notation cannot describe with precision ali pitches and C
different intervais of the harmonic series, nor can it describe all nodal points on the string
c
c
where harmonic tones can be played. The harmonic series has been the basis for the

development of musical tuning systems and musical composition structures or systems C

such as tonality. However, none of these tuning systems or notation systems which are c
used for different composition systems, offer enough elements to describe with precision

the pitches and intervais of the harmonic series. Different publications present the pitches C

of the harmonic series with different names. Two of these pitches which are the most C
controversial are the eleventh and thirteenth partiais. The eleventh partial of great C is

indicated as f or f-sharp’ and the thirteenth as a’ or a-flat’. As a matter of fact and

E:
c
c
 22

depending on the tuning system, these pitches are neither of the respective pitches. The

notation of these pitches and others of the harmonic series are an approximation of the

ones used according to a tuning system. In the equal temperament system, one can say
8 The notation for the
that these pitches are closer respectively to f-sharp’ and a-flaC.

harmonic series in this study gives the eleventh and thirteenth partials as f-sharp’ and a

flat’. These and other pitches of the harmonic series will be indicated in this paper

according to the ones presented in Table 1. As we have seen before, the intervais of the

harmonic series are also represented with their ratios. Musical notation does not

distinguish between the various kinds of intervais of the harmonic series. As an example,

the 8/7, 9/8, 10/9 and 11/10 are ali major seconds. If they have different ratios they are

therefore different musical intervais which are not represented within the musical

notation. These are only examples of the many different intervais and pitch classification

of the harmonic series which traditional musical notation cannot describe with precision.

The harmonic tones performed on string instruments are members of the harmonic

series and therefore have exactly its pitches and intervais. Some authors have tried to

establish a precise indication of pitches and intervais of the harmonic series with new

systems of signs for pitch notation. 1 have chosen not to include in this study any change

of the indication of pitches and intervais of the harmonic series, especially because the

majority of problems are with partiais which are not included in my selection of harmonic

tones suitable for performance on the violoncelio.

As mentioned before, natural harmonics are always related to the fundamental

open string and the written pitches (stopped notes) over which they found merely indicate

the location of nodal points. Some authors have also tried to indicate the exact location of

8
W ilford W. Berard, “The Eleventh and Thirteenth Partiais,” Joumal of Music
Theorv, vol. 1 (April, 1964), 98-99.
 23 C
c
nodal polnts for harmonic tone performance with other signs than those of the traditional c
c
musical notation. 1 have also chosen not to include these signs in this study, for two C

reasons. First, because the majority of the problems occur also for the notation of nodal C
points of partiais which were not selected as suitable for performance on the violoncelio.
c
Second, because the indication of the concert pitch as a cue in parentheses is in my

opinion sufficient as a performance direction for players to find the correct harmonic C
tones. These issues will be discussed again in later chapters.
c
c
Natural harmonics can be indicated with a small circie over the note or with the

note head in a diamond sbape. Composers sometimes do not indicate specific types of C
hannonic tones and strings on which a musical passage involving harmonic tones is to be
c
a
performed. In Musical Example 1, the composer Eduardo Bértola does not indicate how

the passage should be performed in terms of what type of harmonic tones should be used. C

In Musical Example 1 (page 24), the composer writes only the concert pitches. In Ç

this case, small circles over the pitch indicate harmonics tones. In some cases, publishers

and also composers do not make a distinction between the small circie to indicate C
c
harmonics and the regular zero to indicate open string. However, the correct harmonic C
tones indication is a smaller circie as compared to numeral zero. Since the pitches of the
c
c
open strings of the violoncelio can be played on another string as a natural harrnonic, this

type of harmonic notation does not present any problem if composers do not intend to C
indicate what kind or string a harmonic tone should be played. The only open-stnng pitch
c
that can be performed as a harmonic tone (an artificial type) is the A open string, with a

very difficult finger extension. For this kind of notation, the only thing that composers C
must know is the range of pitches which might be performed as harmonic tones on the c
violoncelio (see Appendix A). c
c
c
c
a

c
1’
 24

Notation problems begin wlien composers and editors want to indicate in musical

passages involving harmonic tones, what types, nodes and strings they should be

performed. The common practice for the notation of natural harrnonics is to use the small

circie for the natural harrnonic which can be located at the sarne places where they can be

performed as stopped notes, i.e., the harmonic series of each open string at their concert

pitch nodes (see Musical Example 2, page 25).

0
A o....o

II
H’—i__
mf
o o N
o 0
•10

(t’ . ‘‘
1 1 ‘1
&
o o
—ir—— . lo 1

r
—

1 ._
1 1 - - 1 1 1

JI o’iI oI

Musical Example 1. A Musical passage with harmonic tones without specification of

types

Eduardo Bértola, Um no outro para dois violoncellos (Brasflia: MusiMed,

-

1984), measures 7 1-80.

TIie note head with the diamond shape is used for other possible nodal points than

the concert-pitch nodes. In this case, the written pitches are different from the concert
 c
c
25 C
c
o c
I,& III c
c
c
c
a) A natural sixth harmonic to be perforrned at its concert-pitch node (5/6), c
indicated with the srnall circle and the string to be performed c
G
c
c
o
c
() II

c
c
b) A natural fourth harmonic, of sarne pitch as the previous example, to be
performed at its concert-pitch node (3/4), indicated with the small circie
and the string to be perforrned
c
c
Musical Example 2. Notation of natural harrnonics at concert-pitch nodes c
c
pitch. The note head with the diarnond shape is usually hollow, irrespective of its duration
c
or rhythrn. If the rhythrn of the note to be perforrned as a harrnonic tone is a quarter note, c
it will appear as a half note. There are also examples in the literature in which the
c
G
diarnond note head is written according to the correct duration of the notes, i.e., for c
rhythms figures faster than a half note, the note head in fihled or black as in the regular c
c
notation. The rhythrn problem of quarter notes is solved, however, the indication of c
harrnonic tones is clearer for the performers interpretation when the notes have a blanked
c
c
diamond shape note head. Both notations can be used. Another solution is to indicate the
c
correct rhythrn with the cue that indicate the concert pitches. Musical Example 3 (page c
26) iliustrates what was presented in this paragraph.
c
c
It is a good procedure, especially in the case of natural harmonics, to indicate at c
the side of or under tbe written note, the number of the string where it should be played. c
c
(

c
c
c
 26

(p o)

1o ll1

a) A natural sixth harmonic to be performed at a node other than its

concert pitch one (1/6), indicated by a blanked diamond shape note head, a
string number, and the expected concert pitch between a parentheses on
another staff above the harmonic tone

(irr ri)
J
17
): ci 1
ifi

b) The natural sixth harmonic (1/6) with a blanked diamond shape note
head, the string number, the concert pitches, and the duration of the notes
indicated between parentheses on another staff placed above the harmonic
tone

(I r r r ‘

e) The sarne example presented above with the diamond note head of the
quarter notes filled

Musical Example 3. Notation of natural harrnonics at nodes other than their concert
pitch nodes
 G
c
27 C

The most common practice is to indicate the string with its name or the roman numeral,
c
i.e., 1 for A string, II for D string, ifi for G string and IV for C string. The string indication

is important not only to establish a clear indication of pitch but also in terrns of tone G
quality, once some natural harmonics of similar pitch can be played on different strings as
c
c
different partials and therefore with a different sound quality (see Musical Example 3,

page 26). It is yet clearer, with regard to pitch and indication of duration, when the C
concert pitch is also written as a cue between a parentheses with the correct rhythm, for
c
c
both natural or artificial. The concert pitch can be indicated in different ways, on the sarne

staff or on staff placed above the harrnonic tones (see Musical example 3, page 26). C
c
Natural double harmonics (which are performed touching two nodes of different C
strings simultaneously) must also be distinguished from the notation of the natural
c
harmonics performed with the double-node technique (in which two nodal points of the

sarne string are touched simultaneously) by the string or strings indication. Diamond note C
heads should be used for both notes involved and the concert pitch or pitches between
c
c
parentbeses as welI (see Musical Example 4, page 28).

Other notation aspects of natural harmonics will be presented in later chapters. C

Artificial Harmonics
Artificial harmonics are named according to the intervais between the written

notes involved in each type. Two notes are written. The lower one indicates the stopped

note or artificial nut (the fundamental) and the higher one the location of the nodal point

to be lightly touched. An octave interval between the written notes indicates tbe second

partial of the sedes or a concert pitch that is one octave from the stopped fundamental

pitch and is called artificial octave harrnonic; a fifth interval between written notes

indicated the third partial of the series or a concert pitch that is one octave and a fifth

from the stopped fundamental and it is called artificial fifth harmonic; a fourth interval
 28

)
9 oU!
Q IV

a) A natural double harmonic with the diamond shape note head, the
indication of strings and the expected concert pitch between a parentheses.

(i 1)
9: gIV

b) Double-node technique for the performance of the natural sixth

harmonic

Musical Example 4. Notation of natural double harmonics and natural harmonics with
the double-node technique

between the written notes indicates the fourth partial of the series or a concert pitch that is

two octaves from the stopped fundamental and it is named artificial fourth harmonic, a

major-third interval between the written notes indicated the flfth partial of the series or a

concert pitch that is two octaves and a major third from the stopped or fundamental note

and it is named the artificial major-third harmonic; and so on. All the artificial harmonics

suitable for performance on the violoncello will be discussed later in this study.

The notation of artificial harmonics is written in tablature. As seen above, two

notes are included. A stopped note is written with the regular notation, which indicates

the fundamental; a second note, is written with the diamond-shaped note head, which
 c
(,-

29 C
c
indicates the nodal point. The diamond-shaped note head is always a hollow head and the
c
c
duration or rhythm is indicated by the stopped note. As in the natural harmonics, the

procedure suggested for indicating strings and the resultant concert pitch is the best way C
to assure that perforiners will understand the composer’s directions (see Musical Example
c
c
5, page 30). c
The discussion presented above covers most of the problems related to harmonic C
c
notation. Other symbols necessary for specific problems will be given in the chapters as c
they are presented. c
c
c
c
c
c
c
e
c
c
c

c
c

L
c
c
c
c
c
E
c
E

E
 30

+TT
(LL(4)

a) An artificial fourth harrnonic with the indication of strings and the

concert pitch between parentheses on the sarne staff

(i 1)
9: 0
III

b) An artificial fourth harmonic with the indication of the string and the
concert pitch on another staff

(Ft 1)

I9 4)

c) An artificial double harmonic with the indication of strings and the

concert pitches on another staff

Musical Example 5. Notation of artificial harmonics

 31 C

c
Ç
c
CHAPTER II C
A SURVEY OF THE PERFORMANCE OF HARMONIC TONES ON THE
c
VIOLONCELLO AS MANIFESTED IN ITS EARLY REPERTORY AND IN FOUR OF C

ITS MOST IMPORTANT TREATISES C

c
The peormance of haonic tones 011 the string instniments antedating the violin
family is difficult to trace clue to the lack of written sources. One may speculate 011 the C
basis of pictorial and other sources. The design of some instruments suggests that
c
c
harmonic tones could have been employed.
9 One piece of evidence of the employment of
harmonic tones in early string instruments is presented in the 1
Ch’in, a Chinese
°
c
instrument in existence for over three thousand years. Ç
In the case of bowed string instruments, which were developed only in the Middle
Ages, ari instrument which made extensive use of harmonic tones was the trumpet marine C
c
or tromba marina (see Figure 8). The tromba marina was developed late in the Middle C
Ages and was contemporary with the violin family in the 1 6th, 1 7th and 1 8th centuries. It

had only one string and was based only on the production of harmonic tones. Other

characteristics of this instrument include: the absence of a fingerboard; the use of the bow C
dose to the nut instead of the bridge as in the violin family; the use of partiais located
c
only on the nut-half side of the string (because the manner of holding the instrument did

(
(
Green Burdette Lamar, The Harmonic Series from Mersenne to Rameau: An
9
Historical Study of Circumstances Leading to lis Recognition and Application to Music
(Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1969), 29.

‘°Ibid., 49.
 32

Figure 8. Tromba Marina as seen in the Gabinetto Arinonico by Filippo Bonanni

Filippo Bonanni, Antigue Musical Instruments and Their Playr, (Rome,

1723), new ed. of 152 plates from Filippo Bonanni’s “Gabinetto Armonico”
with an introduction and captions by Frank LI. Harrison and Joan Rinimer
(New York: Dover Publications, mc., 1964), plate 62.
 c
c
E
33 E
E
not allow the hand to reach the bridge-half side of the string); the use of only the thumb
c
ç
of the left-hand; the use of harmonic tones ranging from the fifth to the thirteenth partial

of the series (see Figure 8). The tromba marina had a very important role in the C
development of the harmonic tones as a performance device and in the discovery and
c
c
understanding of the harmonic series.
11
Another family of instrument in which harmonic tones have always being of E
crucial importance, are the brass instruments. The tromba marina and most brass
c
E
instruments were contemporary to the early development of the violin family. Because

these instruments coexisted with the development of the violin, one could expect that

harmonic tones were used in the violin family with more frequency. However that was E
not the case since few examples of the employment of harmonic tones in the early violin c
family literature are found. Possibly because harmonic tones are weaker than stopped

notes, they became an obsolete technique. In the violin family, it was not until the first E
E
half of the l9th century and especially in the music of the 2Oth century that this special
c
device started to be used to its fullest.

Possibly the tromba marina and the brass instruments influenced some E
composers to experiment with harmonic tones in the violin family. If that is the case, this

is one more characteristic of the tromba marina which is recogrnzed as influential in the E

development of violonceilo technique. The other one is that performers of this instrument E

use the Ieft-hand thumb to play its harmonic tones (see Figure 8). The thumb technique

used in violoncelio playing is recognized as adopted from the tromba marina.

12
E

llJbjj, 75.
12 James Robert Hladky, Twelve Etudes in Thumb Position for Solo Violonceilo
with a Short Historv of the Development of the Thumb Technigue (Doctor of
Musical Arts theses, University of Rochester, 1959), 13.
 34

The majority of the violoncelio repertory of the Baroque period, where the

violonceilo developed as a solo instrument, does not present written instructions for the

employment of harmonic tones. On the other hand, one can say that possibly

violoncellists used harmonic tones to locate positions and even to facilitate fingering,

especially the natural second harmonic. Some modern editions of Johann Sebastian

Bach’s Suites for unaccompanied violoncelio have plenty of natural second harmonics.

This is an overuse of a device that nobody can prove was part of the technique of

violoncellists in the first half of the 1 8th century.

Before the late l9th century, composers who wrote works for violonceilo, did not

use harmonic tones presumably because of their weakness when compared to stopped

notes, also, because they present intonation problems since they are members of the

harmonic series and have their pitches fixed. Leopold Mozart states in his 1756 violin

treatise that when harmonic notes are used “there ensues a really laughable kind of

music,” and that ‘one must prick one’s ears to hear it.” He also states that those who want

to play harmonics should write their own music and “not to mix them with the natural

3 There are no written musical passages involving harmonic tones in the

violin-tone.”

violonceilo works of the most eminent composers of the 1 8th and 1 9th centuries such as

Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven or Johannes

Brahms. In spite of having been avoided by such composers, violoncellist composers such

as Salvatore Lanzetti, Jean Louis Duport, Bernhard Romberg or Adrien François Servais

wrote musical passages involving harmonic tones in their works.

Leopolci Mozart, A Treatise on the Fundamental Principies of Violin Playing

13
(Salzburg, 1756), 2nd. ed., trans. by Edith Knocker (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1951), 101.
 c
c
c
35 C
c
It is very difficult to establish when harmonic tones started to be used in the violin
c
c
family, specificaily in the violoncelio. It is not the purpose of this study to do a complete

survey of ali vioioncello repertory which has musical passages involving harmonics. C
However, it will be interesting to establish when harmonic tones began to be used in the c
violonceilo repertory.

Early use of Harrnonic Tones in the Violoncelio Reyertory

One of the earliest examples, possibiy the first, of the use of harmonic tones in
written works for the violin famiiy, and especiaiiy for the violonceilo, is the Les sons

Hannonigues sonatas for violin and basso continuo by a French composer called Jean

Joseph Cassanéa de Mondonvilie (1711-1772). 14 The sonatas were composed ca.

1738.15 In the preface of the original edition of these sonatas, Mondonville presents a

chart for the violin natural harmonics. Mondonvilie states in the preface that he

discovered the possibilities of harmonic tones for the violin studying the harmonic series

of brass instruments.’
6 He wrote harmonic tones not only for the violin in this set of six

sonatas, but also for the violonceilo in the continuo part. He uses a wavy une, like a

mordent sign, to indicate harmonics in both parts, violin and violonceilo (see Musical

Example 6).
c
In the introductory performance notes to the reprint of these sonatas, Gabriel

Banat discuss Mondonville’s notation for harmonic tones, which is not aiways consistent.

14 Cassanéa de Mondovi1ie Les sons Harmonigues Sonates a

Jean-Joseph
c
-

Violon Seu! avec la Basse Continue Oeuvre 4’ (Paris, 1735), new edition in Masters of
c
-

the Violin, edited by Gabriel Banat, vol. 5, with an introduction by Edith Borroff and c
Performance notes by Gabriel Banat (New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1982).
15 Bons Schwarz, Violin Repertorv, Chapter ifi of The Violin Family, ed. by C
Stanley Sadie (London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1989), 113.

Mondovjlle, preface.
16
c

c
c
 36

In the example presented above, the violin part has the harmonic tones’ signs noted in

octaves. It means that the upper note is the concert pitch. In other passages, Mondonvilie

does not use this procedure. In the violonceilo part. the harmonic tones used are only the

natural second on G, D, and A strings. Banat also asserts that Mondonville’s purpose in

writing harmonic tones was more to facilitate the technique of playing wide intervais than

the use of different tone colors. 17

ft1j fi *1

Musical Example 6. Mondonville’s Les sons Harmoniques sonatas

Note: The tarmonic symbols are over a d’ and an a’ in the violonceilo part and a d’
and a in the violin part. The upper notes in the violin part are the sounding
pitches to be heard. Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondovilie, “Sonata No. 1”,
Les sons Harmonigues- Sonates a Violon Seul avec la Basse Continue -

Oeuvre 4b (Paris, €735))\new edition in Masters of the Violin, edited by

Gabriel Banat, vol. 5-withan introduction by Edith Borroff and Performance
notes by Gabriel Banat (New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1982),
measures 26-27 of the violin and violonceilo part of the second movement.

There are other examples of early use of harmonic tones in the violoncelio

repertory. Elizabeth Cowling, in her Ph.D. dissertation The Italian Sonata Literature for

Gabriel Banat, Performance notes for his edition of Sonatas for the Violin by
17
Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondoville(New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1982).
 c
c
37 C
c
the Violoncelio in the Barogue Period presents two examples from composers who
,
c
wrote musical passages involving harmonic tones. One of the sonatas has its authorship

attributed to different composers. The manuscript indicates a composer named Signor C

Martino, who can be associated to different composers of the Baroque period. According
c
c
to Cowling, it can be seven or more different authors.
18 The manuscript consists of a set

of five sonatas composed ca. 1745.19 Two movements of one of the sonatas present C
c
harmonic tones. The composer uses some of the natural harmonic up to the eighth partial

of the series.
°
2

The second composer in the violonceilo Italian sonata literature to use harmonic

tones in his works, according to Cowling’s study, is Salvatore Lanzetti (ca. 1710-ca.

1780.). He wrote many sonatas and some of them were reprinted in bis lifetime. The

exact number of sonatas is not established. Harmonic tones were used in his Op. 5, a set
of six sonatas, and are employed in some movements of these sonatas. Cowling does not

give the date of the publication of this set. However, they probably date from between

1736, the date of his op. 1, and 1760, the date of his op. VI.

Cowling also states Lanzetti sonatas and that by Martino are the only ones found

in her study of the sonatas for violonceilo in Italian Baroque Period, which present

harmonic tones.
’
2

Other examples of the employment of harmonic tones in the 1 8th century were

found in French music. Gertrude Jean Shaw presents a few examples in her Ph.D.
c
Elizabeth Cowling, The Italian Sonata Literature for the Violonceilo in the
18
Barogue Perjod (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestem University, 1967), 204-205.

l‘
9
bid., 199-200.

Pjd 212-2 15.

20

Jbjd., 253-257.
21
 38

dissertation, The Violoncelio Sonata Literature in France During the Eighteen Century.

Jean Louis Duport, Jean Pierre Duport, Alexander Canavas and a composer called

Patouart, are the ones she presents and quotes passages from their sonatas which

employed natural harmonics.

22

In regard to the concerto literature for the violonceilo, Kathryn W. Reiswig gives

some examples in her study of the violonceilo concertos of the 1 8th and early l9th

centuries. She states that harmonic tones were used occasionally. Examples are found in

concertos written by Alexander Uber, Bernhard Romberg, Joseph Haydn, M. Graff and

Fiala (the complete name of the last two composers are not given). 23

Possibly, other examples of the use of harmonic tones in the 1 8th century can be

found. Nevertheless, the examples presented above are an exception in the Baroque, Pre

classical and Classical periods. We cannot say, based such few examples, that there was a

standard practice of the use of harmonic tones in these periods. These compositions or

musical passages involving harmonics tones were probably experiments which were not

frequently repeated by the sarne composers. As an example, Cowling found 36 Lanzetti

sonatas available for her study and only in a few movements of Op. 5 did he write

passages involving harrnonic tones and this set of sonatas was never reprinted.
24
As seen before, the use of harmonic tones in the second half of the 1 8th century is

not very different from that in the Baroque period. Despite the increase of treatises on

Gertrude Jean Shaw, The Violonceilo Sonata Literature in France Duringih

22
Eighteenth Century (Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1963).

Kathryn W. Reiswig, Performance Aspects of Selected Violoncelio Concerti

23
from the Period 1700’1820 (D.M.A. dissertation, University ofMissouri, 1985), 170-
173.

Cowling, The Italian Sonata Literature for the Violoncelio in the Barogue
24
Period, 260.
 c
c
39

violoncelio playing in this part of the century, the discussion of harmonic tones is almost

never present. One would expect to find a section or at least a reference to harmonic tone
c
c
performance in Salvatore Lazetti’s treatise, since he used them in two of his sonatas.

However, Lanzetti does not mention harmonic tones in bis treatise.

25 This fact C
G
emphasizes the composers indifference and the experimental character of the use of
c
harmonic tones in the 1 8th century.

In the l9th century harmonic tones started to have more importance. It is in the
G
virtuoso repertory, such as capriccios, etudes and character pieces, most of them C
composed by violoncellists, that we find the use of harmonic tones. Paganini developed

the technique of harmonic tone performance for the violin. He used many types of C
artificial harmonics and their combinations to produce double artificial harmonics. C
Violoncellists such as Adrien François Servais and Friedrich Grützmacher used harmonic

tones in many of their works. Only at the very end of the l9th century and the beginning

of the 2Oth century that eminent composers started to use harmonic tones in a more C
consistent musical manner. The impressionistic music of Claude Debussy and other
c
c
composers present many musica] passages involving harmonic tones. The tone color of

each note becomes quite important from this period on. Tone color has become part of the C
musical structure as a musical sound parameter almost as important as pitch or rhythm.
c
c
c
Salvatore Lanzetti, Principles or the Technigue of the violoncelio in ali Keys in
25
the Easiest Manner (Amsterdam: 3. 3. Humme], 1736), facsimile in “The Theoretical and
Practical Method for Celio by Michel Corrette: Transiation, Commentary and
Comparison with Seven Other Eighteenth-Centurv Methods,” by Charles Douglas Graves
(Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State Uriiversity, 1972). Graves and other works give the
date of publication as 1736. However, Kiaus Marx, The Evolution of the Violonceilo and
its Playing Technique to 3. L. Duport (1520-1820) 206, an unpublished transiation by
Gordon James Kinney (Microfilm 2494, The University of Carolina at Greensboro,
1979), states that this is impossible because the publisher did not exist until 1756. 1736 is
the date of the publication of his Op. 1, a set of sonatas. According to Marx the possible
date is between ca. 1756-1767.
 40

An example of the importance given to tone color or timbre of each note can be seen in

Schoenberg’s use of Klangfarbenmelodie or tone-color melody. In the total seriaiism, not

only the pitches are serialized but also other parameters such as duration or timbres. With

the advent of these compositional techniques, the use of harmonic tones in string

instruments has increased in ali types of 2Oth-century music. It is not used anymore with

a virtuosic purpose or only as a device to facilitate technical problems related to position

change or to expand the range of the instrument as in the preceding centuries. Any

performer that wants to specialize in 2Oth-century music or even be a complete

professional string player needs to understand and to be able to perform harmonic tones

to their fuliest potential.

Review of Four of the Most Important Treatises for

Violoncelio Regarding the Performance of Harmonic Tones

Violonceilo treatises and methods of eariy centuries follow the general tendencies

and purposes stated above with regard to the violoncelio repertory. However, vioionceilo

repertory of the 1 8th century, in regard to harmonic tones techniques, was ahead of the

written instruction of violonceilo piaying. Most of l8th-century tutors and treatises do not

have a section dedicated to harmonic tones, while the violonceilo repertory gives

evidence of use of harmonic tones, although it was not very much explored.

A complete Iist of ali methods and treatises for violoncelio ever published is not

available. Here 1 will review only those which give special attention to harmonic tones.

The ones 1 selected to review in this study are presented in other works which discuss the

development of violoncelio piaying or historical performance practices. The foliowing

works were available for this study and are rated among the most important violoncelio

methods and treatises ever published. They are: Michel Corrette, Méthode, théorigue et

practice pour apprendre en peu de tems le violonceile dans sa perfection (Paris, 1741);
 41 C
c
Jean Louis Duport, Essai sur le doigté du violonceile et sur la conduite de l’archet, dédié
c
aux Professeurs de Violoncelie (Paris, ca. 1806-18 19);26 Justus Friedrich Dotzauer,

Violoncell-Flageolett-Schuie, op. 147 (Leipzig, 1 837);27 Diran Alexanian, Theoretical C

and Practical Treatise of the Celio (Paris, 1922).
C
Corrette’s is considered the earliest pubiished violoncelio treatise. Jean Louis

Duport’s has been considered the most comprehensive treatise published up to his time

and a summary of everything which was achieved during the 1 8th century. It has also C
influenced ali l9th-century violoncelio schools. It has been studied and quoted in many c
c
books and dissertations which study the deveiopment of violoncelio playing and

performance practices of early periods. Klaus Marx states that [Duport) is on one hand a C
sumrnarization of the previous development, and on the other, however, there is included c
c
in it the potential for ali the further development of violoncelio technique”.
28 Dotzauer is
considered one of the greatest violonceilo pedagogues of ali times with many didactic (.
c
pubiications. He was one of the founders of the so called “Dresden Schooi”.
29 His Op. c
147 was selected especially because it is possibly the only publication dedicated almost

exclusively to the performance of the violoncelio harmonics. Alexanian’s treatise has C

The date of publication is given according to Klaus Marx, The Evolution of the
26
Violonceiio and its Playing Technigue to J. L. Duport (1520-1820) (Regensburg: Gustav
Bosse Verlag, 1963), 205, unpublished transiation by Gordon James Kinney, microfilm
2494, The University of Carolina at Greensboro, 1979.

The date of the first publication is given according to Lev Gisburg, History of
27
the Violoncelio, trans. by Tanya Tchistyakova and ed. by Herbert R. Axelrod (Neptune
City: Paganiniana Publications, mc., 1983), 58. The date is also given as 1836 in Joan
Marie Mack, The Transition Period in Violonceilo Pedagogy as Manifested in
Violonceilo Methods from 1830 to 1910 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester,
1961), 233.
c
Marx, 04.
28 C
Lev Gisburg, History of the Violoncelio, trans. by Tanya Tchistyakova and ed.
29
by Herbert R. Axelrod (Neptune City: Paganiniana Publications, mc., 1983), 56-69.
 42

been considered one of the most important treatises published in the 2Oth century. Its

importance may be seen in the preface written by Pablo Casais, who states that since

Duport’s treatise, written instruction for violoncelio have stagnated and that “Instrumental

music has gone through an evoiution that the violonceilo “Methods” alone have refused

to foliow.” He also asserts that Alexanian’s is first of ali a “Dictionary of our

technique” 30

Of the works 1 have read, Alexanian’s and Dotzauer’s are the most complete

accounts with regard to violoncelio harmonic performance. There are many methods

pubiished in the l9th century, after Duport’s, contemporaries of Dotzauer’s, and before

Alexanian’s but they do not go beyond what Dotzauer and later Alexanian presented.

Evidence of this statement can be seen in the dissertation The Transition Period in

Violonceilo Pedagogy As Manifested in the Violonceilo Methods from 1830 to 1910 by

Joan Marie Mack. It aiso can be seen by the dates established for her study, that Duport ‘s

and Alexanian’s were excluded. She presents, in her description and comments of each

treatise or method, entries on harmonic tones with some observations. Marck’s comments

give evidence that treatises other than Dotzauer’s did not go beyond what he established

as the potential of harmonic tone perfom-iance on the violoncelio. Treatises and methods

published after Alexanian’s, such as: Hugo Becker (Vienna, 1929); Maurice Eisenberg

(London, 1957); Louis Potter (Evanston, 1964); Paul Tortelier (London, 1975); William

Pleeth (London, 1982); add nothing new to what Alexanian established.

The review of these treatises, in regard to harmonic tone techniques, will show

what needs to be reformuiated and completed with the contemporary techniques and

approaches to the performance of the violoncelio harmonics.

Diran Alexanian, Theoretical and Practical Treatise of the Violoncelio, trans. by

30
Frederick Fairbanks (Paris: Editions Salabert, 1922), 3-4.
 o
c
o
o
o
Michel Corrette’s Violonceilo Method O
G
The first publication which can be considered a comprehensive violoncelio
O
method is Michel Corrett&s Méthode, thorigue et practice pour apprendre en
peu de
tems le violoncelie dans sa perfection (Paris, 1741). Some manuscripts have
been found
which may have preceded Corrette’s, however, they do not have dates and presen
t very O
short text with more practical exercises and pieces. O
31 The copies available of Corrett&s
o
treatise for this study were a reprint of the original edition and an English transia
tion by
Charies Douglas Graves which was a portion of his Ph.D. dissertation on Corret
te’s O
treatise. Corrette’s treatise does not present any comment on the perform
32
ance of
c
o
harmonic tones. Corrette refers to harmonics when discussrng the sound quality
of the o
violoncelio stopped notes as compared to the bass violin and the viola da gamba O
. He
points out that the violoncelio is more powerful and its sound carnes further. He c
suggests o
for players to try to listen to harmonics (as components of a sound) which can
be heard
when one strikes a open stning of the 3 vioion3 cello.

Jean Louis Duport’s Essay

As stated before one of the most important treatises on violonceilo playing of ali
time is Jean Louis DuporCs Essai sur le doigté du violonceile et sur la condui
te de l’archet

31
Eiizab eth Cowiing, The Celio (New York: Charles Scriber’s Sons, 1975), 73-
74. c
c
Charles Douglas Graves, The Theoretical and Practicai Method for Celio by
32
Michel Corrette: Transiation, Commentarv. and Comparison with Seven Other
Eighteenth Century Ceilo Methods (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State Univer
sity, 1971).
Michel Coifete, Méthode, théorigue et practice pour apprendre en peu de tems
33
le violonceile dans sa perfection (Paris, 1741), trans. by Charies Douglas Graves,
facsimile in “The Theoretical and Practical Method for Celio by Michel Corrette:
Transiation, Commentary and Comparison with Seven Other Eighteenth Centur Celio
v
Methods,” by Chanles Douglas Graves (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University,
1972), 3-4..
 44

(Paris, ca. 1806-1819). The copies available for this study were the original edition and an

English translation by John Bishop in the late l9th century.

Duport presents an entire chapter dedicated to the performance of harmonic

tones. He divides the string into two halves to present the natural harmonics in each

separated part. He also asserts that the sarne harmonic tones are possible 011 both sides of

the string. Two diagrams of the string demonstrate the location or nodal points for the

natural harmonics in each division. The diagrams are called first division of the string,

from the center of the string to the bridge, and second division of the string, from the nut

to the center. The diagram for the first division presents the natural second harmonic, the

third at its 2/3 node, the fourth at its 3/4 node, the fifth at its 4/5 node, the sixth at its 5/6

node and the eighth at its 7/8 node. The fifth at its 3/5, the eighth at its 5/8 and ali the

seventh at its 4/7, 5/7, and 6/7 are omitted on this diagram. At the side of the mark for the

node on the string diagram, he gives the musical interval from the open string to the nodal

point. After the diagram, the written nodes indicating the iocation of the nodal points for

each natural harmonic are presented. Duport uses the following signs in his essay: The

letter (a) for open strings, a circie (O) for thumb, and a kind of circumflex accent (A)
to

indicate harmonic tones, (see Musical Example 6). Ali natural harmonics of the first

division of the string, in Duport’s diagram, are concert-pitches nodes. He also explains the

performance technique to play harmonic tones, i.e., touching instead of stopping the

string. Another example demonstrates how natural harmonics of the first division can be

used in the arpeggiation of a major chord in two octaves on ali four strings, having the

open string as the root and adding three stopped notes ( see musical Example 7).

The second division of the string is presented in another diagrarn. It contains the

location of the natural harmonics in the neck positions which are the same ones of the
 45

A
A 1 -e-
A

Tonique

0
EL •

e
8 V ii
a-vide. tierce. quinto. 12 i5’ 17 19 22

G
c
Musical Example 7. Duport’s indication of natural harrnonics as related to the
arpeggiation of a major chord

c
Jean Louis Duport, Essai sur le dolgté du violoncelie et sur la conduite de
lárchet (Paris: Imbaut, ca. 1806), 45. c
c
first division. The fifth at its 2/5 node, the seventh at its 1/7, 2/7 and 3/7 nodes, and the c
c
eighth at its 3/8 node are omitted in this diagram. In the example of the notation for those
c
harmonic tones, he gives also the concert pitches 011 another staff. He emphasizes that

fingers should be nearly flat when performing a harmonic tone and touch the strings near

the bend of the first joint. An important observation with regard to location of harmonic c
c
tones in the neck positions is that some of the written notes do not give the exact position c
of the nodal points. To perform the natural sixth harrnonic at its 1/6 node and the eighth
c
at its 1/8 node on the A string, the corresponding written notes are in a rather higher c
c
location, although the written notes should not be changed. After the presentation of these c
two string divisions, Duport gives a separated example for ali possible nodes for the
c
c
natural fifth harmonic, i.e., c-sharp” on the A string 011 four different nodes. Two of these c
c
nodes, i.e., the 2/5 and 3/5, are not included in the diagrams. c
c
After the presentation of the natural harmonics, Duport shows those iocated in the c
third position of the neck. Here, he includes one node for the natural fifth harmonic which
c
was left out of the diagram and discussed separately. He asserts that it is in the third c
c
c
c
c
c
1
 46

position that one finds the most useful natural harrnonics of the neck positions. According

to him, at the third position they come out easily and it is also possible to combine them

with the artificial harmonics. Before explaining the artificial harmonics, he gives

examples to demonstrate the potential of natural harmonics at the third position,

emphasizing the possibility of playing almost a complete scale. The scale is G major scale

with the exception of three notes, g”, c”, f-sharp’.

The artificial harmonics are proposed as a complement to rnake possible the

performance of a scale of harmonic tones. Duport called them artificial harmonics due the

characteristic of the moveable nut made by the nut finger. His only example of an

artificial harmonic is a transposition of the natural fourth harmonic at its 1/4 node to a

stopped string i.e., instead of an open string, the first finger stops a string and works as
,

an artificial nut and another finger touches a node a fourth from the first finger. Jn the

notation to indicate this artificial harmonic, the note head of the stopped note or artificial

nut is fjlled and the note head of the one that indicates the nodal point to be touched is left

blank with Duport’s harmonic sign (A) over it and with the concert pitch indicated 011

another staff (see Musical Example 8). The notation for this artificial harmonic in

Duport’s treatise is not consistent. In an example involving artificial fourth harmonics

(the only type of artificial harmonic presented in the treatise), both notes have the sarne

kind of note head. The only way to distinguish them from a regular double stop is by his

harmonic sign (A) placed over the upper notes.

Following the presentation of artificial harrnonics, he presents the three notes to

be performed as artificial harmonics in order to complete the G major scale played as

natural harmonics at the third position. According to him, in the performance technique

for artificial harmonics, the first and fourth finger should be used. He emphasizes that the

extension of the fourth finger should be used only for the performance of the artificial
 47

Doigt + doigt Ieg-ement.

Son HarmoniqLle

tJIdoigt.aPPUY..

Effet l’Oreille.

c
Musical Example 8. Duport’s demonstration of an artificial harmonic

Jean Louis Duport. Essai sur le doigté du violoncelie et sur la conduite de

lárchet (Paris: Imbaut, ca. 1806), 50.
c
c
c
harmonics. Another important observation is that artificial harmonics have flexible C
intonation and the intonation of natural harmonics cannot be changed. Other possible

notes to be perfonned as artificial fourth harmonics in the third position are also given. C

They are suggested as a technique to make it possible to play other scales than the G C
major, i.e., A major, D major and C major. The last musical example is a passage from a

piece which is not completely identified by a composer named “Barthelemont”. The

passage is on natural harmonics in the third position. In his last remarks, he states that it C
c
is possible to play the violonceilo without any use of harmonic tones, and from his era

they were more rarely used than in former days.

Duport’s view of harmonic tones is clearly directed to the possibility of using them E
E
in the compositional system of his time, i.e., natural harmonics to play arpeggios of a c
major chord and artificial ones as resource to be able to perform tonal scales which are

not possible only with the natural harmonics. Two nodes of the natural fifth hannonics C

are omitted from the diagram and presented separated. Possibly, he presents them c

c
E
E
c
 48

separated because they do not fit in the arpeggio of the major chord in its root position. In

this chapter he does not present a theory to expiam the existence of harmonic tones and

why they can be performed on string instruments. However, his essay includes a chapter

34 discussing partiais and string vibration to

cailed “Of Vibration and their Coalition”

relate sound quality to sympathetic resonance. He completely omits the natural seventh

harmonic and two nodes of lhe natural eighth harmonic and does not discuss why they are

omitted and why he stopped his selection at lhe eighth partial of the series. The only type

of artificial harmonic presented is lhe artificial fourth. Duport uses different signs from

lhe ones used today for the notation of harmonic tones, thumb and open string. The

English transiation of the late l9th century changed some of his signs: a zero is used for

open strings and harmonic tones and lhe thumb is indicated with the modern notation,

which were already in use in the middle of the l9th century. It is interesting that in his

last remarks, he states that harmonic tones are not favored in his time as they were before.

This observation is strange since we have seen an increase, even though not much, of use

of harmonic tones in the violoncelio repertory composed by violonceliists in the Classical

period as compared to the Baroque period.

Justus Johann Friedrich Dotzauer’s

Method of Piaying Harmonics

The copy of Dotzauer’s method available for this study was a modern edition

published circa l955. The editor, Walter Schulz, does not present a preface to expiam

his work with this modern edition of Dotzaure’s “Method of Playing Harmonics.”

Jean-Louis Duport, Essay on Fingering the Violoncelio, and on the Conduct of

34
the Bow, trans. by John Bishop (London: Robert Cocks & C°, ca. 1885), page?.
35 The card cataiog from the University of Tennesse-Knovxville, where 1 found
this publication, gives the date of publication as circa 1955.
 G

49

Considering the modern date of publication presented above, one would expect that the C
G
notation used would be the modem one. Since that is not the case, as 1 will demonstrate
c
below, 1 am assuming that Walter Schultz did not add or change anything in his edition.

Dotzauer’s Violoncell-Flageolett-Schule occupies a singular place in the history of C

the performance of violonceilo harmonics. It is possibly the only publication dedicated
c
c
almost exclusively to the study of this device. Besides the harmonic tones, the only other

topic included (only two pages) deals with left-hand pizzicato. The Germans called C

harmonic Fiageolet-tõne. The name may be a reference to the sound quality of C

harmonics being compared to an old flute called flageolet which is similar to the recorder.

In the introduction of the method, Dotzauer explains some of the characteristic C

c
qualities of harrnonic tones and string vibration when harmonic tones are performed. He C
stresses that the study of harmonic tones is important not only because it is a special

effect found in the violoncelio repertory but also because it helps in the development of

good intonation. He also states that in contrast to stopped notes, in which minimal C
variations of a finger position changes the pitch of a note, when harmonic tones are
c
played small variations of the position of a finger do not change the pitch. However, he

asserts that the precision of placing the finger in the center of a node to produce a C
harmonic tone is very important for the clarity and quality of harmonic tones. He states
c
c
that this precision for the performance of harmonic tones has the sarne effect in sound

quality as it has for intonation of stopped notes. Special advantage in playing harmonic C

tones, according to Dotzauer, is the possibility of playing the highest notes of the C
violonceilo range in lower positions. He concludes the introduction by demonstrating the

quality of harmonic tones as compared with open and stopped strings.

The first chapter is dedicated to natural harmonics. Dotzauer divides the harrnonic C
tones into natural, artificial and unnatural harmonics. He uses the word “unnatural” in the
c
c
C

c
 50

beginning of this chapter but does not make other references to this term. 1 believe he

uses the term unnatural to refer to harmonic tones that he can not expiam in teríns of their

presence on the strings. He explains the techniques to perform natural harmonics and

stresses that the nodal points do not vibrate. The technique to perform natural hannonics

on open strings is compared with the one used to perform artificial harrnonics.

According to Dotzauer, artificial and natural harmonics may be distinguished also

by the way they are written. Dotzauer uses a zero to indicate natural harmonics, the sarne

sign used for open strings. In the first chapter, he presents au exampie of the natural

harmonics which can be reliab]y used, with suggestions for their notation. The notation

does not distinguish between natural harmonics played at concert-pitch nodes or at other

nodal points for the sarne harmonic tone as the modern notation does. In his exampie, ali

notes are written with the sarne note head with the zero above them. The concert pitches

for the written notes are indicated on another staff. He also suggests that the abbreviation

of the wordflageolett (flag.) may be used to assure the understanding by performers..

Dotzauer stresses the importance of having good strings for the performance of

harmonic tones. He expiains that the string may be divided into two parts. On the nut-half

of the string, he includes only the natural second to the sixth harmonics at their 1/2, 1/3,

1/4, 1/5, and 1/6 nodes. On the bridge-half side of the string he includes besides the

natural second to sixth harmonics at their 2/3, 3/4, 4/5 and 5/6 nodes, the natural eighth,

tenth, twelfth and sixteenth harmonics at their concert pitch nodes, i.e., 7/8, 9/10, 11/12,

and 15/16 nodes. The nodes included are only those which wiii allow the performance of

the major chord, i.e., other possible nodes for the sarne harmonics are omitted. Like

Duport, he views natural harmonics as an aid in playing arpeggios of the major chord

having the open string as the root of the chord. Dotzauer concludes this section by

emphasizing the difficulty in performing the upper natural harrnonics in the neck
 c
c
51 c
c
C
harmonic the bridge-half side of the
positions, and also those after the natural eighth
OH

string.
natural harmonics. Dotzauer
Another section in this chapter is dedicated to the
C
unreliable. He stresses that there are c
calis the harmonic tones presented in this section
C
ugh to be used in performance. In his
many of them but most of them are not stable eno c
examples of these harmonic tones, presented on the
A string, he distinguishes between c
which may be used in performance.
those which are completely unreliable from those
(
that 1 have studied for this essay,
From ali publications on violoncelio harrnonics
most complete attempt to indicate other
Dotzaue?s chart of ali natural harmonics is the
monic tones higher than the natural
nodal points than the concert-pitch nodes for har

eighth (see Musical Example 9). (

ance include those presented in the
The natural harrnonics suitable for perform
itted
possible nodal points, which were om
first section plus the sarne ones on their other
chord.
not fit in the root position of the major
in the first section, possibly because they do
tial at
harrnonic series up to the sixteenth par
The example includes also ali partiais of the
first
fifteenth. The ones not included in the
concert-pitch nodes, with the exception of the
r concert-pitch nodes: the ninth (8/9
section are indicated here as still feasible at thei
node)
th (12/13 node); the fourteenth (13/14
node); the eleventh (10/11 node); the thirteen
Dotzauer suggests that is possible to
and the sixteentb (15/16 node). In other words,
their
form the natu ral harmo nics up to the sixt eenth partial of the harmonic series at
per
-pit ch nod es, wit h the exc epti on of the seventh and the fifteenth. Dotzauer’s
con cert
and the
ctio n pre sen ts an inco nsis tenc y. The sev enth partial was omitted as playable
sele
enth is presented as playable. Another
fourteenth which is one octave above the sev
2/7
enth was suggested as possible 011 its
example of this inconsistency is that the sev
d.
enth partial of the series was omitte
node. Also, he does not expiam why the fifte
o
o i1s 52
o 1/
7. 7
o
o Fligeoleti 4.. v i!L e te- 1 Içe. jEZ
— —.
laco

LiI 1ftn I
Ij
o Tõne
cj_ I
j

o
o
o
ajlii I (ta
Cri! 4 i i IH’»I° f i 1 afta L tel
O
o a fr_a_=
=
8’
—
a
n
g
-O- — — — — —

•
—

1
a a a s s
3 v * a *

3 Aba a 9 rttr
a a a
o

Musical Example 9. Dotzauer’s natural harmonics.

Note: The asterisk is for the reliable aries. 1. 1. F. Dotzauer, Violoncell-Fiageolett

Schule, ed. by Walter Sebuiz (Leipzig: Hofxneister, ca. 1955), 4.

are
Besides those suggested as reliable at their concert-pitch nades, te following anos
fifth
also suggested as reliable cri nades olher than their concert-pitch nades: the natural
3/8
at fts 2/5 and 3/5 nades; the natural sevenlh at its 2/7 nodo; the natural eighth at its
Of
and 5/8 nades; the natural ninth at jts 7/9 nodo; and the natural tenth at lis 7/LO nade.
anos
ali possible nades from the natural second to lhe natural eighth harmonic, the oniy
Nodos
considered cornpletely unreliable are te nades of the seventh other than the 217.
sixteenth,
other than the concert-pitch nades for partiais of the harmonic series up to te
 53

not
with the exception of the fifteenth, are given only for iliustration. However, they are
considered reliable for perfonnance.

Dotzauer’s chart of natural harmonics does not present ali nodes for natural
have
harmonics higher tfian the eighth. As an example, te natural ninth harmonic would
nodes O
six nodes availabie and tive of them are given, for the natural tenth harmonic some
O
are omitted as weli, and so forth. Arnong the unreliable, there are nodos for natural
empirical
harmonics higher than te sixteenth. li is clear that Dotzauer based this work on
on for each O
experimentation and he had no knowledge of te different modes of vibrafi
O
partial. It seems that fie, with an infinito patience, tried to find te nodal points
present on o
each half step of the string length and then wrote the natural harmonics down. Many
al lii C
natural harmonics are missing and there are also inconsistencies such as the f-natur
e
the second measure and f-sharp in the third rneasure. The f-, natural or sharp, is
te e
ou one or
thirteenth partial of te series of te A open string, however, one has to decide
unreliabie O
another. 1 will not expiam ali natural harmonics presented mn his exasnple as

since they are not presented completeiy and consistentiy. It would be au imposs
ible task, c
of
even today, to try to indicate te location of ali possible nodal points for each partial
n. O
te sedes, even oniy up to the sixteenth, with te traditional musical notatio
of
In his comments on the example of harmonic tones, Dotzauer states that rnany C

away from te
tese natural harmonics are produced with a srnall movement of te finger
states that in
nodal point of one of the iower natural hannonics selected as reliable. He
n: C
some of te stopped notes, one finds more than one hannonic in te sarne positio
c
sometimes an arpeggiation of a major chord is possibie on te sarne stopped
note. Also, c
be used in
he calls te unreliable “side harrnonic tones” and states that they are not to
string C
perforinance. Dotzauer compares some of te harmonic tones produced on

instruments with those produced by brass instruments, and stresses that

the latter are c
E
c
e.

1
o
o
o
o 54

o
purer Lhan the ones produced on string instruments, especially Lhe seventh. Tu bis last

3
0
comments, Dotzauer states again that the most reliable natural harmonics are in Lhe first

section of the chapter, and that from Lhe secaM section only Lhe follawing may be

o actually considered suitable for performance: lhe natural fifth at its 3/5 and 2/5 nades; lhe

natural eighth at its 5/8 and 3/8 nades; Lhe natural ninth aL its 7/9 nade and Lhe natural

tenlh aL its 7/10 nade.

o
O The second chapter deals with artificial hannonics. Datzauer states that either (te

thumb or a finger can work as au artificial nut to praduce them. He suggests six types af

artificial harmanics. The name given Lo each type of artificial harmanic is, as in modern

O theory, accarding to the musical interval between the two fingers invalved in the
o
o perfonuance of each type. The flrst type is Lhe artificial minar-Lhird harmanie which

produces Lhe sixth partial of Lhe series ar au interval of Lwa actaves and a fifth from the
O artificial nut ar fundamental; Lhe second type is lhe artificial major-third harmanic which
o
o produces Lhe fifth partial of Lhe sedes ar au interval of two actaves and a major lhird fram

Lhe artificial nut; Lhe third type is Lhe artificial faurth harmanic ar perfect faurth which
O praduces the faurth partial of Lhe sedes ar mi interval of twa octaves from Lhe

O fundamental; Lhe fourth Lype is Lhe artificial fifth harmonic or perfect fifth which produces

Lhe third partial of Lhe sedes ar au interval of au octave and a fifth from Lhe artificial miL;

lhe fifth Lype is Lhe artificial major-sixth harmonic which produces Lhe fifLh partial af Lhe

o series ar au intentai of Lwo actaves and a major third fram Lhe artificial nut; Lhe sixth LYPC
O
o is Lhe artificiai actave harrnonic which praduces lhe second parLial of Lhe series or au
O intervai af mie acLave fram Lhe artificial nut.

O Datzauer sLates Lhat the artificial major-third and minor-Lhird harmanics are not as
O
reliable as Lhe other types. He compares Lhe selected Lypes of artificial harmonics Lo

natural harmonics praduced on Lhe nut-half side of Lhe string. Each Lype of artificial
O
O

O
O
3
 “-1

o
o
o
55 o
€
The
harmonic has mi equivalent natural harmonic ou the nut-half side of the string.

equivalence is in terins of partiais produced and intervals between Lhe artifici

al nut and e
poirfis of
the nodal point as compared Lo intervais between Lhe “natural nut” and lhe nodal

each natural harmonic produced on Lhe nut-half side of Lhe string.

be used 4)
Dotzauer presents exaniples of Lhe types of artificial harmonics which cmi o
minor-third;
in Lhe neck positions. Those possible in Lhe neck positions are: Lhe artificial
Lhe
Lhe artificial major-third; Lhe artificial fourth and Lhe artificial flfth. 1-Te states that
nics €
stretch required of Lhe fingers makes Lhe artificial major-sixth and octave harmo e
on Lhe A
impossible in Lhe neck positions. He presents au example of a chromatic scale g
until
string starting with Lhe artificial nut on Lhe b-flat, one half step from Lhe open string,
al octave
e’, with ali four types presented above. The artificial major-sixth and artifici
suggests that they C
harznonics may be added after that point. As in Lhe other examples, he
Lhe thumb as
can be transposed to other strings. The artificial harmonics are fingered with
CD
3 for Lhe
Lhe artificial nut and for the nodal points finger 2 is used for Lhe artificial third,
ns. Roinan C
others, 4 is also suggested for Lhe artificial fifth harmonic in Lhe neck positio
c
numerais are used to indicate strings. He emphasizes that Lhe finger which
holds the c
tone Lo fali or to
artificial nut should be firmly set ou Lhe string to prevent Lhe harmonic
C
change its intonation.
Dotzauer
With regard Lo bow technique for Lhe perforrnance of hannonic tones,
Lhe bow should be
stresses LhaL he does not agite with other violoucellists who think Lhat
Lhe ordinary bow
placed dose to Lhe bridge as in Lhe sul ponticelio Lechnique. He favors
Dotzauer states that
technique for Lhe performance of harrnonic tones. Conceming scales,
with artificial
ali of them cmi be played with artificial harmouics or combining natural
for performance
ones. Also, Lhe artificial harmonics which are easier and more effective
harmonies. lii his
are: (in order of importance) Lhe artificial fourth, fifth and major-third
o
G
o
o 56
o
o
o notation for the artificial harmonics, the moveable nut is written with the note head

2 srnaller and always flhled and Lhe upper note with a note head ia the regular size, blank or
0 filled according to Lhe rhythm.

o Dotzauer presents a section dedicated to trilis on natural hannonics. He gives

o some examples where it is possible to find two or three natural harmonics 011 adjacent
O strings with a whole step interval between them, making possible to trili. The trili is

o performed with Lhe bow instead of the left-hand fingers. In practice the effect of the fast
o string change sounds more like a bariolage (rapid alternation of two strings) than a trili.
o
Most of the exainples are presented with tums in the beginning and the end of the trills,

o with a whole or half step between them. lii une example, au artificial harmonic is
combined with a natural une Lo produce a trili ou Lhe sarne string. Also, examples of trilis
o -‘
possible on some of the highest partiais of the series on the sarne string are presented.
O Theses trilis are on intervals of a half or a whole step. He emphasizes that they are very

3 difflcult to perform.

The last section of his instructions ou Lhe performance of harmonic tones is

concerned with double harmonics. First of aH, he states that the double harmonics are

1) more suitahle for Lhe violin than for Lhe violoncelo. In bis examples, only artificial

harmonics are znvolved. The first type involves au artificial fifth harmomc on Lhe lower

string and au artificial fourth harmonic on Lhe upper string Lo produce octave intentai.

3 Both harmonic tones have Lhe sarne artificial nut. He stresses that with this type,
3
chromatic and diatonic scales can be played. Examples of chromatic and diatonic scales

of one octave are presented 011 ali four strings with this type of artificial double
D harmonies. The second type involves Lhe artificial major-third on Lhe lower string and Lhe

artificial fourth on te upper string to produce a rnajor-third interval. The artificial nut is

5 Lhe sarne for both. Dotzauer observes that this second type of double harmonic may be
E)

D
)
-j
 o
o
o
o
o
incapacity to adjust the
used in chromatic scales, but not in the diatonic scales due to its
ys a paraliel sequence O
intervals to major and minor thirds. The pitches produced are alwa
s double harmonics ou ali
of major thirds. Dotzauer gives examples of chromatic scale iii
double harmonics involves
strings in parailei major thirds. The third and last example of
cial major-third harmonie on O
the artificial fifth harmonic on te lower string and the artifi O
has the sarne paralleiism of
te upper string to produce an interval of a tenth. This types

intervais.
te major, minor O
Following the section on double harmonics, Dotzauer presents O
ral and different types of €
and chromatic seales fingered with different possibilities of natu

artificial harmonics. Also, five studies on harmonic tones are

presented. The studies are g
natural harmonics in third
O
almost completely with natural and artificial harrnonics. The O
onic are te most C
position, te artificial fourth and rareiy the artificial fifth harm
h were suggested in the
employed. The studies do not explore ali the possibilities whic
od are dedicated to left
instnictional part of the method. The iast two pages of te ineth
performing harmonic
hand pizzicato, however he does not mention te possibility of

tones with pizzicato.

ç
performance of
Dotzauer’s’ method is the most comprehensive account on the
e up te the publication of
harmonic toncs of his time and probably te most comprehensiv ç
Alexanian’s treatise.
c
c
Diran Alexanian’s Treatise
its original edition in
The copy of Alexanian’s treatise available for mis study was
Vioioncello (Paris, 1922).
French and English, Theoretical and Practical Treatise of te
ghout te treatise. The
The sections dedicated to harrnonic tones are spread throu
chapters which discuss neck
harmonic tones performed in te neck positions are in te
lhe string are given in the chapters
positions. Those performed on te bridge half-side of
o
o
o
O 58
O
o
o which discuss Lhe thumb positions and the double harmonics are presented in Lhe chapter

dedicated to double stops. Alexanian states that when a natural harmonic tone is
O performed, only one finger can be applied by a light Louch to Lhe string, different from the

o ordinary technique of performing stopped notes where four or tive fingers are applied at

Lhe sarne time in a position. His notation is Lhe modem one with the exception that he
O does nor make difference between Lhe zero for open string and Lhe small circie for

o harmonics. As in Duport, he observes that Lhe sarne harmonics are possible in both halves

of Lhe string.

2 Before presenting Lhe neck position natural harrnonics, Alexanian gives examples

O of passages from Lhe violoncello repertory in which Lhe natural second harmonie may be
o used. He also points out that this is Lhe rnost useful natural harrnonic. In his discussion of

Lhe use of Lhe natural second harmonic, he mencions a peculiarity of harmonic Lones in

O which after lifting a finger from Lhe string (which was playing a harmonic Lene) while Lhe
O
bow is kept rnoving. Lhe harrnonic tone sLill sounds for some time. This small amounL of

time is enough for a posirion change avoiding undesirable portamenti. Although he does

not sLate it, it seems Lhat Lhe examples from the reperLory presenLed Lo illusLrate Lhe use of

Lhe natural second harmonics are more to facilitaLe posirion changes Lhan as a special Lone

calor. These passages from Bach suites for unaccompanied violoncello and Beethoven
sonatas for violoncello were noL originally writren to be performed wiLh harmonic Lenes.

O According te Alexanian, vibrara should not be used with harmonic Lones. He asserts tbat
O
3 when a natural harmonic is changed to a stopped note of sarne pirch, as in Lhe case of

adding vibrato to Lhe noLe, care should be Laken that Lhe pitches are going Lo be exactly Lhe

O sarne. If Lhe finger is a little bit off te cenLer of Lhe node, Lhe harmonic Lenes will still

sound. However, ir is at Lhe center of Lhe concert-pitch nodes that harinonic Lenes and

sropped noLes under which they are located will have te sarne pitches.
D
O
O
O
O
 o
o
e
59 o
4,
ian
Following Lhe djscussjon of Lhe use of the natural second harmonie, Alexan
are
gives a diagrain of the A string showing the location of harmonic tones. They o
indicated with numeric fractions for Lhe distance from the nut to Lhe nodal point
where o
the concert
each one is located. At Lhe sides of Lhe nodes, he gives the written notes and
corresponding to O
pitches. The harnionic tones suggested for use in perforinance are those
He considers it O
Lhe second harmonic of Lhe series up to Lhe eighth. The seventh is omitted.
harmonics
too flat to be used in performance and he also asserts that Lhe ninth and tenth
positions.
of the series are not playabie iii te neck position but can be used in Lhe thumb
location of Lhe C
Some of Lhe written notes which Alexanian chooses Lo indicate Lhe
c
for Lhe natural
nodal points for Lhe natural harmonics are problematical. As an example,
note chosen
fifth harmonic on Lhe A string at ils 1/5 node, which is c-sharp’”, Lhe written
nics are not C
is d-flat’. The notes used to indicate Lhe nodes to perform natural harmo c
Lhe harmonic
related to tem, with Lhe exception of those in which Lhe written notes and

tones have Lhe sarne pitch. Natural harmonics are always related Lo Lhe open
strings which E
n where C
are Lhe fundamentais of Lhe series. The written notes, used Lo indicate the locatio c
they are found, are merely reference. Besides that, 1 believe that some
coherenee and c
Lhe next
consistency in writing tem heIp.)players to identify te concert pitch. In
to follow.
chapters, 1 will expiam which criterion for Lhe written notes 1 decided
ility of C
A very importam Alexanian’s observaüon is in regard to Lhe possib
string at Lhe sarne
performing harmonic tones touching two nodal points on Lhe sarne
Lhe production of
time. He does not see very rnuch use for this double touch, except for
produce (see C
Lhe natural eighth harmonic at fts 1/8 node, which is very difficult Lo
its 1/8 and 2/8
Musical Example 10). He suggests that when this harmonic is performed,
of Lhe string in
nodes should be touched ar sarne time to force Lhe required subdivision

eight equal parts and thus facilitating and guaranteeing its production.
1
c
(
c
 60

A e
Effet Moustique: -

4couatic (JeeS:
A ? se
Execution: •j 1
txetution, • -

Musical Exampie 10. Alexanian’s double-node technique

Diran Alexanian, Theoretical and Practical Treatise of the Violoncelio, trans.

by Frederick Fairbanks (Paris: Editions Salabert, 1922), 106.

This is possibly the first time that this technique is presented in a written

instruction. In Alexanian’s view, Lhe advantage of this technique is only for facilitating Lhe

production ofthe natural eighth harmonic at its 1/8 node. However, 1 will demonstrate in
the Jater chapters that this is not true. The doubie-node technique has many more uses, for

fadiitating Lhe production of this and other hannonic tones and for performing hannonic

tones which were missing due to coincidence of nodal points of different modes of string
vibration.

Following the double-node technique, au example presents natura] harmonics up

Lo Lhe eighth lii Lhe neck positions on ali strings with the exception of Lhe natural seventh
harmonic. The natural eighth harmonic is written at its 1/8 node performed with Lhe

doubie-node techuique. He also observes that with regard to intonation, natural harmonics

work analogously Lo a keyboard instrument of fixed pitches. i.e., Lhe tuning of each note

cannot be ehanged during perfomiance. Following Lhe presentation of Lhe possible

harmonic tones 011 the neck posiflon, Alexanian gives a table of almost five pages with

possible musical intervals with Lhe combination of Lhe natural harmonics in the neck

positions, from unisons Lo intentais of two octaves and a major second. He also states that
 61

so. After
ali violoncellists inust memorize this table and suggests a six step method to do
l
the lesson, he presents some quesfions to test te reader’s knowledge of ali musica
ali four
intervals possible iii Lhe combinations natural harmonic of lhe neck positions on

strings.
ali O
This five page table seems unnecessary. EL is simpler Lo have a chart iii which a
four strings can be seen at lhe sarne time with ali Lheir possible natural hanuon
ics, so Lhat o
composers and players can determine feasible combinations.
O
lii Lhe section dedicated to te artificiai harmonics in lhe neck positions, o
ou Lhe O
Alexanian siates that different types of artificial harmonies may be used
on an open
violoncelio. He also states that LheoreLically ali harmonic Lones Lhat are played
capacity of Lhe
string would be possible from au artificiai nut ii’ li were not limited by Lhe
Lo stop te O
fingers Lo stretch, since one finger must be fixed to work as an movable nut
two types of
string. Due Lo Lhe greater distance between pitches in te neck posifion, only
artificial fourth
artificial harmonics are suggested as possible to be used. The first is Lhe
finger. He gives C
harmonic, which is fingered in te neck positions with first and fourth c
many chromaticand diatonic exercises in lhe neck position Lo develop
lhe technique of c
ted also as a
playing Lhe artificial fourth harmonie. The artificial harmonics are presen
The C major C
complement to perform pitches LhaL are not possible with te natural ones. c
and D major scales of two octaves are presented combining natural and
artificial c
neck positions, is
harmonics. The second Lype suggesLed by Alexanian, as possible in te
harmonic which C
an artificial double node harmonic. This type is equivalent to lhe natural

was also suggested Lo be performed with Lhe double nodes, i.e., Lhe eighth
hamionic of Lhe c
t piLch is three
series performed by touching te 1/8 and 2/8 nodes in which Lhe concer
ian’s suggestion.
octaves from Lhe fundamental. Musical Example 11 shows Alexau
ia] harmonics. C
Alexanian asserts that pizzicatos should not be used with arLific c
c
e

c
 62

- _õ e õ
P Carde, - fl6qt

Musical Example 11. Alexanian ‘s double-node technique 011 artificial harmonics

Note: The concert pitch is that of lhe eighth partial of lhe series, i.e., two octaves
from lhe artificial nut. Diran Alexanian, Theoretical and Practical Treatise of
lhe Violonceilo, trans. by Frederick Fairbanks (Paris: Êditions Salabert, 1922),
116.

However, they can be used with lhe natural second and third harmonics in ali strings.

Also, only these two natural harmonics are suitable to be combined with stopped notes of

neighboring strings. According to hirn, artificial harmonics may be combined with

stopped notes only in alternation and not simultaneously. In his iast remarks, he suggested

that players improvise with harmonie tones transposing musical phrases piayed with

stopped notes to harmonic tones with a exampie of a musical phrase from lhe famous

“Swan” by CamiLle Saint-Saëns.

In lhe chapter dedicated to double stops, Alexanian presents some examples of

possible combinations for simuitaneous performance of natural and artificial harmonics in

lhe neck positions. The examples show a few possibilities in which natural and artificial

harmonics of adjacent strings are combined.

In lhe section dedicated to lhe possible harmonic tones on lhe bridge-half side of

lhe string or thumb positions, Alexanian gives another diagram of lhe string for lhe

natural ones, with lhe sarne characteristics of lhe diagram used for lhe neck positions. He

observes that only lhe natural fifth harrnonics at its 3/5 nade and lhe natural eighth

harmonic at its 5/8 node do not have their written notes equal to their concert pitches. The
 o
o
e
63 O
o
natural seventh harmonic is omitted again and only the natural ninth, tenth and twelfth 3
harmonics at their 8/9, 9/10 and 11/12 nodes respectively (concert-pitch nodes) are 3
O
presented as playable. Following te diagram, he presents exercises with different
o
arpeggios with te natural harmonic tones at te thumb positions. With regard to bow

placement, Alexanian observes that te bow hair must not touch any of te nodes of Lhe
O
different modes of vibration which produces a harmonic tone because iL would dampen
o
that sound or partial. Next, Alexaiiian gives a sedes of exercises of arpeggios °‘ o
slrings linking neck and thumb positions with harmonic tones and stopped notes to 3
complernent arpeggios of chords.

Alexanian classifies te possible artificial harmonics in Lhe thumb positions unto

six different types. He names each type as a different species. The first species produces

te fourth partial of te series at ils 1/4 node, which was already mentioned in Lhe neck

positions, fingered now with thumb and third finger. The second species, rarely employed

according to him, produces te fifth partial of te sedes at its 1/5 node with a concert

pitch two octaves and a major third from te fundamental. The notation of mis harmonic

is strange because it is given as an interval of a diniinished fourth between Lhe artificial

nut and Lhe nodal point. Alexanian does not expiam why he chose this interval, it would
to
be simpler to note iL as a major third. The third species, no longer employed according
of
him, produces Lhe sixth partial of te series at its 1/6 node, which gives a concert pitch
interval
two octaves and a fifth from Lhe artificial nut or fundamental. He writes it with au
of augmented second between te artificial nut and te node, which could aiso be written

as a minor tird that is te interva] between te fifth and sixth partial of Lhe sedes.

Possibly, he chooses te augmented second and te diminished fourth for Lhe second
species,
species to give a more specific direction of Lhe location of te nodes. The fouith
which te
no longer employed according Lo him, is presented also in te neck positions in
 64

double-node technique is used. li produces te eighth partial of the series, a concert pitch
three octaves from the artificial nut or fundamental. The nodes to be touched are te lis

and 2/8. The fifth species produces the third partial of the series, which is one octave and

a fzfth from te fundamental or artificial nut. It is perfonned touching te 1/3 node and

therefore written with au interval of a perfect fifth between te artificial nut and te nodal

point. The sixth species produces te second partial of te series, one octave from te

fundamental. It is written with au octave interval between te artificial nut and te 1/2

nade. Following the exposition of te species, Alexanian presents a study of te

applicability of each species.

Alexanian’s classification of artificial harmonics in species seems to me to be

confusing and unnecessary. The arder of presentation does not make sense. He could

have followed te arder of te series to number the species, from the upper to te lower

harmonics or vice versa. The intervais used to indicate some of te species are sometimes

strange, augmented second instead of minor third ar dirninished fourth instead of major

third.

AJexanian’s study of te first species (artificial fourth haniionic) starts with au

exercise that combines te fingering used in te neck positions with te one used in te

thumb positions to produce melodic intervals of major and minor sixth and augmented

fourth in te sarne position including two adjacent strings. Following, he gives examples

of combinations of tis specie with stopped notes and natural harmonics. He stresses that

te first species is almost synonymous for artificial harmonie, since in many publications
it is presented as “te” artificial harmonic. This concludes te study of te first species

with examples of te violoncelo concertos by Camille Saint-Saëns where this species

may be used to perform te passages with harmonic tones.

 65

Alexanian begins Lhe study of Lhe second species (artificial major-third harmonic)

which produces the fim! partial of the series, showing Lhe possibility of combining it with

Lhe flrst species Lo produce a rnelodic interval of a minor third in Lhe sarne position

including two neighboring strings. The second species on Lhe lower string and the first

species in Lhe higher string. He emphasizes the irnportance of bow placement and
pressure when performing Lhe second, third and fourth species. According to Alexanian,

Lhe bow should be closer Lo Lhe bridge to avoid lis placement on nodal poinis and a lighter

Louch in Lerms of bow pressure rnust be used. lii a new series of exercises, Alexanian
changes Lhe notaLion of Lhe second species. Instead of Lhe diminished fourLh for the
second species, he uses Lhe major third with a statement that it is easier to read. He does

noL expiam his notation approach Lo Lhe second species of artificial harmonic and Lhe
equivalent natural one, i.e., why Lhe second species (arLificial major-Lhird harmonic) is

written before with a diminished fourth between artificial nut and Lhe nodal point and

now with a major Lhird.

The Lhird and fourth species which produce respectively Lhe sixth and eighth

partiais of Lhe series of a fundamental or arLificiai nut, are discussed together. Alexanian C
r
asserts that third and fourth species are only of documenLary interesL. fie also sLates Lhat

they may be used in Lhe fliture with Lhe development of Lhe violoncelo technique. He

presents au example of combining Lhe second species and Lhe third, at Lhe sarne position C

and on Lwo adjacent strings, Lo produce a series of major-third melodic intervais.

The fifth .rpecies (artificial fifth harmonic) produces Lhe third partia] of Lhe series. 5
C
EL is considered by Alexanian of easy execution and suiLable for perfomiance. He presents.

combinations of this species with Lhe first, as he did before, in Lhe sarne position and wiLh

adjacent strings, Lo produce melodic intervajs of a major second and au octave. A series

of exercises is suggested.
c
c
E
(
o
o
o
o 66
o
o
The sixth species- (artificial octave harmonic) produces the second partial o!’ the

sedes. li is presented as easier than fite others, although it is limited to ones left-hand
O ability for larger extensions. He advises that ii can be used on the bridge-half side of the

o string. He also presents combinations of ±is species with the first to produce melodic

intervals of unisons at the sarne position and with adjacent strings.

0 He does nor include a section dedicated to the simultaneous performance of

O harmonic tones with adjacent strings as he did for the harmonic tones of the neck
o position.
o
Despite having some awkward classifications and notation of artificial harnionics,

Alexanian’s treatise presents one of the most complete accounts of possibilities for

performance of harmonic tones found ia violoncelio treatises and methods.

 o
o
o
67 O
o
o
o
o
o
CJ-IAPTERIH

THEORETICAL AND PRACrICAL ST(JDY OF NATURAL HARMONICS

OBTAINABLE ON THE VIOLONCELLO O
O
e
The acoustic Lheory that explains the presence and production of harmonic tones

on string instrurnents was explained in the first chapter of this essay. The purpose of this
chapter is to present the harmonic tones obtainable on the open stiings of the violoncelo

from a theoretical aspect and froin a practical aspect in the sense of what is playable or

suitable for performance situations.

c
A Theoretical Study of the Natural Harmonics c
up to the Sixteenth Partial of tEm Series
C
The possibilities for playing harmonic tones on each string instrument are not the
c
sarne, practically speaking. In lhe introduction of this study, 1 compare Lhe different c
potential for perforxning harmonic tones ou the instrurnents of the violin fanüly. In the
C
case of natural harmonics, Lhe longer strings of the double bass offer more possibilities,

especially because Lhe distance between Lhe nodal points in each mode of vibration are C

greater; also there is more room for different placements of Lhe bow. The violoncelio also

has a great potential for performing natural harmonics. Before presenting a selection of

harmonic tones suitable for performance situations, 1 think it will Em interesting for this
C
é

study to present a more comprehensive exasnination of nodal points available on a string

from a theoretical point of view. Another reason 1 have decided Lo present nodal points
o
o
o
O 68
o
o for harmonic tones which are not suitable for performance is to clarify what Dotzauer
36
0 tried lo do more than one hundred and fifty years ago. Dotzauer attempted lo indicate ali
nodal points for harmonic tones that he could find for each half step of the string range.
o
Even if te study is limited to lhe sixteen first modes of vibration, it still is an almost

g impossible task to describe (with the traditional musical notation) ali nodal points of each
O mode of a string vibration. There are many more nodal points than stopped notes to
o
o indicate tem.

g Based ou lhe theory presented in the first chapter of lhis study, TabJe 2 gives the

g number of nodal points of each mode of vibration up to te sixteenth. The number of

Q nodes considered does not include lhe fixed ones, formed by lhe nut and the bridge. For

each two ioops of a string vibration, one node is formed. Consequently the number of

nodes for each mode is always te nuniber of loops ininus one, or te nurnber of te mode

(3 or partial nilnus one. As seen in lhe flrst chapter, te coincident nodes are tose having

o equivaient ratios, i.e., 112 = 2/4 = 3/6 and so forth. Hence lhe nuniber of performance

nodes available, up lo te sixteenth mode of vibration, is te total of nodes (120 nodes)

minus te coincident ones (41 nodes), i.e., 79 nodes (see Table 2).

Sequential Order of Appearance for Ali Nodal Points of

Natural Harmonics up to te Sixteenth Partial of te Series

After estabiishing te number of nodes available on a string up to te sixteenth

mode of vibration, the next step is to determine their sequential order on a string. The

ratio of each nodal point up to te l6th mode of vibration was appiied to a theoretical

string length and lhe ordering showed in Table 3 (page 70) was established. In order to

demonstrate how lhe location and te sequential ordering of nodal point were found, one

Dotzauer, op. cit., 4.

36
 o
o
o
69 o
Table 2. Nodes of a Vibrating String up to the Sixteenth o
Mode of Vibration o
o
o
Modes of String Divisions Coincident o
o
Vibration Nodes o
o
Loops J Nades o
o
1 •1 o o
o
2 2 1 O o
o
3 3 2 O c
1
o
4 4 3 c
fl

5 5 4 O
c
6 6 5 3 o
o
7 7 6 O e

e—
8 8 7 3
c
9 9 8 2 c
c
10 10 9 5
r

11 11 10 O c
11 7
c
12 12 c
r
13 13 12 O r

7 r
14 14 13
r

15 15 14 6 c
1

16 16 (
120:des 1 41OdeS c
c
c
c
Note: The bottom rows o!’ the columns called nodes and c
coincidem nodes presem the total number o!’ each column. e
 70

Table 3. Sequenfial Ordering of Nodal Points up to the

Sixteenth Mode of Vibration of a String

1/16 1/15 1/14 1/13 1/12 1/11 1/10 1/9 1/8, 2/15
2/16
1/7, 2/13 1/6, 2/11 3/16 1/5, 3/14 2/9 3/13 1/4,
2/14 2/12 2/10, 2/8,
3/15 3/12,
4/16
4/15 3/11 2/7, 3/10 4/13 5/16 1/3, 5/14 4/li 3/8,
4/14 2/6, 6/16
3/9,
4/12,
5/15
5/13 2/5, 5/12 311, 7/16 4/9 5/11 6/13 7/15 1/2,
4/10, 6/14 2/4,
6/15 3/6,
4/8,
5/10,
6/12,
7/14,
8/16
8/15 7/13 6/li 5/9 9/16 4/7, 7/12 3/5, 8/13 5/8,
8/14 6/10, 10/16
9/15
7/11 9/14 2/3, 11/16 9/13 7/10 5/7, 8/11 11/15 3/4,
4/6, 10/14 6/8,
6/9, 9/12,
8/12, 12/16
10/15
10/13 7/9 11/14 4/5, 13/16 9/11 5/6, 11/13 6/7, 13/15
8/10, 10/12 12/14
12/IS
7/8, 8/9 9/10 10/11 11/12 12/13 13/14 14/15 15/16
14/16

Note: The nodai points are shown from tlie nut-side to the bridge. The second row is
the continuation of the first and so forth. When more that one fraction is indicated
iii the sarne ceil, it means that they are equivalent and therefore they
represent me coincidence of nodal points.
 _____
______________________

71

1 Lhe Jocation of nodal points are Lhe following:

cmi say that on a string of 100 centimeters

the 1/2 node is located at 50 centimeters of the string Iength; Lhe 1/3, 2/3 nodes are

iocated aL each 33.33 cenúmeters of Lhe string length; Lhe 114, 2/4, 3/4 are located at each

25 centimeters of Lhe string length; and so ou.

When it comes to musical notation of pitches of harmonic tones and indication of

nodal points with stopped notes, a sedes ofproblems arise. First with regard Lo pitches of

Lhe harmonie series. The harmonic sedes is a natural phenomenon which has been Lhe
basis for Lhe development of musical composition structures and some of its intervais has

been used in different tuning systems. Besides that, Lhe notation systems developed are

not able to desci-ibe with precision ali pitches and intervais of Lhe harrnonic series. As 1
have said in Lhe section dedicated to notation of hannonic tones in Lhe first chapter, Lhe

pitches of Lhe harznonic sedes are modified Lo adjust Lo different tuning systems, such as

equal temperament. The problem with Lhe indication of pitches of Lhe harmonic sedes

with musical notation jncreases after Lhe tenth partial. Since in Lhe violonceiio naturai

harmonics, 1 do not recommend nodes other than their concert-pitch nodes for paitiais

higher than Lhe eighth, 1 have decided not to attempt a more precise indication ofpitches

for harrnonic tones as other works have u-ied to do.

37

The problems with Lhe musical notation for harmonic tones cmi raise the question:

“what is Lhe tuning system used by string players?” As a matter of fact, string players use

different tuning systems. They play different “c’s” ar “d’s” Lo adjust Lo different

situations. With the exception of Lhe four open strings and Lhe natural harmonic tones, ali

other pitches on strings of Lhe vioiin family instruments are not fixed and it is possible Lo

c
37 for example Leonard Richard Payton, Contrabass Harmonic Potential: A
See
Study in Acoustics and Coinposition (Ph. O. dissertation, University of California,
1988), 135.
 72

adjust them. Vioionceiio players can perform a musical passage in unison with a piano

tuned in equal temperament and adjust to it, or perform a basso continuo une in unison

with a eighteenth-century keyboard instrument tuned with one of Lhe historical

temperarnents and adjust Lo it. They also can perform double stops of an unaccompanied

piece with beadess intervais of Lhe harmonic sanes, or perform a melodic une with Lhe

“expressive intonafion” advocated by Pablo Casals, where Lhe attractions of certain notes

, etc.. Another example of Lhe complexity of Lhe tuning system used by

are considered
38

violin family players cazi be seen in Lhe use of sympathetic resonance. The principie of

good quality sonority on string instniments is Lo use Lhe sympathetic resonance of open

strings and their harmonics. When one adjusts stopped notes to open strings or their

partiais to use the sympathetic resonance to iínprove sound quality, one is adjusting Lhem

to pitches and intervais of the harmonic series. Composers must be aware that hannonic

tones have the pitches and pure intervals of Lhe harmonic series and such tones must be

combined with cara with other instruments. 1 think that for Lhe range of harmonie tones

suitabie for performance on lhe vioionceiio, violin and viola, these intonation problems

are not so great, and do not require a different system of notation of Lhe pitches for the

harmonie series. II’ a speciai pitch notarion were deveioped for Lhe harmonic series, iL

would also be necessary Lo have a difí’erent pitch notation for each tuning system in use

today. Musical Exampie 12 is a transposition to musical notation of Table 3, i.e., natura]

harmonie of an open C string of a violoncelio in their sequential order of appearance up

to Lhe l6th partial of Lhe series (Lhe example does not refiect Lhe spatiai distance between
each nodal point).

38 Bium, Casals and Lhe Art of Interpretation (Berkeley: University of

David
California Press, 1977), 102-109.
 r
ti’
—
00
—
ti — — 10
>4 o’
-a r —

• — Vi
o
— 1_A

o-. r
ar ti’
O
— o r
-a w
-ti” O’
lO lO lO —
o’ a’ —

‘•O p
tu O
00 —‘ lO
—
—
o’ w
—
tu
—
—
— —
— r
— —

r ‘o

00 r O r lO
az - Vi
— Q
—
-ti
—
o r
z__
1 tu alio
o IA
IV — 00 1w O
o —

1 lia

C fl fl fl fl (— fl fl fl fl C) C) fl fl (‘) fl O O O C
o
o
o
o 74
o
o
o 10/15
o 1’ 8/12 ± ,n10114 .a l2/16
o 1° 1° 1
1 1
9/l2
o
o
‘4 7111 9/14
104/51
11/16 9/13
1 “

7/10
Ro
i

5/7 8/li 11/15

1
o
3/4

a 12115 ± oiO/l? 170

i4 1 I”l
o 1 lO 1 170
1
10/13 7/9 11/14 4/5 13/16 9/11 5/6 11/13 6/7 13/15

±14/16
r4nioini#fifl ii
7/8 8/9 9/10 10/11 11/12 12113 13/14 14/15 15/16

Musical Example 12. Continued

Indication of Fixed Nodal Points with Stopped Notes

With regard to the indication with musical notation (stopped notes) for ali nodal

points up to the sixteenth mode of vibration presented in Table 2, the problem is still

worse than that of the pitches of ffie harmonic series. Up to the 15/16 node of a string,

there are 49 chromatic stopped notes to indicate nodal points (not counting the open

string). As we see in Table 2, there are 79 nodes to be indicated ( not counting the

coincjdent nocies). How 79 nodal points can be indicated with 49 chrornatic stopped

notes? The problem is still worse on the nut-half side of lhe string where ffie distance

between stopped notes is greater and lhe occurrence of nodes is the sarne as the bridge-
 75

half side, i.e., there are fewer notes (up te the 1/2 node, there are twelve chromatic notes

and forty nodes) to indicate the nades. On the bridge-half side of Lhe string the problem

still exists but it is reduced because we have more notes (from Lhe 8115 Lo Lhe 15116 nade,
ibere are thirty-six chrornatic notes and thirty-nine nodes) to indicate the nades for the
O
perfarmance af harmonics. e
lii arder Lo have te sarne type af precision for Lhe stopped notes that was used for e
lhe location of nodal points presented in Table 3, it would be necessary to develop a o
tuning and notation systern with more accidentais than Lhe ones provided by Lhe

tradicional means of musical nocation. After deciding cm a tuning system for Lhe stopped C

notes, it would be necessary to transform the frequencies of te stoppecl notes into c

distances on Lhe fingerboard (time transiate to space). Iii other words, Lhe 49 chrornatic

pitches or stopped notes (time) translated Lo string length (space). Doing that one could
,
C

see Lhe exact location of each stopped note and its relationship Lo each nodal point. ‘rii c
would be equivalent Lo installing frets on te fingerboard, and Lo deciding to employ only
C
one tuning system for Lhe violonceilo. In my opinion ir would be unnecessary or even

worse. With regard to this issue, 1 hold Lhe sarne view presented in Lhe paragraph above, c
i.e., for Lhe violonceilo iL is not necessaxy since in practice, 1 do not recommend Lhe use
C
of nodes other than te concert-pitch nodes for partiais over Lhe natural eighth harrnonic.

lii arder to presem with stopped notes Lhe location of nodal points for Lhe natural €

harmonies seen in Musical Example 12, it would require Lhe superpositian of Lhe two

systems. The system which gives Lhe exact location of nodal points of natural harmonics

and Lhe system which gives Lhe exact lacation of stopped notes. The question of which 1

tuning system is used by string players is raised again. My opinion is Lhe sarne, viam

faxnily players use different tuning systems according Lo Lhe cirdumstance. Richard

Payton, in his thesis Contrabass Harmonic Potential: A Studv in Acoustics and

(
(
(
(
r
(.
 76

Composition, decided on a equal tempered tuning system for the stopped notes and then

superimposed it on that of Lhe natural harmonic ones. The ratio of a half step in Lhe equal

temperament system, i.e., the twelftfrroot of two, was applied to a string of determined

length to find the location of each chromatic stopped note. Doing that, the only nodal

points for natura] harmonics that are Jocated at sarne spot of stopped notes are the octaves

of the open string, the only interval of the natural harmonic series that is used in equal

39 Since this tuning system does not correspond to what actually

temperarnent system.

happens in the tuning of stopped notes, i.e., violin family players do not play stopped

notes only in equal temperament, and since in the violonceilo most of these natural
harmonics are not suitable for performance situations, 1 wiIl not use this or another

system to tune Lhe stopped notes. The indication of location of nodal points for harmonic
tones with stopped notes for this and ali other examples in this study are an

approximation. 1 am not recommending any special notation system that would exclude

the indication of the concert pitch when harrnonic tones are written. The precision for Lhe

notation of harmonie tones comes from the indication of the concert pitch and string
nurnber with Lhe stopped notes that gives an approximate location of Lhe nodal point.

Musical Example 13 presents on Lhe first staff, Lhe sequentia] ordering of natural

hannonics of Lhe open C string up to Lhe l6th paitial of Lhe series, which was presented

in Musical Example 12. The second staff in Musical Exaxnple 13 gives stopped notes

only as a reference to locate Lhe nodal points which are around them. The stopped notes in

Musical Example 13 are not an indication for natural harmonics notation. In Lhe selection

of natural harmonies that 1 will present later in this chapter a simpler notation system for

indication of Lhe nodal points of harmonic tones will be proposed. In a concert situation,

39 Payton, op. cit., 165-170.

 e 1
o
o
z
o

F 0I

cn -t
02. -à

o
1

—à

os. —
5,

CD—
o — e
a
o
—
a
1

t 0

r
i
o
a
1
o
ri,

L W

n r n n n n n fl r n fl ( fl fl fl fl fl fl fl fl fl fl fl fl O O O O O O O O O O O O 00 0 O O O*O OO O O O
 78

A lia ± a
1 ‘I”41
5/8 7/11 9/14 2/311/16 9/13 7/10 517 8/11 11/15

‘CII I”l foi mi

1;0 La o
±fr
4i.i°i 10111011
314 10/13 7/9 11/14 4/5 13/16 9/li 5/6 11/13 6)7

40 1 1 1 1 Io

4ii 13/14
a
14/15
10/11 11/12 12/13
13/15 7/8 8/9 9/10
a
4
°

mcm i’ ° i’°

Musical Example 13. Continued

players do not have very much time to prepare each note or to experiment before playing

a harmonic tone. That is why most of these harmonic tones are not suitabie for a

performance situation. However, as did Dolzauer more than one century and fifty years

ago, with a lot of patience one can perform ali these 79 natural harmonics. The system of

natural harmonic notation developed by Richard Payton for the double bass is probably

usefui for double bass players; however, for other members of the violin family that do

not use nodal points of natural harmonics higher than the eighth, such systems are not

necessary.
 ‘—À

o
o
o
79

€
A Practical Study of Natural Harmonics
e
Selection of Natural Hannonics Suitable for Performance O

Tn order Lo say what is playable and what is not on violonceilo harmonic tones O
O
performance, iL will be necessary Lo establish limits for everything that is going to be c
presented in this study. Establishing limits for instrumental piaying is noL mi easy task.

Virtuosity does not have limits. No matter what might be written by composers, good O
c
instrumentalists always find a way to perform. What 1 have tried to do in Lhis study is to e
establish what is playable for most violoncelio players with a certain control of sound

quality and safety. There is always going Lo be someone who wiil say, “1 cmi p]ay more C

than that.” Iii this study, Lhe limits for instrument playing are going Lo be always relative, c
a few more haif steps cmi always be performed.

Musical Example 14 shows Lhe selection of natural hanuonics suitable for

c
performance on Lhe C string. li includes ali nodal points for natural harmonics up Lo Lhe C
eighth plus Lhe concerL-pitch nodes for Lhe niuth, tenth, eieventh and twelfth. After Lhe

natural tweifth harmonic, IL is very difficuit to isolate nodal poinLs. However, as 1 said in

Lhe paragraph above, a few more half steps are sf11 possible, especia.Iiy if iL is Lhe C
harmonic sedes presenLed in lis sequenLial order up tu Lhe sixteenth partial. Musical

passages wiLh Lhe harmonic sedes in lis sequential order up to Lhe sixteenLh partiai cmi be

found in Lhe literature.

Different stopped notes are found in Lhe literature to indicaLe Lhe same harmonic
tones. Besides Lhe statemenLs presented above in regard Lo Lhe tuning of stopped notes and

Lheir reiationship to nodal points, 1 think Lhat a criterion must be established in order to

give harmonic Lone notaLion some consisLency. As was seen in Lhe second chapter,

Alexanian indicates Lhe 1/5 node on Lhe A string wiLh a d- flat’, i.e., a c-sharp” harmonic

Lone (LradiLionally calied c-sharp) indicated with a d-flat’. This does not help locaLe Lhe
tJL)uuuuuuuuuuUçJuvuuuUUuuoUUcoooooooooooooooooooOOOOOOO

2
o
c#X
g

zy
1 c
co E-
CD
1

no o
-% o.

o
1
 o
o
o
81
o
Cone ert
o
1
Harinonie Pitch
Series Nodes
A
a
La
—
o
—
o
‘
o
Ninth 8/9 o
-‘e
A
•3
o
-‘-.-
o
--ai
rn.’
‘s’j
ED
“ Tenth 9/lo o
&-
o
--ia-— -
a’
—
o
ti,.’
“.7,—
t) Eleventb 10/11
o
o
o
A a’
‘a
,‘.

& Twetfth 11/12

o
c
o
o
Musical Example 14. Continued
o
c
c
node and rnakes the notation more confusing. A simple criterion, which 1 have chosen for
o
the indication of nodal points, is to use the sarne sequence of interval relationship for the o
C
harmonic series (as given in Table 1 of Chapter 1). As au example, the eighth partia] of /‘
L
r

the series in Musical Example 14 is c” and it can be played at seven different nodes ou c
the string. If we start the notation from the concert-pitch note, 7/8, to the lower ones, the c
c
nodes are indjcated on e”, c’, f, e, A-flat, F, D, i.e., lhe sarne interval relationship ofthe c
L
harmonie series in au inverted direction (see Musical Example 14).
r
Following this criterion up to the natural eighth harmonic, there are only two
c
harmonic tones (not counting the coincident nodes) which have the sarne stopped note to E
c
indicate their location (lhe 1/6 node or lhe natural sixth harmonic at its first nodal point G
r
and 1/7 node or the natural seventh harmonic at its first nodal point). In this case, au E

flat is used to indicate both (measure 6 in the sixth staff and measure 7 in the seventh c
(
c
c
r

r
o
o
o
O
82
o
o
staff). The problem must be solved with me indication between a parentheses of the
O
harmonic tone which is supposed to be heard,
..

i.e., the ccncert pitch (see musical

O Example 14).
o
o The musical notation for indicating the location of nodal points is always an
approximation, especially for those located on me nut half side of the string. As an
0 example, the 1) for the 1/8 node cri ffie C string is ou a sharper location than the regular D

(the regular D is that which is tuned to me open D string). This system is not ideal,

however ir works pretty well up to the eighth partial of the series and it is satisfactory for

ffie violonceijo harmonic tone notation. Ifthe sarne criterion is used to indicate nodal

o points other than the concert-pitch nodes for natural harmonics higher than ffie natural
o
eighth harmcnic, there would be many repefitions of stopped notes to indicate different

nodal points and a new system of accidentais wouid be necessary for a more precise
o indication.

The selection of natural harmonics shown in Musical Exampie 14 can be used

with some restrictions. Tliey can be played in succession without too much risk, but those

nades located on the extreines of the string wili need special preparation, particularly

those located on the iower side of ffie string, ifie nut-haif side, e.g., me natural seventh

and eighrh harmonias cri their 117 and 1/8 nodes. 1 have included me natural ninth, tenth,

eleventh and twelfth harmonics only at their concert-pitch nodes, i.e., 8/9, 9/10, 10/11

and 11/12 nodes. 1 do not recommend them at their other nodal poinis for performance.

Musical Example 15 presents the selection of natural harmonics suitable for

performance on ali four strings of me violonceilo. The Iower staff presents the string

range with ffie stopped notes suggested for the indication of nodal points which should

always be acconipanied by the indication of the concert pitches, i.e., the harrnonic tones.

The four strings were put together on We sarne page to show the proximity of harmonic
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tones on ali strings. The string range gives a kind of geographic rnap of the fingerboard.

Through te string range, one will have a better idea of te distance arnong each nodal
O point for harmonic tone performance and te kind of difficulty, in terrns of position

O change, is involved if harmonic tones of te sarne string or othersare cornbined.

O
Natural Harmonics Performed with te
O Double-Node Technique
O
In te flrst chapter, 1 demonstrated that modes of vibration have coincident nodal

points. It was also stated that it is not possible to perfomi a harmonic tone at one or more
O of its available nodal points if tese nodes are coincident with others of iower modes of
o
o vibration. When te regular left-hand technique of performing harmonic tones (touching

one-node) is used, the concert pitch is always that of te lowest mode of vibration, or

partial, which is in te pattern of modes of vibration prescnt when that particular

o harmonic tone is performed. The higher partials or modes of vibration present in that
3
pattern and which have nodal points at te sarne spot on te string, cannot be isolated

from that node. The double-node technique is a way to recover the coincident nodes as
O performance nodes for harmonic tones which are multiples of lower ones.
O
o As it was shown in te second chapter, te double-node technique was proposed
O
by Alexanian 40 as a way to guarantee te production of te natural eighth harmonic at as
O
O 1/8 node. Alexanian suggests that te 1/8 and 2/8 nodes be touched at the sarne time to

O produce that natural eighth harmonic. The 2/8 node is coincident with 1/4 node (a lower
partial or mode of vibration) and therefore it is not possible to produce te natural eighth
O harmonic touching lis 2/8 node alone. Alexanian does not extend this technique to other

O natural harmonics and he sees it only as a way to make sure that this specific harrnonic,

Aiexanian, op. cit.,, 106.

40
 w

o
o
O
85 O

e
which is very difficuIt Lo perform, is going to be heard when iL is perfonned aL its 1/8 O

node. In Lhe following paragraphs, 1 will demonstrate that Lhe double-node teefinique has

more advantages than the one presented by Alexanian.

The doubie-node technique has been developed by double-bass players as weIl. O

Dennis Lane Woodrich in his theses Multi-Nodai Perfomiance Teehnipue for Contrabass o
Harmonics, developed a technique whereby he increased Lo number of possibilities than

Lhe doubie-node touching. This technique can be used for different purposes. In this O
o
study, 1 wilI limit it te Lhe advantages found for Lhe production of harmonic tones up to

Lhe natural eight harmonic (the selection presented in this study as suitabLe for

performance in Lhe violonceilo). 1 wiil also limit iL Lo Lhe technique of touching two O
O
adjacent nodes of Lhe sarne mode of vibraüon. The technique has more interest and o
possibilities for doubie bass players, since in Lhe double bass more natural harmonics than

Lhe ones 1 selected for Lhe violoncelio can be usei The reasons for these limitations iii Lhe
c
violonceilo are Lhe sarne already presented for Lhe one-node touching and are reiated to c
problems of iocating and isolating nodes as well as to space for bow piacement in Lhe

violoncelo strings as compared Lo Lhe doubie bass strings length. The technique as €

described by Woodrich has a simpie principie: “Ali nodes which coincide at any point on C

a string are muitipies oF Lhe sounding, or lowest, node aL that point. Wheri more than one

node is touched simuitaneousiy, Lhe lowest partiai common Lo ali Lhe contacted nodes wiil

41 As au example, if Lhe 1/2 node and Lhe 1/3 node are touched simuitaneousiy,
sound.” C
c
Lhe iowest common mede of vibration or partial is Lhe sixth (see in Figure 9).

The double-node techuique can Ir used to perform any natural harmonic, no

maifer Lhe coincidence of nodes, touching two adjacent nodes of Lhe sarne mode of E
c
Dennis Lane Woodrich, Muiti-Nodal Performance Techniciue for Contrabass
41
Harmonics (Master Lheses, University of California, 1980), 17.
 86

jfl=214=3&=418 =SIlOetc.
1/3 =2/6= 3/9 =4/12 = 515 etc.
=6 (lhe sixth partial or mode of vibration)

Figure 9. The lowest mode of vibrafion or partia! when the 1/2 and 1/3 nodes are
touched simultaneously

e
vibration. li reinforces that specific mode and assures its production as did Alexanian for

the natural eight harmonic at its 1/8 node. It can be applied to any rnode of vibration with
O a combination of two adjacent nodes as a technique lo reinforce Lhe production of a

Q specific harmonic tone.

This technique is also especially useful as a device Lo recover lhe lost coincident
O nodes. It increases lhe possibilities of performance of some of lhe natural harmonics

O selected iii this study as suitable for performance. These natural harrnonics were limited

in terms of number of nodal points available for their performauce due the coincidence of

nodal points. In order lo produce a harmonie tone, which would not be possible aI a nodal
O point that is also part of a common multiple of a lower mode of vibration, lhe coincident

node and an adjacent one of lhe sarne mode must be touched at lhe sarne time. In Table 2,

the number of coincident nodes for partials up to lhe l6th was given ou lhe fourth

column. In Table 3, lhe fractions that show lhe location of these nodal points were given
O
o in lhe sarne cells of their equivalent ones. In Musical Example 12, each coincident node

for each partial up lo lhe l6th of lhe sedes was indicated with lhe partia! and lhe numeric
O fraction for lhe location of lhe nodal point. Musica! Exaruple 14 shows lhe coincidence of

E) nodes for lhe natural harmonics selected as suitable for perforniance on lhe C string.

Musical Example 16 (presented below) shows lhe natural harmonics, up to lhe eighth,

which have coincident nodes and lhe possibilities of their performance with Lhe double
 o.
o
87
e
o
node technique. The fractions that indicate the location of te nodal points and the ones

which are coincident are indicated oniy on the C string, on te lowest system (see Musical
0
Example 16). Oniy the natural fourth, sixth and eighth iiarmonic, among te ones selected

as suitabie for performance, lose performance nades due to the coincidence of nodal O
o
points. Of the three, it is the natural sixth harmonic which benefits more from this o
technique. With the one-node touching, the natura] sixth harrnonic caii be played only in

two of the tive performance nodes of the sixth mode of vibration, it looses three of its O
O
nodal points due to the coincidence of nodal poitas. IS we count oniy the combinations e
where both nodes touched are coincident ones, the natural sixth hannonic expands its
possibilities of performance to four (see Musical Example 16, third and fourti’ ineasure of O
O
te fourth system). Iii the cases other than the natural sixti’ harmonic presented in Musical o
Exampie 16, only one of te conibined nodes is a coincident one.

Rernarks on Some Aspects of Plavins Techniuue of

Violonceilo Natural Harmonics

In te review of treatises presented in the second chapter, it was seen that tIiere are

different opinions about te playing technique for harmonic tones. The controversies are

more with regard to bowing technique than fingerboard technique (left-hand technique).

Some teachers suggest that there shouid be no changes in the bow technique when one

plays harmonic tones and others say that the bow shouid be placed in a position closer to

te bridge (te sul-ponticeilo technique). 1 think that many of te controversies around

violoncelio technique are more a matter of taste than any other thing. There are some

principies which must be foliowed by every violonceliist who wants to produce a good

quaiity sound. However, those principies can be applied differently. Different

vioioncellists playing te sarne passage on the sarne instniment produce smail differences

in tone quaiity. In modern violoncelio schools, those differences are not so perceptible as
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they were in eariy centuries. The reasons for that is, arnong other things, the avaiiabiiity

of recordings and the possibiiity for students to travei around te world having contact g
with different schoois. How one combines te bowing parameters, such as pressure, bow- O
o
bridge distance and speed, and also vibrato parameters, such as amplitude and speed,

produces different tone qualities. Therefore, te statements tbat 1 am about to present in

this chapter, as well as what 1 have aiready presented, represent some principies which O
O
must be foliowed by every violonceliist. But also, 1 must say, many of these statements Q

are my opinion and taste. o

On bow technique, to produce a good quality tone, different parameters are

usuaiiy combined. The three basic paraineters are: bow-bridge distance, bow speed and

bow pressure. For te performance of harmonic tones, the general principies of sound

production ou string instruments are the sarne with small variations. 1 do not have many
special recommendations for bow pressure and bow speed ou the playing technique for

te natural harmonies higher than the natural eighth harmonic. When harmonie tones

higher then te eighth are performed, the string is subdivided into so many vibrating parts

tal te sound becomes weak and te noise produced by the friction of the bow hair on

the string is almost louder than te tone produced. Therefore, ia my opinion, bow

pressure for te production of te selected natural harrnonics varies according to te sarne

principies of te regi.ilar technique. However, for te bow-bridge distance 1 do have some

special recomrnendations that wiIl be discussed beiow.

r
4—

Left-hand Finger Placement

lt has aiready been rnentioned that to perform harmonic tones with their best

quality, te left-hand fingers must touch te node at its center. II te finger is not at te
 90

center of Lhe node, the harnionic Lone sf11 sounds but with a loss of quality. Duport
42
suggests that Lhe fingers should be placed in a nearly flat position on the string. WiLh a

flat position of the finger, Lhe location of the center of Lhe node is found faster and

ensures the best quality of sound. The flaL placement of Lhe finger can rnake the hand or

other flngers touch lhe adjacent strings preventing the sympathetic vibration or resonance

of open strings and their partials which is very important for a good sound quality. This

Lechnique can be employed on sarne passages but in most cases iL is Lhe tip of the fingers

that should Louch the nodal points.

Another aspect of Lhe fingerboard Lechnique (Ieft-hand technique) is with regard Lo

Lhe position of other fingers while one is performing a harmonic tone. Alexanian staLes

that only Lhe finger which is performing Lhe harmonic should be placed upon Lhe string.
43

II another finger touches Lhe string, Lhe harmonic Lene may not be produced or if a another

node is touched, a different harmonic tone that is not intended may sound. II’ a succession

of harmonie tones is performed on the sarne string, care should be taken to Iift Lhe former

finger when Lhe next is placed.

Bow-Bridge Distance for Lhe

Performance of Harmonic Tones

The bow-bridge distance has many aspects that vary when it is cornbined with

other bow parameters to produce a good tone quality. The aspects ef Lhe bow-bridge

distance that 1 wiIl discuss here are Lhose which wilI especially affect Lhe producLion of

harrnonic Lenes.

Duport, op. cit., 48.

42

Aiexanian, op. cii, 103.

43
 o
o
o
91
o
o
When a bow-bridge distance (also called te contact point) is determined, it o
affects the presence and strength of partiais. This happens because when bowing on nodes

of a vibration mode, or too dose to them, damps that mode and consequently its multiples

and ali corespondent partiais. The dark tone color of the so called sul rasto, that is done C
.0
placing the bow over or closer to the fingerboard, is due to the damping of modes of

vibration, and correspondent partiais, which are located around te end of te

fingerboard, in te case of the performance of au open strings. The ones emphasized are CD
those of te Iowest modes and their multiples which have nodes away from that spot on
te string (closer to te fingerboard). The bright tone color of te so called sul ponticeilo

effect is due to the placement of te bow in a position closer to the bridge which C
c
emphasizes higher modes of vibration and corespondent partiais. When no special effect c
(such te ones presented above) is not asked, te playing technique is called normal

playing. Variaüon of tone color is still possible in normal playing, no matter if is C

c
indicated with te words sul tasto or sul ponticeilo.

Anoter important concept of bowing technique is te optimum contact point or

optimum bow-bridge distance. The optimum contact point is that where one can get te a

balance sound, i.e., a powerful and good quality sound. In normal playing, te optimum

bow-bridge distance for au open string is halfway between the bridge and te

fingerboard. This is te location of te concert-pitch nodes for partiais around lhe tenth,

i.e., around te 9/10 node. Measuring from the bridge it is circa 1/lo of te string length.

At this point, one gets a balanced sound in terms of presence and strength of partiais. This

optimum point changes progressively when te string is shortened with the stopped notes,

not one new point for each chromatic note of te string range but for sections (group of

positions) of te string range.

 92

The first chapter presented the concept of antinode, the point of maximum

amplitude of a ioop of a mode of vibration. Concerning te fundamental or first rnode of

vibration, which has only one loop, the antinode is located at the sarne location ofthe 1/2

node ( the performance node for te natural second hanionic). The first mode vibrates

only when open strings and stopped notes are performed. This means that, at the antinode

of a ioop is located the nodo ol’ the first multiple of that vibration modo. (soe Figure 10).

For the calculation of te optimum bow-bridge distance for open and stopped strings, the

modo of vibration considered is te fundamental which fias only one Ioop and one

anünode (see Figure 10). This means that there are no other performance nodos. For the

performance of harmonic tones, there wiIl be other nodes, antinodes and loops on the

“first modo of vibration” for each harmonic tone.

For the performance of harmonic tones, the important ioop and antinode for a
decision of 1mw-bridge distance is the loop formed between the concert-pitch nodos and

te bridge (see Figure 10). Therefore, for te natural second hannonic (1/2 node), which

lias two loops, the antinode of te Ioop in te bridge-half side of the string is located at

te 3/4 nodo or te concert-pitch nade for te natural fourth harmonic. Tu another

example, te anfinode of te loop closest to te bridge in te third mode of vibration (the

first mode when te natural third harmonic is perforrned) is Iocated at te 5/6 nodo or te

concert-pitch node for te natural sixth harmonic (see Figure 10). When ahannonic tone

is performed its pitch becomes a kind of “fundamental”, considering tat the modos and

partials lower than it or numerically before it were eliminated and te next partial

sounding with it becomes a kind of “second partial”. Since bowing at nodos damps many

modos of vibration and their corespondent partials, bowing at au antinode of te second

lowest vibration mode involved in a vibration pattem is the worst thing that one can do. It

damps or may eliminate te second subsequent mode of vibration, its multiples and other
 93

modes around that specific antinode. There is no risk to bow at antinodes to perform the

second natural harrnonic since the bow is placed far way from its antinode. However,

froni the natural third harmonic and thereafter, the risk of bowing at an antinode is

greater. The sarne thing can be said for the stopped notes located at this point (concert
pitch node of the natural third harmonie) and thereafter. The string speaking length of

stopped notes are very short from that point and consequently their first vibration modes

have their antinodes on lhe bow-playing area (bow playing area extends from the bridge

to circa 1/5 of the string). For harmonic tones the sarne thing happens, the loops closest to

the bridge of harmonic tones higher than the third have their antinodes in lhe bow-playing
area as well (see Figure 10). C
As stated in lhe paragraph above, harmonic tone performance foiiows lhe sarne

principles as stopped notes in terms of bow-bridge distance. The bow must stay away

from the antinodes which darnps or rnay eliminate almost alI modes of vibration and

correspondent partiais. In order to keep the sarne or lhe closest possible quality of sound
of lhe stoped notes, when harmonic tones are performed, one must find a contact point

for lhe bow that follows lhe sarne mie for normal piaying. The difference is that for lhe

open string and stopped nodes, the Iow-bridge distance is measured in terms of a string’s

speaking length from lhe nut to lhe bridge for lhe open string and from lhe stopped note

to lhe bridge for lhe stopped notes (proportionally circa 1/10 from lhe bridge). In lhe case

of harmonic tones, lhe bow-bridge distance should be measured from lhe concert-pitch

node of each mode of vibration tolhe bridge (proportionaily 1/10 from lhe bridge).

According to these rernarks, lhe following general statement rnay be proposed with regard

to lhe bow-bridge distance for lhe performance of harmonic tones: The higher lhe

harmonic tone, lhe cioser lhe bow should be to lhe bridge.

 94

anünode bow-ylaying area

EEE:Ete

1/2 concert-pitch node

-

antinode
First two modes of

vibration of Lhe natural

zE><ii><i*iD>I
third harmonic

2/3 5/6
concert-pitch nodes

Figure 10 Bow-playing area as related Lo nodes and antinodes of Lhe first two
modes of vibration of an open string or stopped note and Lhe
natural Lhird harmonic

As seen above, Lhe concert-pitch nodes will always define the bow-bridge

distance. This is a very importam observation because in normal playing, when the left

hand moves from a position aL Lhe very end of Lhe fingerboard Lo a lower one closer Lo Lhe

nut, violoncellists are trained Lo move Lhe bow Loward the fingerboard. That cannot be

considered when harmonic tones are performed. WhaL must always be considered is Lhe

partial and not Lhe position of Lhe left-hand on Lhe fingerboard. A good experiment is Lo

perforin Lhe natural eighth harmonic at its concert-pitch node (7/8), find a bow bridge

distance with a good quality of sound, and then move Lhe hand Lo Lhe other nodal point for

Lhe sarne harmonic Lone progressively, i.e., Lo Lhe 6/8, 5/8, etc. (Lhe coincident nodes

should be performed with Lhe double-node technique). The bow-bridge distance for all
 95

nodes of te sarne harmonic tone must be the one found for the concert-pitch node and

the location of the left hand on te fingerboard should not be considered. If the bow is
always kept at te sane contact point for te performance of the sarne hanuonic tone at

any of its possible nodal points, mie will see that there is not very much difference in

sound quality if te sarne harmonic tone is perforrned at its concert-pitch node or at any

other of its possible perfomiance nodes.

c
The performance of higher natural harmonics, other than the ones selected in this

study as suitable for performance, is especially difflcult because of te bow-bridge

distance. One rnust have an absolute control of te direction of the bow to keep it aL the

sarne contact point. The mode of vibration for tese harrnonic tones does not allow very

much space to work with bow placement. The ioops are too small. The antinode or nodes

cmi be touched with a slight change of te bow direction. The optirnum bow-bridge

distances for each hanuonie tone are too dose to that of others and any slight deviation of

te bow will affect te quality of the sound or even produce a different harrnonic tone

than te mie intended (this will discussed below).

There is one more topic related to bow-bridge distance that 1 want to mention, te

“secondary harmonics. This terrn was created by Richard Payton’M to name a technique

developed by him to perform harmonic tones. In my opinion, this technique is not

applicable to violoncelo owing to its shorter string Iength as compared to te double

bass. However, 1 think it should be mentioned here that the secondary harmonics can be a

problem for the performance of harmonic tones and te sul ponticelio effect as well. lii

te paragraphs above, 1 have stated that when te bow approaches te bridge te higher

partiais are emphasized and te sul ponticeilo effect is te result. 1 will not present te

Payton, op. cit., 52-58.

44
 96

details of this technique since 1 am not recommending ir for the performance of the

violoncelio harmonic tones. The technique developed by Payton suggests that on te

double bass it is possible with Lhe bow placement and some variation of bow speed and
pressure, i.e., without changing Lhe left-hand finger from a node of a lower partial, Lo

perform another harmonic tone which is one of the partial multiples of that lower one. In

olher words, it is possible to perform a harmonic tone that is one of Lhe multiples of a

lower harmonic tone. As an example, if Lhe natural third harmonic is being performed aL

any of its nodal points, with a change of Lhe bow-bridge distance towards Lhe bridge and

reducing Lhe bow pressure, Lhe modes of vibration and consequent paitiais which vibrate

with it (6, 9, 12, etc.) can be isolated to be performed as another harmonic tones without

changing Lhe left-hand finger. On Lhe double bass, Lhis technique may be possible since

there is more room for Lhe bow placement and more visual clues for bow placement. On

Lhe violoncelo, 1 do not think that this technique caii be used for performance situations.

It cmi be done with patience and inany attenipts. I{owever, as a possibility it can occur
when it is not our intention. It is also a mistake when Lhe sul ponticelio effect is being

perfonned and Lhe fundamental is losL, i.e., one of Lhe higher partials is so loud Lhat ir

overpowers Lhe fundamental, or Lhe fundamental is compleLely eliminated. Because of

Lhis, a correcL choice of bow-bridge distance and an absolute control of bow direction

keeping it exarnly ar Lhe sarne contact point are two requirements for Lhe perforniance of
harmonic tones, especially for Lhe higher ones, which are not to be overestimated.

The following statement summarizes this section; te bow-bridge distance for Lhe

performance of hannonic tones is always Lhat of Lhe concert-pitch node of each type of

harmonic Lone and Lhe higher Lhe harrnonic tone Lhe closer Lhe bow should be to lhe

bridge.
 ‘-3

G
o

Natural Harmonics as au Aid to Facilitate O

the Performance of Stopped Notes

As it was seen in the second chapter of this study, natural harmonic tones were
first used by violoncellists and composers of the earlier centuries and it is still used today C
as a device to facilitate technical problenis such as playing of wide intervais, locating
c
€
pitches in te higher positions on te fingerboard, and facilitating position changes in

which one of the coinbined notes can be also played as a harmonic tone.

Besides their special tone color, natural harrnonics (especially on the violoncello
c
thumb positions) work as au aid for locating positions. It is a conimon practice among

string players, before starting to play a musical phrase, especially in die upper positions, C
to lightly touch a harmonic to locate a note in a position prior to playing it or an

neighboring one as a stopped note. Ida Roettinger Kaplan suggests the use of natural

harrnonics as reference for the location of positions on the fingerboard. She developed a C

series of exercises based on te location of natural harmonics for students to acquire a C

better visualization of the fingerboard or a kind of geographic map of the fingerboard.
45

Algo, natural harmonics help te position change technique due to one of their

special peculiarities. When one lifts a finger which was playing a harmonic tone and at C
te sarne time keeps the bow nioving, the hannonic tone is sustained for a short time

before the fundamental dominates te string vibration. II the note from which te position

change starts can also be performed as a harmonic tone of sarne concert pitch, than tis

peculiarity of harmonic tones can be used. Perforrners can lift te finger, which was c
playing a stopped note, from te string while the harmonic tone of the sarne concert pitch

keeps te note sounding. In tis short period of time when no fmger is kept on te string, Ç

E:
45 Roettinger Kaplan, “Fingerboard Geography for ‘Cellists,” American String
1da
Teacher (Surnmer, 1965), 15-16.
 98

the hand can be moved Lo another position without any portamento while Lhe first note (a

harmonic tone in the place of a stopped note) still sounds.

Intonation of Natural Harmonies

lii te first chapter and at Lhe beginning of Lhis chapter, 1 have already discussed

Lhe characteristics of harmonie tones with regard Lo intonaLion. They are members ci’ Lhe

natural harmonic sedes and therefore their pitches and intervals have Lhe characteristics
of Lhe harmonic sedes. String players have tded Lo develop techniques to make it possible

to adjust Lhe pitches of harmonic tones Lo different Luning systems. One of Lhese

Lechniques which 1 have had Lhe opportunity to study, is the “pulled han’nonics”
46
developed by Bertrain Turetzky, a double bass player and teacher. Turetzky states Lhat he

develops this technique from one used by blues guitarists and jazz doubJe bass players.

Pulling Lhe string to Lhe side makes it possible Lo change Lhe pitch of a tone from a

microtone Lo more than a half-step. He sees in Lhis technique, among other uses, a way Lo

solve probiems of Lhe intonation of harmonic tones. 1 have experimented with this

Lechnique in te performance of Lhe violonceilo harmonics and do not recommended it as

a Lechnique to solve Lhe problems of intonation for Lhe performance of Lhe violoncello

hanuonic Lones. First of ali, Lo stop Lhe string with a left-hand finger it is not necessary Lo

press iL against Lhe flngerboard. Ii’ Lhe string is puiled or pushed Lo Lhe side wiLh a certain

degree of pressure, Lhe string is stopped as weil. In some of Lhe left-hand placement of

fingers, in the normal technique, it is necessary Lo perform one or more notes pulling Lhe

sLring to Lhe side instead of pressing iL down to Lhe fingerboard in order Lo make it

possible to set aH Lhe fingers in a posiLion. To execute Lhe “pulled harnionics”, a very tine

Bertram TureLzky, The Contemporarv Contrabass (Berkeley: University of

46
California Press, 1989), 129-128.
 99

contrai of left-haud finger pressure on Lhe string is a must, Lo keep the harmonic tone
being performed from becoming a stopped note. The problem of having a stopped note

instead of a harmonie when Lhis Lechnique is used, vau be, Lo a vertam point, controlled

with Lhe bow placement, i.e., moving Lhe bow toward Lhe bridge. The result is that Lhe

pitch is raised but Lhe sound quaiity changes as well. The technique is very interesting as

one more special effect Lo enrich Lhe perforinance of string instrumenis. However, as a aid

Lo solving problems of intonation of harmonics 1 do not recornmend it due Lo Lhe problem

presented above.

Natural harmonics should be used with care, depending upon which pitches and

instruments they are Lo be combined with. There are many musical situations in which
Lhey can be used withouL great intonation pmblems, such as au unaccompanied passage or

work. However, an entire passage ar a sedes of natural harmonics in unison with a piano,

which is Luned wiLh Lhe equal Lemperament system, would be a disaster. In extreme cases

concerning intonation problems, Lhe only solution is Lo change Lhe type of harmonics, i.e.,

from natural to artificial, because Lhe latter has a flexible Luning, since Lhe artificial or

movable nut vau be moved back and forth Lo adjust Lhe inLonation.

1 have included Lhe natural seventh harmonic, as one suitable for performance.

which is not usually included in harmonic tones “charts of Lhe violoncello” strings due its

probiems of intonation. 1 think we vau use iL in the same way we use other natural

harmonics, i.e., with Lhe same precaution. A tuning system based on two or more pure
intervals of Lhe harmonic series is limited for some Lonalities. An interesting characteristic

of Lhe Lhese systems is Lhat they work pretty well for chords or double stops because of

Lheir beatless characterisLic. However, for melodic passages they sound weird, specially

Lhe leading tones in Lhe tonal system. The sevenLh combines with other harmonics of Lhe

sarne string or au adjacent one sounds pretty well. The seventh is out of tune as other
 100

pitches of the harmonic sedes are when compared to different tuning systems; however,

they can be used if some precautions are taken as it was pointed out above with regard to

the different situations or combination of instruments.

 101

CHAPTER IV

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL STUDY OF THE ARTIFICIAL HARMONICS

OBTAINABLE ON flIE VIOLONCELLO

Each time a finger stops a string, it produces a fundamental and its partials. Iii

artificial harmonic Lenes, afie finger staps Lhe string tu produce a fundamental, which

works as mi artificial or movable nut. A second finger touches one of thc nodes of a mode

of vibration which are related to that fundamental producing an artificial harmonic. The

artificial harmonics are a transposition from a natural nut to an artificial une, i.e., they

have their equivalents in the natural harmonics. However, Lhe artificial harmonics have

still more limitation than Lhe natural ones with regard Lo their number of types. The fact

that one finger is used Lo produce a fundamental, different from the natural harmonics in

which Lhe fundamentaIs are open strings, limits Lhe artificial harmonics to a few

possibilities. They are limited to Lhe ability of Lhe hand and fingers Lo stretch out. Iii

Chapter ifi, it lias been said that Lhe longer Lhe string, Lhe better and easier it is Lo play

natural harmonics and, that in this sense, Lhe double bass has the best potential for natural

harmonics as compared Lo other instrurnents of Lhe violin family. This is not true for

artificial harmonics, since Lhe hand and fingers are, in a certain way, restricted to one

fingerboard pasition with Lhe finger that stops Lhe string for Lhe artificial nut. On longer

strings, Lhe physical distance of any interval naturally is larger than on shorter strings.

Therefore, 011 an instmment with shorter strings than Lhe double bass or violoncelio such

as Lhe violin, iL is easier and offers more possibilities for Lhe production of artificial

harmonics.
 102

A Theoretical Study of Artificial Harmonics

To establish which artificial harmonics are possible ou Lhe violoncelio, it is
necessary Lo analyze which intervais are possible Lo perform in Lhe sarne position with or

without extension on the sarne string, at different parts of Lhe fingerboard. After a certain

point on the fingerboard, the hand and fingers can reach even au octave or more on the

sarne string with Lhe use of extensions. Since the artificial harmonics are a transposition

of Lhe possibilities of natural harmonics Lo a stopped fundamental, iL is necessary to

analyze Lhe intervais between Lhe natural nut and Lhe nodal points of Lhe natural

hasrnonics Lo deteniiine which ones are possible Lo perforrn as artificial harmonics.

The natural second harmonic is located at Lhe center of Lhe string and therefore,

one octave from Lhe natural nut. Since it is possible Lo perform octaves on Lhe sarne string

on Lhe bridge-half side, iL means that in terms of intervals it is possible to perform Lhe
natural second harmonic and ali other harmonie Lenes that have nodal points on Lhe nut

half side of the string as artificial harmonics. The nodal points of natura] harmonics

located after Lhe natural second harmonic (on Lhe bridge-half side) have more thau one
octave interval from Lhe natural nut and are repetitions of Lhe ones produceil on Lhe nut

half side of Lhe string. For this reason and Lhe technical difficulties involved in stretching

Lhe hand for more than one octave, 1 will not consider (for transposing them Lo au

artificial nut) Lhe nodal points of natural harmonics that are more than one octave from

Lhe natural nut of open strings. Limiting Lhe artificial harmonics Lo intervais of au octave

or srnaller (between Lhe artificial nut and Lhe finger Ihat touches a node), Lhe next step is
Lo transpose Lhe natural harmonics present ou Lhe nut-half side of Lhe string for au

artificial nut and determine which are suitable for performance. Table 4 analyses alL

harmonics (from Lhe selection of naturaIs) located at Lhe nut-half side of a string. The first

colunm gives their classification as partiais and nodal points. The second column gives
 o
o
o
103 a
o
Table 4. Natural Harmonies Present 011 the Nut-half Side of a String o
Lo be Transposed to an Artificial Nut o
o
o
Classification as Partiais Musical Intervai Between the Musical Interval a
and the Location of Lhe Natural Nur (Open String or Between Lhe Natural Nut \2

Nodal points from Lhe Fundamental) and Lhe and Lhe Stopped Note e-,

Middle of Lhe String Lo Concert Pitch Used for hidication of

c
1’

Lhe Nut Lhe Nodal Point

Second ar its 1t2 node Octave Octave 6

c
Seventh at its 317 nade Two actaves and a minor Minar seventh 6
6
seventh
6
Fifth at its 2/5 node Two octaves and a major Major sixth 6
6
third c
6
Eighth ar its 3/8 nade Three octaves Minor sixth 6
Third at its 1/3 node One octave and a perfect fifth Perfect fifth c
r
Seventh at its 2/7 node Two octaves and a minor Diniinished fifth L
ce
seventh L
6
Fourth ar its 1/4 node Two octaves Perfect fourth
r
Fifth ar its 1/5 node Twa actaves and a major Major third
6
third 6
r

Sixth at its 1/6 node Two octaves and a perfect Minor third 6
6
fifth e
L

Seventh ar its 1/7 nade Two octaves and a minor Minor third 6
6
e
seventh
e
Eight ar its 1/8 nade Three octaves Major second
6
(
6
6
c
(
(
 104

their musical interval from Lhe natural nut to Lhe concert pitches, and third column gives

their intervala from the natural nut to Lhe stopped notes where Lhe nodal points are

located.

Table 5 gives Lhe transposition and classification as artificial harmonics of alI

natural harmonics presem on Lhe nut-half sitie of Lhe string, selected in Chapter III. The

name given to Lhe different types of artificial harmonics, as seen in Chapter 1, comes from

Lhe interval between Lhe two fingers involved in Lhe performance of each type of artificial

harmonic, i.e., Lhe stopped fundamental for Lhe artificial nut and the stopped note over

Table 5. Artificial Harmonics Theoretically Possible as

Transposition of ali Natural Harmonics Presem
on Lhe Nut-half Side of a String

Classification as Artificial Harrnonic Musical Interval Between Lhe

Artificial Nut and Lhe Concert Pitch

Artificial octave harrnonic Octave

Artificial seventh harmonic Two octaves and a minor seventh
Artificial major-sixth harmonic Two octaves and a major third
Artificial minor-sixth harmonic Three octaves

Artificial fifth harmonic One octave and a perfect fifth

Artificial diminished-fifth harmonic Two octaves and a minor seventh

Artificial fourth harmonic Two octaves

Artificial inajor-third harmonic Two octaves and a major third

Artificial minor-third harmonic Two octaves and a perfect fifth

Artificial “minor-third” harmonic Two octaves and a minor seventh

Artificial major-second harmonic Three octaves

 .0

o
o
105

which a nodal point is found. The third column of Table 4 becomes Lhe second column of o
Table 5. The criterion used to name artificial harmonies works pretty well up to a minor

third interval between the artificial nut and Lhe nodal point (tenth and eleventh rows of

table 4, and tenth and eleventh rows of Table 5). However, after the first minor third, the C
intervais started Lo be repeated and another criterion would have to be found. Alter the

eighth partial they are ali major or minor seconds. Since in my selection of artificial

harmonics suitable for performance presented below, 1 am not suggesting partials higher C
than the fifth and since this problem occurs oniy once (for the sixth partial and one of Lhe
a
c
possibilities for Lhe seventh partial) which are not selected for performance, 1 ani keeping

Lhis criterion to name artificial harmonics. It should be clearly understood that Lhe G
c
foliowing possibilities are theoretical, and not all are suitable for performance.

In Musical Example 17, Tabie 5 was applied to an artificial or movable nut, a d

on Lhe second string where ali are possible in terms of intervals between the artificial nut C

and the nodal point. The numeric fractions between the staves indicate the partial and its C
location from the artificial nut.
E
Artificial Harrnonics Suitable for Performance
The next step will be to determine what is suitable for performance. The
limitations imposed on Lhe selection of natural harmonics suitable for performance were

especially due to Lhe proximity of nodes alter Lhe eighth partia! ou Lhe string of a

violonceilo. Another technical limitation for natural hannonics was Lhe space for

optimum bow placement with regard to bow-bridge distance. In artificial hannonics, Lhe

string is shortened by Lhe artificial nut and therefore, these problems are still worse and

that is Lhe reason why Lhe selection went down to Lhe fifth partial. From Lhe eleven types

of artificial harmonics preseut in Lhe theoretical study in Musical Example 17, 1 have
 106

selected five types of artificial harmonics suitable for performance (as shown in Musical

Example 18).

8w— 8w—
o a
Ia
o
Concert Pitci
-

tto
) 1/2 3/7 215 3/8 1/3
A
‘a
Notation a,—
Ir—’
-
o — - ——
7-,
o:
T1
& no- a0 110 - £10 flO

Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial

Octave Seventh Major-Sixtb Minor-Sixth Fifth
Harmonic Harnionic Hannonic Harmonic Harmonic

8w
A
e
—
Ite o
-la
-r

1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8

A

—II T7-1k”
& Li O 110 ii ii o a o a o s-’

Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial

Diminished-Fjfth Fourlh Major-Third Minor-Third Minor-Third Major-Second
Harmonic Harmonic Harnionic Harmonic Harrnonic Harmonic

Musical Example 17. Theoretical possibilities for artificial harmonics with te

fundamental d’

The artificial octave, major-sixth, fifth, fourth, and major-third harmonics shown

iii Musical Example 18 are reliable to be used in perforinance situations. The otber types

presented in Musical Example 17 may be played, but not with te security required in a

concert situaüon where players do not have very much time for preparation before
 o
o
o
107 O
o
playing a harmonic tone. The five types selected may be used. However, some c
observations about each one of them wil] give a better description of their applicability.
O
c
O
O
Concert Pitch
A -O
o
O
e)
1/2 2f5 1/3 1/4 1/5 O
e
A
‘a
Notation e
xn
II o .LL O LI O IS O Ulft,
Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial Artificial c
Octave Major-Sixth Fifth Fourth MaJor-Third €
Harmonic Harrnonic Harmonic Jiarmonic I-Iarmonic c
c
c
c
Musical Example 18. Selection of artificial harmonics suitable for performance
c
e

c
Employment of The Artificial Octave Harrnonic

As said before, Lhe use of each type of artificial harmonic is restricted especially

dueto Lhe ability of Lhe fingers and hand to stretch. Musical Example 19 presents the

string range in which te artificial octave harmonic can be employed.

The criterion for determining tIte range that Lhe artificial octave harmonic can be

employed was te ability of an average-size left-hand to stretch out and to separate two

fingers (thumb and third finger) by an interval of one octave on te sarne string. Also, the

tone quality was considered in establishing the range, since in shortening the string fite

space for optimum bow placement becomes so sntall that te harmonic tones are not
reliable to be used in a performance situation. The more complex te technique to be

employed in performance, te more preparation time is necessary Lo produce ii The

 108

artificial octave, major-sixth and Íifth harmonies are performed with difflcult extensions

and special time is required to position the bow and fingers. Since the artificial octave

harmonic is produced with the second partial, it is the one with the better quality of

sound; however, it is the rnost difficult for performance due to the large extension

involved.

8’-’
—A .0
_—E
Concert Pitch t
ii •0-

String3 8w; Dstring

Gscring - CString
..
Notation .—

9 o. o

Musical Exarnple 19. String range limits for the ernployment of the artificial octave
harmonic

Ernployment of the Artificial Major-Sixth Harrnonic

The artificial major-sixth and major-third harmonics are produced with the sarne

partia!, see Musical Exarnple 18. This means that they produce the sarne concert pitch

from the sarne fundamental. Depending on a musical passage, any of the two nodal points

of the sarne mode of vibration with the sarne fundamental may be used. Musical Example

20 shows the string range limits for the employment of the artificial rnajor-sixth

harmonic. As a fifth partial, it is the weakest in terrns of sound quality. Compared to the

other types, the artificial major-sixth harmonic has the smallest string range for
 o
o
o
109 O
o
o
employment due Lo Lhe left-hand fingers extension invoived and due Lo its position in the

series. It is two octaves and a major third from Lhe fundamental or artificial miL.

A -
0
AII
bE e -

Concert Pitch a’

ti

A String D String G String • C String

t
ti
3 +
e
Notation is r —
—“

9 c
c
c
Musical Example 20. String range liniits for Lhe employment of Lhe artificial major-
sixth harmonic
c
c
e
Employment of Lhe Artificial Fifth Harmonic

Example 21 shows Lhe string range limits for Lhe ernploymenL of Lhe artificial flfth

harmonic. From Lhese Lhree firsL types, Lhe artificial fifth harmonic is tlie one closesL Lo a

position of Lhe hand wiLhouL exLensions and therefore, lhe more versaLile. From ali five

types selecLed in this sLudy as suiLable for performance, iL is Lhe one which can be

employed on longest string range. IL is formed with Lhe third partial and iL has a better

sound quality Lhan Lhe major-sixth and a IitLIe more inferior quality than lhe octave. As

compared Lo Lhe artificial fourth harmonic, it has a somewhat better quality of sound, but

it is more difficuit Lo perform.

 110

8.
o

Concen fltch
,.1 iny_
AString Dstring GString , CString
±
A O +
—
— e +
2
p -c
Notation «fl p
—

2 L
J
0 -, 0
L --

& o 170
O
9

Musical Example 21. String range Iimits for the employment of the artificial fifth
harmonic

Employment of the Artificial Fourth Harmonics

Example 22 shows the string range limits for the ernployrnent of the artificial
fourth harmonic. From the five types selected, the artificial fourth harrnonic is ffie one

where quality and difficulty is balanced. Since it is produced with the fourth partia] of the

sedes, it has less quality of sound than the octave and the fifth, however, the left-hand

position is very comfoitable, compared with the other types of artificial harmonics. If it is

performed with thumb and third finger, no extension is necessary. li can be performed in

the neck position with the first and fourth finger, however, this is an extension and the

hand can beconie tired quickly. For a Iong passage, even in the neck positions, the thumb

and third-finger combination seem to be fite more appropriate. The hand placement used

in perforrning the artificial fourth harmonic is the sarne as that to perform an octave in

double stops, which is a requirement and a must in the daily practice of violoncellists. For

this reason, the artificial fourth harmonic is the more reliable one and the most employed

in ffie violoncelo repertory.

 111

c
r
L

1
Concert Pitch

Notation c
9 1
c

1
Musical Exaniple 22. String range lirnits for the employment of the artificial fourth
harmonic c
c
c
Employment of the Artificial Major-Third Harmonic

Musical Example 23 shows Lhe string range limits for te employnient of the
artificial major-third harmonic. As said before, it produces the sarne partial as te

artificial major-sixth harmonic. They have Lhe weakest sound quality of tese five types.

The left-hand placement for te major-third harmonic is not a problem; however, the

node employed is too dose to Lhe artificial nut where there are too many nodal points
dose Lo each other. This maRes its performance not as reliable as Lhe other, li’ Lhe artificial

major-sixth and octave harmonic require a special preparation time for their safe
perforinance due Lo te distance between Lhe left-hand fingers. Lhe artificial major-third

harmonic requires a special preparation time for its safe performance due Lo Lhe large

number of nodal points around te one that must be touched for its production. The

fingering may be a combination of first and fourth fingers in te neck positions or thumb

and second finger in any part of te fingerboard. The first and fourth finger combination

involve extension. The thumb and third- finger combination seern more appropriate if te

passage starts in Lhe neck position and moves lo Lhe thumb positions.
 112

A o
La
ar
Concert Pitch
e)
A String D String G String C String
A
O e’ 1 O -

Notation 3
11&’
9

Musical Example 23. String range lirnits for the employment of the artificial major
third harmonic

Each one of the artificial harmonics can be practiced in rnany different ways, such

as playing scales with each type of artificial harmonic, transposing easy tunes to be

performed with each type, or playing double stops with the sarne fingers involved in the

production of each type.

Double stop exercises are specially useful to develop the shape of the hand

necessary for the production of each type of artificial harmonics. With the sarne fingering,

which plays each type of artificial harrnonic, it is possible tu play different double stops,

considering the adjacent strings tu the one that an artificial harrnonic is supposed tu be

performed. The double stop exercises develop the correct hand placement tu keep the

distance between the fingers proportionally throughout the fingerboard with the sarne

relationship or intentai between the fingers involved in each type of artificial harmonics.

The folluwing double stops can be used to practice passages of the violoncellu repertoire

in which any of these types of artificial harmonics are used in sequence. The entire

passage can be transposed to double stops as a way tu prepare and establish the Ieft-hand

finger placement. Playing a passage with double stops, one can establish the different

relationship between the two fingers involved at different parts of the fingerboard. The
 113

double stops suggested are shown in Musical Example 24 and are: for the artificial

octave harrnonic, a double stop of a perfect fourth with the thumb placed on the higher

string and the third finger on Lhe lower one, Musical Example 24-a; for Lhe artificial

major-sixth harmonic, a double stop of a tenth with Lhe thunib placed 011 Lhe Iower string
and Lhe Lhird finger ón Lhe higher one ,Musical Exaxnple 24-b; for Lhe artificial fifth

harmonic, a double stop of unison with Lhe thumb placed on Lhe higher string and Lhe

third finger on Lhe lower one, Musical Example 24-c; for Lhe artificial fourth harmonic, a

double stop of an octave with Lhe thumb placed ou Lhe lower string and Lhe third finger on

Lhe higher one, Musicai Example 24-d, also, in Lhe neck position Lhe combination of first

and fourLh finger may be practiced; for Lhe artificial major-third harmonic, a double stop

of a minor Lhird with Lhe second flnger placed 011 Lhe lower string and the Lhumb on Lhe

higher one, Musical Exaniple 24-e, for Lhe neck positions, Lhe combination of fourth and

first finger may be used as well. These double stops wifl be discussed again in connection

with passages of Lhe violoncello repertory involving harmonic tones which will be present

in Lhe last chapter of this study.

The artificial nut created by Lhe thumb or other finger plays a very important role

for a good performance of artificial harmonics. The finger Lhat perfomis Lhe fundamental

must not only be kept down with enough pressure to stop Lhe string but also increase Lhe

pressure proportionally when Lhe artificial nut moves toward Lhe bridge. Near to Lhe

natural nut, Lhe strings are in Lheir closest position, in regard Lo height, Lo Lhe fingerboard
and at Lhe middle, they are very flexible. However, after Lhe middle of Lhe string and

moving toward Lhe bridge, Lhe strings become higher and harder Lo press down. These

characteristics of Lhe strings makes it more difficult Lo perform artificial harmonics in Lhe

positions beyond Lhe middle of Lhe strings. For this reason, iL is important Lo press Lhe
 E
8
I•o)

1)

o
o
c o
o 1
a 1 e
(4, o o
o.
a
e
(a
o o
-e o
. a

z
o (a
9.
O
o-

3
e o o

‘0 0 ‘‘ . o
a
(a
—I a
o o
1 o
a -o
a
a (a

‘4,
 115

CHAPTER V
HARMONJC TONES PERFORMED SIMULTANEOUSLY OR

COMEINED WJTH OPEN AND STOPPED STRINGS

c
A harrnonic tone can be perfonned siniultaneously with other tones in different
ways, with each one of their specific types (natural with natural, artificial with artificial),

with a different type(natural and artificial), with stopped notes or open strings. They can

be performed iii combinations of two, three ar four strings. Each one ar these

combinations has its possibilities and limitations which will be discussed in this chapter.
•1

Natural Harrnonics Combined with Theniselves

c
Natural Double Harmonics
The natural harinonics of adjacent strings can be perforrned as double harmonics,
i.e., they can be performed simultaneously to produce different intervals. The

cornbinations of two natural hamionics of adjacent stiings have ilmitations with regard to
what partiais can be combined and also with regard to the spatial distance between the

different nodal points of each natural hanuonic, i.e., the lirnits that the left-hand fmgers

can reach in mie position of the different parts of the fingerboard. The following section

will establish these lirnits. These and other limitations imposed on the performance of

harnionic tones in this study are according to what was established in Chapter ifi, when,

for the selection of natural harmonics suitable for performance, the first limitations were

established in this study.

 116

Limits for Partial Combinations

In the discussion of technical problerns for the performauce of harmonic tones, 1

have said that there are optimum bow piacements for the production of each harmonic
tone, which are related to the distance from the concert pitch node of each partial and the

bridge. Ii’ two harmonic tones on different strings are performed at the sarne time and if

they are different partials, it rneans that there is an optimum bow placement for each one.
In this case, the solution to locate the best bow placement is to find a mid point for ffie

two harmonic tones involved so that botEi wiIl sound. That is the sarne technique used for

the performance ofdouble stops. The difference is that in the performance of natural
double harmonics, there are combinations with greater differences in terms of optirnum
bow placenjent for the tones combined. The technique of finding the rnid point for the

two partiais involved has its limits. Some combinations of partiais for the production of

natural double harrnonics are not possible because of their different bow-bridge distance.

In order tu find what combinations wiIl be possible, 1 have put together the harmonic

series of each open string, up to the twelfth partial (see Musical Example 25).

In Musical Example 25, 1 have included partials number 9 to 12 as 1 did in the

selection of natural harmonics suitabie for performance circumstances. However, 1 do not

suggest any combination of double harmonics for those partiais other than with the sarne

partial of au adjacent string, i.e., natural ninth harrnonic with natural ninth harmonic,

tentEi with tentEi, and 50 forth. In my opinion, natural ninth to twelfth harmonics are
already 80 difficult to perform due to the problern of the bow-bridge distance and the
proxirnity of so rnany nodal points that combining them with other natural harrnonics is

not recommended. Partials number 7 and 8 also need some consideration relative Lo

combining them with other partiais. First of ali, natural seventh and eighth harmonics

should not be cornbined with natural second hamionic, due to the great difference
 117

natnng
A O 8”’
A o = o # #e
I)ij
lo 1” 1 I
D String 8”’
o. -

9:0
GStzing
l I 1° I V’ I ti° I
$ e
,
1 1 lo J
0 jn

CString
): c
o
1 1 1 4I le fro ‘.
p
c
1 2
c
Partia! Numbers
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 c
(
(
r
Musical Example 25. Hannonic series of Lhe four strings up to the twelfth partia!
c
c
c
c
between their bow-bridge distance. They can be cornbined with other natural harnionics,

however, at their 1/8 and 1/7 node they are very difficult Lo perform due to Lhe proximity
of other nodal points as it was mention in the selection of natural hannonics suitable for

performance. Combinations that involve Lhe natural seventh and eighth harmonics at their

1/8 and 111 nodal points are not impossible and should be avoided. These two harmonic

tones are better performed at their nodal points on the niiddle of Lhe string. The natural

sixth harmonic is also better performed at other nodes, i.e., with the double-node

technique, than at its 1/6 node. Other that those limitations in temi of partiais, Lhe partiais

presented in Musica! Example 25 can be combined Lo produce many different intervais.

From Musical Example 25, one can choose combinations of partials, considering Lhe

exceptions presented above. The next step is Lo find at which nodal points a specific

combination can be performed.

 118

The Limits of Reach (Extension) for me Left-hand Fingers in One

Position at Different Parts of the Finperboard for the

Performance of Double Natural Harrnonics

ne,
After deciding from Musical Exaniple 25 which partials one wants to combi
nics)
the next step isto find out from Musical Example 15 (the selection of Natural harmo
al
which nodal points for those partiais are available and their spatial distance. Music
and
Example 15 also gives the stopped notes over which the nodal points are located

should be written. From the stopped notes, one can have a clear idea of the spatial

distance between the nodes of each natural harmonic.

The distance that the left-hand fingers can reach at different parts of the
of
flngerboard was partly discussed in Chapter IV, when the limits for the performance

each artificial hannonic in tenns of string range were presented. Musical Example 26

shows lhe limits that lhe left-hand flngers can reach in one position on the sarne string at

different parts of the fingerboard. The lowest note of each chord represents the C string

and the highest note the A string. The traditional classification ofpositions do not

number lhe thumb positions, i.e., when the thumb is placed on the string. In order to

establish the limits the left-hand fingers and thumb can reach in one position of the
as
different paris of lhe fingerboard, 1 have classified each half step on the string range

one posilion. This classification of positions starts from the first half step after lhe open

string, which is lhe first position, up to one octave and a perfect-fifth from lhe open
b-flat
string, which is lhe nineteenth position. As an example, in lhe first position (from a
fourth on
on lhe A string), lhe left-hand fingers can perform intervais up to an augmented

lhe sarne string (see Musical Example 26). The two fingers to he used are chosen
or
according lo lhe intervais to be performed. For lhe Jarger intervais thumb and third
of
fourth finger may be used. To determine which combinations are possible in terms
 119

Strings
A lia . Intervais up to an augmented
fourth on the sarne string
lst. Pos. 7B ‘ 1.
. 3 ti —

c
n Intervais up to an augmented
2nd. Pos. 9: fourth on the sarne string
ti —.———

n—
—o
o Intervais up to a perferct
3rd. Pos. 9: p-____ —1 -
fifth ou the sarne string
L (
__—ll Intervais up to a perferct
4th. Pos. q:
—
—.--
fifth ou the sarne string
p—__
o—

a Intervais up to a minor
. —
5th. Pos.
.
7 ti
sixth on the sarne string
—
‘3 —.-

(
Intentais up to a minor
óth. Pos. 9
lia. i ti sixth on the sarne string
Eg (
(
Intervais up to a major
7th. Pos. IR : —

—
ti

ti
sixth on the sarne string

(
Intervais up to a major
‘D I sixth ou the sarne string
8th. Pos. lia i
Ii
‘ti —
.

ti
:—
(
Intervais up to a minor
9th. Pos. •q
1 a.
ti

ti —
—.—..—.—.—-
ti

ti seventh on the sarne string

(
(

Musical Example 26. Limits that the left-hand fingers can reach in one position on
the sarne string at different parts of the fingerboard
 120

Strings
Intervais up to an octave and a
10±. Pos. perfect fifth ou te sarne string

Intervals up to a major
llth. Pos. seventh ou fite sarne string

Intervais up to au octave
l2th. Pos. ou the sarne string

Intervais up to au octave and

13±. Pos. a minor second ou ±e sarne striug

Intervais up to au octave and

14±. Pos. a major second ou the sarne string

Intervais up to au octave and

15±. Pos. a minor third ou ±e sarne string

Intervais up to au octave and

16±. Pos. a major third on ffie sarne

Intervais up to au octave and

17±. Pos. perfect fourth on te sarne

Intervais up to au octave and a

18±. Pos. augrnented fourth ou te sarne string

Intervals up to au octave and a

19±. Pos. perfect flfth on te sarne string

Musical Example 26. Contiuued

 121

nt string, one
double stops or natural double harmonics, one has to transpose to an acijace
nic tones)
of the stopped notes (where the nodal points are located in the case of harmo
to stretch
involved orjust look at the adjacent string for the equivalent limits. The ability
were
the hand and flngers varies from player to player. The limits proposed here
nd size that
established for the performance of double natural harmonics and for a left-ha
stops and
is not too large. There are some differences between the performance of double
nics, the
double harmonies that would affect these limits. To perforin natural harmo
the string
strings do not have to be pressed down, however, for a good quality sound,
were established
must be touched at the center of the nodal point. Since these limitations
ed partiais
for the performance of double natural hannonics, and since 1 have exclud
stopped at the
number 9 to 12 from other combinations than with themselves, 1 have
(
nineteenth position. (
order to
Musical Exainple 27 iliustrates the directions presented above. In
le, the steps
determine if a specific combination (Musical Exaxnple 27) would be possib
fourth
below were followed. From Musical Example 25, 1 chose partial 4 or natural
the G string (see
harmonic from te C string and partia! 5 or natural fifth harmonic from
harmonics), 1 found
Musical Example 27-a). lii Musical Exainple 15 (selection of natural
Example 27-b)
two nodes for the natural fourth harmonic on the C string (see Musical
Musical Example 27-c).
and four nodes for te natural flfth harmonic on te O string (see
ing tese two
In order to determine which combinations of double harmonics involv
n each
natural harmonics are possible (in terms of te physical distance betwee
can reach in one
combination), Musical Exaniple 26 (te limits that te left-hand fingers
one must first put
position) must be consulted. To check if a combination is possible,
As an example, an
together te stopped notes over which te nodes combined are found.
a B on te O string for
F on te C string for te 1/4 node of natural fourth harmonic and
 122

me 1/5 node of natural fifth hannonic (see Musical Exaniple 27-d). In order to see if a
ine
combinafion is possible in terrns of ffie distance between me nodes, one should determ

which one is in a position closer to ifie nut and then check in Musical Example 26 1mw

far the fingers can reach from that position. In the Musical Example 27-4, presented
see
below, ffie B is ffie beginning of ffie fourl]i position. In musical Example 26, one cmi
me
that from that position me left-hand fingers can reach interva]s up to a perfect tïfth on
one
sarne string. To check the possibilities in terms of adjacent strings, one can transpose

of me stopped notes involved to one string orjust check in Musical Example 26, me
nic
limits of me adjacent strings involved. Since ffie 1/4 node of the natural fourth harmo

located on F is only a minor second, in terrns of spatial distance, from the 1/5 node of the

natural fifth harmonic located on B, one can conclude that it is a possible combination.

The sarne procedure can be used for each one of me possible combination of natura]
me c string and natural fifth harrnonic on G string. Musical Example
fourth harinonic on

27-d shows me possible combinations between these two partials on me c and O strings
.

a) ffl-.Partialsb) sivc)

4 IV-Par
:-
tial4
VIVI
1/4 3/4
I 0ff’

1/5 2/5 3/5

m d) W° 3/4 IVt 3/4

fflÕO

19: I 1 m
2
0 15
IVo 1/4
4/5 W° 1/4

Musica] Example 27. Double natura] harrnonics peiforrned with me natural fourt]i and
natural flfth harrnonics on ifie C string and O string
 123

The natural double harmonics offer so many possibilities (more than six hundred)

that was necessary to establish the system presented above instead of writing down each

one of them. Besides Musical Example 15 (selections of natural harmonics), Appendix A

can be consuited as well, since it is a summary of Chapter ifi and W and presents ali

pitches which are playabie on the violonceilo as harmonic tones with their different

performance possibilities. (
(

Natural Harmonics Performed Simultaneousiy ou

Three and Four Strings

As it was seen before, one of the problems in performing natural harmonics

simultaneously is the different bow-bridge distance required for each harmonic tone. For

lhe performance of two natural harmonics simultaneously, 1 have suggested that partiais

7 and 8 may be used with some restrictions. Tu the case of lhe simultaneous performance

of three and four natural harmonics, 1 do not reconunend any combination which involves

partiais 7 and 8. Partiais 2 to 6 offer many combinations which are liniited to the distance
that fingers can reach at different parts of the fingerboard. Musical Example 28 shows lhe

natural harmonie suitable for simultaneous performance on three and four strings.
1 will not establish here the limits, in terms of spatial distauce, for simukaneous

performance of three and four natural harmonics as 1 did for the performance of natural

double harmonics. II would be necessary, first of ali, to do au individual study of how

further in terms of spatial distance or intervais, each combination ofeach two ieft-hand

fingers can reach at different parts of the fingerboard. However, 1 will make some

observations about lhe left-hand technique that would be helpful in a decision of what is

playable.

The siniultaneous performance of natural harmonics on three and four strings can

be compared Lo Lhe performance of chords of stopped notes, however, some observations

 124

A STRII’4G
±
e —

ConcertPitch
o ±
+ o o —

Notation 9 o
a’
ii
M

D STRING
O O
1°
ConcertPitcF
4 a.

Notation °

4 ,

o
•t’
•1
1 o

G STRING

ConcertPitcl
4 °
o 1
7
p
a.

o
4 p

a
o

Notation , o “

4 o

C STRING

“s.
ConcertPitcl
4 ,
e
tt fl’!
‘ ‘
—

DI
La
e o

Notation 9
L. +
G °
a.
II e
1/6 1/5 1/4 113 2/5 1/2 3/5 2/3 /5 5/6

Musical Example 28. Selection of partiais for simultaneous perforniance of three and
four natural harmonics

are necessaiy. in many chords of stopped notes, the first finger is used as a nut or a kind

of capotasto, i.e., the first finger is extended and placed on a perpendicular position to ali

four strings, whiie other fingers, according to the chord to be perfonned, are placed on
 125

their position. In this case, Lhe first finger is touching Lhe strings behind Lhe notes which

are being stopped by other fingers. Musical Example 29-a shows a Lypicai chord in which

Lhe first finger, not necessary but usua]ly, Louches ali strings. Also, when a chord has

notes on strings which are not adjacent and these notes are in a perpendicular position,

on Lhe sarne haIÈ step of Lhe string, Lhe first finger is usually used Lo stop both notes or

strings (se Musical example 29-b). (

c
c
(
a) b)
r’ nA
.Ifl3 Fo3
I• [__llI a.
1 a’ I (
(
(

Musical Example 29. Chords of stopped notes in which Lhe first finger works as a nut
or capotasta
(
(
Note: The brackets on this and Lhe following examples show which finger or
combinaüon of fingers are in Lhe sarne tine or in a perpendicular posiLion.
(
(
Such techniques cannot be used in Lhe performance of natural harmonics. As we

have seen in earlier chapters, Lhe performance of harmonie Lones requires that only one

finger touches a string at a time when a harmonic tone is being performed, therefore,

anoLher finger cannot touch a sLring in which a harrnonic tone is being performed. Resides

that, Lhe ftrst finger can be used Lo perform two, Lhree or four natural harmonics which

have nodal points on Lhe sarne spot on different strings (se Musical example 30-a). It can

also perform two harmonic tones of adjacent strings, while another finger Louches a third

string. In this case, Lhe first finger cannot Louch Lhe strings where a harmonic Lone is being

(
 126

perforrned with another finger (see Musical Example 30-b, the first finger can not touch

the A string).

a) b)

Concert

Notation

Musical Example 30. Simultancous performance of natural harmonics in which the first
finger is placed on two or more adjacent strings

Another left-hand techuique that is not very much used for the pcrfonnance of

chords of stopped notes but is very useful for the simultaneous performance of natural

harrnonics is the approxirnation or grouping of fingers on the sarne position. In the

tradkional technique, fingers are placed one half step from each other on the sarne string

and they can be extended to reach intervais larger than a half step. These distances are
kept when double stops or chords are performed. The technique of grouping them in a
way that two fingers are placed on ffie sarne half step of the string, i.e., two fingers are

placed in a perpendicular position on two adjacent strings or with one or two string

interca]ating thern, is not used very much (see Musical Example 31-a and b). For the

simultaneous performance of natural harmonics, this technique is very irnportant and it

does not offer ffie sarne technical difficulties that occur when it is used on chords of

stopped notes. Musical Example 32 is an example of this technique applied to the

sirnultaneous performance of natural harrnonics.

 127

a) b) I2
I3
E TÍ2
-I ill°IJ

e
(
Musical Example 31. Chords of stopped notes in which two fingers are placed on a
perpendicular position at the sarne half step of adjacent strings

E
O
Concert Pitch
J e’
1
1÷4
112
Notation 7 111 o 3
Wv 1
(
(
Musical Example 32. Simultaneous performance of natural harmonics in which two
fingers are placed ou a perpendicular position
(
(
This teclinique is especially useful for the simultaneous performance of natural

harmonics. The only problem is the special preparation time required to arrange the

fingers. Musical Example 33 shows some of the possibilities of the simultaneous

performance of natural harmonics on three and four strings. The chords of natural

harmonics can be performed with many different rhythmic figures, in an arpeggio or

simultaneously. 1n the first discussion of hannonic tone notation in Lhe first chapter, 1

have said that the concert pitch nodes of natural harmonies are written either with Lhe

diarnond node head or wjth regular note head wiLh the smail circie over to indicate

harmonic tone. In Lhe case of chords, Lhe diarnond note head for alI harmonics gives more

consistency to their notation.

 Do (6,
co
a
o
1
n
1
o.
4

1 4,
1
1•
1-
1
cn
o
ti 1
o o
O O
zo
o 4 (6,
o
-‘ fl tN PN fl rN fl C\ rN FN fl rN n r r-
 129

Artificial Double Harmonics

In order lo have au artificial double harmonic, it is necessary to make two

artificial nuts. It means that one or two fingers will be necessary to stop two adjacent

strings and one or two ocher fingers touching nodal points on lhe sarne strings. lii this

study, 1 wil discuss only lhe case in which lhe sarne finger is used for lhe artificial nuts,

i.e., when the artificial nuts produce au interval of a perfect fifth as in the natural nuts or

open strings.

As it was demonstrated in Chapter W, artificial harmonics are specially limited by

Lhe distances that fingers can reach in one position at different locations on lhe

fingerboard. Ia lhe case of artificial double harmonics, this limitation increases due to lhe

difficulty lo keeping the finger that stops the string (for au artificial double fluI) in an
exactly perpendicular position on the strings, i.e., keeping lhe tuning of a perfect flfth as

iii open strings. The thumb and first fiager of Lhe left-hand can be used as artificial anIs.

However, lhe thumb is more efficient for perpendicular positioning on lhe slrings and

aliows more extension for lhe other fingers.

Musical Example 34 shows ali theoretical possibilities for combinations of

artificial doubie harmonics from lhe five types of artificiai harmonies selected ia Chapter

IV. Ali possibie combinations are presented without practical consideration. The artificial

nuts chosen for these examples were only for this theoretical study ofpossibilities. Ilis

important to notice that ia some cases, lhe concert pitches of artificial harmonics
produced ou lhe lower strings are higher than lhe ones ou lhe higher string, e.g., Lhe

combination of lhe artificial major sixth-octave double harmonic (third measure of lhe

second system) presents a d’” as lhe concert pitch for lhe D slring and au a” as a concert

pitch for lhe A string.

 130

From Musical Example 34, 1 have selected ffie artificial double harmonics which

are possible according to the sarne criterion used before, i.e., the limits that t.he left hand

frngers can reach in one position at different parts of the fingerboard. These types of

harrnonic tones involve combinations of partial 2 to the partial 5, i.e., they are inside the

lirnits (in terms of partial combination as related to the bow -bridge distance) which

O
A O
La
a
Concert Pitcli
ti

A+ -
Ia ---- - - —A
a’ T r__
Notation tfl
—
•ttJL-.LflVC 1 aIIoInrr%Ivr Ittt_

& °llOctave °ffOctave °

II Major-Sixth° II Octave
a ite
a
A O -o
‘a
W0

ii

A
-lt - - —
1k
•n •tC) —1—

°
iY°-]J Fifth °flOctave -- °
UFourth ilOctave

Musica] Example 34. Theoretical study of possible artificial doubie harmonics with the
five types of artificial harnionics selected in Chapter IV
 131

Ix

e)

“
1 j’p’xW p 1 Major4ixt llv.o i Mi.jnr_Thfr 1 M.flia s’xth
O ° °
Major-Sixth II Fourth II Major-Sixth II Major-Third

40 e —

‘0 o
1
O ° °
llFifth II Fifth ‘-‘
llFourth UFifth
a
dX
=

4
o lii’. i Míiior-Thiri T Fourth
1 FIft1I p
Major-Third ‘-‘
11 Fourth ° II I
ourth
4 II Major-Third

4-
4k LJ
i
fl Major-Third

Musical Example 34. Continued

 132

where established in the study of Lhe natural double harmonics. Some of tem have

different limits (in terms of the string range where they can be used) if they are compared

with Lhe liinics when they are played individually. This is due, as stated in an early

paragraph, that Lhe thumb must stay perpendicular to the strings as in most of Lhe cases,
two fingers are used to touch nodal points.

From Lhe twenty five theoretical possibie combinations presented in Musical

Example 34, 1 have selected fout-teen possibilities of artificial double harmonies. Each

one of these possibilities are shown in Musical Example 35. Another limitation imposed

upon te double artificial nuts is again related Lo the thumb. At the very end of the

fingerboard Lhe strings are higher off of Lhe fingerboard and because thcy are closer Lo Lhe
bridge, they become more rigid. It is already difficult Lo keep one string depressed in this

part of the fingerboard for Lhe performance of one artificial nut and it is still more
difficult Lo keep two strings down for au artificial double nuts. For this reason, Lhe
artificial octave-octave double harmonic becomes especially limited. Each example of

tese types of artificial doubie harmonics have different levei of performance difflcuities.

Specia] care must be taken for Lhe application of all of them in regard to preparation time

for finger placement in their correct locations. Only four of tese fourteen types of

artificial double harnionics do not need finger extensions from Lhe position Lo be

performed, i.e., Lhe major third-rnajor third, Lhe major third-fourth, te fourth-major third,

and te fourth-fourth.

Natural and Artificial Hamionics Performed Simultaneously

To perform combinations of natural and artificial harmonics, one finger touches a

nodal point for a natural harmonic and two others are placed on au adjacent string for Lhe

artificial harmonic. With regard to natural harmonics, 1 do not recommend partials higher

than Lhe sixth due Lo their individual performance difticulties. The artificial major-third
 n. o n o.. o n o.. o n
o o 00 00 o
e
a o o
a tt CD
92. g 2. a a 9 2. 3 CD 9 2.
r r
a

J Ic
-i

a E

- r N r n n rN -‘ fl eN fl fl tN t\ fl fN fl tN rN rN rN N FN rN n CN FN CN FN YN
 134

Concert Pitch
Artificial
fourth-octave
double h

Concert Pitch
Artificial
fifth-fifth
double harmonic

Cuncert Pitch

Artificial
fifth-fourth
double

Conceit Pitch

Artificial
fourth-fifth
double harmonic

Musical Example 35. Continued

 n
o
110
CD
o.

iø( II

IJ3
til

- -\ r r r\ fl rN r, CN r. rN CN fl t fN fl fl IN fN / / rN rN fl (N rN tN fl fl n n n n n r n r r n
 136

A
1 o.. —
a
Concert Pitch nn —

)
Artificial 3’
major third-fourti .inn..L rr
•Ih—
-SI,.-
— II
fl—fl. -—
1
1- - o•
O
—A
1
1-
Ii.?
Fflt
double harmonic —..— II
—- ml 1’ —
‘tu

a
a
a a
Ô n
— —
-n
5-. —
Concert Pitch «1)
Qi
Artificial
major third 4’ R
ii’. OT. .fb
major third •ILS
•fl-.
r1 ‘1
lI ••. Ft5-• —
— 1 O fl
1’ —5
mfl ai
double harmonic 1 II — — —
1$
fflb*r ivL’i&

Musical Example 35. Continued

and major-sixth harmonics also shouid not be combined with a natural harmonic due to
their individual difficulties as weIl. The natural second to sixth harmonic can be

combined with the artificial octave, fifth and fourth hanuonics.

Since the natural harmonics are performed at fixed points on the string, it wilI be

around their nodal points that artificial hannonics of adjacent strings can be performed. It

will be preferable that the artificial nut be in the sarne location of the natural node of an

adjacent string or at a point lower than the natural node of an adjacent string. The reason

for this is because a third finger must be used to touch the nodal point for the artificial

harmonic. Ii’ the artificial nut is in a higher position than the natural node, the thunib can

not be used for the artificial nut. The thumb is the best finger for artificial nuts due to its

longer stretch capability. If the thumb is used for an artificial nut, the other fingers can
 137

reach further notes on Lhe sarne string. ff Lhe thumb can not be used for Lhe artificial nut,
the range of the fingers that are used for Lhe artificial harmonic then become very limited.

It is also recommended Lhat Lhe nodal point for Lhe artificial harmonic be dose Lo Lhe node

of Lhe natural harmonic. II’ they are closer, Lhe thumb can sLretch back to hold an artificial

nur. II tlie artificial nut is too dose Lo Lhe natural node of an adjacent string, Lhe range that

a Lhird finger might touch a nodal point for the artificial harmonics will be very limited.

The technique for Lhe simukaneous performance of au artificial and a natural

harmonic has one more important aspecL. When Lhe artificial hamonic is on a lower

pitched string and Lhe natural one is in a higher one, Lhe thunib Lhat holds Lhe artificial nut

can not touch Lhe adjacent higher sLring. In many cases, Lhe only solution for Lhis problem

is to lift Lhe left-hand and press Lhe string with Lhe tip of Lhe thumb instead of its side as in

normal technique. Also, when Lhe artificial harmonic is on a higher pitched string and Lhe

natural one is in Lhe lower, Lhe Lhumb should Louch only Lhe higher string and not both

strings as in Lhe normal technique, unless Lhe Lhumb is used for boLh Lhe artificial nut and

Lhe nodal point for Lhe natural harmonic. 1 will not present a complete study of all Lhe

possibilities of combination for simultaneous performance of natural and artificial

harmonics. However, Musical Example 36 shows some samples of siinultaneous

performance of a natural and artificial harmonics.

ç
Simultaneous Performance of Harmonic Tones

wiffi Open or SLoDped Strings

The purpose of Lhis section, as in Lhe early ones, is Lo establish Lhe possibilities

and limits for Lhe simultaneous performance of natural and artificial harmonics with open

or stopped strings. Iii Lhe earlier discussion of simultaneous performance of harmonic

Lones, 1 have stated Lhat one of Lhe difficulties performing double sLops, or any oLher

combination of strings, is relaLed to Lhe different bow-bridge disLances required for each
 138

n
A
Ia — - — —a-.—— --
h
a—
Concert Pitch
--

-fl.n-
‘si,---

,)
ifi 3
2
T_ S.L
1TTQ
•I_P 1 •iJ n. •t À

li:)-
Notation “

- 7. “G

Musical Example 36. Samples for simultaneous performance of natural and artificial
harmonics

note involved. When only harmonic tones are being perfortned, this problem becomes

worse due to the fragility of the string vibration pattern, where some inodes of vibration

are eliminated allowing only some of lhe partials to sound. For this reason and lhe

problems of location of nodal points, the limits for natural double harmonics are very

restricted. When open or stopped strings are involved, there are iuany more possibilities

in terms of musical intervals, however, lhe open or stopped strings may have their tone

color affected by bow placement. When lhe highest harmonic tones are combined with

open strings or very low stopped notes, the open or stopped strings will sound with a sul

ponticello effect. Another characteristie of the simultaneous perfonuance of a harmonic

tone and an open or stopped string, is their different sound intensities or loudness, i.e., the

open or stopped string wilI always sound louder than a harmonic tone, and there is

nothing in the bow technique that can control this problem. It is not possible lo have a

different bow pressure or bow speed for two notes that are being played at lhe sarne time.

Besides these problems and risks, lhe simultaneous performance of harmonic tones and

an open or stopped strings offer many possibilities.

 139

In the case of natural harmonics and apen strings, 1 do not recomrnend

combinations which involves natural harmonics higher than the sixth. The problems in

Iocating nades and a correct bow-bridge distance for natural harrnonics higher than Lhe

sixth are afready Loa difficult to allow sirnulraneous performance with open or stopped

strings. The natural second to sixth harrnonics of each string at any nodal point can be

combined with their adjacent open strings. Natural sixth harmonic is better performed

with Lhe double-node technique in Lhe middle of Lhe string than at its two nades located at

the extremes of Lhe fingerboard, i.e., 1/6 and 5/6 nodes.

The sarne observations are true for Lhe simultaneous performance of natural
harmonics and stopped notes. In deciding on a combination of a natural harmonic with a

stopped note, one has to observe Lhe distance between Lhe nodal point and the stopped

note of an adjacent string, i.e., the stopped note must be in Lhe sarne position as Lhe

location of Lhe nodal point or in a neighboring position where Lhe fingers can be stretched

for an extension ofposition. Musical Example 37 shows a few samples of simultaneous

performance of natural harmonics with open ar stopped strings.

‘00 4
0
fl (
1’ ° ° ‘ ll°
( ‘ 1
E
(
c

Musical Example 37. Sarnples of simultaneous performance of natural harrnonics with

open or stopped strings

Artificial harmonics and open strings can also be performed sirnultaneously,

however, Lhe artificial major-third ar artificial major-sixth harmonics offers too much risk
 140

for simultaneous perforrnance with open strings. It is not impossible to combine them

with au open or a stopped string. However, the performance of these two types of

artificial harmonics are alreacly so difflcult that they should not be combined with open or

stopped strings.

The artificial fifth, fourth and octave hannonic offer many possibilities for

combination with au open string. The observations presented above with regard to the

change of tone color of open strings when they are combined with te higher natural

harmonic, are the sarne for their combination with artificial harmonics. A special problem

occurs when au artificial harmonic of a string is combined with a lower adjacent open

string, as seen before, the flnger that is holding the artificial nut caii not touch the open

adjacent string. Violoncellists have to find a position for the nut finger that allows the

open string to vibrate. The solution for this problem is to lift the left hand and press te

string with the tip of te thumb instead of the side which is used in normal techuique.

This position of te hand and thumb cmi become uncomfortable, if it is used for a loug

period of time.

lii the case of simultaneous performance of artificial harmonics and stopped notes,

te difficulties with te artificial major-third and major-sixth harmonics are te sarne.

They cmi be combined with stopped notes. However, there will be a great risk that te

harmonic tone will not sound. As in te combination of natural harmonics and stopped

notes, one has to observe te distance between te stopped notes to be combined and te

nodal points (espevially combinations which involves te artificial fifth and octave

harmonic) which requires that te frngers stretch from their regular positions. When te

third or another finger is extended to reach a nodal point, aIl other fingers but lhe thumb

(which holds te artificial nut) go with it. For this reason, it is te stopped notes of au
adjacent string closer to a nodal point that are preferable. tu te case of the artificial
 141

fourth harrnonic, this observation is not very importam, once this type of artificial

hanuonic is performed in the sarne position, i.e., no position extension is necessary.

Musical Bxaxnple 38 shows a few samples of simultaneous performance of artificial

harmonics with open or stopped strings.

(

(
1÷3 1
[R (YtI ii;’ (4
J
1 1
°

c
(
Musical Example 38. Samples of simultaneous performance of artificial harmonics
with open or stopped strings.
 142

CHAPTER VI
HARMONIC TONES PERFORMED IN ASSOCIATION

W1TH OTHER SPECIAL EFFECTS

Harmonics Tones Perfonned with Pizzicato

Harmonic tones can be performed in association with pizzicato with the normal
left-hand technique of producing hanrnnic tones, i.e., touching one of the nodal points on

the string. However, to produce a good quality harnionic tone with pizzicato on a bowed

string instrument, it is necessary to borrow a technique from the instnrnients which are

plucked, especially the guitar. Michael Lorimer

47 describes in his article on harmonics
for guitar, the technique in playing natural harmonics with pizzicato. He says: “touch the

sixth string just over the twelfth fret with the finger of the left liand, pluck the string with

the right hand, and immediately remove the left finger.”

48 When pizzicatos are
perfonned, the strings are not kept vibrating as when bowed. Therefore, the technique of

guitar players who quickly lift the left-hand finger, frorn a nodal point helps to produce a

sound of better quality and allows the string to vibrate the harmonic tone longer.

In early chapters, it was demonstrated how the bow-bridge distance affects the

sound quality of harrnonic tones and stopped notes. A general rule for stopped notes is
that the shorter the string, i.e., moving the left-hand frngers on the sarne string toward the

bridge, the closer the bow should be to the bridge. Also, in the case of harmonie tones, it

Michael Lorhner, “On harmonics,” Soundboard (FaIl 1989), 27-34.

47
48 Ibid., 27.
 143

is te concert-pitch node that must be considered as to the placement of the bow and not

te location ou the fingerboard the left-hand finger touches a node, i.e., the left-hand

fiuger may be touching a 1/8 nade in the flrst position but the concert pitch nade is

located at the 7/8 of the string length at te very end of te fingerboard. These principies

can be applied to plucked strings with regard to the place where the right-hand fingers

pluck the strings. However, string players avoid performing pizzicato off the fiugerboard,

i.e., in te bowed area. Pizzicato performed in the bowed area has a too bright tane calor

(quasi ponticelio) and is usually avoided. The exception is when pizzicatos are indicated
for stopped notes lacated at the very end af te fingerbaard. Another reason pizzicatas are

not performed in te bowed arca is because the right-hand finger can take aff the rasin

that is an the strings and leave on the strings diii spats and au from the fingers which can

prevent good baw adherence ta the strings. In addition, the only way to perform natural

harmonics higher than the third is ta pluck the strings in the bowed arca, i.e., tite right

hand fingers must move progressively according to the partial toward the bridge. Even for

the lower harmanic tones, there are differences in sound quality or tane colar if strings are
plucked at different spats. Plucking te strings at te middle of the string or over te
E
fingerboard results in a dark tone color.

The Dictionarv of Bawing Terms presents a section dedicated exclusively ta

modern types and techniques ta perform pizzicata.

49 Tt is a description of more than forty
terms and techniques related to pizzicato. 1 have experimented with some af tese types

of pizzicato to see which ones are useful or playable with harmonic tones. Iii fite entry for

pizzicato harmanies, Kenneth Sarch describes auly the left-hand technique presented

(
(
Barbara O. Jackson, Joel Berman, and Kenneth Sarch. Dictionary of Bawing
49
Terms for String Instnrnients ,3rd. Editiou (Bloomington: T.I.S. Enterprise, 1987), 65-73.
The section dedicated to pizzicatos was written by Kenneth Sarch.
 144

° The purpose of this study is to determine which types of right-hand techniques

5
above.

for pizzicato may be used with hannonic tones and their advantages.

Usually pizzicato is not recommended for harmonic tones other than the natural
second and third harmonics. In my opinion, if one follows the recommendation presented

above with regard to where the right-hand fingers pluck the strings, pizzicato of barnionic

tones can be performed up to the natural sixth, including the double-nodes technique for

the natural sixth harmonic. The higher the partial the closer to the bridge the string must

be plucked. Using this technique, pizzicato at te natural fifth and sixth harmonic gives

off a sound with a great deal of the noise from the plucking effect. 1 do not recommend

pizzicatos for artificial harmonics. The noise produced by the plucking of te strings is

much louder than te pitches theniselves.

In te normal technique for performing pizzicato, a right-hand finger is placed ia

lis natural position (not extended or flexed) and te lower part of te finger tip of either

te index or te second finger, is placed on the left side (as viewed from te players

position, higher to te lower strings) of te string while plucking te strings by flexing

and lifting te finger. When li is possible, te right-hand thumb rests on the right side of

te fingerboard. This technique works pretty well ia te performance of te violonceilo

harmonic tones without any major changes. This technique can be used for natural
harmonics selected above as suitable for te performance of harmonic tones with

pizzicato.

Another technique borrowed from guitar technique is called apoyando.

1.n this
51
technique te right-hand finger is extended to pluck te string, pressing it down and

Ibid., 69.
50
51 Ibid., 66.
 €

c
145
E
E
sideways at the sarne time. The finger rests on Lhe adjacent string after the pluck. This ç
technique gives a very strong and deliberate sound to Lhe pizzicato. li is especially useful

forforre dynainics. It can be used with any of Lhe natural harmonics already selected as

suitable for pizzicatos.

The nau pizzicato

52 can be used with natural harrnonics as well. However, most
violoncellists do not have fingemails long enough to perform a pizzicato with only

fingernails. The string can be plucked with Lhe top of Lhe frnger tip in such a way Lhat Lhe

frngernail and finger tip plucks Lhe string. The result of Lhis technique is a bright and

rnetallic sound. 1 have found it very useful for Lhe performance of natural harmonics,
especially for natural harmonics higher than lhe third. There is less noise in Lhe pluck and

Lhe harmonic Lones come out easier. IL has an effeet similar Lo Lhe kind performed with a

guitar pick.

The so called “Bartok Pizzicato” or snap pizzicato may aJso be used on natural

harmonics. WiLh different techniques of Lhe right-hand frngers, the string is lifted and

released Lo snap back on Lhe fingerboard, which gives Lo Lhe pizzicato an additional

percussive snapping sound. It can be used with natural second, Lhird and fourth

harmonics. For natura] harmonics higher than Lhese, Lhe percussive sound of Lhe string

hitting the fmgerboard is much louder than Lhe pitch of Lhe harmonic tone. This is Lhe

only pizzicato from lhe ones presented above that has a special notation sigu other than

Lhe regular pizzicato sign. Musical Example 39 shows Lhe snap pizzicaLo sign on natural

harmonie Lones.

The thumb pizzicato

53 can also be used on harmonic Lones. IL can be used with

Lhe violin position, i.e., from Lhe Iower Lo Lhe higher strings, or in an inverted position,

52 Ibid. 68.

5 Ibid., 72.
 146

from the higher to the lower strings, in which the thumb has to be flexed to pluck t.he

strings frorn the left side. In this second case, the sound heard is a very gentie attack. Both

techniques can be used with hannonic tones.

à
Ó à (a)
[-9: o (°) 1
filo
Ivo

Musical Exainple 39. Snap pizzicato on harmonic tones.

Harmonic Tones Performed with the Col Legno Teehnigue

The Dictionary of Bowing Terms also presents a special sections dedicated to 20-

54 According to Kenneth Sarch only the wood of the bow is used

century bowing terms.

in ffie pure col legno technique, i.e., the bow hair does not touch the string. The wood of

the bow stick can be drawn over the string or hit the string. He presents nine variations of

this technique. 1 have experimented performing natural harmonic tones with many of

these clifferent types of ccl legno technique and the following are my conclusions of the

ccl legno technique combined with natural harmonic tones.

First of all col legno technique produces other pitches when tapping or hitting the

string with the wood of the bow stick. These pitches are not lhe actual written ones, and

55 The strike tones vai>’ according to the place where lhe bow hits
are called strike tones.

Ibid., 55-63. The section on 2Oth-century bowing terms was also written by
54
Kenneth Sarch.
55 Ibid., 62.
 c
(
c
147
E
the strings (the closer to the bridge, te higher Lhe strilce tones). As seen before, harmonic

tones are weaker, in terms of loudness than stopped notes. When natural harmonic tones
are performed with the col legno technique they have to compete with the percussive

noise produced by the bow stick hitting te string and te strike tones. Because of that,
c
c
te col legno technique combined with harmonic tones does not offer a very good effect.

The natural harmonic tones will sound, however, they are very weak when performed in (
ç
combination with te co! legno technique. They can be used, however, with a lot of care (
in terms of dynamics and combination of instruments.

Ccl legno baituto works with natural harmonics but it has te limitations
c
presented above, i.e., te harmonic tones are too weak. Co! legno tratto is performed by (
drawing te wood of te bow stick over Lhe string. This technique does not present strike
tones, however, it does not offer enough bow friction to woduce a harmonic tone. 1 do not

recomrnend cal legno tratio to perform natural harmonic tones. HaJf ccl legno half arco
-
(
offer te best results wit harmonic tones. This technique is performed by drawing te

bow with boffi te wood of te bow stick and te bow hair at te sarne time. The other

variations presented in Lhe Dictionary of Bowing terms are not suitable for performing (
E
harmonic tones, and 1 will not discuss them here.
E
Harmonic Tones Performed with Glissandos

Glissando using harmonic tones can be performed with natural or artificial ones.

Each one of tem produces a different effect tat will be discussed below.

Natural harrnonic tones do not produce a glissando in te sense of a true

portasnenta, i.e., a continuous movenient from one pitch to anoter without stopping for
any of te pitches between te starting and ending ones. Glissando with natural

harmonics can be compared wit Lhe ones produced by harp or piano. It is a rapid

succession of single pitches.

 148

To perform a glissando of natural harmonics, violoncellists use one finger that

slides over the string without pressing it down. Performing this way, it is not possible to

determine which natural harmonics will come out. As was seen iii carlier chapters, there

are mauy more nodal points ou the string taxi the nodes correspondent to lhe harrnouic

sedes which 1 have called concert-pitch nodes. It was also demonstrated that to produce

these natural harmonics, there is au optimum bow placement for each one. It is not
possible to change the bow-bridge distance with a rapid succession ol’ pitches. Therefore,

it is not possible to determine exactly which ones will come out in a glissando of natural

harmonics. The indication of te harmonic sedes (only the concert-pitch nodes) of au

open string with fast rhythniic figures is found in the violoncelio repertory as au

indication of glissando of natural harmonics. This type of writing glissando of natural

harmonics does not correspond to what actually bappens when a glissando of natural

harmonics is performed. Musical Example 40 shows part of te harmonic sedes of te D

string, i.e., te concert-pitch nodes for some of the parfials of that harmonic sedes, with
fast rhythms. This example is not playable. To perform such a passage it would be

necessary to finger each note which it would be possible only in a slower tempo. But it

would not sound as a glissando.

Musical Exaniple 40. A pseudo glissando on some of lhe partiais of lhe harmonic
sedes of a violoncelio D string
 149

Because of Lhe reasons presented above, 1 think that pitches of a glissando, other

than the starting and the ending ones, do not need to be indicated. When violoncellists

slide the finger on the string, many nodal points are touched. It is not possible to

determine which harmonic tones (between Lhe starting and ending pitches) will sound. A

glissando of natural harmonics is better indicated with the common notation symbol for

glissando, i.e., a straight une between the starting and ending pitches (see Musical

Example 41 and 42). (

It was demonstrated in earlier chapters that Lhe sarne natural harmonics are

presented on both haif-sides of the string. The lowest possible natural harmonics is the

second partial which is located at the middle of the string. Moving Lhe left-hand finger up

or down from Lhe middle of Lhe string one will flnd the sarne natural harmonics. In

addition, Lhe highest partiais play easier on Lhe bridge-half side of the string and it is this
half taL is preferable for performing glissandos. Musical Example 41 shows a glíssando

from te 1/8 node (written note is a b) on te A string at te very beginning of Lhe

fingerboard to te 7/8 node (written node is an )
tm at an off-the-fingerboard position.
a
(

.— 1
—‘
—. —
1

(
(
(
(
Musical Example 41. A glissando of natural harmonics ou both halves of Lhe A string
 150

Musical Example 42 shows three other examples of glissandos with natural

harmonics. In Musical Example 42-a and b, the starting and the ending notes are shown.

The rhythm figures determine the speed of glissanclo. The starting and ending pitches can

also be left undetennined as seen in Musical Example 42-c. Glissando 011 natural
hannonics can not be done too slowly. Playing through the nodal points in a slow

glissando will only produce noise and no pitches. The word “Glissando on Natural

Harmonics” may be used ( see Musical Exainple 42’c).

b)

i44jj1II fl—
- f- %._._

e) (glissando 011 natural harmonics)

I 1
—
—
—
—‘1
1
1
—

in —

Musical Example 42. Sample of glissandos with natural harmonics

With the artificial harmonics it is possible to produce a true portamento as in the

stopped notes, i.e., a continuons pitch variation. The sarne notation procedures described

above should be used. Musical Example 43 illustrates some samples of glissandos with
artificial harmonics.

A special effect of glissando with artificial harmonies is found in George Cn’mb’s

Vox Ealaenae. The work is for electric violonceilo, piano and flute. Musical Example 44

shows one of the passages where he asked for this special effect which he calis “seaguil

effect”.
 151

—. e
(i 1)

F-
11 -P CZ_
1 (
c
(
Musical Example 43. Sample of glissandos with artificial harmonics

ARCHEOZOIC [VAR.I]

E.Vc.

‘‘5enguII effett” (
(

Musical Example 44. Seaguli effect, glissaudo of artificial harmonics

George Crumb, “Archeozoic, Var. 1,” Vox Balaenae (New York: C. F. Peters, (
1972), page 8 iii te electrie violoncelo part. (
(
(
lii Crumb’s performance notes, he states that this effect is achieved automatically

by keeping te sarne spacing between te artificial nut (in tis case on au a”) and te

finger that touches te node (in this case au a”) while the hand moves from this point (mi

artificial octave harrnonic) at te very eM of te fingerboard to te very beginning. The

actual sound resulting from tis technique is te sarne glissando from mi a” down, which
 152

repeals rnany times (in lhis case six tines). Actually, he indicates only five times. The

following examples wil expiam and give some other direetions to violoncellists for the

perforrnance of this special effect.

‘-‘SI

In the study of natural hannonics, it was demonstrated that a hannonic occurs at

equal divisions of lhe string. Also, that the stopped notes chosen to indicate nodal points

follow the sarne intervals of lhe harrnonic sedes. Musical example 45 shows lhe nodal

points for lhe natural eighlh harrnonic in which each two consecutive nodes are indicated

sirnultaneously. This is the sarne notation for lhe double-node technique. In this example,

lhe string is divided in eight parIs. The sarne spatial distance, one eighth of lhe string,

produces at different parts of lhe fingerhoard a different interval of stopped notes. From

lhe 7/8 of lhe string length to lhe 6/8 of lhe string length an octave interval can be

produced, frorn lhe 6/8 lo 5/8 a perfect fifth interval, and so forlh. That means that if lhe

spacing between fingers is not changed during lhe movernent over lhe fingerboard frorn

lhe bridge-half side to lhe na; it lhen produces at each one eighlh of lhe string length a

different intentai which corresponds to lhe sarne sequence of inlervais of lhe harrnonic

sedes.

Transposing these intentais lo Um artificial harrnonic technique, i.e., slopping lhe

lower note for each one of lhe combinations presented in Musical Example 45, and

connecting thern wilh a continuos glissando lhe seagull effect is achieved. Each tirne lhe

fingers reach one eighth of the string Iength, lhe sarne concert pitch is produced again and

a glissando from lhe sarne concert pitch also starts again. Musical Example 46 shows

each one of lhe artificial harrnonics which are lhe points on lhe string where lhe sarne

concert pitch will be produced and lhe sarne glissando will start again.

1 am not suggesting lhat lhe hand should stop at each one of lhese artificial
harmonics. However, as a preparation and a study for lhe seaguli effect it will be ver)’
 153

helpful. In Lhe actual effect, the hand should not stop. Since the hand will not keep the

sarne interval of stopped notes, the glissando from one note to the next will not be exactly

Lhe interval written. If Lhe movement of Lhe hand is too slow after starting Lhe first

harmonic Lhe effect may fail. The sarne effect cmi be transposed Lo other pitches ou any

string and also cmi start froin different intervals.

AString (
o. n718 C
E 6/8 ,

Concert L’ttclt4otatjon
-nu
; 3/8 U 2/8 1/8
11
(
(
(
Musical Exarnple 45. Nodal points of the natural eighth harmonic (

(
(
-%------- %%_______

-----%-_-

Concert Pitch
&
AStiing
Notation e -. e

Artficjal Ârtfjcial ArtfIcial Artficial Artfjcjal Artfjcial

Octave Fifth Fourth Major-Third Minor-ThirdMjnor-Third
Harmonic Harmonjc Harrnonjc Hannonic Harmonjc Harmonic

(
(
(
Musical Example 46. Study for Lhe seaguil effect
 154

Harmonie Tones Performed with the Sul Tosto

or Sul Ponticelio Effects

Sul tosto or sul ponticello adds a dark or bright tone color respectively when

applied to stopped notes. With the sul tosto, one bows over or dose to the flngerboard.

Instead of performing a tone with an optimum bow-bridge distance, one should move the

bow to a point closer to or over tlie fingerboard. The bow-bridge distance for a sul tosto

tone wiIl be established according to the length of the string (speaking Iength). The name

of the effect shouid not be followed literally. For the open strings and the first position of

the neck, the bow may be over the fingerboard and proportionally moves toward the
bridge when lhe string is shortened. When any stopped note is perfornied with lhe sul

tasto technique, the lower paitiais are emphasized and a more dark tone color and soft

sound is the result. In the sul ponticello technique, one moves lhe bow from its optimum

bow-bridge distance to a point closer to lhe bridge, thus emphasizing lhe higher partiais

of a tone. It gives a bright or metallic tone color to any tone performed with this
technique. The bow-bridge distance is also established aecording to the string Iength. Iii

my opinion, the written pitch or fundamental must be present when any tone is perforrned

with those speciaL effects.

Harmonic tones are already a tone color variation, however, the sul tasto or sul
ponzicelio effects can be added to a harmonie tone. These two special tone color

variations wilI not have the sarne range of possibilities when applied to harmonic tones,

as compared to when they are applied to open strings or stopped notes. As has been seen

in earlier chapters, when harmonic tones are performed, some of the modes of vibration

and corresponding partiais of au open string are eliminated and that is what gives the

different tone color to a 1iarmonic tone (when they are compared to a stopped note of

sarne pitch). Harmonic tones are weaker sounds when compared to stopped notes of sarne
 155

pitch. It has been also seen that the bow-bridge distance lias a very important role for Lhe

performance of harrnonic tones and that harmonic tones are more sensitive Lo incoffect

bow placement than stopped notes. Because of these problems, 1 do not recomrnend sul
tosto or sul ponticeilo effect with harmonic tones other than the natural second, third and

fourth harmonics. c

Harmonic Tones Performed with Vibrato

Vibrato is explained by most acoustians as a regular osciflation of pitch. In bowed
string instruments vibrato is produced by a rotation movetnent of Lhe arm or wrist. This

movement makes the fmger which stops the string move back and forth, shortening and

lengthening Lhe string, which produces a regular variation of pitch according Lo Lhe speed

and amplitude of Lhe movemenL Besides having a small variation in pitch, a note

perfornied with a good vibrato is heard as one pitch. Vibrato also a.ffects the tone color of

a pitch, since, with the pitch variation there will also be changes in the frequency
spectrum of the pitch.

Based on Lhe definition presented above, one would think that vibrato could not

be appiied Lo hamionic tones, since harmonic tones are perforrned by touching nodes

which are fixed points of relative rest. The string will not be shortened and lengthened as

it happens when vibrato is appiied to stopped notes. Jf Lhe finger is rnoved bati and forth

very slowly on a stopped note, a clear variation of pitch is heard. Adding speed in

proportion Lo the amplitude of Lhe finger rnovement, only one pitch is heard. II Lhe sarne

experiment is repeated on a nodal point of a natural hannonic, there will be no variation

of pitch ia a very slow rnovement of Lhe finger, only a loss of quality of sound wiIl be the

effect. However, when speed is added to Lhe movenient, a srnall arnount of vibrato can be

heard. It does not have Lhe same quality of a stopped note, but iL is really a vibrato. It

works pretty weil for ali natural harrnonics.

 156

This vibrato technique does not give the sarne result for te artificial harrnonics.

Iii artificial harmonics, two fingers are set on te sarne string which reduces te rotating
rnovernent of te arm. One rnay think that since te artificial harmonics have movable

nuts, vibrato could be done nioving back and forth both the artificial nut and the nodal

point. That is not frue. lt is not possible to move both fingers exactly with te sarne speed

and amplitude to produce a vibrato. Vibrato on artificial harrnonics can be produced in

te sarne way they are for te natural ones. However, it will not have te sarne quality due

to te limitafion of te rotating rnovement of te arrn and hand.

Performers should not be lirnited by what has been already studied and explained

in te science of sound. This kind of vibrato does not correspond to te definition

presented in te first paragraph, however, it has alrnost te sarne effect and it is one more

special effect that can be cornbined with harmonic tones.

 157

CHAPTER VII
SELECED MUSICAL PASSAGES OF THE VIOLONCELLO REPERTORY

INVOLVING HARMONIC TONES WITH THE DEMONSTRATION OF THEIR

D]FPERBNT PERFORMANCE POSSIBILITIES

(
li is not the purpose of this study to cover the entire violonceilo repertory,
however, passages presented here wiIl give exaxnples of 1mw the sarne passage caii have

different solutions or options in terms of fingering, strings, nodal points, types of

harmonics, etc.. 1» working with any musical passage, violoncellists look for the best

solution in terms of case and aL the sarne time me best soluLion in terms of sound quality.

A balance between these two principies (ease and sound quality) is me goal of many
instrument player. Each passage may have one or many different sojutions or options.

Besides me suggesüons for me passages presented below, one can find many others or

combine ideas from one option to another.

(
Ali examples presented in this study demonstrate me different possibilities and
limits for the performance of violoncelio harmonics. Especially useful are me Musical

Example 15 (page 83) that shows ffie selection of natural harmonics for ali four strings

within me range, i.e., in that example, one can see not only We stopped note where a nade

is located but also me stopped notes around that nodal point on a string and adjacent to it.
Also, especially useful is me Appendix A which shows ali pitches that are playable as

harmonic tones on ffie violoncelo and me different possibilities of them being performed

as harmonic tones. These two “chart s of harmonic tones” must be at hand to work with
musical passages of me violoncelo repertoire involving harmonic tones.
 158

One of the most traditional passages involving harmonic tones in the violonceilo

repertory is in the Concerto in A minor by Saint-Saëns (see Musical Example 47). A

special characteristic of this passage is that it is probably the musical passage of the

violoncelio repertory with the widest range, incorporating harmonic tones. It starts with

the open C string and ends with au Í’”, i.e., five octaves and a perfect fourth. The last note

is a half step out of ffie range limits that 1 have established for this study. A half step or

more away from the highest pitch that are suggested in my exaxnples as playable are still

possible to be performed besides the great risk and the loss of quality of these pitches. In

Musical Exainple 47, one can see that thc last three measures of this passage are indicated
to be performed as harmonic tones.

107 3
r

-
jIjJ
7
c-
J JJ 1’i’
110 —

Ik çr r r rIr r r r r r

Ritenuto poco a poco ad lib. — — — —

— a Tempo

Musical Example 47. Saint-Saëns’ A Minor Concerto

Note: Camille Saint-Saëns, ler concerto pour violonceile 0v. 33 (Paris: A. Durand
& Fils, 1909), measure 107-115 of the third movement.
 E
E
E
E
159 E
E
Musical Example 48 shows two options for the performance of this passag E
e. In
r
option 1, the passage is fingered to be performed with the artificial fourth r
harmonics and
in option 2 with me artificial fifth harmonic. Option 2 is more difticult E
mau option 1 due
to an unusuai placement of me fingers. However, it has a better sound E
quality.
E
E

A A
1 Ê
Concert Pitch 1 1
II
E
Option 1
4N:J d Lá f
E

Option 2 J3CJ
ei
113
iF FLP ?P -

114 115

(
(
Musical Example 48. Performance options for Saint-Saëns’ A Minor Concerto, Op. 33,
third movement, nieasures 113-115 of ifie violonceilo solo part

(
Musical Example 49 shows how ffiis passage cmi be practiced to be perform
ed
with me two options presented above. The exercise for option 1 is the sarne positions that
wil produce me artificial fourth harmonic but it is to be practiced with octaves iii double
stops in me sarne positions. Not only this passage, but ali passages involving harrno
nic
tones which are to be performed in a sequence with artificial fourth harmonies can
be
practiced as shown in me exampie. The sarne fingering which produces au artificial

fourth harmonie vau also produce a octave interval in double stops. The pitches heard are

not me sarne, however, pracücing this way one establishes me sarne spatial intervals
 160

between Lhe fingers involved in the production of te artificial

fourth harmonic. It will
give more security to te performance of any passage with
artificial fourth harmonics.
The exercise for option 2, te artificial fifth harmonic, is stil
more useful. One of the
difficulties of the artificial fifth harmonic is that it is produc
ed with au unusual hand and
finger placcinent. Pracücing it as double stops in unison, one
dcvelops the hand and
finger placement required to perform Lhe artificial fifth harmo
nic, which can be done with
this and any other passage involving te artificial fifth harmo
nic. Iii other passages
discussed in this study, 1 will no longer present tese exercises,
however, Lhe sarne
principie can be applied to any passage invoiving artificial
harrnonic tones. The double
stop exercises iii the positions involved in a passage with artifici
al harmonics will give a
better sense of distance between te artificial nut and Lhe
nodal point. A technical
observation here is in regard to Lhe thumb pressure on
Lhe string. Since the strings are
higher at Lhe end of Lhe fingerboard, iL is necessary to
increase Lhe pressure of Lhe thumb
progressively to make sare that Lhe artificial nut wilI
not falI.

Execrcise for Option 1 (artificial fourth harmonic)

h
Exercise for option 2 (artificial fifth harmonic)

Musical Example 49. Exercise for Saint-Sa&is’ A Minor Concerto, Op. 33, third
movement, measures 113-115 of Lhe violoncello solo part
 161

Musical Example 50 shows a passage froin the second niovement of Prokofiev’s

Violonceilo Sonata. As it can be seen, the original solution presents the artificial fourth

harmonic of ali pitches

56. In my optiona] suggestion in Musical Example 50, 1 have
changed the fIrst three notes to the artificial fifth harmonie.

(
(

A t t
’
1 e
Conceit Pitch (
•
107 108
(
(
33 (
Original PL..ir1,Jlti;.:.L:I4dJIiJIJJs,,,I
t0T’ F ti 1 . I..Áifl
.i
— 1.L L.drQl ‘ ‘“l ‘II ‘1 flIlnI LI .J ,J 1
%‘J a
4, ‘1 1 1’
È)—
—— —a. —
1 (1

9ç
(
A
: .1
ri, 3..—...
Ik...A —1—11 --I
Option ai te
-

., t. (1r1rl r r.L1L.Iq,d.jI.,J..J
tn, ‘-1 1 1.1_li — I— ILP — WflIlÇI 01 Iffi0 LI L a j
t%iS — — VI• 1 1 •— fli
—

-
& 19 I IIiP’
Qç
(
(
(
(
Musical Example 50. Prokofiev’s Violoncello Sonata, Op. 119, second inovement,
measure 107-108 of the violoncello part
(
(
Performing it this way, one avoids Lhe difficult shifting from the quarter note of
Lhe second beat to Lhe first sixteenth note of the third beat in the first measure in Lhe

original. With the optional suggestion, the quarter note and the first sixteenth of Lhe ftrst

measure have Lhe sarne nodal point and therefore have lhe sarne fingering. Instead of a

56 The original staff of Musical Example 50 is from: Sergei Prokofiev, Sonata in

C major Opus 119 for celio and Pianos ed. Mstislav Rostropovich (New York:
International Music Company, 1958), measure 107-108 of Lhe second movement.

4
 162

shifting of a perfect fifth, only Lhe thumb has Lo move from Lhe artificial nut 011 g-flat’ to a
a-flat’, i.e., from an artificial fifth harmonic Lo an artificial fourth harmonic.

Musical Example 51 shows a passage from the sarne Prokofiev’s Violoncello

Sonata, first movement. The passage presents three notes Lo be performed as natural

57 1 ain suggesting five options for this passage, others may be found. The
harmonics.
options present different difficulties and also different quahities. Opüon 1 gives Lhe best

results in terms of loudness of sound. 1 myself prefer option 5 where the last note is

performed with the double-node technique for Lhe natural sixLh harmonic at its 2/6 and

3/6 nodal points. lii option 1, Lhe last note is performed with Lhe natural fourth harmonic
aL its concert-pitch node. The natural sixth harmonic is produced with Lhe sixth partial

while Lhe natural fourth harmonic is produced with Lhe fourtli partial. As a natural sixth

harmonic, Lhe d” has a softer sound. The natural sixth harmonic performed with Lhe
double-node technique facilitates Lhe performance and also presents a soft quality of

sound that suits Lhe passage, since it is at Lhe end of a phrase of soft dynamic.

Musical Example 52 is another passage from Prokofiev’s Violoncello Sonata

which presents a good example of how Lhe double-node technique can be used even if Lhe

harmonic tone can be performed with Lhe one-node technique. II Lhe third movement is

played too fast Lhe original fingering is very 58

difficult. The shifting from E-flat to c’ on
Lhe C string in measure 20 and 21 is almost impossible if Lhe movement is Laken Loo fast.

With Lhe double-node technique lhe c’ is perfornied in a closer position Lo E-flat (see

7 The original staff of Musical Exaxnple 51 is from: Sergei Prokofiev, Sonata in

C major Opus 119 for cello and Piano. ed. Mstislav Rostropovich (New York:
International Musie Company, 1958), measure 68-70 of Lhe first movement.
58 The original staff of Musical Example 52 is from: Sergei Prokofiev, Sonata in
C major Opus 119 for cello and Pianp. ed. Mstislav Rostropovich (New York:
International Music Company, 1958), measure 18-2 1 of Lhe Lhird movement.
 163

o
r r
Original 9:
68
7 J ;1 L_,J\/
\)69 70
r i
? ç (‘
Option 1
9
—---

2,
Option 2 9 1
4
mB
e— 1
N 1 r -ii
4
L--
Option 3 99j 7 fiLé 4 .—.-
— 1 J• -1
zLr
Option 4 9:f -‘:; 1 rii:i
!t— o
3 3
(
(

Option 5
9L 7 R r—’3
1
11 m
I
3—
11
(
(
(

Musical Example 51. Prokofiev’s Violoncelio Sonata, Op. 119, first movement,
measure 68-70 of the violonceilo part

option of Musical Example 52). With the one-node technique ffie d can be performed as a
natural fourth harmonic at its concert-pitch node and at its 1/4 node, i.e., at the F. The

distance from the E-flat to the F is too short to give a good effect of glissando. On the

other hand, performing it with the double-node technique at ffie 1/4 and 2/4 nodes of file

natural fourth harmonic, the distance is long enough to give the effect of the glissando

and shorter than the original. It is interesting to note that the double-node technique
employed in this case involves a coincident and a non coincident nodal point.
 164

sulC sulC
o

1
Of
i i
lna
fl l 1/’
liii
4444’
-
rn
444ê
1 irn if
44dê’
‘ ‘‘

sul C
222 p1 2
s ulC2
Option ff’j
9’ ai j U ni 4j}fl. e

Musical Example 52. Prokofiev’s Violonceilo Sonata, Op. 119, third movernent,
measure 18-2 1 of the violoncelio part

The next passage is from Benjarnin Britten’s Suite No. 1 for Unaccompanied

CelIo (see Musical Example 53). The passage is for natural harnionics, written and
59 My suggestions show how it can
indicated to be perfomied at the concert—pitch nodes.

be performed at other nodal poirns with the sarne type of natural harmonics. Tu rny

opinion, the sarne natural harrnonic can be perforrned at any of its nodal points without
difference in sound quality if the bow-bridge distance is kept as if the passage was being

perforrned at their concert-pitch nodes (the original frngering). Tu addition, it is casier to

perforrn at nodal points in the neck positions than at ffie very end of the fingerboard.

Musical Example 54 shows a passage from Shostakovitch’s Celio Concerto, Op.

concerto. Tu option 1, only
11)2. There is no indication of fingering in this edition of the 6
°

the artificial fourffi harmonic and the natural fourth harrnonic at its 1/4 node are

59 The origina] staff of Musical Example 53 is from: Benjamin Britten, Suite for
CeIlo Op. 72, cd. Mstislav Rostropovich (London: Faber Music Ltd., 1966), measure 1 of
the fourth movernent.

60 original staff of Musical Example 54 is fruiu: Omitri Shostakovich,

The
Concerto for Cello and Orchestra Op. 107, ei Mstislav Rostropovich (New York: Leeds
Music Corporaüon, 1960 ), rehearsal nurnbers 57-60 of the second movement.
 165

the
employed. Both types are produced with the fourth partial of the series. To perform

entire passage with the artificial fourth harmonic, the passage, or parts of ffie passage
can
where the & is employed, would have to be performed on the D string. The passage
option 1,
also be entirely performed on the D string. Using the natural fourth harmonic of
it sounds
it is possible to keep the entire passage on the A string where in my opinion
to
better. In option 2, different types of artificial and natural harmonics are employed
-third
facilitate and to have a better sound quality. The artificial fourth, fifth and major
double-node
harmonics are employed as well as the natural fourth harmonic with the
the
technique at its 1/4 and 2/4 nodes, the natural fifth harmonic at its 2/5 node and

natural sixth harmonic with the double-node technique at its 2/6 and 3/6 nodes.
€
c
9 1 o (
(
(
Original (
(
(
(
(
Option 1 (
(

Option 2
pp II 1

Musical Example 53. Britten’s Suite for Ceilo, Op. 72, fourth movement, measure 1 of
the violoncello part
 —
“o
“O
t O
o —
00
00
u.0
N O
o.—
— a
o
O>
.0
o
o
•0
o
o
O
(.4
o
O
1
— r.
 Li Li %. - -
Ç) Ç) LI Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li
‘o
oz
o
o
)4
Ii,
1
 168

1 1 1 1 1

4
II
3 3
9 9 2—

‘r
ifi II
3 3 3
9 9 2

ir
1 1 II II

Musical Exainple 54. Continued

Au example of natural double harmonics can be seen in the Vilia-Lobos’ Duo for

Violin and Violonceilo (see Musical Example 55, page 170). In the optional fingering, the
 169

natural fifth harmonics are chauged from their 2/5 nodes to their 1/5 nodes at one piace

and vice versa at another. The advantage of the optional flngering is that it remarkably

faciitates ffie performance, since no extensions are used.

’
6

Messiaen’s Ouartet for the End of Time offers another good example for opüonal

solutions for me performance of harmonic tones. Musical Exainple 56 (page 171)shows

ffie five notes which are employed in the entire first movement to be performed as

harmonic tones by me violoncelio. 1h me original lhey are fingered Lo be perfonned with

62 Iii option 1, 1 ain suggesting to change ffie e” for a
ffie artificial fourth harmonic.
natural sixth harmonie that can be performed in three different ways. 1 think ffie best one

is Lo perform me e” as a natural sixth harmonic with Lhe double-node technique at its 2/6

and 3/6 nodal points ( e’ and a’). In ali appearances of the e”, it has the duration of a
dotted quarter note. It does not have to be so every time that Lhe e” appears. However,

performing it from time to time as a natura] sixth harmonic with the double-node

technique is a way to rest Lhe thumb which has to be kept down Lhe entire movement if

only Lhe artificial fourth harmonic is used. In option 2, Lhe f-sharp” is fingered to be

perfornied with lhe artificial major-third harmonic. 1 think Lhe f-sharp” can be perfonïied
as a artificial major-third harmonic when it is an eighth note and as an artificial fourth

harmonic when it is a half note, and also as au artificial fourth hannonic in Lhe only one

case in which it is a balf note tied to an eighth note. The glissando indicated by Messiaen

is not prejudiced if Lhe f-sharp” is performed with Lhe artificial major-third harmonic
since he asked for a brief glissando.

61 The original staff of Musical Exaxnpie 55 is frorn: Heitor Viila-Lobos, Deux

chôros (bis) duo pour violon et violonceile (Paris: Max Eschig, 1930), measures 44-51
-

of Lhe second movement.

62 original staff of Musical Example 56 is from: Olivier Messiaen, Ouatuor
The
pour Ia fim du temps (Paris: Editions Durant & Cie, 1957), Lhe violoncelio part of Lhe
entire first movement.
 170

3 3 3 3 3

ConcertPitch rn flI
Hannoniques

1 241241 121

Option 4Jji

mf
24

Musical Example 55. Vilia-Lobos’ Duo for Violin and Violonceilo, second movement,
ineasures 44-51
 %
o.
7
1H
In
n
0I
O
e, z ‘no
—
00
0
o
e, ‘,ri
‘ri
‘1,
a a
0.4 0.4
e,
1
2
t
O
O
oo o
o
o

ri
o
04
o
1
s
 172

Luigi Dallapicola’s Dialophi for Violoncelio and Orchestra presents many

passages with harmonic tones. Musical Example 57 (page 174) shows une of the passages

where te natural sixt harmonic can be perforrned as double-node techuique. Iii option 1,
63 However, te artificial
te sarne fingering and strings of the original version is usei

fourth harmonic is substituted by te natural sixth harmonic with te double nades

technique at its 2/6 and 3/6 nodes.

The next passage is from Um no outro musica para dois violonceilos

-

(violoncello duo) by Eduardo Bértola (see Musical Example 58, pages 175-176). The
original does not indicate te type of harmonics and it is up to violoncellist to find te
64 In option 1, the entire passage isto be perforrned
best way to perform such a passage.

with te artificial fourth harmonic on both violoncelios. In option 2, te entire passage is

to be performed with te artificial fifth harmonic on both violoncellos. In option 3,

artificial and natural harmonics are used to facilitate te performance. One can see that in

measure 72 te artificial nut is a g-sharp for an artificial fifth harmonic. In te next

harmonic tone of te sarne voice, lhe sarne artificial nut is kept, avoiding a position

change. This and oter resources were used to avoid too rnany position changes.

The last musical passage included in tis study is from Shostakovich’s Trio in E

Minor. Opus 67 for Violin, Cello and Piano (see Musical Example 59, pages 177-179).
65 Is’ my
In te original, te entire passage is fingered with te artificial fourth harmonic.

63 The original staff of Musical Example 57 is from: Luigi Daliapiccola, Dialoghi

per Violoncello e Orchestra (Milano: S. A. Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1960), measure 48 of
the first movement.

64 original staff of Musical Example 58 is from: Eduardo Bértola, Um no

The
outro-musica para dois violoncellos (Brasilia: MusiMed, 1984), measures 7 1-80.
65 The original staff of Musical Example 54 is from: Dmitri Shostakovich, Trio in
E minar, Opus 67 for Violin, Cello and Piano, (New York: International Music Company,
1987), measures 1-37 of te first movement.
 173

opüonal suggestion, lhe artificial fifth hanuonic is used as the basic type and the artificial

octave, fourth and major-third harmonics are used tu avoid the difflcult shifting of the
original. (
As an example, lhe first three notes of measure five were changed tu lhe artificial

octave harmonic and lhe half note 011 lhe third beat is changed to an artificial fifth

harmonic. The artificial nut 011 lhe first beat ( b’ ) is prepared in measure four. Tu perform

measure five, only lhe third finger has tu move (tu a b”) and for lhe half note, only lhe

thumb changes its position. The sarne procedures are used in other measures of this
passage such as measure twelve to thirleen or measure nineteen lo twenty. Measures

where no shifting is necessary can be performed with lhe artificial fourlh or fifth

harmonic. My preference for lhe fifth is due to its better quality of sound.
 ‘4
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 180

CONCLUSION

Jn lhe introduetion to this essay, 1 raised lhe question whether lhe lheory of any

subject related to performance or to composition comes before it is usai in practice or

vice versa. Iii treatises and melhod books on violoncelio playing that 1 reati for this essay,

1 found many approaches to hartnonic tone performance which where lacking adequate

explanaüons. This is one more reason to confirm my statement in lhe introduction that,

on lhe topic under invesfigation, practice has been ahead of theory. Players in their daily

practice are always looking for new ways Lo deal with problems of performance, and it

rarely matters if they can expiam them or not. On lhe other hand, a theorelical study of
any subject brings many suggestions for practice. The aeoustical phenomenon of

harmonic tones and other devices used in string piaying have not yet been fully studied,

such as lhe vibrato on harmonic tones.

Establishing limits for instrument playing is a difficult task. Not only lhe technical

or musica] capabilities of violoncelo players vary but also their ability to deal with lhe

different techniques. Some violonceilists have belter bowing techniques while others

have a better fingerboard technique. The purpose of setling limits for lhe perfonuance of

each aspect of harmonic tones is to give composers a safety margin so that harmonic

tones can be written in such a way that they can be readily performed by most violoncelio

players. As 1 have stated in earlier chapters, a few more haif steps at lhe highest pitches

are still possible Lo perfomi, e.g., as in lhe performance at Lhe upper limits of lhe string

range for each type of artificial harmonie usei Also, what 1 have considered for practical

use from lhe lheoreticai studies may be open lo a certain atnount of scrutiny by my peers.
 181

There will be always those who will say that he or she can perform more tan what 1 have

given here as examples for practical use. My opinion was always based on what 1 think is

playable, nor only by a virtuoso, but also by the average violoncellist as well.

Certain aspects for tis topic were not fully developed. My review of treatises has

not been complete due Lo te difficnlty of Iocating them. There are many passages in
violoncelio repertory, specially in 2Oth-century music, that could be discussed in Lhe

search for other solutions in terms of: fingering, types of harmonic tones, intonation and
other technical problems involved. The section on modern notation was not fully

presented due to several factors, one of which was te Iength of this essay. 1 did not

present examples from te violonceilo repertory that would demonstrate certain

misunderstanding by composers ou Lhe notation of harmonic tones. As au experienced

performer, 1 have found, especially in orchestral music, many musical passages involving

hannonic tones that were printed ambiguously by composers and that only with a Ml
analysis of Lhe piece would it be possible to determine what te concert pitches were

expected by te composers. Some other aspects of Lhe harmonic tones performance may

be enlarged or expanded upon te point where 1 stop, such as simultaneous perfonnance

of te different types of harmonie Lones ou three and four strings.

One of te great controversies of hannonic tones performance is related to te

different qualiües of performing Lhe sarne harmonic tone at its concert-pitch node or at

any of its other nodal points. This and other controversies surrounding Lhe performance of

harmonie tones may be topics of interest for later studies. In Lhe Appendix A, 1 present

some comments on te different qualities of harmonic tones when they are: te sarne

natural harmonics performed at different possible nodal points; natural harmonics of

sarne pitch but performed on different strings and therefore as different partial of te

series; sarne pitch perforrned as different types of artificial harmonics (artificial fourth,
 182

artificial flfth, etc.) or on different strings; and so forth. The comments presented in

Appendix A are based more on my experience as a performer tlian on a complete

experiment denionstrating their different qualities.

This study, 1 axn sure, can be of great value to composers, violonceilo players,

conductors, and many other musicians as a reference to violoncelio harmonic tones

performance.
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 184

This appendix presents ali pitches that are playable on Lhe violoncelio as harmonic

tones and also the different possibilities of perforining them as harmonic tones. It is a

sumrnary of what was presented in Chapter III and W of this study. The double-node

technique is inciuded only for the natural sixth harrnonic in which the technique is best

used. As one will see, most of the pitches presented here can be performed in more than
one way. The first staff shows ali pitches that can be performed as harmonic tones on the

violonceilo. Beiow the first staff, the different possible ways to perforrn them is

presented. This table of harrnonic tones is to be read verticaiiy and horizontally. There are

eleven types of natural harmonics and tive types of artificial ones. Each type of harmonie
tone is represented by a staff with the narne of each indicated as me staff narne. Bar lines

divide each pitch and ali possible ways to perform thern as harmonic tones (the bar lines

were kept on lhe page tunis no matter if lhere would be a change of pitch or not).

When one of lhe pitches in this appendix is playable as natural harrnonic, ali nodal

points for lhe sarne harrnonic on lhe sarne string can be seen on lhe sarne staff, i.e., in lhe

horizontal direction. Also, verticaliy, one can see if that specific pitch cmi be performed

as another type of natural harmonic. Iii Lhe case of

on another string and therefor
7
artificial harmonics, one can see verticaily the different types with which a specific pitch

cmi be performed. Horizontally, lhe possible ways lo perfonn a specific pitch with lhe

sarne type of artificial harmonics on different strings cmi be seen. To iilustrate Lhe

descriptions presented above, lhe g’ on page 189 has twelve possibilities Lo be performed.

It has two possibilities on lhe third string as a natural fourth harmonic, four possibilities

on lhe fourth string as a natural sixth harrnonic (including two with the doubie-node

technique), two as artificial octave hannonic on lhe third and fourth strings, two as

artificial fifth harmonic on lhe third and fourth strings, one as mi artificial fourth
 185

harmonic on the fourth string, and one as an artificial major-third harmonie on the fourth

string.

The different possibilities of performing te sarne pitch as a harmonic tone have

different qualities and performance difficuities. This study does not present a complete

and accurate evaluation ofeach one. However, 1 will present some observations with
regard to their different qualities and performance difficulties which represents rny

opinion and my experience as a violoncelio player.

First of aH, natural harmonics, speaking broadly. have a better tone quality and are
easier to perforrn than artificial ones. Natural harmonics other than te natural second

harmonie can be perforrned at different nodal points on the sarne string, i.e., as the sarne

partial of a fundamental open string. If one follows the technique describe in Chapter ifi,

i.e., te bow placement to perform te sarne natural harmonic at ali its nodal points is

always that of te eoncert-pitch node, there will be no difference in tone quality. lii terms

of performance difflculties, te nodes located away from te nut and bridge where there

are a concentration of nodal points, are easier to locate. Some of te pitches playable as

hariuonic tones can be performed as different types of natural harmonics on two or more

different strings and therefore with different qualities. In this case and in terms of

loudness or intensity of sound, the lower the partial the stronger is tlie tone, i.e., a natural

second harrnonic has more volume of sound than a natural third harmonic. In terrns of
tone color, if we compare te sarne pitch performed as a natural second harmonic on one

string and as a natural third harrnonic on a lower string, the tone color of te natural

second harmonic is biighter tan te natural third harrnonic. In other words, when te

sarne pitch can be performed on more than one string as different types of natural

harmonics, the lower type, e.g., the second compared to te third, is stronger and has a

brighter tone color. The Iower type will always be on a higher string. The sarne difference
 186

is seen when two stopped notes are performed on different strings, i.e., a stopped note
performed ou a higher string has a stronger and brighter tone colar when compared Lo a

stopped note of sarne pitch perforrned ou a lower string.

Each type of artificial harmonic is produced with a different partial. The artificial

octave harmonic is produced with the second partial, the artificial fifth is produced with

the third partia], Lhe artificial fourth with the fourth partial, the artificial major-third and

major-sixth hamionics with Lhe fifth partial. When the sarne pitch can be performed ou
Lhe sarne string with different types of artificial harmonics, Lhe artificial type that is
produced with Lhe lower partial has better tone quality, e.g., an artificial octave harmanic

has better tone quality thau the one performed as artificia] major-third hamionic. In terms

of performance difficulty, i.e., distance between Lhe left-liand fingers and the location of

nodal points, the artificial fourth harmonic is Lhe easiest Lo perform followed by the

artificial fifth, artificial octave, major-third, and major-sixth harmonics. When Lhe sarne

pitch can be performed with the sarne type of artificial harrnonic on different strings, lhe

lower Lhe stopped note ar artificial nuL Lhe easier iL will be Lo locate and perform au

artificial harmonic.

1 believe that Lhe decision to perform Lhe sarne pitch as a harmonic tone with one

of lhe different possibilities (presented in this appendix) should be always based with Lhe

balance between lhe performance difficulties and Lhe different qualities of each option. lii

tenns of technical difficulties, one has Lo consider what notes come before and after a

pitch that is going to be performed as a harrnonic tone. The ideal formula has been stated

by many instrurnent teachers, i.e., the best results with lhe least effort.
 187

1,0

Concert Pitch e.

NaturalSecond
7 “111
‘•
°ll
‘3
o

NaturalThird o
01v

Natural Forth
w 1v
9 =

Natural Fifth

Natural Sixth

Natural Seventh

Natural Eighth

Natural Ninth

Natural Tenth

Natural Eleventh
4
Natura] Twelfth

Artificial Octave I! plv ii

ArtificialFifth 0 iv 01V °iv

e e —e-

Artificial Fourth —

a
Artificial
Major-Third

Artificial
Major-Sixth
 c
r

188

ConceitPitch
L.

Nat. Second

Nat. Third
9:

Nat. Forth
9:

‘_OTv
NatFifth pw •IV

Nat. Sixth

NaL Seventh

Na Eighth

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 201

APPENDIX B
RECITAL PROGRAMS PRESENTED AS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DOOR OF MUSICAL ARTS DEORBE IN

PERFORMANCE AND PEDAGOGY

 202

THE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA r

SCHOOL OF MUSIC

RECiTAL 1 c
ç
c
CLÁUDIo URGEL PIRES CÁRDOSO, violoncelo
MARIA TEREZA MADEIRA, piano

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 14, 1992, AT 8:00 P.M. E

HARPER HALL
E
E
PROGRAM
E
Sonata in C Major, opus 102, No. Ludwig van Beethoven
Adante-Allegro vivace (1770-1827)
Adagio-Allegro vivace
E
Sonata for Solo Celio, opus 25, No. 3 Paul Rindemith
Lebharf sehr mariden (1862-1963)
Mãssig schnell, gemiichlich
Langsam
Lebharfte viertel E
Müssig schnell

INTERMISSION
e
Sonata Claudè Dbussy
Lent (1862-1918)
Séréna.de etflnale
(
Seresta Edino Krieger
(Homage to Vila-Lobos)
(
O Canto do Cisne Negro Heitor Vilia-Lobos
(“The Song of the Blaek Swan”) (1887- 1959)

Capriccio, opus 49 Heitor Vilia-Lobos

This program is being presented by Cláudio Urgel Pires Cardoso in partial fulfihlment of
me requirernents for We Master degree in music and as a qualifying recital for admission
to ffie curriculum of the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in Performauce and Pedagogy.

Student Sedes No. 164, 199 1-92 Season.

L
 203

THE UNWERSITY OF IOWA

SCHODL OFMUSIC

RECiTAL U

CLÁUDIO URGEL PIRES CARDOSO, violoncelo

MARY BETH BARTEAU, piano
RAFAEL DOS SANTOS, piano

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 24, 1992, AT 2:30 P.M. HÀRPER HALL

PROGRAM

Sonata for Viola da Gamba and Harpsicliord in O major Johann Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750)
Adagio
Allegro ma non tanto
Andante
Aliegro moderato

Sonata for unaccompanied ceilo, opus 31 Egon Wellész

(Played without pause) (1885-1974)
Lento-Alie gretto grazioso-Allegro energico
Largo-Alegro
L.argo-Allegretto grazioso-Lento

Ponte to e Dança Mozart Camargo Guarnieri

(1907-1993)

INTERMISSION

Sonata for Piano and Violoncelio in E minor, opus 38 Johannes Brahms

Aliegro non troppo (1833-1897)
Allegretto quasi Menuetro
Aliegro

This program is being presented by Cláudio Urgel Pires Cardoso ia partia! fulfillment of
the requirelnents for lhe Doctor of Musica! Arts degree in Performance and Pedagogy.

Student Series No. 78, 1992-93 Season.

 c
r
L

204
THE UNIVERS1TY OF IOWA
SCHOOL OF MUSIC
c
RECITAL III

CLÁUDIO URGEL PIRES CARIDOSO, violoncelio

RAFAEL DOS SANTOS, piano
NATHALIE CRIJOEN, viola
KAREN BERGQUIST, flute
BEATRICE BLANC, violin
SHINOBU SAlTO, violin
YARA VIEIRA, violin
TUESDAY, APRIL 27, 1993, AT 2:45 P.M. HARPER HALL

PROGRAM

Trio in E-flat Major, opus 70, No. 2 Ludwig van Beethoven

(1770-1827)
Poco sostenuto Allegro ma nau troppo
-

Allegretto
Aliegretto mci nau troppo (
Aliegra (
(
Assobio a Játo Heitor Vilia-Lobos
(“The Jet Whistle”) (1887-1959)

Aliegro non troppo

Adagio
Vivo
(
INTERMISSION

Quartet in F Major, Opus 96 “American” Antonín Dvorák

(184 1-1904)
Aliegro mci non troppo
Lento (
Malta Vivace
Vivacemanontroppo

This program is being presented by Cláudio Urgel Pires Cardoso iii partial fulfihlment of
the requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree ia Performance and Pedagogy.

Student Series No. 195, 1992-93 Season.

 205
THE UNIVBRSITY OF IOWA
SCHOOL OF MUSIC

RECITAL IV

CLÁUDIO URGEL PIRES CARDOSO, violoncelio

ESTHER AHN, piano

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 23, 1993, AT 3:00 P.M. HARPER HALL

PROGRAM

Variações para violoncelio solo A. O. Machado de Carvalho

Sonata for Violonceilo and Piano, opus 6 Sainuel Barber

(1910-1981)
Alie gro ma non troppo
Adagio-Presto-Adagio
Allegro appassionato

INTERMISSION

Sonata for Violoncelio and Piano iii C major, opus 119 Sergei Prokofiev
(189 1-1953)
Andante grave
Moderato
Aliegro ma non troppo

This program is being presented by Cláudio Urgel Pires Cardoso iii partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in Performance and Pedago
gy.

Student Series No. 20, 1993-94 Season.

 206

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