Electrical resistivity

Electrical resistivity surveys detect the difference in electrical resistance between different rockor soil
types. They are able to detect features such as swallow holes or underground cavities, and analysis of
the results can establish the thicknesses and depths of the various sub-strata.

The method involves passing a small electrical current through equally-spaced electrodes on the surface.
By varying the electrode centres, the penetration depth can be varied. The recorded differences in
relative resistance are used to map features such as voids, ditches, pits and structural features. This is
useful in situations where magnetometry is unsuitable, however, it can be more time-consuming and
problems can occur if conductors such as pipes and cables are present, as these can make
the survey results unreliable.

Seismic refraction and reflection

Seismic refraction and reflection involves propagating vibrations with a ‘sledgehammer’ and measuring
the time taken and the distance covered by the shock waves. Shallow exploration tends to favour the
refraction method, whereby seismometers are spaced at increasing distances from the vibration source
with the shock waves plotted against a time scale.

The reflection method is suited to exploration depths of greater than 150 m. Both methods are useful for
determining the change in soil type and for surveying sites for tunnels, dams and harbour works.

Magnetometry

Magnetometry is based on measuring the variations in intensity and direction of the earth’s magnetic field
and is capable of providing a rapid, detailed assessment of a large area. Anomalies in the
vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field can be detected, which can identify and locate
underground cavities, building remains, pits, and buried objects such as cables and pipelines.

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)

A radar signal is directed at the ground, and the time take for reflection to reach the detector can be used
to map the depth of sub-surface features. It can be used for deep objects and can identify small features,
but is generally best suited to good ground conditions.