***Students you will get some 2 and 5 marks questions on this chapter for which this study material

is prepared as per your requirements for your

semester only….

For more detailed knowledge please follow some good books available in your library like

1. Mechanical properties of materials- By Chinmaya Mohapatra

2. Strength of materials by Rattan, TMH Publication

Abhijeet P. Dash

1. Tensile Testing

What is Tensile Testing?

• A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical
test you can perform on material.
• Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. Is
• This test measures various engineering properties of materials…

Like i. strength ii. Ductility iii. Elasticity iv. Malleability etc.

Why Perform a Tensile Test or Tension Test?

You can learn a lot about a substance from tensile testing. As you continue to pull on the material until it
breaks, you will obtain a good, complete tensile profile. A curve will result showing how it reacted to the
forces being applied. The point of failure is of much interest and is typically called its "Ultimate
Strength" or UTS on the chart.

Hooke's Law

For most tensile testing of materials, you will notice that in the initial portion of the test, the relationship
between the applied force, or load, and the elongation the specimen exhibits is linear. In this linear
region, the line obeys the relationship defined as "Hooke's Law" where the ratio of stress to strain is a
constant, or . E is the slope of the line in this region where stress (σ) is proportional to strain (ε)
and is called the "Modulus of Elasticity" or "Young's Modulus".

Modulus of Elasticity

modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material, but it only

applies in the linear region of the curve. If a specimen is loaded within this linear region, the material will
return to its exact same condition if the load is removed. At the point that the curve is no longer linear
and deviates from the straight-line relationship, Hooke's Law no longer applies and some permanent
deformation occurs in the specimen. This point is called the "elastic, or proportional, limit". From this
point on in the tensile test, the material reacts plastically to any further increase in load or stress. It will
not return to its original, unstressed condition if the load were removed.

2. Hardness Test
 hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation. It is important to recognize that hardness is an
empirical test and therefore hardness is not a material property. This is because there are several different hardness tests that will each
determine a different hardness value for the same piece of material. Therefore, hardness is test method dependent and every test result
has to have a label identifying the test method used.

Hardness is, however, used extensively to characterize materials and to determine if they are suitable for their intended use. All of the
hardness tests described in this section involve the use of a specifically shaped indenter, significantly harder than the test sample, that
is pressed into the surface of the sample using a specific force. Either the depth or size of the indent is measured to determine a
hardness value.

Why Use a Hardness Test?

• Easy to perform
• Quick - 1 to 30 seconds
• Relatively inexpensive
• Non-destructive
• Finished parts can be tested - but not ruined
• Virtually any size and shape can be tested
• Practical QC device - incoming, outgoing

Hardness Scales
There are five major hardness scales:

• Brinell - HB
• Knoop - HK
• Rockwell - HR
• Shore - HS
• Vickers - HV

Five Determining Factors

The following five factors can be used to determine the correct hardness test for your application.

• Material - grain size, metal, rubber, etc.

• Approximate Hardness - hardened steel, rubber, etc.
• Shape - thickness, size, etc.
• Heat Treatment – through or casehardened, annealed, etc.
• Production Requirements - sample or 100%

3. Fatigue Test
The definition of fatigue testing can be thought of as simply applying cyclic loading to your test specimen to understand
how it will perform under similar conditions in actual use. The load application can either be a repeated application of a
fixed load or simulation of in-service loads. The load application may be repeated millions of times and up to several
hundred times per second.

Why Do a Fatigue Test?

In many applications, materials are subjected to vibrating or oscillating forces. The behavior of materials under such load
conditions differs from the behavior under a static load. Because the material is subjected to repeated load cycles (fatigue)
in actual use, designers are faced with predicting fatigue life, which is defined as the total number of cycles to failure under
specified loading conditions. Fatigue testing gives much better data to predict the in-service life of materials.

Typical Configuration

A servohydraulic fatigue testing machine is usually used to perform a fatigue test. This consists of a hydraulically operated
actuator fitted into a high stiffness load frame to apply the load to the specimen. Because the system is hydraulically
operated, it is possible to achieve both high loads and high cyclic frequencies.

The test system should be fitted with a control system that is capable of controlling the test and measuring data at high
frequencies. It is also important that the load measurement system can accurately measure specimen load, and
compensate for load errors induced by the dynamic movement of the test system.

Materials

Some typical materials that are subjected to fatigue testing:

• Metals
• Polymers
• Composites
• Elastomers
• Structural Components
• Ceramics

Creep Test
 Creep Properties

As indicated in the accompanying diagram, the

creep of a material can be divided into three stages. First stage, or primary creep, starts
at a rapid rate and slows with time. Second stage (secondary) creep has a relatively
uniform rate. Third stage (tertiary) creep has an accelerating creep rate and terminates by
failure of material at time for rupture.

How to Perform a Creep Test?

To determine creep properties, a material is subjected to prolonged constant tension or

compression loading at constant elevated temperature. Deformation is recorded at
specified time intervals and a creep vs. time diagram is plotted. Slope of curve at any
point is creep rate. If failure occurs, it terminates the test and the time for rupture is
recorded. If specimen does not fracture within the test period, creep recovery may be
measured.

Impact Testing

Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. An impact test is a test for
determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high velocity. Most of us think of it as one
object striking another object at a relatively high speed.

Why is Impact Testing Important?

Impact resistance is one of the most important properties for a part designer to consider, and without
question, the most difficult to quantify. The impact resistance of a part is, in many applications, a critical
measure of service life. More importantly these days, it involves the perplexing problem of product safety
and liability.

One must determine:

1. the impact energies the part can be expected to see in its lifetime,
2. the type of impact that will deliver that energy, and then
3. select a material that will resist such assaults over the projected life span.

Molded-in stresses, polymer orientation, weak spots (e.g. weld lines or gate areas), and part geometry will
affect impact performance. Impact properties also change when additives, e.g. coloring agents, are added
to plastics.

Ductile vs. Brittle

Most real world impacts are biaxial rather than unidirectional.

Eddy Current Test

How does it work?

In standard eddy current testing, a circular coil carrying an AC current is placed in close proximity to an
electrically conductive specimen. The alternating current in the coil generates a changing magnetic field,
which interacts with the test object and induces eddy currents. Variations in the phase and magnitude of
these eddy currents can be monitored using a second 'search' coil, or by measuring changes to the current
flowing in the primary 'excitation' coil. Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of
the test object, or the presence of any flaws, will cause a change in eddy current flow and a corresponding
change in the phase and amplitude of the measured current. This is the basis of standard (flat coil) eddy
current inspection, the most widely used eddy current technique.

The penetration depth of eddy currents is indicated by a parameter known as the 'skin depth'. This is
dependent upon operating frequency (lower frequencies give deeper penetration) and specimen
conductivity and permeability, and is typically between 5 µm (0.2 thou) and 1 mm (0.04") or more. For most
inspection applications, eddy current probe frequencies in the range 1kHz to 3MHz are used.

To help simplify the often complex eddy current response, changes in amplitude and phase are displayed
on an impedance plane diagram (a plot of system inductance against resistance). In this way, changes in
operator variability, such as the distance between the probe and the test piece (lift-off) will cause a
horizontal shift in the spot forming the trace, while the presence of any flaws causes the spot to shift
vertically.

What will it find?

Standard eddy current testing is essentially a near-surface technique. It is useful for detecting surface-
breaking or near-surface cracking and variations in material composition. It can also be used to measure
the thickness of non-electrically conductive coatings on electrically conductive substrates. In most steels,
eddy current testing is limited to surface examination due to the relatively high permeability of these
materials. The inspection of welds in ferritic steels can be problematic as the response is dominated by
changes in the magnetic permeability across the weld. However, special types of probes have been
developed (differential coils) to lessen the effects to material changes and permit the detection of small
flaws.

Where is it used?

In general, standard eddy current methods are only used in plant inspection for non-ferritic materials
(where eddy current penetration is deeper) or for special applications, such as in the inspection of heat
exchanger tubing for cracking or corrosion thinning.

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and
measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

• Crack detection
• Material thickness measurements
• Coating thickness measurements
• Conductivity measurements for:
o Material identification
o Heat damage detection
o Case depth determination
o Heat treatment monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:

• Only conductive materials can be inspected

• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction are
undetectable
Magnetic Particle Test

Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive means for detecting discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. It consists
of there basic operations:

1. Establishing a suitable magnetic field in the test object.

2. Applying magnetic particles to the surface of the test objects.
3. Examining the test object surface for accumulations of the particles and evaluating the serviceability of the test
object.

The method can detect all discontinuities at the surface, and under certain conditions, those which lie completely under the
surface. It depends upon the magnetic properties of the test objects and is suitable only for metallic materials which can
be intensely magnetized. Non ferro magnetic materials, which cannot be strongly magnetized, cannot be inspected by this
method. Such materials include aluminum, magnesium, brass, copper, bronze, lead, titanium, and austenitic stainless
steels. With suitable ferro magnetic materials, magnetic particle inspection is highly sensitive and produces readily
discernible indications on the surface of the test parts. A trained inspector can, by examining the nature location, and
extent of the indications, interpret their causes and evaluate the discontinuities causing the indications