Energy E icency / Power Quality

16 power correction devices available to install

and really improve the power quality

Why power correction?

All modern electronic devices are vulnerable to the poor power quality. But why?
What can you do about it? This technical article describes 12 types of power
correction devices (16 in total) that accept electrical power in whatever form it
is available and modify the power to improve the quality or reliability required
for electronic AC equipment.
16 power correction devices available to install and really improve the power quality (on photo: Input filter
that conditiones the waveform of the power system to meet IEEE519 power quality guidelines. It is
designed to with a dedicated trap circuit tuned to the appropriate multiples the fundamental frequency to
mitigate the harmonic content. Credit: SUBCOE)

These devices perform functions such as the elimination of noise, change, or

stabilization of voltage, frequency, and waveform.
The power handling and performance requirements vary depending upon each
application. A wide variety of power correction products are available that
utilize a range of technologies and provide different degrees of protection to
the connected load.

The requirements of the application need to be understood, and then a

cost-effective solution applied using one or more of the available
products.

The job of selecting the appropriate power correction device is fairly

straightforward when it powers a single load. The requirements of only one
load need to be considered.

For larger systems that support many loads, the requirements of all loads need
to be considered, as well as the potential interactions between them, to decide
the appropriate enhancement equipment and system construction.

Contents:

1. Isolation transformers
2. Noise filters
3. Harmonic current solutions
1. Passive harmonic filters
2. Phase-shifting transformers
3. Active harmonic filters
4. Transient voltage surge suppression
5. Voltage regulators
1. Tap Changers
2. Buck Boost
3. Ferroresonant constant voltage transformers
6. Power line conditioners
7. Computer power distribution units
8. Magnetic synthesizer
9. Motor – alternator / generators
10. Static transfer switches (STSs)
11. Standby power systems (SPSs)
12. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs)
1. Isolation transformers

Isolation transformers are one of the most widely used power correction
devices. Figure 1 depicts the configuration of an isolation transformer. They
incorporate separate primary (or input) and secondary (or output) windings.

They provide for several functions.

One is the ability to transform or change the input-to-output voltage

level and/or to compensate for high or low steady-state voltage. In
the United States, 480 V is typically distributed to the point of use and
then transformed to 120 V or 208 Y/120 V.

Another function of the separate windings is to provide for establishing the

power ground reference close to the point of use.

This greatly reduces the problem of common-mode

noise induced through “ground loops” or
multiplecurrent paths in the ground circuit upstream
of the established reference ground point.
Figure 1 – Isolation transformer

These passive devices introduce minimal current distortion onto the input

source. In addition, they can reduce the  triplen harmonic currents fed back to
the source by single-phase nonlinear loads.

When a delta primary, wye secondary isolation transformer is used to

power a nonlinear load such as a rectifier, the balanced portion of the
load triplen harmonic currents circulate and are cancelled in the delta
primary so they are not seen by the power source (utility).

Other positive and negative sequence harmonic currents are affected by the
30° fundamental frequency phase shift of the delta-wye transformer.
 For example, the 5th and 7th harmonic load currents
are inverted, which can be beneficial in providing
cancellation of these harmonic currents at
the primary voltage level.

Figure 2 – Shielded isolation transformer

For power conditioning purposes, isolation transformers should be equipped

with electrostatic (Faraday) shields between the primary and secondary
windings as shown in Figure 2 above.
 An electrostatic shield is a  conducting sheet of
nonmagnetic material (copper or aluminum)
connected to ground that reduces the effect of
interwinding capacitive coupling between primary and
secondary windings and improves the
isolation transformer’s ability to isolate its load from
the common-mode noise present on the input power
source.

Simple shielding adds little to the cost, size, or weight of the transformer.

Specialty conditioning transformers, referred to as super isolation or ultra

isolation transformers, are equipped with additional shields around each
winding to further reduce the capacitive coupling.

This type of transformer (ultra isolation transformer) is claimed to

reduce the common-mode noise of certain frequencies by 140 dB or
more. However, this is done at the expense of introducing additional
transformer reactance with resultant degraded voltage regulation with
load change and higher costs than that of the isolation transformers
with single electrostatic shields.

These transformers generally do not provide decoupling of the normal-

mode disturbances, such as sags, swells, and surges.
 Isolation transformers do not provide any line
voltage regulation and, in fact, may cause some
additional degradation of voltage regulation due to
their series impedance.

As was stated, shielding tends to adversely affect regulation. Isolation

transformers tend to be quite efficient (95% to 98%) so they generate little
heat and are relatively quiet. They can be obtained in enclosures that are
suitable for installation in computer rooms.

Isolation transformers can be installed separately or with power distribution

circuit breakers and monitoring circuits. Isolation transformers with distribution
circuit breakers can be located near the critical load.
This configuration provides for short power feeders and branch circuits, thus
limiting susceptibility to coupled noise. Isolation transformers incorporated into
packaged power distribution units (PDUs) often include  additional noise and
surge suppression, integral power distribution, monitoring, and flexible output
cables that provide for simpler rearrangement of the load equipment.

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2. Noise lters

Noise filters reduce conducted electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-

frequency interference (RFI). Figure 3 shows a representation of one type of
inductor/capacitor (LC) filter.

Filters can be used to prevent interference from traveling into

equipment from the power source as well as prevent equipment
that generates interference from feeding it back into the power line.

Most types of electronic equipment have some form of filters to limit the high-
frequency noise, usually needed to comply with Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) equipment emission limits.
Figure 3 – LC noise filter

The simplest form of filter is a “low pass” filter designed to pass 60 Hz voltage
but to block the higher frequencies or steep wavefront surges. These devices
contain series inductors followed by capacitors to ground. The inductor forms a
low-impedance path for the 60 Hz utility power, but a high-impedance path
to the high-frequency noise.

The capacitor conducts the remaining high-frequency noise to ground before

it reaches the load.
RFI filters are not effective for frequencies near 60 Hz, such as low-order
harmonics.

Filters can be connected line-to-line or line-to-neutral for rejection of normal-

mode noise. They can also be connected line-to-neutral and line-to-ground or
used in conjunction with a balun transformer to reduce common-mode noise
between any of the conductors.

Filters require careful application!! If not used

properly, they can cause a ringing effect that can be
worse than the noise they were intended to filter. For
this and other reasons, filters larger than simple RFI
filters are seldom used as add-on line-conditioning
devices.

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3. Harmonic current solutions

A number of alternative methods have been employed to reduce or control

harmonic currents. Methods include passive harmonic filters, transformer-
based solutions, and active harmonic filters.

3.1 Passive harmonic current lters

Passive harmonic current filters are used to prevent the harmonic currents of
nonlinear loads from being fed back into the power source where they cause
heating of conductors and transformers and corresponding voltage distortion.

Passive filters contain only inductors, capacitors, and resistors.

Two types of passive harmonic current filters are parallel-connected series-

resonant filters and series-connected parallel-resonant filters. A typical series-
resonant filter is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 – Series-resonant harmonic current filter

The filter is placed in parallel with the load, and the filter is tuned for the lowest
predominant harmonic frequency generated by the load or observed in the
power system.

Often, a series inductor is inserted ahead of the filter to detune the

filter from the upstream harmonic sources. These filters can be very
effective at reducing the harmonic currents at their source and
eliminating the need for other changes to compensate for the
problems caused by the harmonic currents.

For diode rectifier nonlinear loads, there are significant levels of harmonic
currents without any appreciable fundamental reactive power (VARs).
A potential disadvantage of passive series-resonant harmonic filters in this
case is the leading power factor due to the fundamental VARs of the filter’s
capacitors. For changing loads, a stepped filter can be obtained that switches
in and out the requisite number of filter steps as the load increases or
decreases.

Series-connected parallel-resonant harmonic current

filters have been applied to control the flow
of harmonic currents by intentionally inserting a high
impedance at the target harmonic current frequency.

Figure 5 – Parallel-resonant harmonic current filter applied to block

triplen harmonic current flow
Figure 5 depicts a parallel-resonant filter in a typical application where the
parallel-resonant filter is tuned to the 3rd harmonic to block the flow of triplen
harmonic neutral current in three-phase power systems.

The parallel-resonant filter has a high impedance at the 3rd harmonic

yet maintains a low impedance at fundamental (power) frequency.
When placed in series with the neutral wire, the filter opposes 3rd
harmonic current flow and prevents high neutral currents from
appearing in the power system.

The filter eliminates the need for oversized neutral wires to handle the
combined triplen currents from the phases, and standard wiring practices can
be used.

A potential disadvantage of the series-connected parallel-resonant filter is

the resulting increased levels of voltage distortion observed on the load side of
the filter.

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3.2 Transformer-based harmonic current reduction

Three basic types of transformers applied to reduce harmonic currents are:

Delta-wye isolation transformers,

Zigzag auto-transformers, and
Phase-shifting, multi-winding transformers.

Delta-wye isolation transformers

Delta-wye isolation transformers, which are in widespread use as three-phase

power distribution transformers, provide cancellation of the triplen harmonic
load currents as they circulate in the delta primary windings.

Additionally, the 30° input-to-output phase shift of delta-wye

transformers can be used to cancel 5th and 7th order harmonic
 currents in the primary power circuit as these harmonic currents are
inverted by the delta-wye windings and these inverted harmonic
currents can be used to cancel other (non-inverted) harmonic load
currents.

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Zigzag transformers

Zigzag transformers, sometimes called zero-sequence transformers, are used

to control the flow of triplen harmonic currents, diverting them from
overloaded feeders or distribution transformers.

Figure 6 shows a typical zigzag transformer application.

The transformer is, connected in parallel to the three-phase and neutral wires,

providing a low-impedance path to triplen harmonics. The triplen harmonic
currents are shunted through the zigzag transformer and thus diverted away
from the input feeder or supply transformer.

However, triplen harmonic currents continue to flow in all the wires downstream
of the zigzag transformer, and doubled neutrals or other harmonic current
coping means are still required.
Figure 6 – Zigzag auto transformer applied to divert triplen harmonic current flow

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Phase-shifting, multi-winding transformers

Phase-shifting, multi-winding transformers can be used on three-phase power

systems to cancel certain orders of harmonic currents, depending on the
particular phase shift provided by the transformer windings.

One popular phase-shifting transformer is a delta (primary)-delta

(secondary)-wye (secondary) transformer used with three phase
 rectifiers to provide 12-pulse rectification that effectively eliminates
(cancels) 5th and 7th order rectifier harmonic currents.

Other multi-winding transformers have been applied with rectifier circuits to

provide cancellation of more orders of harmonic currents, particularly in high
power rectifier applications, such as large motor drives.

For electronic loads operating on line-to-neutral voltages, a number of multi-

winding transformers have been devised that create multiphase, line-to-neutral
voltages.

Figure 7 -Phase-shifting, multi-winding transformer applied with line-to-

neutral electronic loads to cancel triplen, 5th, and 7th harmonic currents

Figure 7 above is an example of a six-phase multi-winding transformer used to

cancel 5th and 7th order harmonic load currents.
 In this case, two secondary wye systems are provided with 30° phase
shifting to cancel 5th and 7th harmonic currents flowing from loads
connected to each output phase winding. The zigzag output
windings and delta primary windings cancel the triplen harmonic load
currents.

Thus a single transformer can cancel triplen, 5th, and 7th harmonic load
currents. Since the reduction in the harmonic currents is by cancellation, the
loading on each transformer output needs to be equal and balanced.

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3.3 Active harmonic current lters

Active harmonic current filters are electronic devices that sense on a real-time
basis the harmonic load currents and inject equal and opposite harmonic
currents to cancel harmonic load currents. Figure 8 depicts a typical
implementation of an active harmonic current filter.
 Harmonic current flows are generally reactive
current flows and require minimal levels of real
power to cancel.

Certain implementations of active harmonic current filters can also provide

fundamental frequency reactive currents to provide total power factor
correction.

Properly sized and designed active filters can correct the current
distortion to less than 1% total harmonic distortion. Active filters use
some power for their operation and are generally less efficient than
passive filters.

However, they can adapt to changing load conditions. Being electronic circuits,
they are inherently more complex and less reliable than passive filters and, to
date, have been significantly more expensive.
Figure 8 – Active harmonic current filter

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4. Surge suppressors

Surge suppressors encompass a broad category surge protective devices

(SPDs) from large devices, such as lightning-surge arrestors, to small transient
voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs) used to protect plug-connected devices.
 Effective surge protection for an entire building power
distribution system requires the coordinated use of
large-capacity current-diverting devices at the
service entrance followed by lower capacity voltage-
clamping devices applied strategically throughout the
power system.

The service entrance devices are intended to lower the energy level of a very
large surge to that which can be handled by other devices closer to the loads. If
improperly coordinated, excess energy can destroy the
downstream suppressors and damage the connected load equipment.
The smaller surge suppressors are generally simple, and relatively low-cost,
devices. They usually contain  metal-oxide varistors, avalanche diodes, or other
voltage-clamping devices that are connected across the power line or from one
phase-voltage lead to another or to ground.

Suppressors absorb or divert energy from surges that exceed their

voltage threshold (typically 100% above the nominal line voltage).

Because of their small size and low cost as compared with the equipment they
serve and the cost of determining if such surges exist at a given installation (or
even if this feature is already built into the computer itself), they are often
routinely used as low-cost insurance against the chance of severe surges.

Many of the higher quality line conditioners include suppressors. They can be

added to a distribution panelboard serving electronic loads if not included
elsewhere.

The most effective locations for surge suppression

is at the service entrance, at the output of separately
derived sources (where the neutral is bonded to
ground), and at the source of severe transient voltage
surges, such as switched inductors, contactor coils,
etc.
Surge suppression devices are packaged into various assemblies that often
include power receptacles for several loads. These units are most commonly
sold for use with small, single-phase loads and are available from a variety of
manufacturers.

The better units include fusing, agency listing, and surge capability in
the form of clamping voltages and energy ratings. Most of the lower-
cost units have limited ability to survive multiple large surges.

The bad thing is that SPD may fail without any indication, leaving the load
unprotected.

Figure 9 shows a typical parallel-connected, multimode surge suppressor.

Figure 9 – Parallel-connected, multimode surge suppressor

Figure 10 shows a typical parallel-connected surge suppressor using multiple,

individually fused surge suppression elements.
Figure 10 – Parallel-connected surge suppressor using multiple individually fused surge suppression
elements

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5. Voltage regulators
Most low-frequency voltage disturbances, except very deep sags or outages,
can be handled by appropriate application of a voltage regulator. There are a
number of types of voltage regulators in use today.

Ferroresonant and solid-state tap-changing transformers are used

today for electronic loads, rather than slower acting electromechanical
types.

These units are not suitable to protect electronic loads against rapid changes in
voltage.

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5.1 Tap changers

Fast response regulators divide into two generic classes: tap changers and
buck boost. The first is the tapchanging regulator shown in Figure 11.

Quality tap changers are designed to adjust for varying input voltages by
automatically transferring taps on a power transformer (either isolating type or
auto-transformer type).
Figure 11 – Tap-changing regulator

The number of taps determines the magnitude of the steps and the range of
regulation possible. An acceptable regulator should have at least four taps
below normal and two taps above normal for seven total steps. The taps are
typically in 4% to 10% steps, depending on specific designs.

Response time is usually less than two cycles and is limited to that speed
because of the zero current-switching and controls-stability criteria.

An advantage of the tap-changing regulator is that its series

impedance is the transformer or autotransformer impedance and the
semiconductor switches. It introduces little harmonic voltage
distortion under steady-state operation and minimizes load-induced
disturbances as compared to regulators with higher series impedance.
It also has high short-term overload capability to provide for starting or inrush
currents. In its usual configuration with an isolating transformer and wide
undervoltage capability, it provides both common-mode noise isolation and
voltage regulation.

A variation of the traditional tap-changing regulator is the use of a series

injection transformer to allow smaller current tap-changing semiconductors to
be used in a buck-boost mode.

See Figure 12 below.

Figure 12 – Tap-changing buck-boost regulator

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5.2 Buck boost

The second class of fast response regulators is the electronic buck-boost type
(Figure 13). It utilizes thyristor control of buck and boost transformers in
combination with parametric filters to provide regulated sinusoidal output, even
with nonlinear loads typical of computer systems.

This is done in a smooth continuous manner eliminating the steps inherent in

the tap changer. Inrush currents can be delivered for start-up typical of
computer central processors or disc drive motors while maintaining nearly full
voltage.

Units can be equipped with an isolation transformer with electrostatic shield

providing voltage step-down and common-mode attenuation when needed.
Power is fed to the regulator, which either adds to (boosts) or subtracts from
(bucks) the incoming voltage so that the output is maintained constant for 15%
to 20% variations of input voltage.

This is done by comparing the output voltage to the desired (set) level
and by the use of feedback to modify the level of boost or buck so
that the desired level is maintained.
A parametric filter provides a path for nonlinear currents generated by the load
and by the regulator itself and produces a sine wave output with low total
harmonic distortion.

Figure 13 – Buck-boost regulator

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5.3 Ferroresonant constant voltage transformers

One common type of voltage regulator is a ferroresonant or constant voltage

transformer (CVT). Figure 14 represents one design topology of a ferroresonant
regulator. This class of regulators uses a saturating transformer with a resonant
circuit made up of the transformer’s inductance and a capacitor.
 The regulator maintains a nearly constant voltage on the output for
input voltage swings of 20% to 40%, depending on unit loading. Being
a resonant circuit, the output voltage is affected by the applied
frequency. There is approximately a 1% output voltage change for a 1%
frequency change.

These units are reliable because they contain no moving or active electronic

parts. If these units are built with isolation (and shielding), they can provide for
common-mode noise reduction and provide a separately derived source for
local power grounding.

They also provide normal-mode noise reduction,

voltage distortion isolation, and transient voltage
surge protection.

Figure 14 – Ferroresonant regulator

Careful application is required to avoid unwanted load-source interactions. The
load current tends to cause the unit to go out of resonance if it gets too high.

Often these units can only supply 125% to 200% of their full load
rating. If inrush or starting currents exceed these limits, the output
voltage will be significantly reduced, which may not be compatible with
many loads.

The other devices on the output of the CVT will see this sag in the voltage and
may shut down due to an undervoltage. These devices should be oversized if
they are expected to provide for heavy starting or inrush currents or to provide
very deep sag protection.
Ferroresonant transformers create more audible noise than regular
transformers and may require special enclosures before they can be installed in
office environments.

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6. Power line conditioners

Typical power line conditioners combine one or more of the basic power
correction technologies to provide more complete protection from power
disturbances.

Some power line conditioners combine the noise-reduction features of isolation

transformers or filtering devices with voltage regulators.

Many of these units provide a separately derived source with isolation

while providing voltage regulation. The advanced conditioners also
incorporate surge suppressors to clamp high-voltage surges, which
filtering alone does not address.

Figure 15 depicts a power line conditioner using tap-switching voltage regulator,

isolation transformer, and surge suppression.
Figure 15 – Power line conditioner

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7. Computer power distribution units (PDUs)

A PDU is a device that provides a convenient method for distributing electrical

power to information technology equipment (ITE) without the need for
premises wiring, and typically includes a separately derived source for local
grounding.

The basic components of a PDU are a cabinet with an

input disconnecting means, isolation transformer, system monitoring,
output distribution overcurrent protection, and flexible output cables.
See Figure 16 below.

Figure 16 – Computer PDU

The load cables are terminated with mating connectors for connecting to the
ITE. Some manufacturers include power conditioners such as tap changers,
motor – alternator / generator (M-Gs) sets, or magnetic synthesizers internal to
the PDU to further enhance performance.
 The PDU greatly reduces the time required to install
the average information technology system and
allows for relatively easy relocation of equipment as
compared to hard wiring methods. This can translate
into significant cost and time savings.

The isolation provided by the transformer (or M-G) in the PDU allows
the creation of a separately derived source and common grounding point.

PDUs with internal voltage regulators can be used to reduce the effects of long
distribution feeds from central power conditioning or uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) equipment.

The effect of current harmonics on the power source is a function of the type

of conditioner used in the PDU.

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8. Magnetic synthesizer

Another ferroresonant-based technology is the magnetic synthesizer (Figure

17). These units are three-phase systems consisting of nonlinear inductors and
capacitors in a parallel-resonant circuit with six saturating pulse transformers.

These units draw power from the source and generate an output
voltage waveform by combining the pulses of the saturating transformers in a
step-wave manner.

They provide for noise and surge rejection and regulation of the output
voltage to within 5% over large swings in input, up to ±50%. These
units generally incorporate shielding into the pulse transformers to
attenuate common-mode disturbances.

Additional filtering is included to eliminate self-induced harmonics. This filtering

can handle a reasonable level of harmonic distortion at the input or at the
output as induced by the nonlinear loads. The circuit is tuned to the rated
output voltage and frequency.
Figure 17 – Magnetic synthesizer

The magnetic synthesizer has an inherent current-limiting characteristic that

limits maximum current at full voltage to the range of 200% to 250% of rating.
Beyond that load, the voltage drops off rapidly, producing typically 250% to
300% current at short circuit.

This is a limitation with large inrush and starting currents.

Sudden large load changes, even within the unit’s rating, can cause significant
output voltage variations. These units are best applied when the load does not
make large step changes. The ferroresonant circuit has stored energy and may
ride through outages of one half-cycle or more depending on unit loading.
Magnetic synthesizers tend to be large and heavy due to the magnetics
involved and can be acoustically noisy without special packaging. Some of the
larger units display good efficiencies as long as they are operated at close to
full load.

The magnetic synthesizer provides two-way

harmonic isolation, isolating the electronic load from
supply voltage distortion and isolating the supply
from the load current distortion.

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9. Motor-alternator/generators

M-Gs provide the function of a line conditioner and can also provide for
conversion of the input frequency to a different frequency that is required by
the load. Figure 18 depicts one configuration of an M-G.

Examples of this are 60-to-50 Hz or 60-to-400 Hz frequency converters. These

units consist of a utility-powered electric motor driving an ac generator that
supplies voltage to the load. The motor and generator are coupled by a shaft or
belts.

This totally mechanical coupling of the input and the output allows the M-G
to provide total electrical noise isolation of the load from the input power
source.

Practical M-G systems include a bypass circuit that can reduce this

total input-to-output isolation, and some commercial M-G systems
have the motor and generator windings in a common frame, leading to
capacitive input-to-output noise coupling.
The induction motor is the least expensive of the common types of motors
used on these devices. This type of motor does not rotate at the same speed
as the rotating field that is generated by the input power. The speed at which
the motor turns changes with load and input voltage variations. Since the
generator
frequency is a function of its shaft speed, the output frequency varies with the
motor speed.

IMPORTANT! The output voltage is maintained by

controlling the excitation to the field winding of the
generator and is independent of small changes of
motor speed.
Figure 18 – M-G set

Although most of today’s computer power supplies can operate with a wide
range of frequency, some loads may be frequency sensitive (e.g., ±0.5 Hz
tolerance). For critical frequency applications, low slip induction motors or
synchronous motors should be used.
The output frequency of a synchronous M-G is the same as the input frequency.
However, the synchronous M-G output voltage is not in-phase with the input
power source and varies proportionate to the loading. Uninterrupted transfers
between the M-G and bypass source for maintenance must accommodate the
varying output phase angle of the M-G.

For induction M-Gs, uninterrupted transfers to bypass can be accomplished only

during the brief periods of time when the output voltage is nearly in-phase with
the bypass voltage.

[/info_box]M-Gs protect the load from voltage sags, swells, and surges. For
short-term power line voltage changes of  ±20% to ±50%, voltage to the load is
still maintained at nominal. A useful feature of the M-G is its ability to bridge
severe short-term deep sags or outages.[/info_box]

Products are available that are able to maintain output frequency even while the
shaft speed is slowing down. These devices do not have fixed poles in the
generator. Instead, the poles are created or “written” as the device rotates.
When input power is lost and the shaft speed starts to decay, the spacing of
the poles is reduced and their number is increased so that the frequency
remains constant.

This method achieves ride-through times that are significantly longer than other
M-G sets with the same rotating energy at the cost of increased complexity and
lower efficiency.

M-Gs tend to be more expensive than other types of

line conditioning equipment. They are
usually physically large and heavy. Depending on the
design, the M-G efficiency can be relatively low so
that electrical energy costs over its lifetime may be
significant.
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10. Static transfer switches (STSs)

STSs use semiconductor switches to provide very fast, break-before-make

switching between two independent power sources and are applied to improve
the quality and reliability of power to the connected loads.

Figure 19 depicts a typical STS incorporating maintenance bypass provisions

to each input source.
Figure 19 – Typical stand-alone STS with bypass provisions to both input sources

Proper application of STSs require the two input power sources to be as

independent as possible so that there are no simultaneous power source
failures. Both input sources need to be synchronized within 10° to 15° to keep
from causing sudden phase shifts during transfers that can upset the load
equipment.

Also both input sources need to be nominally available so that the STS has an
alternate source available to transfer to in case of switch failure (analogous to
having a bypass source available for UPS systems).

STSs have been applied at both the medium (up to 34 kV) and low (<600 V)
voltages.
 As with most power conditioners, application as
close to the protected load as possible yields the
greatest protection.

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11. Standby power supply

Standby power supplies are back-up power systems in which the load is
normally supplied by the input power source. Figure 20 shows one
configuration of the standby power supply.

The standby power supply  only supplies the load when the input
power source is determined to be not acceptable.
These power systems are intended for loads that can tolerate a discontinuity of
power during the transfer. They come in a number of configurations using a
number of technologies and are used for a variety of loads ranging from
personal computers to emergency lighting.

There are significant variations in the power failure

detection and transfer times and the type of output
waveform supplied when the normal power source is
not available.

Figure 20 – Standby power supply

The simplest form of standby power supply has the load connected to the input
power source through a transfer switch during normal operation.

In the event of an input power failure, the load is transferred to

an inverter that generates AC power to support the load. The inverter
output voltage waveform can be a sine wave, square wave, quasi-
square wave, or other non-sinusoidal waveform deemed satisfactory to
support the load. The inverter is fed from a battery that has been
maintained at full charge from a rectifier unit that is fed from the utility
source.

The design of this type of supply allows several economies. First, the inverter is
not supporting the load on a continuous basis. It only has to operate for the
duration of the power outage or for the support time of the batteries.

This period is typically 15 min or less.

The quality of the inverter output waveform is generally less than for an on-line
UPS. Second, the rectifier section only has to recharge the battery and not
support the full load of the inverter.
Normal operating efficiency of this type of unit is high since the load is being
fed from the utility under normal operation. The losses are those associated
with the line conditioning element (if used) and the battery charging circuit.

A major requirement of this type of unit is its ability to sense all types of power
failures and transfer to the inverter without an unacceptably long input-power
loss to the load equipment.

These units are typically successful in powering

systems that have power supplies that can tolerate
short durations of input-power interruption. They are
often employed with loads that utilize switch-mode
power supplies, which often do not require regulated
voltage and are tolerant of momentary loss of power
during the transfer.
Figure 21 – Standby power supply with power conditioning

A common enhancement of the standby power supply involves the use of some
form of power conditioner in series with the load to provide conditioning of the
supply voltage during normal operation as shown in Figure 21 above.

The conditioner can be one of the types that were previously discussed.
 Most commonly available standby power supplies use some form of
transient voltage surge suppression and/or noise filtering. Another
variation of the standby power supply uses a tap changer that powers
the load under normal operation to provide some voltage regulation.

Some manufacturers take advantage of the extensive capability of some of the

conditioners, such as the ferroresonant transformer, magnetic synthesizer, and
M-G. The filtering capability allows them to use a very simple inverter circuit
that generates square waves as opposed to sine waves. The line conditioner is
in circuit all the time and provides conditioning of the inverter output as well as
the utility during normal operation.

Continuous regulated output power can be achieved by this method if the line
conditioner has sufficient ride-through to power the load during the interruption
time.

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12. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs)

UPSs are intended to provide regulated, uninterrupted output power regardless

of the condition of the input power source, including total power outages. UPSs
come in a variety of configurations and utilize various technologies.

The major categories of UPS are rotary and static UPS.

Since UPSs were discussed in some earlier articles and guides, we won’t
describe them again. However, feel free to find all information about UPS
devices here.

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Reference // Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment by IEEE

About Author
Edvard Csanyi

Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for

design of LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in
power substations, commercial buildings and industry fascilities. Professional in
AutoCAD programming. Present on Google+