Kreatryx Signals & Systems

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Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
ww
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
w.E
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
asy
comes handy while traveling long distances.
En
When do I start using K-Notes?
gin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
ee
How do I use K-Notes?
rin
g.n
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
et

BASIC CONCEPTS
 In continuous time signals independent variable is continuous and thus these signals are
defined for a continuum of values of independent variable.
 Discrete time signals are only defined at discrete times and consequently for these
signals the independent variable takes discrete set of values.
Representation of continuous time signals

 We use symbol ‘t’ to denote independent variable for continuous time signal.
ww These signals can be represented by a wave form as shown below
w.E

asy
If possible, these can also be represented by a mathematical function like
x(t) = sin t
En
Representation of discrete time signal

gin
We use symbol ‘n’ to denote independent variable for discrete time signal.

ee
These signals can be represented as a series of numbers like
x[n] = [5, 4, 5, 7, 9, 2……]
rin

Arrow indicates reference point or x [0]
If possible, we can represent the same by a function like
 
g.n

x[n] = sin n 4
Also these signals can be represented by a wave form as shown below

et

Energy & Power Signals

Interval   ,  
Energy of continuous time signal
T 
lim 2 2
x t  x t 
T   T
E  dt  dt

Energy of discrete time signal

lim N 2
 2
    x n
ww E 
T   nN
x n 
n
w.E Power of continuous time signals
P 
lim 1
T
 x t
2
dt
T   2T T
asy
Power of discrete time signals
lim 1 N En
gin
2
P  
N   2N  1 nN
x n

ex. x(t) = sint
ee
Signals having non-zero (finite) power and infinite energy are called as Power Signals.
rin
Signals having finite (non-zero) energy and zero power are called as Energy Signals.

ex. x[n] = [1, 2, 3, 4]
g.n

power. et
The bounded signal radiate finite energy and periodic signal radiate finite average
Even & Odd signals

 A signal is said to be “even” if it satisfies the condition
x(t) = x (–t) or x [n] = x[–n]
 A signal is said to be “odd” if it satisfies the condition

x(t) = –x(–t) or x [n] = –x[–n]
 Any signal (even those which are neither odd nor even) can be broken into odd & even
parts

Odd Part
x  t   x  t  x n  x  n
x0  t   ; x0 n 
2 2
Even Part
x  t   x  t  x n  x  n
xe  t   ; xe n 
2 2
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
ww A signal is said to be periodic with period “T” or “N” if

x(t + T) = x(t)
w.E

x[n + N] = x[n]
Otherwise, the signals are said to be aperiodic.
Classification of systems
asy
En
(i) Linear & Non-Linear Systems
For Linearity gin
if x1  t   y1  t 
x2  t   y 2  t 
then, this condition must be true
ee rin
1x1  t   2 x2  t   1y1  t   2 y 2  t 
g.n
Example : y(t) = t x (t) is linear
y[n] = 2x [n] + 3 is non-linear et
(ii) Time Invariant & Time-variant Systems
For system to be time-invariant the
following condition must hold true
x(t -  )  y(t –  )

It means that following two realizations must be equivalent
ww The simplest way to verify this is to check the coefficient of ‘t’ inside x(t)
eg. y(t) = tx(t) is time invariant
w.E but y(t) = tx(2t) is time variant as coefficient of ‘t’ in side x(t) is not ‘1’

asy
Otherwise, you need to verify the system equivalence shown above.
(iii) Causal & Non-causal Systems

En

gin
The output should depend only on present & past values of input.
ht  0 V t  0
 For discrete time system ee
h[n] = 0 V n < 0 rin
g.n
(iv) Stable & Unstable Systems
 Every Bounded input should produce a bounded output.

et
 
DT : 
K 
h k    ; CT :  h    d  

(v) LTI systems with or without memory

 The output at any time should depend only on value of input at the same time.
 For discrete time system
h[n] = 0 V n  0
 h[n] = k  [n]

 For continuous time system

h(t) = 0 V t  0
 h [t] = k  [t]
(vi) Invertible Systems

The system is invertible if there exists h1(t) such that
Thus h(t) * h1(t) =   t 
ww
w.E For discrete time, h[n] * h1[n] =  n
asy
Shifting and Scaling operations
En
 Shifting
Delay gin
if ee rin
g.n
et
 shift the waveform right by the amount of delay
Advance
if
 shift the waveform left by the amount of advance

 Scaling
Compression
if
Replace upper & lower limit by original limit divided by compression factor
ww
w.E
Expansion asy
if En
gin
ee
Replace upper & lower limit by original limit multiplied by expansion factor.
rin
g.n
et
Note : If both scaling and shifting are given in the question .
Ex. x(3t-2)

1. shift the waveform right by the amount of delay
2. Replace upper & lower limit by original limit divided by compression factor
ww  This method is applicable for both continuous and discrete time signal.
w.E
LTI system (Linear Time Invariant Systems)
 Any continuous time or discrete time system can be represented in terms of impulses.
x t 

asy
 x      t    d
En


x[n]   x k   n  k 

k 
gin
LTI systems are characterized on the basis of Impulse Response h(t) or h[n]
ee rin
g.n

The response of a system with impulse as an input is called as impulse response.
Due to time invariance property of LTI system
if  n  h n
et
 n  k   h n  k 

since x n   x k 
K 
 n  k 

 y n   x k hn  k   x n * hn = convolution sum
k 
for continuous time domain

y t   x   h  t    x  t  * h  t  = convolution integral
k 

 The condition for causality of system then becomes

h[n] =0 V n < 0 ; h(t) = 0 V t < 0
Calculating convolution sum
 Suppose x [n] = u[n]

h[n] = [1, 2, 5, 7, 9]
 Draw plots of both x[n] & h[n]
ww
w.E

Here, we flip x[n] asy
Flip either x[n] or h[n] about y-axis
En
gin
ee rin
For calculating y[n], shift x[–k] to right by amount ‘n’
For y[0] g.n
et
The only overlapping between the two is at k = 0, –1, –2
y [0] = x[0] h [0] + x [1] h [–1] + x [2] h [–2]
=1x5+1x2+1x1
=8
For y [1]

y [1] = x [0] h [1] + x [1] h [0] + x [2] h [–1] + x [3] h [–2]

= 1 x 7 + 1 x 5 + 1 x 1 x 1 x 2 = 15
Similarly, we can calculate all values of y[n]
y[n] = [2, 3, 8, 15, 24, 24……..]
Calculating Convolution Integral

Assume x (t) = u (t)
h (t) =
ww
w.E
 Step 1
Flip either x(t) or h(t)
Here, we flip h(t)
asy
En
 Step 2
gin
h  t   & x   ee
Shift h(  ) by amount “t” to the right to calculate y(t) by calculating overlapping between
rin
g.n
 Overlapping area
et
1 t 
=  1.1d  1  t 
0
if t < – 1
so, overlapping area = 0

if t > 1
overlapping area = 2
y (t) is shown in adjoining figure:
Properties of Convolution Sum
ww
1) Commutative Property
w.E x[n] * h[n] = h[n] * x[n]
2) Distributive Property
y1[n] = x[n] * h1[n] asy
y2[n] = x[n] * h2[n]
En
y [n] = y1[n] + y2[n] = x[n] * h1[n] + x2[n]*h2[n]
gin
= x[n] * { h1[n] + h2[n] }
3) Associative Property ee
{x[n] * h1[n] }* h2[n] = { x[n]* h2[n] } * h1 [n]
rin
Same properties will apply for continuous time domain for convolution integral.g.n
Parallel & Cascade structure of LTI systems
Parallel:
et
y[n] = x[n] * [h1 [n] + h2 [n]]

Cascade:
y[n] = x[n] * ([h1 [n] + h2 [n]])
Frequency Response
The frequency response of any LTI system is given by its Fourier Transform.
ww

DT: H e
jw
  
n
h n e jwn
w.E CT: H  jw    ht e


 jwt
dt
Group delay & Phase delay

asy
Assuming transfer function of system is H(s)
input is x(t)= e
jwt
En
Output: H  jw  e
jwt

gin
  H  jw  e    e jwt
j w

j wt  w  
= H  jw  e
  w   ArgH jw  ee
d  w  rin
Group Delay, g  w   
dw
 w
g.n
Phase Delay,   w   
Continuous – Time Fourier series

w
et
Fourier states that any periodic signal can be represented by a set of complex exponential
signals provided that it satisfies Drichlet Conditions.
Drichlet conditions
(i) Over any period x(t) is absolutely integrable
T
i.e., 0 x  t  dt  
(ii) In a finite time interval, x(t) has a finite number of maxima & minima

(iii) It should have finite number of discontinuities in the given interval
Note : for distortion less transmission of the of a signal with some finite frequency content
through a continuous time LTI system , the frequency response of the system must satisfy these
two conditions.
1. The magnitude response H( j ) must be constant for all frequencies of interest ;
that is, we must have
H( j )  C
For some constant C
ww 2. For the same frequencies of interest, the phase response argH( j) must be linear in
frequency, with slope –to and intercept zero ; that is, we must have
w.E argH( j)  to
 Trigonometric asy
Fourier series as generally expressed in 2 forms.
 Exponential
En
Trigonometric Fourier Series
gin
Analysis equations
a0 
1
T
T 0
x  t  dt ee rin
ak 
2
T
T 0
x  t  cos k0 t dt where 0  2
T g.n
bk 
2
T
T 0
x  t  sin k0 t dt et
Synthesis equations
 
x  t   a0   ak cosk 0t   bk sink 0t
k  - k 
k 0 k 0
Exponential Fourier Series

Analysis equations
T
1  jk0t
Ck   x  t  e dt
T0

Synthesis equations

x t 
jk0t
 CK e where 0  2
k 
T
Relation between T.F.S. and E.F.S.

 co  a0
an  jbn
 Cn 
2
an  jbn
 Cn 
ww 2
Important facts about Trigonometric Fourier series
w.E
(i) Any odd signal contains only sine terms in Fourier series.
(ii) Any even signal contains only cosine terms in Fourier series.
(iii) For half–wave symmetric signal
 
x t  T 2  x  t 
asy
Only odd harmonics are present
i.e., k = 1, 3, 5……. En
Properties of complex exponential Fourier Series gin
(i) Linearity
F.S.
ee rin
If x  t    ak
F.S.
y  t    bk g.n
F.S.
then Ax (t) + By (t)   A ak + B bk
et
(ii) Time-shifting
F.S.
if x  t    ak
F.S. -jk0t0
x  t  t0    e ak where 0  2
T
(iii) Time-Reversal
F.S.
if x  t    ak
x  t  
F.S.
 ak

For odd signal For even signal
x(t) = – x(–t) x(t) = x (–t)

 ak  ak  ak  ak
(iv) Time – Scaling
F.S.
if x  t    ak
x  t  
F.S.
 ak
ww but 0 is replaced by  0   , though Fourier series coefficients remain same.
w.E
(v) Multiplication
F.S.
if x  t    ak
F.S.
y  t  
asy
 bk
F.S.
z  t   x  t  y  t    ck
Ck  

En
bp ak p = convolution sum
P 
gin
(vi) Parseval’s Relation
1 2
 2
ee
Energy in time domain = Energy frequency Domain
rin
 x  t  dt   ak
T T
F.S.
where x  t  
k 
 ak
g.n
Discrete –Time Fourier series et
For a discrete-time signal, with period ‘N’ the following equations are used for Fourier
series.
Analysis equations
 j2Kn
Ck   x n e N
N
0  2 N
 j0Kn
Ck   x n e
N

Synthesis equations
j0Kn
x n   CK e
N
The properties of Fourier series coefficients are same as continuous time Fourier series
with one additional property.
CK N  CK
That is, Fourier series coefficients are periodic
ww
IMPORTANT DUALITY
w.E
A signal discrete in one domain is periodic in other domain & vice versa.
asy
Example: For continuous Time Fourier Series, x (t) is periodic in time domain & hence Fourier
Series exists where coefficients exist for frequency integral multiple of " 0 " & hence is discrete.
En
Fourier Transform
gin
ee
Fourier series exists only for periodic signals, Fourier series converges to Fourier Transform
which is continuous as compared to Fourier series which is discrete.
rin
Continuous Time Fourier Transform
g.n
Analysis equation

 jwt
et
X  jw    x t e dt

Synthesis equation

1
x t   x  jw  e jwt dw
2 

Properties of Continuous Time Fourier Transform
Signal Fourier Transform

x(t) X(jw)
y(t) Y(jw)
Ax(t)+By(t) AX(jw)+BY(jw)
X w
x(t-t0)  jt0
e
x*(t) X*(-w)
ww x(-t)
x(at)
X(-w)
w.E 1  jw 
X 
a  a 
asy
x(t)*y(t)
d
dt
x(t)
X(jw)Y(jw)
jwX(jw)
En
x(t)y(t) 1
X(w) * Y(w)
t gin
 x    d
2
1
X  jw   X  0    w 

tx(t)
ee jw
j
d
dw
X  jw 
rin
Ev{x(t)}
Od{x(t)}
Re{X(jw)}
jIm{X(jw)}
g.n
X(t)
e
j0 t
x t
2πx(-w)
X(w-w0)
et
Parseval’s Relation
 
2 1 2
 x t   x  w  dw
 2 

Some common Fourier Transform Pairs

 
ak    k0 
jkw0t
 ak e
K 
2 
k 
e
jkw0t
2    0 
cos w 0 t      0       0  
ww sin w 0 t               
w.E 
1
j
2  
0
2  
2k 
0 
   t  nT 
n
1, t  T1
asy   
T K  
2sin T1
T 

x t  
0, t  T1
En 
(sin wt)/πt
gin 1,
x    
0,
 w
 w
 t
u(t) ee 1
j
1
   
rin
e
  t  t0 
u  t  ,Re  a  0
at
e
 jt0
1 g.n
Discrete Time Fourier Transform
a  j
et
Analysis equation

 
X e j  
n
x n e jn
Synthesis Equation
x n 
1
2 2
 
X e
j  j n
e d

Properties of Discrete Time Fourier Transform

x[n] X     periodic with
y[n] 
Y     period 2
ax[n] + by [n] aX     bY   
x n  n0   jn0
e X  
ww x*[n]
j0n
X *   
X    0 
w.E e
x [–n]
x n
 x n | k  , if n is multiple of k
X   
X k 
xk n  
asy
 0, is n is not multiple of k
X  Y 
x [n] * y [n]
En
n x [n]
 
gin j
d
dx   
Ev x n
Od {x [n]}
ee Re {X(  )}
j Im {X(  )}
rin
Parseval’s Relation
g.n

 x n
2 1
 
2
et
2 2
 X  d
n

Some common Fourier Transform Pairs


 2 
 2k 
jk  n
 N
2  ak   
 ak e k   N 
K N
j0n 
e 2      0  2 


cos 0n      0  2       0  2  
 

 
ww sin 0n
x [n] = 1

j



     0  2       0  2  



w.E 1, n  N1 2
2




    2 

ak    
2k 

x n  


0,
asy
n  N1 , n 
N
2
k   N 

En
and x [n + N] = x [n]


k  gin
 n  kN
2 

N k  

 
2k 
N 

1,
x n  
 0,
ee
n  N1
n  N1


sin 2

sin   N1  1 2 

rin
 

sin Wn W
n


 Wn 
sinc 
  

1, 0    W
x    
g.n
 0, W <   
 n  n0   jn0
e
et

Laplace Transform
 Laplace Transform is more general than Fourier Transform but can only be computed in
Region of Convergence (ROC), so it cannot be computed V s
S    jw; such that
ROC =  t
  x  t  e dt  
Laplace transform becomes Fourier transform for   0 , if it lies in ROC.
 Analysis Equations
ww for bilateral Laplace Transform
H(s) =

 ht e
st
dt
w.E 
for unilateral Laplace Transform
H(s) =
asy

 ht e
0
st
dt
 Synthesis Equation
 j En
x(t) =
1
2j j
gin
x  s  est ds
Properties of ROC
ee rin
(i) ROC consists of a collection of lines parallel to jw–axis in s–plane.

 x t e
t
such that dt  

(ii) If X (s) is rational, then ROC does not contain any poles. g.n
et
(iii) If x(t) is of finite duration & absolutely integrable, then ROC is entire s-plane.
(iv) If x(t) is right sided signal (i.e., it is zero before some time) and if Re(s) = 0 is in the
ROC, then all values of s for which Re(s) > 0 are also in ROC.
(v) If x(t) is left sided, (i.e., if it is zero after some time), and if Re (s) = 0 is in ROC, then
all values of s for which Re(s) < 0 are also in ROC.
(vi) If x(t) is two–sided signal and if the line Re (S) = 0 is in ROC, then the ROC consists
of a strip in s–plane include the line Re (S) = 0
(vii) If X(s) is rational, and
x(t) is right sided signal, then ROC is right of right most pole.
x(t) is left sided signal, then ROC is left of left most pole.

Properties of Laplace Transform
Signal Transform ROC

x(t) X(s) R
x1(t) X1(s) R1
x2(t) X2(s) R2
ww ax1(t) + bx2(t) aX1(s) + bX2(s) At least R1 Ռ R2
w.E x  t  t0  e
st0
X s R
e 0 x t
st
asy X  s  s0  Shifted version R [i.e., s is in
ROC if  s  s0  is in R]
x (at)
En  1
a
X s
  a
Scaled ROC i.e., s is ROC if
s
x1  t  * x2  t 
gin
X1  s  X2  s 
a
is in R
d eer sX  s 
At least R1 Ռ R2
At least R
dt
x t
tx(t) d ing
x s
R
t
ds
1
X s
.ne At least R
 x   d

s
t

Some common Laplace Transform Pairs

 t 1 All s
u(t) 1 Re {s} > 0
s
–u(–t) 1 Re {s} < 0
s
tn1 1 n Re {s} > 0
ut s
n  1  !
ww tn1
n  1  !
u  t 
1
sn
Re {s} < 0
w.E eatu  t 
- eatu  t 
1
sa
Re {s} > –a
tn1
asy 1
sa
1
Re {s} < –a
Re {s} < –a
n  1  !
eat u  t 
En  s  a n
tn1 at
n  1  !
e ut
gin 1
 s  a n
Re {s} > –a
 t  T
cos 0 t  u  t 
2
ee
esT
s
s  20
All s
Re {s} > 0
rin
sin 0 t  u  t 
2
0
s  0 2
Re {s} > 0
g.n
eat cos 0 t  u  t 
 
sa
2
 s  a  20
Re {s} > –a
et
eat sin 0 t  u  t  0 Re {s} > –a
 
 s  a2  20

Initial and Final Value Theorem
lim
 
x 0 
s
sX  s   initial value
lim
x   s X  s   Final value, first stability should be ensured, else final value does
s0
not exist.
ww
Analysis of LTI system using Laplace Transform
 Stability
w.E 
 h  t  dt  

; ROC of H(s) should include   0 .
 Causality
asy
h(t) = 0, t < 0 i.e., right sided signal
En
ROC should be right sided
ROC should include Right half plane.
but converse is not true.
gin
Z – Transform ee rin
It is generalization of Discrete Time Fourier Transform
g.n
Analysis Equation
H z  

 h k  z k
k 
et
Synthesis Equation
1
h[n]   H  z  zn1dz
2j 
Indicates integration around counter clockwise circular contour centered at origin

& with radius r.

ROC for Z-Transform

Z – Transform also exists only inside ROC

 x n r n
n
  is the condition for ROC.
Mapping from s-plane from z–plane

 The jw-axis is mapped to unit circle in z–plane.
 Right Half plane is mapped to exterior of unit circle.
ww Left Half plane is mapped to interior of unit circle.
w.E
Properties of ROC
(i) The ROC x(z) consists of a ring in the z – plane centered about the origin.
asy
(ii) The ROC does not contain any poles.
(iii) If x[n] is of finite duration, then ROC is the entire z – plane except possibility at z = 0
and/or z = 
En
(iv) If x[n] is a right sided sequence and if the circle, | z | = r0 is in the ROC, then all finite
gin
values of z, for which | z | > r0 will also be in ROC.
ee
(v) If x[n] is a left sided sequence, and the circle | z | = r0 is in ROC, then all finite value of
z, for which 0 < | z | < r0 will be in ROC.
rin
(vi) If x[n] is two sided sequence and if circle | z | = r0 is in the ROC. Then ROC will consist
of a ring in z-plane which consist of ring | z | = r0.
(vii) If X (z) is rational and g.n
x[n] is right sided than ROC is outside of outer most pole.
x[n] is left sided then ROC is inside of inner most pole.
(viii) If x[n] is causal, ROC includes z =  provided x[n] = 0, n < 0.
et
If x [n] is anti – causal, ROC includes z = 0 provided x [n] = 0, n > 0.
(ix) A causal LTI system with rational system function is stable if all poles inside the unit
circle that is have magnitude, | z | < 1.

Properties of z–Transform

x[n] X(z) Rx
x1 n X1  z  R1
x2 n X2  z  R2
ax1 n  bx2 n aX1  z   bX2  z  At least R1 Ռ R2
ww x n  n0  z
n0
X z Rx with addition or
deletion of origin
w.E e
j0n
n
x n
z 0 x n
X e

  j 0

z  Rx
z0R x
x[–n]
asy   X z 
 z 0
X z 1 z 1  s.t z  R x 
 x r  , n=rk
w n  
En  X zk Rx
1  1
k 
 i.e., z s.t z  R x 
0, n  rk for some r
x1 n * x2 n gin X1  z  X2  z 
k

At least R1 Ռ R2

n
nx[n]
ee zdX  z 
dz
Rx except addition or
rin
deletion of zero

k 
x k 
1 z
1
1
X z Rx
g.n  z  1
 
et

Some common Z –Transform pairs

 n  1 All z
u n 1 |z|>1
1
1z
u  n  1 1 |z|<1
1
1z
 n  m z m All z except 0 (if m > 0) or
 (if m < 0)
ww anun 1
1  az 1
|z|>|a|
w.E anu n  1 1
1  az 1
|z|<|a|
n
na u n
asy  az 1
1  az 1
2
|z|>|a|
nanu n  1
E
 n
az 1 |z|<|a|
gin 1  az 1
2
Initial & Final value Theorem
x 0  
lim
ee
X  z   Initial value
rin
z
x   
lim  1 
1   X  z   Final value g.n
z  1 z 
In z – transform also, stability must be verified before using final value theorem. et
Sampling
Continuous Discrete Time

Time signal signal
Nyquist Sampling Theorem

It states that if sampling frequency is greater than twice the maximum frequency in the

signal for the signal to be recovered from its samples.

wS  2wM
Note: For this condition signal spectrum should be centered around y-axis.
Band-pass Sampling Theorem

If the signal spectrum is band-pass which means it has minimum & maximum frequency
fL = lower frequency ; fu = upper frequency
 f 
K   u  , where    indicates Greatest Integer function
 fu  fL 
ww wS  u
2f
K
w.E
 xp (t) = x(t) p(t)
p t 

   t  nT 
n asy
En
T = sampling interval ; xp  t   Sampled signal
x(t) = continuous time signal
xp  t  

 x  t    t  nT gin
XP  w  
1
2 
n
 X  w  * P  w   ee rin
2 
P w     w  kws 
T k 
g.n
XP  w  
1 

T k 
X  w  kw s  ; ws 
2
T et
 The spectrum of sampled signal is just repetition of actual spectrum at integral multiples
of ws .
If w s  2wM , adjacent samples of spectrum overlap, called as aliasing.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

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Manual for K-Notes

What are K-Notes?

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Representation of continuous time signals

ww These signals can be represented by a wave form as shown below

Also these signals can be represented by a wave form as shown below

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Energy & Power Signals

Energy of discrete time signal

w.E Power of continuous time signals

Even & Odd signals

 A signal is said to be “odd” if it satisfies the condition

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Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

ww A signal is said to be periodic with period “T” or “N” if

Otherwise, the signals are said to be aperiodic.

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It means that following two realizations must be equivalent

(iii) Causal & Non-causal Systems

 Every Bounded input should produce a bounded output.

(v) LTI systems with or without memory

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 For continuous time system

(vi) Invertible Systems

 shift the waveform left by the amount of advance

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1. shift the waveform right by the amount of delay

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 The condition for causality of system then becomes

Calculating convolution sum

 Suppose x [n] = u[n]

 Draw plots of both x[n] & h[n]

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y [1] = x [0] h [1] + x [1] h [0] + x [2] h [–1] + x [3] h [–2]

Calculating Convolution Integral

so, overlapping area = 0

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y (t) is shown in adjoining figure:

Properties of Convolution Sum

w.E x[n] * h[n] = h[n] * x[n]

y[n] = x[n] * [h1 [n] + h2 [n]]

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y[n] = x[n] * ([h1 [n] + h2 [n]])

w.E CT: H  jw    ht e

Group delay & Phase delay

Continuous – Time Fourier series

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(iii) It should have finite number of discontinuities in the given interval

w.E argH( j)  to

Exponential Fourier Series

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Relation between T.F.S. and E.F.S.

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For odd signal For even signal

x(t) = – x(–t) x(t) = x (–t)

(iv) Time – Scaling

ww but 0 is replaced by  0   , though Fourier series coefficients remain same.

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