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UNIT II STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Quality assurance for concrete – Strength, Durability and Thermal
9
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properties, of concrete - Cracks, different types, causes – Effects due
to climate, temperature, Sustained elevated temperature, Corrosion -
Effects of cover thickness.
UNITIII
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SPECIALCONCRETES 9
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Polymer concrete, Sulphur infiltrated concrete, Fibre reinforced concrete,
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High strength concrete, High performance concrete, Vacuum concrete, Self
compacting concrete, Geopolymer concrete, Reactive powder concrete,
Concrete made with industrial wastes.
UNIT IV
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TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND PROTECTION METHODS
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Non-destructive Testing Techniques, Epoxy injection, Shoring, Underpinning,
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TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
2
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Denison Campbell, Allen and Harold Roper,
“ConcreteStructures, Materials, Maintenance and Repair”, Longman
Scientific and Technical UK, 1991.
2.Allen R.T. & Edwards S.C, Repair of Concrete Structures, Blakie and Sons, UK,
1987
REFERENCES:
1.Shetty M.S., "Concrete Technology - Theory and Practice", S.Chand and
Company, 2008.
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2.Dov Kominetzky.M.S., " Design and Construction Failures", Galgotia
Publications Pvt.Ltd., 2001
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3.Ravishankar.K.,
Repair
Krishnamoorthy.T.S, " Structural Health Monitoring,
andRehabilitation of Concrete Structures", Allied Publishers, 2004.
4.CPWD and Indian
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Buildings Congress, Hand
Retrofit of Buildings, Narosa Publishers, 2008.
book on Seismic
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5.Gambhir.M.L., "Concrete Technology", McGraw Hill, 2013
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Table of contents
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d Unit I - MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR STRATEGIES -Part-A 8
f
w.E Part-B
21
g Part-B
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h
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Unit III– SPECIAL CONCRETES-Part-A 36
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Part-B
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Unit IV– TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND PROTECTION
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38
48
METHODS-Part-A
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Part-B
71
STRUCTURES-Part-A
m Part-B 73
w.E Ageing infrastructures need periodical repair and maintenance to limit the
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level of deterioration of the structures. The term rehabilitation implied restoring a
structure to its original condition.
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Repair and Rehabilitation engineering is a specialized field, which calls for
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skills and abilities beyond design and construction engineering.
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Hours
S l. Required Cumulativ Books
Unit Topic / Portions to be Covered
No / e Hrs Referred
Planned
1 1 Introduction 1 1 TB1
2 1 Maintenance, repair and rehabilitation 1 2 TB1
3 1 Facets of Maintenance 1 3 TB1
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5
1
1
Importance of Maintenance
Various aspects of Inspection
1
2
4
6
TB1
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6 1
Assessment procedure for evaluating a
damaged structure
2 8
TB1
RB2
7 1 asy
Causes of deterioration 1 9 TB1
8
9
2
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Quality assurance for concrete
Concrete properties
1
1
10
11
TB1
TB1
10 2
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Strength,of concrete 1 12 TB1
11
12
13
2
2
2
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Thermal properties of concrete
Permeability of concrete
Cracking
1
1
1 rin
13
14
15
TB1
TB1
TB1
14 2
Effects due to climate, temperature,
1 g.n 16 TB1
15
16
2
2
chemicals
Corrosion
Design and construction errors
1
1
et 17
18
TB1
TB2,RB3
17 2 Effects of cover thickness and cracking 1 19 TB2,RB3
18 3 Special concretes and mortar 1 20 RB1
19 3 concrete chemicals 1 21 RB1
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29 4
Epoxy injection, Mortar repair for cracks,
shoring and underpinning
1 33 RB3
30
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Corrosion inhibitors, corrosion resistant
steels, coatings
2 35 RB3
4
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Cathodic protection. Methods of
corrosion protection,
2 37 RB3
31 4
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Engineered demolition techniques for
dilapidated structures - case studies.
1 38 TB1
32 5
strength gin
Repairs to overcome low member 2 40 RB3
33
34
5
5
Deflection, Cracking
Chemical disruption,
weathering corrosion
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2
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42
44
TB1, TB2
TB1, TB2
et
PART A
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iii.
Type, Shape and function of the structures
The type and extent of damage
w.E iv. The availability of repair materials.
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3. Write the importance of maintenance. (Nov/Dec 2013)
Improves the service life of structure
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Better serviceability of elements and components
Leads to quicker detection of defects
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Prevents major deterioration leading to collapse.
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Maintenance can be classified based on duration or frequency.
4. Define inspection and its need.(Nov/Dec 2014)
The maintenance is based on the climatic conditions under ing
considerations the year is divided into the following period. .ne
x
x
Pre-monsoon period
Post-monsoon period
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5. Distinguish between repair and rehabilitation? (Apr/May 2012)
Repair Rehabilitation
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well as deterioration of concrete.
i. asy
8. What are the steps in repair aspect? (Nov/Dec 2014)
finding the deterioration
ii.
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determining the cause
iii.
iv. gin
evaluating the strength of existing building or structure
evaluating the need of repair
v. Selecting & implementing a repair procedure
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9. Discuss about the design
deterioration of a structure.
and
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construction errors leading to
PART B
should be examined.
ww iii. Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in laboratory.
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Estimation of loads acting on the structure
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vi.
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Estimation of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.
vii. Diagnosis
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viii. ing
Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage
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The flow chart of activities is useful for assessing the work involved. The
assessment procedure spans two distinct stages.
1.Pre repair evaluation
2.Post repair evaluation
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11
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and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate concrete cover may lead
to carbonation depth reaching up to the reinforcement, thus, increasing the risk of
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corrosion of the reinforcement.
Construction work should be carried out as per the laid down specification.
Adherence to specified water-cement ratio controls strength, permeability durability of
concrete. Insufficient vibration may result in porous and honey combined concrete,
whereas excess vibration may cause segregation.
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During construction the defects that may seem minor, will have serious
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consequences. The design engineer is responsible for the selection of proper materials
suitable for the exposure conditions of site, detailing of the structure in a manner to
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prevent serious deterioration atleast for the assumed service life and through the
inspection staff must consist on proper construction.
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These 3 points – proper materials, proper details, and proper construction require
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knowledge of what is improper at a site or construction; about the various ways of
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deterioration and about their causes. But these are some general considerations that
should be taken into account for both the construction of new concrete structures and
the repair of deteriorated structures. They are as follows, eer
i) Match the materials to the environment: ing
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Durability becomes an issue when a material’s resistance to deterioration is less
than that required to withstand the aggressiveness of the environment in which it is to
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function. For e.g.:- Steel will not corrode in a dry and salt free environment, but it will do
so in the presence of moisture and chloride ions.
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� temperature cycles
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� wet/dry cycles
iii)
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Combine only materials with similar properties:
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Concrete is a solidified mixture of diverse materials. W hen these materials are
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incompatible with one another, the concrete cracks & spalls, resulting in unsightly
surfaces and the need of expensive rehabilitation work. Materials are considered to
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be incompatible when the differences in their physical or chemical properties exact a
state of instability.
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For e.g.:- Galvanic corrosion is promoted when 2 metals with different
electrochemical properties are combined in a building assembly. .ne
The use of materials with different thermal coefficients or different modulli of t
elasticity should also be avoided. Since they expand and contract at different rates,
and their deformation characterizes are significantly different. In both instances, the
incompatibility of the selected materials will lead to deterioration of the concrete.
When the load perpendicular to the bond line, the difference in modulus does not
cause. Problems, however, when it is parallel to the bond line, deformation of the
material with the lower modulus transfers load to the material with the higher
modulus, which may then fracture.
14
ww In choosing a material the designer should be aware not only of the properties
that seem to address the intended function but also the auxiliary properties that did
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not constitute the basis for selecting the material. For eg:- Air entrainment is used to
provide durability with respect to freeze & thaw cycles but it also enhances workability.
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iv)Protect materials from general deterioration:
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Most concrete deterioration can be attributed to water penetration. Source
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concrete absorbs moisture until it become, saturated, prevent entry water from
collecting on surfaces is of prime importance.
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Moisture fosters deterioration not only become it carries dissolved chemicals
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that can react with steel, time, and other components in the concrete, it also plays a
major role in concrete deterioration through freeze) thaw cycles.
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By providing sufficient slopes and effective drainages, it is possible to prevent
water from ponding & thus being absorbed. Concrete design should accentuate water t
shedding characteristics for vertical elements
. For eg:- proper window shads prevent the wall from wetting. Sealing the
surface with a penetrating concrete sealing & the use of 50 mm thick reinforcement
corer to protect steel are other means of protection.
15
During the service life of a structure, its environment and occupancy may change.
As a result, the structure will have to withstand stresses different from those for which it
was originally intended.
wwFor e.g.:- Addition of roof garden to parking lot requires additional protection against
ponding of water on the roof of parking lot.
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4. Explain about the importance of maintenance and various facets of
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maintenance of a concrete structure in detail. (Nov/Dec 2013)
Maintenance :
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Maintenance is preventive in nature. Activities include inspection and works
necessary to
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fulfill the intended function or to sustain original standard of service.
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The maintenance of structure is done to meet the following objective
1. Prevention of damages due to natural agencies and to keep them in
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good appearance and working condition.
2. Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them, if
necessary.
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Maintenance work is broadly classifies as,
a) Preventive Maintenance
b) Remedial Maintenance
c) Routine Maintenance
d) Special Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance :
The maintenance work done before the defects occurred or damage developed in
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Remedial Maintenance:
It is the maintenance done after the defects or damage occurs in the structure. It
involves the following basic steps.
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The nature of work done and interval of time at which it is done depends upon
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specifications and materials of structure, purpose, intensity and condition of use. It
includes white washing, parch repair to plaster, replacement of fittings and
Facets of maintenance:
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e) Opportunity maintenance: W ork did as and when possible within the limits of
operation demand.
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g) Shut down maintenance: Thorough overhaul and maintenance after closing a facility.
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Importance of Maintenance:-
Plumbing-water-supply-sanitation
Roof terrace
Service platform/verandah
Lifts
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5. Discuss about the inspection to be carried out during and after the
construction of structure. (Apr/May 2014).
Concrete is inherently a durable material , but its durability under any given set of
exposure conditions varies with the concrete mixture proportions; the presence and
positioning of reinforcement; and the detailing,placing,finishing
2. Find out damages causing reasons referring guide lines check list.
TYPES OF INSPECTION
ww1. Routine Inspection
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2. Routine frequency of Inspection
3. General frequency of Inspection
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4. Detailed Frequency of Inspection
5. Special Inspection
Routine Inspection En
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Regular inspections and the actual parts of the procedures for maintenance are,
x
maximum economy and efficiency.
More detailed inspection cover complete building.
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x
x
All parts of building to be inspected for cyclic maintenance programs.
All cyclic, routine programs are planned with inspection results.
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x Frequency of inspection carried out at the following frequencies.
ww serviceability.
a) General Inspection
w.E It is normally made annually, it should cover all the structural elements and it
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is mainly a visual inspection supplemented by standard instrumental aids, invariably
followed by a written report.
b) Major Inspection En
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It is generally more intensive involving detailed examination of all structural
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elements, even requiring setting up of special access facilities where required.
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Depending upon the importance of the structure. This type of inspection is spaced
between two and three years or may be at smaller intervals for sensitive structures
which are exposed to aggressive environment.
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Special Inspection
The timing of this type of inspection should be such that the most critical
evaluation of the performance of the structure is obtained. For example, structural
elements such as foundations, bridge piers, and protective works are inspected before,
during and after the floods. Bearings and joints should be inspected during temperature
extremes while cracks at the soffits of prestressed.
20
PART A
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2. Write the need for emphasizing cover thickness for marine structures?
(Nov/Dec2014)
consideration of
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For selecting concrete cover for reinforcement in marine structures,
th e corrosion protection of steel bars is
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indispensable.Therefore, requirements for the quality and thickness of concrete
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cover must be established so the concrete prevents chlorides, oxygen, water,
etc., from reaching reinforcement through the life of the structure.
Durable concrete performs good in its life; in its service environment. Its
ingredient materials are durable. Its mix, matrix and integrity workmanship are
perfect. Further it is protected from corrosion, deterioration, cracking, etc.
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Removal of evaporation water.
Removal of combined water.
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Alteration of cement paste.
9. What is the effect of fire on concrete?
Spalling of concrete
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22
PART B
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scheme of one type or another is used.
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Depending upon the value of the product and methods used in the
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circumference such scheme may themselves become extremely complex. So that it
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cannot in all cases guarantee all the functional requirements illustrations.
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It is useful for promoting the------ schemes by engineers. The designer depends
upon this for reputation and professional failure to appearance.
The basic mechanism available for both the development and operation of a quality
management system.
Organization: Which requires clear definition of responsibilities and relationship for the
total construction project?
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Auditing:Which requires the ability to determinate that the tasks defined under
responsibilities are continuously being executed according to stated methods?
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Review line: W hich requires continuous checks on process methods and action
procedures adopted if stated requirements are not being met.
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Feed back: W hich requires deduction in measurable terms of causes of errors that
generate defects, in order that processes can be changed so as to reduce non
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conformance and shown the benefit of such change to be demonstrated.
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2. Discuss in detail about the thermal properties of concrete. (May/June 2013)
ww The thermal conductivity of heat depend the composition with respect to the type
of aggregate amount of ass and moisture continent.
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When the concrete is saturated the conductivity ranges from 1.4 and 3.6 m/sec.
The thermal conductivity various more rapidly in light wt one than heavy or
normal wt concrete.
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Thermal expansion of concrete:
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Coefficient of thermal expansion of cone is an important property which affects
the stability and durability at different temperature conditions.
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As the con is made up of two phases material namely paste and agg paste
which has dissimilar thermal con efficient but the coefficient of cone is a
resultant of these two phases.
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In general form the coefficient of thermal expansion of cone is a function of the
quantity of aggregate in the mix and the coefficient of thermal expansion of agg
by itself.
Even cone is not a refractory material but a good combustible and has a good
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fire resisting properties.
Fire resistance of concrete is determined by three factors.
The capacity of cone itself to with stand heat.
The subsequent action of water without losing strength unduly without cracking
or spelling.
And the conductivity of the concrete to heat and coefficient of thermal expansion
of concrete.
25
The fire introduces high temperature gradients and as a result of it, the surface
layers extent to separate and spall off from the cooler interior.
The heating of reinforcement aggravate the expansion both laterally and
longitudinally of the reinforcement base resulting in loss of bond and loss of
strength of reinforcement.
Fire on cone building damages the cone as well as steel reinforcement, causing
disintegration of the cone and buckling of steel.
ww The temperature gradient is extreme 30 to 40oc on the outer face and above
800oC on the interface (near the source of fire).
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In the initial stage (half an hour) as the heat inside builds up, some aggregate.
Expand suddenly, spelling the adjacent concrete. Moisture in concrete rapidly
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changes to steam, causing localized bursting of small pieces of cone. Extreme
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heat near the sources of fire causes spalling rapidly expanding cone surfaces.
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In the next 30 minutes a temperature inside reaches 400oC, the cement matrix
converts to QuickTime causing disintegration of concrete. The reinforcing steel
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loses the ensile capacity at such temperature. Deflection of beams and slab
increases beyond this limit.
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Beyond one hour of fire, as the concrete disintegrates, the exposed steel
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expands, more rapidly than the surrounding concrete causing buckling, loss of
bond to adjacent conc.
K = conductivity of aggregate
Km = conductivity of motor
Excess water in concrete evaporates due to heat and setting of cone occurs.
The loss of moisture to evaporation causes the cement paste matrix to contract,
26
A 6m long slab may shrink 3mm to 5mm along its length called “drying
shrinkage”.
If the slab is supported at both its ends stress build up due to shrinkage drying
may exceed the tensile strength of concrete, resulting in a 3mm to 5mm wide
crack.
However if the cone is properly reinforced at regular intervals, the shrinkage
stress are distributed along the length of slab, resulting uniformly spaced fine
cracks.
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3. Explain about the design errors and construction errors in concrete building.
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Design Errors
Design errors may be divided into two general types:
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1. Those resulting from inadequate structural design
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(b) Symptoms. Visual examinations of failures resulting from inadequate structural
design will usually show one of two symptoms.
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1. First, errors in design resulting in excessively high compressive stresses will
result in spalling. Similarly, high torsion or shear stresses may also result in spalling
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or cracking.
(c) Prevention.
27
Abrupt changes n section may cause stress concentrations that may result in
cracking. Typical examples would include the use of relatively thin sections such as
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bridge decks rigidly tied into massive abutments or patches and replacement concrete
that are not uniform in plan dimensions.
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(b) Insufficient reinforcement at reentrant corners and openings.
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Reentrant corners and openings also tend to cause stress concentrations that
may cause cracking.In this case, the best prevention is to provide additional
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reinforcement in areas where stress concentrations are expected to occur.
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sections beyond the capacities for which they were designed. Typically, these loadings
will be induced in walls or partitions, resulting in cracking.
specification for expansion joints. There is no single expansion joint that will work for
all cases of temperature differential.
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inadequate provision for deflections. Additionally, neglect of creep in prestressed
concrete members may lead to excessive prestress loss that in turn results in
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cracking as loads are applied.
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(h) Rigid joints between precast units.
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Designs utilizing precast elements must provide for movement between
adjacent precast elements or between the precast elements and the supporting
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frame. Failure to provide for this movement can result in cracking or spalling.
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(i) Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns, or abutments.
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Through lack of maintenance, expansion bearing assembles are allowed to
become frozen, horizon-tal loading may be transferred to the concrete elements
supporting the bearings. Theresult will be cracking in the concrete, usually .ne
compounded by other problems which will becaused by the entry of water into the
concrete.
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Construction Errors:
Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright are lessens
may lead to a number of conditions that may be grouped together as construction
erro rs. Most of these errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of
concrete. Instead, they enhance the adverse impacts of other mechanisms. Each
error will be briefly described along with preventative methods. In general, the
best preventive measure is a thorough knowledge of what these construction errors
are, plus an aggressive inspection program.
29
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of the concrete. W hile these discontinuities are unsightly in all circumstances, their
occurrence may be more critical in areas that are subjected to high-velocity flow of
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water, where cavitations erosion may be induced, or in lock chambers where the
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“rubbing” surfaces must be straight.
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Improper consolidation of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the
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most common being bugholes, honeycombing, and cold joints.
d) Improper curing.
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Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction
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process. Unless concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and
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temperature, it will not develop the characteristics that are expected and that are
necessary to pro-vide durability.
(1) Adding water to the surface. Evidence that water is being added to the
surface is the presence of a large paint brush, along with other finishing tools. The
30
brush is dipped in water and water is “slung” onto the surface being finished.
(2) Timing and finishing. Final finishing operations must be done after the
concrete has taken its initial set and bleeding has stopped. The waiting period
depends on the amounts of water, cement, and admixtures in the mixture but primarily
on the temperatures of the concrete surface.
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reach the steel and reduce the pH and passivity provided by the cement. However,
excessive cover can led to t he development of a few wide cracks under overstress,
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whereas a thinner cover results in many small cracks.
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As opposed to the above mentioned facts, which appear to justify the rigid rules
on cover, are the following facts
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1. .Ships built during W orld W ar I and II had covers of only about 20mm, yet
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they did not suffer corrosion steel.
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2. In the erstwhile USSR, many floating dry-docks have been built with
covers of 15 and 20mm with highly successful durability over many years
of adverse exposure.
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It is confirmed opinion that the impermeability of the cover is of major
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importance. Thethickness should be related to the steel bar diameter and the
maximum size of the coarse aggregate. t
The general factors affecting permeability, such as cement content,
water/cement ratio, compaction and consolidation of the concrete, and curing are
important. While many fee that prestressing steel should have a greater cover than
non-stressed steel, because of the more serious consequences of corrosion.
Prestressed concrete pilling by hundreds of thousands are rendering completely
successful service with only 4-6cm of cover.
Other factors affecting cover are the tolerances of placement of steel and forms,
and the depths of honeycombs and bug holes and other surface defects.
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Cover Meter
wwWhen a metallic object is placed in the varying magnetic field of coil, the field
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induces eddy currents in the object. These eddy currents in turn produce an
additional magnetic field in the vicinity of the magnetic object.
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A magnetic field gets superimposed and the magnetic field near the coil also gets
modified in the presence of metal.
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This modification has the same effect as would be obtained if the characteristic of
the coil itself had been changed.
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The change depends upon the electrical conductivity, dimension, magnetic
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permeability, presence of discontinuity such as crack, frequency of the field of the
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coil, size and shape of the coil, and the distance of the coil from the metallic object.
General
Concrete is a permeable and a porous material. The rates at which liquids and
gases can move in the concrete are determined by its permeability. Permeability
affects the way in which concrete resists external attack and the extent to which a
concrete structure can be free of leaks.
32
The permeability is much affected by the nature of the pores, both their size
and the extent to which they are interconnected. There can therefore be no one
measure of porosity which fully describes the way in which the properties of concrete
or of hardened cement paste are affected.If a material were judged, the decision would
rest primarily on the choice of medium used for testing.
Coefficient of permeability:-
ww The coefficient of permeability K1 is obtained from applying Darcy’s law for low
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velocity flow,
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dq/dt x 1/A = k 1 x ∆h/L
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A= Area of porous medium normal to the direction of flow (M2)
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∆h= Drop in hydraulic head across the thickness of the medium (m).
L= Thickness of the medium (m).
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K1=Coefficient of permeability depending on the properties of the
medium and of fluid (ms-1) ing
Permeability of cement paste: .ne
For any set of tests, the value of K1 depends on both the medium and the
fluid and therefore represents the permeability of the medium to a specified fluid at
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specified temperature.
33
The composition of the water and the presence of dissolved materials can
also have a substantial effect. The drying was found to increase the permeability
and for the particular specimens examined, drying at 79% relative humidity increased
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the permeability about 70-told.
w.E The flow tests are appropriate for testing material which has a high
permeability but for concrete of low permeability a method in which the depth of
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penetration is measured is usually a core practical proposition.
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The water tightness of a concrete structure is not determined by the
permeability of the hardened cement paste or even by the measured permeability of
laboratory specimens of the concrete. gin
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The permeability of concrete, both to moisture and to gas is important in relation
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to the protection afforded to embedded steel. The initial surface absorption test
measures the rate at which water is absorbed in to the surface of the concrete for a
brief period under a head of 200mm. .ne
The Figg test subsequent modifications of its measure the permeabilityof the
concrete at the bottom of a fine hole drilled to some depth below the concrete surface.
t
The depth to which water which is absorbed into concrete under little head has
been shown to be initially a linear function of the square-root of time.
34
liquids takes place. This penetration depends o the permeability of the concrete.
Since permeability determines the relative ease, with which concrete can
become saturated with water, permeability has an important bearing on the
vulnerability of concrete to frost.
Furthermore, in case of reinforced concrete, the ingress of moisture and of air will
result in the corrosion of steel. Since this leads to an increase in the volume of the
steel, cracking and spalling of the concrete cover may well follow.
En
gin
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ing
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35
Many special admixtures are used normal concrete for repair works
Air entrain agents
Super plasticizers
Shrinkage reducing agents
Viscosity modifying agents
Retards
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2. List any two properties of concrete chemicals? (Nov/Dec2014)
Polymer concrete: they are highly resistant to chemical attack, freeze and
w.E thaw. Permeability and absorption is almost zero.
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Polymer impregnated concrete: It is having cube crushing strengths in
excess of 100N/mm2 irrespective of the strengths of the original concrete.
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3. State the application of Ferro-cement (May/June2014)
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Ferro-cement may consider as a type of thin reinforced concrete construction
where cement mortar is reinforced with many layers of continuous and relatively
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small diameter wire mesh. W hile mortars provides to the mass, the wise mesh
imparts tensile strength and ductility to the material.
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4. What is the role of inhibitors in resisting corrosion in reinforcement?
(May/June2014) .ne
They resist corrosion of reinforcement in adverse environment sodium
benzoates, calcium lingo sulphonate and sodium nitrate have good results.
t
5. Write short notes on ferro-cement? (Nov/Dec2013)
Ferro-cement is a new material consisting of wire meshes and cement
mortar.
The wire mesh is usually of 0.5 to 1.0mm dia wire at 5mm to 10mm
spacing and cement mortar is of cement sand ratio on 1:2 or 1:3 with
water/cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45.
The Ferro-cement element are usually of the order of thickness is 2 to
3mm external cover to the reinforcement.
36
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8. What are
(Nov/Dec2012)
the basic needs for selection of repair materials?
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It should be cheap and best
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It should be free from chemicals impurities
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9. List out the type of polymer concrete composites? (Nov/Dec2012)
37
PART B
1. Explain in detail about expansive cement. (May/June 2013)
Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shirts while setting due to less
of water concrete also shrinks continuously for long true. This is known as “drying
shrinkage”
Cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the
cement is used for grouting the prestressed concrete ducts, if it shrinks, the purpose for
which the grout is used will be some extent defeated. This has been a reason for such
type of cement which will shrinks while hardening and there affect
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cement which suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as “Expansive
cement
asy
Cement of this type has been developed by using expanding agent.This type of
En
cement is manufactured by adding sulpho-aluminates clinker with 100 parts of Portland
cement and is parts of stabilizer.
Types of expansion cement
gin
eer
One types of expansive cements is known as “Shrinkage compensating cement”
ing
This cement when used in concrete with restrained expansion includes
compressive stresses which approximately offset the tensile stresses induced by
.ne
shrinkage “self Stressing cement”.
The induced comp stresses only compensate the shrinkage but also give sort of
prestressing effect in the tensile zone of a flexural member mixing a expansive cement
Normally graded 10mm size mixed with balanced quantity of special binding
“Shrink komb” is mixed in a mechanical mixer, has the capacity 200 /140can used to
mix 4 bags of grout.For proper batching of water 10 and cans and a 500c.c measure
should used.
38
Curing
The grout should not dry out where external restraint is provided in the form of
ww
formwork, the top opening and all stray openings should be covered with wet sack
w.E
at least for 7 days.
Properties
asy
Shrink komb grout acts like a Portland cement
En
It (shrinks) sets and hardens; it develops a compressive strength of about
140kg/gm2 at 7days and 210kg/cm2 at 28 days.
gin
eer
2. Briefly explain about polymer concrete and its types.(Apr/May 2015)
ing
Continuous research by concrete technologists to understand, improve and
.ne
develop the properties of concrete has resulted in a new type of concrete, known as
“Polymer Concrete”
The increase of the strength of the concrete is achieved by reducing are voids, water
voids are by applying vibrations, pressure application spinning etc.
t
Types of Polymer Concrete
v) Polymer Concrete.
39
PIC is a widely used polymer composition concrete, cured and dried in over or
dielectric heating from which the air in the (pipes) open cell is removed by vacuum.
ww Otherthromoplastic monover
The amount of manomer that are loaded into a core specimen is limited by the
w.E
amount of water and air that has occupied the total void space.
It is necessary be know the concentration of water and air void in the system to
asy
determine the rate of monomer penetration.
En
To obtain the maximum manomer loading in concrete, by the removal of water and
gin
air(void) from the cone by vacuum or thermal drying.
eer
The elimination of entrapped air towards the center of the specimen during soaking
which will otherwise prevent total or max manomer loading.
ing
The application of pressure is another technique to reduce manomer loading time.
The manomers that are used pcc are Polymer – styrene Epoxy – Stryence
Futrans-Vinylidene Chloride
The monomers mixed pcc are used distillation units for water desalination
plants. However it is reported that on epoxy resin produced a concrete the showed
same superior characterizes ordinary concrete.
40
Polymer Concrete
and (mixing) the aggregates to attain (maximum) minimum void volume. The
entrapped aggregated are prepacked and vibrated in a mould.
ww A silence coupling agent is added to the manomer to improve the bond strength
w.E
between the polymer resins are used then no polymerization is required
Uses of PC
asy
During curing Portland cement form mineral voids. W ater can be entrapped in
En
these voids which are freezing can readily attack the concrete. Also alkaline Portland
gin
cement is easily attached by chemically aggressive materials which results in rapid
determination, there as using polymers can compact chemical attack.
eer
The strength of concrete with dc is as high as 1410kg/cm2 with a short curing
ing
period. The use of Fibrous polymer cone beans provides a high strength
.ne
Pc is visco-elasitc in nature and it will fail under restrained comp loading at stress
levels which is greater than of the ultimate strength .PC beams are more effective than
concrete beam of usual steel reinforcement percentage such because utilize steel t
region of high tensile stress.
41
w.E
Physical propertied have been found and large improvements in watter
asy
impermeability and resistance to corrosion have been achieved. Sulphur –
infiltrated concrete showed more than 4 times increase in splitting tensile strength.
En
Manufacturing of sulphur – infiltration
gin
Sulphur is heated to bring it into molten condition to which coarse and fine
eer
aggregates are poured and mixed together. On cooling, this mixture gave fairly
ing
good strength, exhibited acid resistance and also other chemical resistance, but it
proved to be either than ordinary cement concrete.
Procedures A: .ne
In procedure A after 24hrs of most (cooling) curing, the specimen is dried in
o
heating cabinet for 24 hrs at 121 c. Then the dried specimen is placed in a
t
container of molten sulphur at 121oc for 3 hours.
Specimen are removed from the container, wiped clean of sulphur and cooled to
room temperature for one hour and weighed to determine the sulphur infiltrated
secrete.
Procedure B:
In procedure ‘B’ the dried concrete specimen is placed in an air tight container
and subjected to vacuum pressure of 2mm mercury for two hour
42
After removing the vacuum, the special are soaked in the mother sulphur at
atmosphere pressure for another half hour. The specimen is taken out, wiped clean
and cooled to room temperature about one hour. The specimen is weight and the
weight of sulphur impregnated is determined.
It has found that the elastic property of sulphur infiltrated concrete has been
generally improved *by)100% and also sulphur- infiltrated concrete showed a high
resistance to freezing and when the moist cured concrete was disintegrated after about
40 cycle sulphur impregnated concrete is found be in fairly good conditions.
w.E
concrete and discountinous, discrete , uniformly dispersed suitable fibres. continous
meshes, woven fabrics and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete fibres
asy
The fibres is often described by a convenient parameter called aspect ratio .It is
En
the ratio of its length to its diameter .Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to 150.
Type of fibres:
gin
i. Steel fibre:
eer
Commonly used fibre
ing
Round fibres are used diameter 0.25 to0.75mm
.ne
ii. Polypropylene and nylon
Increase the impact strength
fibre:
t
Very high tensile strength
Low modulus of elasticity and higher elongation do not contribute
to the flexural strength
iii. Asbestos fibre:
Mineral fibre
43
v. Glass fibre:
Very high tensile strength 1020 to 4080N / mm 2
Factors effecting properties of fibre reinforced concrete:
It is the composite material containing fibres in the cement matrix in an orderly
manner or randomly distributed manner. Its properties depend upon the efficient
ww
transfer of stress between matrix and fibres which largely depend on the type of
w.E
fibre, fibre geometry, fibre content, orientation and distribution of the fibres, mixing
and compaction techniques of concrete and size and shape of the concrete.
asy
1) Relative fibre Matrix stiffness:
En
The modulus of elasticity of matrix must be much lower than that of fibre for
gin
efficient stress transfer .low modulus of fibres such as nylons and polypropylene are
unlikely to give strength improvement but they help in the absorption of large energy
eer
and impart greater degree toughness and resistance to impact. High modulus fibres
ing
such as steel glass and carbon impart strength & stiffness to the composites
2) Volume of fibres
.ne
Strength of the composite largely depends on the quantity of fibres. It increase the
tensile strength & toughness of the composite . use of higher percentage of fibre is t
likely to cause segregation and harshness of concrete and motar
Aspect ratio of 75, increase in the aspect ratio increases the ultimate strength of
the concrete linearly. Beyond 75, relative strength and toughness reduced.
4) Orientation of fibres
Conventional reinforcement, bars are oriented in the direction desired while fibres
are randomly oriented
44
Fibres aligned parallel to the applied load offered more tensile strength and
toughness than randomly distributed or perpendicular fibres
w.E
Application
asy
Overlays of air field, road pavements, industrial flooring, bridge decks, canal
En
lining , explosive resistant structures refractory linings.Fabrication of precast
gin
products like pipes boats, beams, staircase steps, wall panels, manhole covers
45
ww
Mechanical properties:
asy
the same order as its compressive strength.
En
High reinforcement ratio in both tension and compression and in both
directions.Large specific surface
gin
of reinforcement which
one to two orders of magnitude that of reinforced concrete.Its elongation upto failure
is
eer
under tension or its deflection at maximum load increases with anincrease in the
ing
number of mesh layers used.Its ductility increases with the volume fraction and
specific surface of reinforcement.Two dimensional reinforcement and better resistance
towards punching shear as well as resistance to impact compared to reinforced
.ne
concrete.
Construction method: t
1. Skeletal armature method
2. Closed mould method
3. Integral mould method
4. Open mould method
1.Skeletal armature method
The skeletal framework of reinforcing bars can assume any shape based
on requirement.The diameter of the steel bars depends on the size of the
structure. skeletal steel is cut to a specified length and bent to suit the shape
Advantage:
No elaborate form material required
Easy to patch up the whole area from both slides
Good penetration
Easy to repair when damaged
Disadvantage:
Time consuming
ww Application of mortar from one side may be difficult for a thick mesh system
w.E Galvanic corrosion may develop between the mesh and skeletal stee
2. Closed mould method
asy
In this method several mesh or mesh and rod compination are held together in
position against the surface of the mould. Motar is applied from the open side.
En
The mould either remains a permanent part of the structure or can be removed and
gin
reused. In this method a thin layer of mortar is placed first and allowed to settle over
eer
which the mesh is placed an dthe second layer of mortar poured.
This procedure is repeated until require numbers of layers are placed
3. Integrated mould method ing
This method involves a semi rigid framework. An integral mould may be formed
.ne
using foam material such as polystyrene as the core. Mortar is poured from both
sides of mould. The mould is left inside the ferro cement itself.
4. Open mould method
t
Used for boat building. The open mould is made of lattice wood or some other
suitable material and stiffened by ribs. The mortar is applied through one side only. To
facilitate mould removal the mould is covered with release agent or entirely covered
with poltethylene sh e e t s
47
gin
Galvanized reinforcement
ee
Using stainless steel
Using corrosion inhibitors
Electrochemical chloride removal rin
5. What is dry pack? (May/June2013)
Dry packing is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and
g.n
subsequent tamping or ramming of the mortar into place producing an
intimate contact between the old and new concrete works.
et
6. Explain the mechanism of cathodic protection. (May/June2013)
Cathodic protection is a technique by which the electrical potential of
the steel is increased to a level at which corrosion take place.
It is widely used for both steel and concrete offshore structures while
on land it has boon used for the protection of pipelines and similar structures.
48
ww Dry packing so the hand placement of a very dry mortar and the
subsequent tamping of the mortar into place, producing an intimate
asy
shrinkage and the patch remains tight. The usual; mortar mix is 1:2:5
to 1:3.
En
gin
9. What are the advantages of shotcrete? (Nov/Dec2012)
ee
Shortcrete has high strength, durability, low permeability, excellent
bond and limitless shape possibilities. These properties allow shotcrete to be
used in most cases as a structural material. rin
Although the hardened properties of shotcrete are similar to
g.n
conventional cast-in-place concrete, the nature of the placement process
et
provides additional benefits, such as excellent bond with most substrates and
instant or rapid capabilities, particularly on complex forms or shapes.
49
PART B
Vacuum concrete
When the steam condenses into water it will create a low pressure over the
ww
concrete that will pull air from the concrete. This will make the concrete stronger due
to there being less air in the mixture. A drawback is that the mixing has to be done in
w.E
an airtight container.
asy
The final strength of concrete is increased by about 25%. Sufficient decrease in
The permeability of concrete is sufficiently decreased. Vacuum concrete stiffens very
En
rapidly so that the formworks can be removed within 30 minutes of casting even on
columns of 20 ft. high.
gin
High water cement ratio is harmful to the overall quality of concrete, where as low
hundred percent.
ee
water-cement ratio does not give enough workability for concrete to be compacted
rin
g.n
Generally higher workability and higher strength or very low workability and
higher strength do not go hand in hand.
et
Now, vacuum process of concreting enables to meet this conflicting demand and
this process helps a high workable concrete to get high strength.
Vacuum Concrete:- Only about half of the water added in concrete goes into
chemical combination and the remaining water is used to make concrete workable.
After laying concrete, water which was making concreting workable is extracted
by a special method known as “vacuum method”.
This water left in this concrete is only that which is to go in chemical combination
and hence resulting concrete become very strong.
50
1. Vacuum pump
ww 2. Water separator
3. Filtering pad
asy
Vacuum pump is a small but strong pump of 5 to 10 HP. W ater is extracted by
vacuum and stored in the water separator. The mats are placed over fine filter
En
pads, which prevent the removal of cement with water.
gin
Proper control on the magnitude of the water removed is equal to the
ee
contraction in total volume of concrete. About 3% reduction in concrete layer
depth takes place. Filtering pad consists of rigid backing sheet, expanded metal,
rin
wire gauge or muslin cloth sheet. A rubber seal is also fitted around the filtering
g.n
pad as shown in fig.1. Filtering pad should have minimum dimension of 90cm x
60cm.
et
Fig:Vaccum Concrete
51
The filtering consists of a backing piece with a rubber seal all round the
periphery. A sheet of expanded metal and then a sheet of wire gauge also forms
a part of filtering mat.
The mat of the suction mat is connected to the vacuum pump. W hen the
vacuum pump operates, suction is created within the boundary of the suction mat
and the excess water is sucked from the concrete through the fine wire gauge.
ww The vacuum processing can be carried out either from the top surface or
w.E
from the side surface. There will be only nominal difference in the efficiency of
the top processing or side processing.
asy
Advantages of vacuum concreting:
x
En
Due to dewatering through vacuum, both workability and high strength are
achieved simultaneously.
x
gin
Reduction in water-cement ratio may increase the compressive strength by 10
to 50% and lowers the permeability.
x
x
ee
It enhances the wear resistance of concrete surface.
rin
The surface obtained after vacuum dewatering is plain and smooth due to
x
reduced shrinkage.
g.n
The formwork can be removed early and surface can be put to use early.
et
(b) Shoring
It is the means of providing support to get stability of a structure temporarily
under certain circumstances during construction, repair or alteration.
Such circumstance arises when,
1. The stability of a structure is endangered due to removal of a defective portion
of the structure.
2. The stability of a structure is endangered due to unequal settlement during
construction itself or in long run.
3. Certain alterations are to be done in present structure itself. Eg: remodeling of
walls, changing position of windows,etc.
w.E
Installation of shoring
For shoring timber or steel tubes may be used. Sometimes both are used in
asy
combination. If timber is used its surface should be coated with a preservative
En
so as to protect against wet rot.
The shoring should be designed based on the load it has to sustain and
duration of load.
gin
ee
Shoring may be given internally or externally depending on the case and in
certain cases they may be provided on either side of the wall to produce
additional stability. rin
g.n
Shoring should be installed only after getting the permission if necessary, of
the local authorities.
et
There is no time limit to which the shoring has to be kept, it may range from
weeks to years depending on the case.
Types of shoring
Raking or inclined shores
Flying or horizontal shores
Dead or vertical shores
Raking or inclined shores
In this method, inclined members known as rakers are used to give lateral
supports to walls. A raking shore consists of the following components:
53
ww
w.E
asy
The following points are to be kept in view for the use of the raking shores:
En
1. Rakers are to be inclined in the ground at . However the angle may be
between and
gin
.
2. For tall buildings, the length of the raker can be reduced by introducing rider
raker.
ee
3. Rakers should be properly braced at intervals.
rin
4. The size of the rakers is to be decided on the basis of anticipated thrust from
the wall. g.n
5. The centre line of a raker and the wall should meet at floor level.
et
6. Shoring may be spaced at 3 to 4.5m spacing to cover longer length of the bar.
7. The sole plate should be properly embedded into the ground on an inclination
and should be of proper section and size.
8. Wedges should not be used on sole plates since they are likely to give way
under vibrations that are likely to occur.
Flying or horizontal shoring
It is a system of providing temporary supports to the party walls of the two
buildings where the intermediate building is to be pulled down and rebuilt. All types
of arrangements of supporting the unsafe structure in which the shores do not reach
54
the ground come under this category. They flying shore consists of wall plates,
needles, cleats, horizontal struts (commonly known as horizontal shores) and
inclined struts arranged in different forms which varies with the situation.
In this system also the wall plates are placed against the wall and secured to
it. A horizontal strut is placed between the wall plates and is supported by a system
of needle and cleats. The inclined struts are supported by the needle at their top and
by straining pieces at their feet.
The straining piece is also known as straining sill and is spiked to the
horizontal shore. The width of straining piece is the same as that of the strut.
ww
w.E
asy
En
Dead or vertical shoring
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
This is the system of shoring which is used to render vertical support to walls
and roofs, floors, etc when the lower part of a wall has been removed for the
purpose of providing an opening in the wall or to rebuild a defective load bearing wall
in a structure.
The dead shore consists of an arrangement of beams and posts which are
required to support the weight of the structure above and transfer same to the
ground on firm foundation below.
55
(c) Underpinning
It is the method of supporting the structures while providing new foundations
or carrying out repairs and alterations without disturbing the stability of existing
structures. It is carried under following conditions:
1. When a building with deep foundation is to be constructed adjoining a building
which is built on shallow footings. Here the shallow footings should be
strengthened first.
2. In order to protect an existing structure from the danger of excessive or
differential settlement of foundation.
3. In order to improve the bearing capacity of foundation so as to sustain heavier
w.E
Methods of underpinning
Pit method
Pile method
Chemical method asy
Other method
Pit method En
gin
Pit underpinning is a traditional underpinning technique that stabilizes
ee
structures prior to adjacent excavation, using concrete and mortar. A limited width
pit (panel) is excavated and shored by hand below the structure and extends to the
underpinning design depth. rin
g.n
et
Pile method
Piles have the greatest use where ground conditions are very variable, where
access is restrictive, where environmental pollution aspects are significant, and
where structural movements in service must be minimal.
56
ww Structural engineers will use rigs which are specifically designed to operate
w.E
in environments with restricted headroom and limited space, and can gain access
through a regular domestic doorway.
asy
They are capable of constructing piles to depths of up to 15 m (49 ft). The
technique of piling was first applied in Italy in 1952, and has gone through a plethora
En
of different names, reflecting worldwide acceptance and expiration of the original
patents.
gin
2. Describe the preliminary procedures in demolition of a structure in detail
ee
The step by step procedures are as follows;
Preliminary Investigation rin
g.n
Demolition is a highly skilled and dangerous activity in terms of damage
contract is placed: et
to life and property and there are certain basic factors to consider before a
Preliminary Considerations
The BSI Code of Practice for Demolition BS 6187 exerts further influence, in
that if the demolition contractor does not observe the recommendation of the Code,
this may well influence a Court's decision as to his liability in any legal proceedings.
w.Eii.
Must only be operated by skilled operators and must be regularly serviced.
Protective Clothing
asy
Buildings where chemicals have been stored or where asbestos, lead
paint, dust or fumes may be present will require specialized protective
clothing,
En
gin
e.g. respirators, helmets, goggles, footwear, gloves, etc. Projecting nails,
pieces of metal, etc. resulting from demolition can cause accidents.
g.n
competence when carrying out the work. When removing sections of the
iv.
supports and shoring etc. must be provided.
Working Areas
et
building which could have leave other parts unsafe, adequate temporary
These will need to be well signposted and clear warnings given that
demolition work is in progress. This may include the necessity for some
kind of lighting.
v. Debris
58
These can affect safety. Strong winds or drifting snow against unsafe
walls, suspended floors etc. which are unpropped may lead to
collapse.
vii. Flooding
w.E
ix. Scaffolding and Hoarding
asy
These must be constructed and illuminated to the relevant building
regulations.
x. Security En
gin
The demolition site and any partially demolished buildings must be
xi. Dust
ee
properly secured against entry.
rin
g.n
Should be kept to a minimum by spraying with water when necessary.
xii. Noise
et
Suppressors and silencers, particularly on compressors etc., should be
used to keep noise levels to a minimum.
59
w.E
Demolition Technique Selection
The choice of demolition technique will depend on the nature of the building
asy
or structure and its environment. Risks to the public, operatives involved in the
demolition process and adjacent structures and buildings should be considered.
En
Demolition techniques may be categorized as:-
gin
1. Piecemeal demolition, using hand-held tools or machines, to reduce
ee
the height of the building or structure gradually;
rin
2. Deliberate controlled collapse, demolition to be completed at ground
level.
60
By Machine
Simple roof structures supported on wall plates should normally be
demolished to the level of wall plates by hand, but if this may involve unsafe
working, then demolition totally by machine may be appropriate.
Where a building that is to be demolished by machine is attached to another
structure, the two properties should be separated by the use of hand methods
before the main demolition process begins.
When any part of a building is being demolished by a balling machine, pusher
arm or similar equipment, only the machine operator and banksman should be
allowed close to the working area. The cabs of all machines should be strong
ww
enough to protect the operator against the fall of debris. In particular, the windscreen
and rooflight should be of shatterproof material and guarded by a grille of steel bars
w.E
or a substantial mesh.
1.Balling Machine
asy
Balling machines generally comprise a drag-line type crawler chassis fitted
En
with a lattice crane jib. The demolition ball, with a steel anti-spin device, is
gin
suspended from the lifting rope and swung by the drag rope.
ee
Balling should only carried out by skilled operatives under the control of
experienced supervisors using well maintained machines adequate for the proposed
duty and standing on a firm, level base. rin
g.n
The manufacturer should be consulted before a machine is used for balling to
et
establish any restrictions on the type or length of jib or the weight of the ball.
Balling operations subject cranes to dynamic stresses and wear, and the ball
chosen should have the minimum weight necessary for effective use. In many
cases, demolition balls of quite light weight will be adequate.
61
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig : Hydraulic pusher arm
3. Explosives
ee rin
If explosives are to be used for demolition, the planning and execution,
include pre-weakening, should be under the control of a person competent in these
g.n
techniques. For large demolition, the competent person is likely to be an
et
experienced explosive engineer; for smaller work, a shot-firer may be sufficient.
ww
demolish concrete or masonry.
Nibblers use a rotating action to snap brittle materials such as concrete or
w.E
masonry. In either case, material should be removed from the top of walls or
columns in courses not greater than 600mm in depth, steel reinforcement should be
asy
cut separately as necessary.
En
particularly high standards of planning, supervisions and execution, and careful
gin
consideration of its effect on other parts of the structure or on adjacent buildings or
structures.
ee
A surrounding clear area and exclusion zone are required to protect both
rin
personnel and property from the fall of the structure itself and debris which may be
thrown up by the impact.
g.n
The collapse is usually achieved either by removing key structural elements
et
(e.g. with explosive charges) or by wire rope pulling at a high level to overturn the
structure.
Fig : Nibblers
63
The possible modes of failure must be studied to ensure that the method
selected will produce the required pattern of collapse.
1. Corrosion inhibitors.
4. Cathode protection.
w.E
1.Corrosion Inhibitors.
Corrosion inhibitor is an admixture that is used in concrete to prevent the
asy
metal embedded in cone from corroding.
Types of inhibitors:
En
gin
1. Anodic inhibitors: (alkalis, phosphates, chromates, nitrates, benzoates).
2. Anodic inhibitors function by decreasing the reaction at the anode.
ee
3. They may react with the existent corrosion product to form an extremely
insoluble adherent coating on the metal surface.
rin
4. Organic inhibitors replace water at site on the inner plate, thus decrease
corrosion.
g.n
Cathode inhibitors (calcium carbonate):
Mixed inhibitors:
A safe inhibitor is defined as one which reduces the total corrosion with out in
64
erecting area; while dangerous inhibitors produce increased rates can be due
to the lack of sufficient inhibitors to prevent complete protection or the
presence of crevices into which the inhibitor does not rapidly diffuse.
Anodic inhibitors are generally dangerous except sodium benzoate.
Cathode inhibitors are generally safe, but since sulphate is an exception.
Classification of inhibitors:
ww iii. Savaging.
These represent processes by way of which the passivation is achieved it is
w.E interested to note that the barrier layer formation is generally best achieved
by simply completely coating steel with a well curved low water cement paste
asy
which needs to extra admixture at all.
compaction.
ee
substitute steels for corrosion resistance will have a significantly different
rin
Based on some atmosphere, corrosion weathering, steels of correct type
were tested in concrete. They did not perform well in most content containing
g.n
chloride it is observed that the weathering steel corrode in similar concrete to
those can corrosion at high yield strength steel.
et
Although the total amount of corrosion less than would occur on high yield
steel under similar conditions, deep localized pitting developed, which
Stainless steel pipe has been used special applications especially as flames
in precast members, but generally not expect use as a substitute for wild steel
any case, stainless steel should not concrete involving under corrosion
resistant.
Stainless steels contains relatively lower content of chloride levels, there was
a based in a delayed time to cracking relative to that for high strength steels,
but this was offset by irregular pitting corrosion.
Very high corrosion resistance was shown by austenitic stainless steels in all
65
the environments in which they were tested, but the observation of some very
high pitting in the preserve of chlorides lead to the warming the corrosion
susceptibility was not evaluated in the test programme.
3.Coating of steel:
ww Do the expected service life and structure exposure warrant coating of the
steel.
w.E
If coating is desirable, is a field of job read or may the coating be applied prior
to fabrications of the reinforcing, for the structure.
asy
Do transportation and subsequent lubrication pose a significant danger to the
coating.
En
In view of the exposure conditions, is the choice of coating dictated by these
condition rather than adoption of other measures.
Groups of coating:
gin
Organic coating:
ee rin
Organic coatings include coal tar enamel epoxy, asphalt, chlorinated rubber,
vinyl, phenolic, neoprene and methane.
g.n
Out of these, epoxy group is appeared to have the best potential for use.
Epoxy coatings:
et
Epoxy coatings provided excellent corrosion protection of prestressing steel.
The epoxies are wear resistance.
Epoxies are used to protect the steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete
of bridge. Decks from rapid corrosion. This corrosion is caused by the
chlorides ions from the most commonly applied deicing salts, sodium chloride
and calcium chloride.
Results obtained from epoxy and polyvinyl chloride coatings, if properly
applied could be expected to adequately protect steel reinforcing bass from
corrosion.
However only the epoxy coated bars had acceptable bond and creep
66
The epoxy coat acts (as) to isolate the steel bass from contact with oxygen,
moisture and chloride. However, at damaged point on the cost corrosion may
commence such damage exists on the bar coupled to uncoated steel the
performance of such bar is still considered to be satisfactory, but not as good
as when all bar is coated.
The slab specimen showed little differ on crack width, spacing, deflections or
ultimate strength for coated and un-coat bar. The slab containing epoxy-
w.E
The beam specimen in which (flexural type loads here applied to the
reinforcing bar splitting occurred along the reinforcing bass, but failure was
asy
primarily by either pull out or yielding of the embedded steel.
En
Organic coatings other than epoxy have occasionally been used. In Germany
PVC has been used on welded wire fabric.
g.n
Metals with a more negative corrosion potential than steel such as zinc, and
cadmium, provide sacrificial protection to the steel embedded in concrete,
although the development of passivating products on the coating is of
et
significance in the longer time steels and alloys with a less negative corrosion
potential (more able) than the bar steel, such as nickel and stainless steel,
protect the reinforcement only as long as the coating is un broken since the
bar steel is anodic to the coating. The steel is protected by such metals
simply by encapsulation.
Metallic coating is limited to galvanizing material.
4.Cathodic protection:
w.E bracing
for protecting lock and gates, for the interior of water tanks and for the exterior
of burried tanks.
asy
En
Cathode protection however will not prevent corrosion of structure unless the
metal to be protected is sorrows by an electrolyte such a swatter or damp soil
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and is ineffective in protecting structural elements above the water line or in
very dry soil in cathode protection, the effects of the induced currents on
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adjacent structures may be damaged unless they are adequately bonded to
the new system or other means of protections are provided.
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5. Explain in detail about the Epoxy Injection. (Nov/Dec 2013)
g.n
The Injection of polymer under pressure will ensure that the sealant
et
penetrates to the full depth of the crack. The technique in general consists of drilling
hole at close intervals along the length of cracks and injecting the epoxy under
pressure in each hole in turn until it starts to flow out of the next one.
The hole in use is then sealed off and injection is started at the next hole and
so on until full length of the crack has been treated.
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Epoxy injection is a highly specialized job requiring a high degree of skill for
satisfactory execution. The general steps involved are as follows.
The contaminated cracks are cleaned by removing all oil, grease, dirt and
fine particles of concrete which prevent the epoxy penetration andbonding.
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drying.
The surface cracks should be sealed to keep the epoxy from leaking out
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before it has cured or gelled. A surface can be sealed by brushing an epoxy
along, the surface of cracks and allowing it to harden.
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If extremely high injection pressures are needed, the crack should be routed
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to a depth of about 12mm and width of about 20mm in V-shape, filled with an
rin
g.n
The entry port or nipple is an opening to allow the injection of adhesive directly
into the crack without leaking.
et
The spacing of injection ports depends upon a number of factors such as
depth of crack, width or crack and its variation with depth, viscosity of epoxy,
injection pressure etc. and choice must be based on experience.
In case the cracks are not V-grooved, the entry port is provided by
bonding a fitting, having a hat-like croos-section with an opening at the top for
adhesive to enter, flush with the concrete face over the crack.
69
3.Mixing of epoxy:
4. Injection of epoxy:
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small quantities of repair material small hand-held guns are usually the most
economical.
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They can maintain a steady pressure which reduces chances of damage to
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the surface seal. For big jobs power-driven pumps are often used for injection. The
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pressure used for injection must be carefully selected, as the use excessive
pressure can propagate the existing cracks, causing additional damage.
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The injection pressures are governed by the width and depth of cracks and
the viscosity of resin and seldom exceed 0.10Mpa.
rin
g.n
It is preferable to inject fine cracks under low pressure in order to allow
overcome the increase in resistance against flow as crack is filled with material.
For relatively wide cracks gravity head of few hundred millimeters may be enough.
After the injected epoxy has occurred; the surface seal may be removed by
grinding or other means as appropriate. Fittings and holes at the entry ports
should be painted with an epoxy patching compound.
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PART A
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This method of repair is useful for the compression member a column,
piers etc.In this case a durable material is fastened over the existing
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concrete and the gap is filled with a grout.
The grout filled provides the needed performance characteristics thus
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jacketing restores or increases the section of an existing member by
encasement in a new concrete
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4. List out the repairing methods of excessive deflection of beams
(May/June2014)
ee rin
Repair methods need diversion of traffic, preparation of the portion of
g.n
stressed slab under repair. Example: properly cutting or patch in a regular
Task coat application with neat binder for bond mortar of concrete mix
preparation, placing and compaction, finishing, curing for a short period and
finally reopening to traffic.
ww fire? (May/June2013)
Fire on concrete building damages the concrete as well as steel
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reinforcement, causing disintegration of the concrete and Buckling of steel.
The temperature gradient is extreme 30 to 40o C in the outer face and above
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800oC on the interface (Near the sources of fire)
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9. List the methods to overcome low member strength in concrete structures?
(Nov/Dec2012)
gin
Increasing the depth with reinforcement
Increasing the width
Providing an overlay
Bonding with metal plates
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Use of external clamps. Use of steel plates
g.n
10. What is the preventive measure to be adopted to make the structure
stable against marine exposure? (Nov/Dec2012)
Concrete piles, Bridge pier – affected on surface or corrosion of
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reinforcement.
Piles for repair were subjected to breaking out of all areas of deduce
concrete, This was continued until steel was found at both ends of the
breakout.
Where any longitudinal bar had lost more than 10 percent of its original
area through corrosion, new reinforcement was added alongside.
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PART B
(Apr/May 2015)
The following are the various techniques to overcome low member strength:
The existing seam is exposed at the tension (bottom) side by removing the
cove4r concrete. Additional reinforcements are placed below and integrity is
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obtained by either welding or typing with the existing reinforcement. The
reinforcement is protected by concreting the extra by placing temporary form work.
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Increasing the width
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Procedure as outlined above is followed except that the same is applied to
sides because of restriction in headroom requirements of the existing beam.
Providing an overlay En
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If the situation permits to have an overlay on ship ,they began is increased
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On the tension side of the beam 2to 3mm steel plates are to the existing
beam to increase its capacity. The glue or adhesive should compatible with the
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existing concrete with behavioral characteristics under load addition to providing
integrity with parent member.
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Instead of the procedure described above, steel equal to the depth of beam
(rib portion) is glued along the length of the sides to increase the capacity an shear.
The glue used is existing concrete and act in an integrate member during service
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II. Technique of ferrcement Jacketing
A ferrocement Jacket is provided all round the member, using weld
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mesh and chicken mesh reinforcement and cement
Technique for repairing axially loaded members
Concrete members
En
gin
Jacketing techniques for increasing more sides is resorted to depending on
the circumstances.
g.n
A steel caging is prepared and made to surround the existing masonry so that
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lateral expansion when it is loaded in compression. The confinement of masonry will
steel cage increases its capacity and ductility.
If the circumstances permit the existing masonry columns is made to act core,
by providing concrete Jacketing (with reinforcement), which will enhance the
capacity of the masonry column.
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A survey of the worst affected areas showed that cover to reinforcement was
less than that required by 1985 standards and that potentials indicated a high
probability of active corrosion. Chlorides up to 5 per cent free chloride ion by
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weight of cement were found and even at depths up to 150 mm chloride contents
of 1 to 2 per cent existed. Carbonation was found to be relatively low (3 to 5 mm).
w.E As a first step in the repair process, the cause of the trouble was diverted
by modifying the deck drainage system, re-waterproofing the verges and the
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central median and installing asphaltic joints over the piers. The trestle repairs
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were put out to tender with all quantities billed and repair materials and methods
specified.
gin
The two concrete repair materials used were (i) a flow able concrete with 16
mm aggregate and containing a plasticizer and a shrinkage-compensating additive,
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to be cast against forms in heights up to 1.5m, and (ii) a patching mortar to be
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applied b rendering, for areas less than .01 m2. Laboratory and field trials were
g.n
carried out. The octagonal piers were repaired first and to avoid overstress only
three faces were tackled at one time. The specified sequence was:
i. Break-out in areas of
reinforcement. (Thisdimension allowed
delamination
th e
to
16mm
et
20 mm behind
aggregate to
penetrate). The area wasextended as needed to expose 50 mm
length of uncorroded steel, arequirement that significantly increased
the amount of bread-out.
iii. Replace any reinforcement which had lost over 10 per cent of
effective area.
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v. Coat all steel with an inhibiting primer if it would have less than
15 mm of cover after reinstatement.
vi. Erect form work to provide pour depth no greater than 1.5 m.
As the reinforcement was very congested, small pneumatic hammers were used
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for breaking out the concrete. The only reinforcement that needed to be replaced
was stirrups in the cross-head and this was done by hooking bars around the top
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and bottom corner bars.
Two types of formwork were used on the piers. The simpler form consisted of
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plywood planks, strap-banded together, which was readily adapted to the variations
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in the existing sections. A rigid glass fibre form did not have this advantage and
allowed grout loss.W ork on the cross-heads was limited by the fact that there were
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areas of repair which were directly under bearings. Load had to be transferred from
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the bearing by using jacking beams before bread-out was started. The break out
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was shaped so that air would not be trapped when the repair concrete was poured.
To maintain control of the ingredients, when many small pours were necessary,
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the repair material was supplied pre-mixed in 50 kg bags and only water had to be
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added at the site. Each batch was tested for flow and cube strength. As the work
continued from summer to winter, the strength was specified at two different
temperatures: at 20’C, 35 Mpa at 24 hours and 50 Mpa at 72 hours; at 5’C, 15 Mpa
at 24 hours and 35 Mpa at 72 hours.
The requirement of early strength at low temperature was included to allow rapid
repairs, but in the event was not required. Formwork was left in place for 38 hours
and after striping the repairs were sprayed with curing compound or wrapped in
polythene sheeting until seven days old.
After repair, the trestles were coated with a water resisting compound, either a lilane
or a quartz sand cement slurry mix. Because of the limitations on the extent of the
76
break-out, it was not certain that all the chloride contamination had been removed,
but the repairs ensured that leaking from the deck had been slowed down by
reinstating the reinforcement in dense, highly alkaline concrete; the permeability of
the existing concrete had been reduced by coating. Inspection of the repairs has
continued.
The repairs outlined show all the essentials for this sort of work, which was carried
out on this job with careful attention to the control of materials and procedures.There
must, however, be some doubt about the effectiveness of coating reinforcement
which is to finish with less than 15 m of cover. W hen a coat is applied, the part of the
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bar adjacent to the end of the coating may be in a more dangerous condition than it
was before, since a local corrosion cell can be set up at this point. It would seem on
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this job that the necessary cover of more than 15 mm could have been provided at
all repairs and this would, in our view, have been the preferred procedure. It is
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doubtful, also, whether the curing process used after the removal of the forms was
effective or necessary. If any further curing was required it would have been better to
have used water sprays.
En
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3. Explain in detail about Chemical disruption on concrete.
ee
Three examples have been picked to demonstrate the types of problems that can
arise in dams affected by alkali-aggregate reaction and to show ways in which
remedial works can be approached. rin
g.n
Center Hill dam in Tennessee, USA, has a long history of operational problems
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appearing as leaking horizontal joints, as binding of spillway gates and as damage to
the mechanisms for operating the gates. The dam consists of a 421 m long concrete
gravity section on the right side of the valley and a 5237 m long earth fill
embankment on the left side.
The spillway is controlled by eight tainted gates, each 50 ft (15.2m) wide, and is
traversed by a highway bridge which consists of simply-supported spans of steel
girders and concrete deck.
From the first filling in 1945 up till 1967, there were no serious deficiencies noted.
In 1967, some horizontal lift joints near the centre of the spillway and near the crest
were found to be leaking excessively. The leaks fwre put down to poor construction
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procedures and the joints were reinforced with anchors/bars. In 1974 several of the
fixed supports of the bridge were found to be tilted and were reset. More leading
joints appeared between 1975 and 1980 and in 1980 a gate jammed in the raised
position.
It was not until 1983, after excessive joint movement in the bridge spans,
buckling of torque shafts for the gates, buckling of electrical conduits, and severe
binding of the end gates, that major investigations were undertaken.
It was concluded from the observations, tests and instrumentation data that the
concrete was experiencing an alkali carbonate rock reaction. The expansion
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resulting from this reaction was causing the structure to grow and to move into the
spillway opening.
w.E
In 1984, the total spillway opening was 53.3 mm short of the design distance
and the end gate bays (Nos 1 and 8) were both short of design distance by 27.2 mm
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at the level of the top of the dam.
En
The right side of gate bay No 1 was leaning 47.6 mm into the opening and the
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left side of bay No 8 was leaning by 23.8 mm, also into the opening. The operational
deficiencies in the bridge were overcome by shortening the expansion joints.
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The problems with the gats were fixed by shortening the two end gates and by
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building out to vertical the gate sealing strips in the adjacent monoliths.
g.n
No other remedial work was undertaken and it was recognized that the structure,
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even after 40 years, may continue to grow and that further corrections may be
needed. No conclusion could be drawn as to the stage reached in the expansion
process or as to the potential for continued expansion.
After an extensive investigation, lasting three years, it was confirmed that alkali-
silica reaction was occurring and that some blocks were much more severely
affected than other. It was concluded that, although the aggregate throughout the
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dam was somewhat reactive, the worst reaction was occurring in sections built in the
course of a three-month period. During this period cement with unusually high alkali
content was used.
c. Stitching
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d. External stressing
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e. Blanketing
f. Overlays
g. Grouting asy
h. Autogenous healing
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BONDING W ITH EXPOXIES
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Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding compounds
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under pressure. Usual practice is to drill into cracks from the face of the concrete at
several locations.
g.n
Water or a solvent is injected to flush out the dirt and foreign matter and allowed
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to get cleaned through this process. The surface is then allowed to dry. The epoxy is
injected into the drilled holes until it flows out through the order holes.
This method involves enlarging the cracks along its exposed surface, filling and
finally sealing it with a suitable material.
This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks and is
applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated. The cracks should
be dormant unless they are opened up enough to put in a substantial paten in which
case the repair may be more property termed as “Blanketing”.
79
Routing and Sealing of leaking cracks preferably should be done on the pressure
face so that the water, aggressive agents can not penetrate the interior of the
concrete and cause side effects such as swelling, chemical attack or corrosion of
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rebars etc.
w.E
pouring hot tar over them. This is a simple and inexpensive way where thorough
water tightness of the joint is not important.
STITCHING asy
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The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored by stitching in
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a manner similar to sewing cloth.
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g.n
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Precautions to be followed:
II. Stitching the crack will tend to cause its migration else where in the structure. For
this reason strengthening the adjacent areas of cracks have to be made to take care
of additional stresses. More over the stitching dogs should be of variable length,
80
orientated and so located that the tension transmitted across the crack does not
devolve on a single plane of the section but is spread over an area, Strengthening of
the adjacent sections of concrete may consist of external reinforcement embedded
in a suitable overlay material.
III. W here there is a (leakage of) water problem, the crack should be sealed as well
as stitched so that stitches are not corroded.
IV. Stress concentrations occur at the ends of the cracks; hence the spacing of the
stitching dogs should be reduced at such locations. The stress concentrations at
each ends of the cracks can be relieved by drilling holes near them:
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V. W herever possible both sides of cracks have to be stitched to prevent bending
action on dogs due to movements of the structure.In bending members it is possible
w.E
to stitch one side of the crack but this should be the tension side of the section
where movement is originating. If the member is in a state of axial tension then a
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symmetrical placement of the dogs is a must.
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vi. If the stitching is to supplement the strength of the existing section, the
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deformation must be compatible. The dogs must be grouted with a non-shrink or
expandable mortar so that they have a tight fit thus the movement of the crack will
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cause the simultaneous stressing of both old and new sections. The holes for the
legs of the dogs should be filled with grout.
rin
g.n
vii. The dogs are thin and long and to cannot take much of compressive force. The
dogs must be stiffened and strengthened by encasement in an overlay or some
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similar means. Instead of steel rods or flats used us dogs, the same be replaced with
ferrocement which is made effective using chicken mesh or chicken mesh in
conjunction with weldedmesh as the case may be, Employment of cement mortar
1:2 or 1:2:5 with a water cement ratio of 0.45 is recommended for protecting the
steel reinforcement mesh.
EXTERNAL STRESSING
81
The compressive force is applied by using the prestressing wires or rods. The
principle is similar to stitching except that the stitches are tensioned. But additional
anchorage’s are to be provided for prestressing wires.
The compressive force also may be applied wedging (ie) opening the Crack and
filling it with an expanding mortar, by jack and grouting or by actually driving wedges.
BLANKETING
Blanketing is similar to routing and sealing on a large scale and applicable for
sealing both active and dormant cracks and joints.
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Type of Blanket joints
w.E
Where an elastic sealant is used, the serial is one wheel returns to original shape
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when the externally induced stress is proved.
En
This similar to the sealant chase of a Sealant except that the bon breaker is omitted
gin
and the sealant is bonded to the as well as to the side of the chase. The sealant is
mastic rather than a compore. I with elastic properties. They are used where the
anticipated movements are small.
Seating of active cracks by the use of an overlay should be extensible but not
flexible.
Any type of overlay may be used to seal the dormant type of cracks.
82
GROUTING
An alternative and better method is to drill down the length of the crack and grout
it so as to form a key. This is applicable only when the cracks runs approximately in
a straight line and are inaccessible at one end.
The grout key functions prevent relative transverse movements of the sections of
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concrete adjacent to the crack. It also prevents leakage through the crack.
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AUTOGENOUS HEALING
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En
gin
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g.n
This is used for sealing dormant cracks such as precast units cracked in handling
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of cracks developed during the precast pilling sealing of cracks in water hands and
sealing of cracks results of temporary conditions.
a. Jacketing
c. Prepacked concrete
83
e. Dry pack
f. Over lays
g. Epoxy resins
JACKETING
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PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
w.E
Pneumatically applied mortar is used for the restoration of when the location of
deterioration is relatively at shallow depth. It can be used on vertical as well as on
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horizontal surfaces and is particularly restoring surfaces spalled to corrosion of the
reinforcement. Damaged concrete elements also retrofitted using this method. This
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also has known as gunning or shotcreting techniques.
PREPACKED CONCRETE
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REPLACEMENT OF CONCRETE
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Well adapted for under water works and other where accessibility is a problem.
rin
g.n
Consists of replacing the defective concrete with new concrete of conventional
proportions placed in a conventional manner. This is useful when the volume of
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material to be replaced is large and where repairs occurs a great depths (i.e.)
several distance deep and where the area to be repaired is accessible.
DRY PACK
Dry packing is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and subsequent tamping
or ramming of the mortar into place producing an intimate contact between the old
and new concrete work.
OERLAYS
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existing surfaces or hand together cracked portions. Once hardened, this compound
will not melt, flow or bleed. Care should be taken to place the epoxy within the pot
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life period after mixing.
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During of concrete can be substantially improved by preventive maintenance in
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the form of weather proofing surface treatments. These treatments are used to seal
the concrete surface ad to inhibit the intrusion of moisture or chemicals. Materials
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used for this purpose include.Oils such as linseed oils, petroleum etc. Silicones used
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to seal concrete and masonry structures against moisture
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g.n
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85
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