1959 IRE TRANSACTION8 O N ANTENNAS ALD PROPAGA T’IOLV S133

Anatomy of ‘ “Surface Waves” ’

S. A. SCHELKUNOFFT

Summary-The triple quotation marks in the title and elsewhere TABLE I

in this paper indicate that the enclosed words are used to denote the
wave types enumeratedin Table I. The purpose of the paper is to call
attention tothe fact that asa group these wave types haveno impor-
tant physical properties in common. Calling these wave types by the
samename,evenwith qualifying adjectives,encouragesone to
assume that the most significant physical properties of one wave
type are shared by other wave types. This has caused, and will con-
tinue to cause, we believe, serious misunderstandings. It is strongly
urged that this loose use of words be abandoned. Another solutionis
possible. We could wait until everyone realizes that the term ‘ “sur-
face waves”’ has become devoid of sigdicant meaning and that it
is equivalent to just “that thing.”
INTRODUCTION
1. Zenneck Surface Waoe (interface a t half-space)
2. Sommerfeld Surface Wave (dipole overconducting half-space)
3. Norion Surface Wave (dipole over conducting half-space)
4. Sonzmerfeld Axiel SurfaceWave (imperfectly conductingcy-
lindrical wire)
5. Harnts-Goubau Axial Surface Wave (dielectric-coated wire)
6. Plane Trapped Surface Wave (dielectric-coated plane conductor,
corrugated surface, or other inductive boundaries)
7. Cylindrical Trapped Surface Wave (same as above in cylindrical
form)
8. PlaneQuasi-Trapped Surface Wave (stratified conductor when
the surfaceimpedancehasboth a resistive and inductive
component)
9. CylindricalQuasi-Trapped SuP-face Wave (same as above in
cylindrical form)
10. Azimuthal Surface Wanes (on dielectric-coated and corrugated
cylinders and spheres for propagation in the azimuthal direc-

F OR obvious reasons the same word conveys dif-

ferentmeaningstodifferentindividuals.Hence,
some“noise”incommunicationbetween us is
unavoidable. As long as the noise level is relatively low,
tion)
11. Composite Axiel-Azimutlml Surface Waves (same as above when
propagation has a component in both the axial and azimuthal
directions).

we manage to understand each other reasonably well.

When the noise level becomes high, serious misunder- ‘“SURFACE WAVES”’ SPROUT LIKX MUSHROOMS
standings are inevitable, and needless as well as waste- In the half-century that followed the question, the
ful controversies may arise. Such a situation has arisen answer had been a t first ‘(Yes,” then ‘(NO,”and a con-
in microwave theory inconnectionwith the so-called troversy began. At the same time many other types of
“‘surface waves.”’ “(surface waves”’ appeared on the scientific scene, and
a t present one cannot be sure whether two different
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND writers ascribe to their ‘“surface waves”’ the same essen-
It was Lord Rayleigh who discovered that in a semi- tial physical characteristics. I t is a regrettable fact that
infiniteelasticmedium a source of finitedimensions clear communication among workers in the field does
excitestwokinds of waves: 1) “spacewaves” which not exist. At a businessmeeting of Commission VI
spread in all directions and 2) “surface waves” which during the URSI General Assembly in Boulder, Colo-
spread along the boundary. If the medium is nondissipa- rado, a working group was formed to look into this mat-
tive, it follows from the principle of conservation of ter and see what could be done. Dr. James R. Wait,
energy that at largedistances from the source, the chairman of thegroup,prepared the above prelim-
energy density in a space wave varies inversely as the inary list of wave types which a t some time or another
square of the distance from the source and in a surface have beendescribed by somewriters as ‘“surface
wave inversely as the distance. Surfacewaves seemed to waves. ”’
be “attached” to the boundary of the solid and tended
to follow i t if i t were curved. INCIDENCE O F PLANE WAVES ON A
In the time of Marconi’sfamousexperimentsand PLANE BOUNDllRY
prior to thediscovery of the Kennelly-Heaviside reflect-
It will be easier to understand the various kinds of
ing layer, there was much speculation about possible
waves in Table I in the light of propagation of plane
existence of similar kinds of electromagnetic waves. It
waves in t+o semi-infinite, nonmagnetic, nondissipative
was already known that electric waves had a tendency
media, separated by a plane boundary. Subsequently
to cling to parallel wires (‘(Lecher wires,” as they were
we shall consider the effect of dissipation and of curva-
called) and thus could be guided around corners. Did
ture. To be more specific, let us assume that above the
the surface of the earth have a similar tendency to cap-
planeboundary is vacuum and below i t a dielectric
ture some of the energy from an antenna and guide it
with the indexof refraction
intotheshadow,thusexplaining Marconi’ssuccess?
That was the question. (See the Appendix.) 1zp = (€/€0)1’2 (1)

t Bell Telephone Labs., Murray Hill, N. J when there is no dissipation, and more generally the
 “complex indexof refraction”

where q o = (p0/eO)112 and u, E , € 0 have the usual meanings.

Normally, plane waves incident on the boundary either
from above or frombelow are partially reflected from it VACUUM

and partially transmitted across it. However, under cer-

r Vd
tain circumstances, either the transmission or the re-
VACUU,4f
flection is total. Thus, if the H vector is parallel to the
boundary there exists a n angle of incidenceforeach
medium, the “Brewster angle,” when the transmission
is total [Fig. l(a) and 1(b) 1. This case is of interest i n
connectionwithwavetypes 1 and 2 in Table I ; ;.e.,
inconnectionwithZenneck and Sommerfeldwave
types.l There is also an angle such that for all anglesof
incidence 6 which are greater than the critical angle6,,
the waves incident from below will be totally reflected
regardless of the orientation of the H vector as shown in
Fig. 2(a).

TOTAL ACROSSA PLAYEBOUKDARP

TRANSMISSION
Fig. l(a) representsschematicallytheincidence at
the Brewster angle from above. This angle is given by
sin 0, = n,(nP2 + 1)-lI2. (3)

The corresponding angle of refraction may be obtained

from
sin e d = (np2 + 1)-l12. (4)
VACUUM
I t is not surprising that Ba is the Brewsteranglefor
waves incident f r o m below, and that the corresponding
’ angle of refractionis Bo. Fromthisreciprocity i t follows
at once that in the case of a dielectric layer of a n y thick- VACUUM
f.1
ness, I, imbedded in vacuum [see Fig. l(b)], the waves
incident a t t h e Brewsterangle go throughthelayer
without “seeing it.” Similarly they will pass through a
layer of vacuum in a dielectric medium without seeing VACUUM J.
I
it. Furthermore, the Brewster angle is independent of
i-.-P
the frequency of the waves.
It is also clear that if the bottom boundary of the
layer is a perfect conductor, the waves will be reflected
only at this boundary, as shown in Fig. l(c). For all
other angles of incidence the reflection will be m d t i f i l e
and will take place a t both boundaries.
where X is the wavelength in vacuum. This inequality
Suppose now that the dielectric has a small conduc-
is satisfied when the attenuation of plane waves passing
tivity u and that
through a layer of thickness equal to the wavelength
aXqo << 2ir12,2, (5) i n the
dielectric much
is smaller
than T nepers. The ef-
fects of u on the Brewster angle and the angle of re-
H.XI. Barlow, “Surface waves,’ PROC.IRE, vol. 46, pp. 1413- fraction turn out to be of the second order. If the inci-
1417; July, 1958. dent waves are uniform plane waves-that is, if their
1959 y of ‘ “Surface
Schelkunoff: h a t o mWaves” ’ 5135

amplitude is constant in a n y plane perpendicular to the angles thattheinterferenceisadditiveandnotde-

rays-there will be small reflecti 4 !- thiscasethe structive. The wavesbecome “trapped.”Forvertical
Bremster angle is the angle of minimLlll .:*;on.
.... How-
I -’’, polarizationthe“characteristicangles”maybeob-
ever, if the incident plane waves are inhoilqeneous tained fromSchelkunoff’s equation^,^ where the com-
there exists a condition forno reflectipr. It-is !xown plete solution is given for either plane or radial cylin-
thattherays of inhomogeneousplane X-es in a n-’ drical waves. For our purposes we need only his equations
vacuum are straight lines alongwhich the phase change beginningwith(21)-(23). Eqs. (21)-(27) determine all
is maximum and the amplitude remains constant. The thecharacteristicor“trappedmodes”andthecorre-.
planes perpendicular to the rays are equiphase planes. sponding angles of incidence. One set of trapped modes
In these planes there exists one direction in which the is not affected by an insertionof a perfectly conducting
amplitude does notvary, whilein theperpendicular plane in the middle of the layer [Fig. 2(c) 1. T h e angles
direction the amplitude changeis maximum. T h e condi- of incidence for this set ma17 be expressed in terms of a
tion of no reflection would occur when the attenuation numerical parameter j as follows:
constant in this direction is2
sin 0 = np-1[l + ?zp-2 tan2 ( j / 2 ) ] 1 / 2
= +u710(n,* + 11-312 csc e,. (6)
[I + np-4 tan2 ($/2)]-1/2. (9)
The exponential rateof attenuation with the increasing
distance from the interface (upward) is a! sin 8,. Let us The variousmodes correspond to thefollowing ranges of
note that a! i s small and independent of X [subject t o p : O _ < j _ < r2, ~ 5 p 5 3 a , . 2 n ~ 5 p 5 ( 2 n + l ) i r .T h e
condition (j)].Let us also note that if condition (5) is parameter p is related to the ratio of the thickness of
satisfied for a certain wavelength, i t is satisfied for all the dielectric layer to the wavelength
shorter wavelengths.
T h e inhomogeneous plane waves continue to be at-
Z,/A = (27r-l(np2 - 1)-1’2j[1 + ^np-4 tan2 ($/2)]1’2. (IO)
tenuated as they pass through the dielectric medium. T h e second set of trapped modes is determined by the
In this case some of this attenuation is due to dissipa- same equations with ‘(cot” appearing instead of “tan.”
tion of energy in heat. In the case of a layer of finite Letus considerin particularthefirstmode corre-
thickness, the waves below the layer will grow in am- sponding to O<$_<T. As j varies from 0 to T , X varies
plitude in the downward direction. This is evident a t from infinity to zero [see (lo)]. From (9) we find that
once from the fact that in vacuum the amplitude along sin 6 varies correspondingly from l/n, to unity. Hence
the rays is constant. Likewise, in the case of reflection 8 varies from the critical angle 6, to ~ / 2 .The rate of
from a perfectly conducting boundary [Fig. l(c) 1. the evanescence of the wavesinvacuum [see (S)] varies
reflected waves above thelayer will grow in the upward fromzero to (2ir/%)(nP2-- 1)lf2.T h a t is, the waves in
direction. vacuum become more rapidly evanescentas X decreases.
As X decreases, the energy associated with the waves is
TOTAL REFLECTION AT A PLANE BOUNDARY drawn more and more into the layer. An increase in I
We shall now turn to the case of total internal re- is equivalent toa decrease inX.
flection (Fig. 2). The critical angleis given by If the dielectric layeris slightly dissipative, there will
sin 0, = l//np, (3 be a slight attenuation in the direction of propagation.
This will be a first-order effect. T h e effect on the char-
and isindependent of thefrequency. For allgreater acteristicangle of incidence 6 will be a second-order
tngles the reflection is total. The waves above the plane effect. Likewise, the effect of u on the rate of evanescence
areevanescentandtheattenuationconstant in the of waves in vacuum will be a second-order effect (for
vertical direction is well-trapped waves). T h e first-order effect on waves in
LY = (2r/IT/h)(7zP2 sin20 - (8) air will be a small phase constant, so that some energy
in the airwaveswill pass into the layer. For well-trapped
Kote that a! increases with the frequency, while in the waves,however, the energy that is dissipatedinthe
case of Brewster incidence a!, as given by (6), it is inde- layer is already there.
pendent of the frequency.
In the case of a dielectric layer of finite thickness I CONTRAST BETWEEKTOTAL TRANSMISSION
[Fig. 2(b)], the total internal reflection will take place AND TOTAL REFLECTIOK
at both boundaries if it takes place at one. For most
Thus the situations shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are radi-
angles of incidence there will be a destructive interfer-
cally differentwhen the dielectric layer is nondissipative
ence. I t is only for a certain infinite but discrete set of
or slightly dissipative. In the first case the waves in
* The effect of u on the Breaster angle of incidence is of the second 3 S. A. Schelkunoff, “Electromagnetic U‘aves,” D. Van xostrand
order. Co.. Princeton, N. J., pp. 429430; 1943.
 vacuum are plane, or for small CT they are essentially
plane,andpassthroughthelayerwithout seeing it.
The Brewster angles in vacuum and in the dielectric
are substantially independent of X, subject to (5) which
is true for sufficiently short waves. The phase constant
in vacuum, 2 r / X , increases as X decreases,while the
rate of evanescence given by (6) is small and independ-
e n t of X and the thickness of the layer. In the second
case the waves in vacuum are always evanescent, and Fig. 3.
the rateof evanescence increases a s X decreases oras the
thickness I of the layerincreases. In the former case, one -1-
might say that a smallu introduces an “anomalous at-
tenuation” at right angles to the direction of propaga-
tion of waves in vacuum. In the latter case, a small u -1-
introduces an “anomalous phase constant” (and anoma- Fig. 4.
lous velocity of propagationtowardthelayer)into
otherwise purely evanescent waves. Also, in the former
case the waves merely pass through the layer, and in
the latter they are trapped it.by

R4DIAL WAVES INCIDENT ON A PLANE BOUNDARY Fig 5.

The case of radialwavesisnodifferentfromthe
others. Infree space an infinite current filament carrying
progressive waves generates radial waves. Near thefila-
ment the field is largely reactive, but at greater dis- Fig. 6 .
tance the “rays” will make a constant angle with the
filament. If a dielectric layer is introduced perpendicu-
HIGHLY CONDUCTING LAYERS
larly to the filament, there will generally be reflections
at both boundaries of the layer as well as transmission For the present purposes we shallcall a dielectric
through it. However, if the angle which the rays make layer “highly conducting”if
CAT0 > > 27r,2,
with the axis equals the Brewster angle, there is no rc- (11)
flection and the transmission is total (Fig. 3). On the
other hand, if this angle is larger than the critical anglr in contrast to (5). This condition is satisfied even for
of total internal reflection and if it is given by (9) for small r~ if X is sufficiently large. For metals i t is satisfied
the wavelength determined by(lo), then the waves will for all radio frequencies.
be trapped. In this case the current in the filament out- When the inequality (11) is satisfied, the real part of
side the layer should be attenuated with the increasing the Brewster angle is
distance from the boundariesin accordance with (8), in z-
.. order to make the wave a pure trapped wave (Fig. 4). e, = - - ( T / U h T O ) 1‘2, (12)
The effects of small dissipation in the dielectric are 2
the same asfor plane waves. or nearly 90“. The attenuation of the inhomogeneous
wave in vacuum is small:
RADIAL WAVES INCIDENT ON A
CYLINDRICAL BOUNDARY CY = ~ T ( T / , J X ~ ~ ~ ~ ) ~ / ~ . (13)
T h e case of radial waves incident on a cylindrical In this case, the real partof the Brewster angle is seen
boundary is essentially the same. In Fig. 5 we have an todependontheconductivityandthewavelength.
electric current filament on the axis of a dielectric rod. Otherwise the situation is not different from t h a t exist-
For a certain phase velocity 6f current we shall have ing in the case of nondissipative and slightly dissipative
totaltransmission.Forcertainother velocities there layers. Fig. 7 shows schematically a radial wave inci-
may be, depending on the ratio of the diameter to the dent at theBrewster angle on a metal plate with a hole
wavelength and the index of refraction, total in-phase in it. Of course, the angle the incident waves make with
reflection(Fig. 6). I n such cases the intensity of the the plate is greatly exaggerated. From the point of view
field would become infinite for a finite current, and a of geometrical optics, the plate has noeffect on the wave
finite field can be excited by a dipole. generated by the filament-there is no “back-fire” into
T h e case of a dielectric-coated wire is essentially that the ul,perregion except for the inevitable diffraction
of a portion of a dielectric-coated plane [Fig.2(c) ] around the edgeof the hole.
folded into a cylinder. For an elevateddipole (Fig, S), the cone of rays mak-
1969 Schelkwnof: Anatomy of ‘ “Surface Waves”’ Slsr
I
T‘

Fig. 9.

Fig. 7.

J
1
Fig. 8.
Fig. 10.

ing the angle 0, with the axis of the dipole traces on the
plane a “boundary circle” separating the region where Waves traveling indirectionswithin the “Brewster
the reflected waves reinforce the incident waves from cone” will bepartiallytransmittedandpartially re-
the region where they weaken them. At the circle the flected at each boundary. Along the Brewster rays the
reflection coefficient is minimum (0.41+).Incidentally, transmission will be total.Indirectionsoutsidethe
(12) gives the real part of the “Brewster angle” for the Brewster cone but inside the critical cone of total in-
inhomogeneous waves. In the case of the dipole the in- ternal reflection, the waves will again be partially trans-
cident waves in a limited region are substantially uni- mitted and partially reflected. In the directions outside
form, and the angle of minimum reflection, if we still the critical cone, thereflection at each boundary will be
call it e,, has (formetals) a factor of two under the total.Inparticular,indirectionssurroundingthose
square-root signin (12). Thesedetails,however,are given by (9) and (lo), there will be a cumulative effect
unimportant for our purposes. duetotheright phaserelationships,andnormally
If the dipole is right over the plate, as in Fig. 9, the spherical annual beams will be convertedintoradial
pencil of rays making the angle 0, with the axis again beams, or trapped beams.
separates the region in which the image of the dipole The problem can be formulated exactly with the aid
reinforces the free space wave of the dipole from the of Sommerfeld integrals for the diDole field.4 From the
region where i t tends to destroy it. The effect of the exact formulation we learn that the representation of
image extends to the surface itself. Thus, near the dipole the spherical wave in terms of plane waves includes in-
the field will vary inversely as the distance from the homogeneousplanewaves as well as uniform plane
dipole, while “far away” it will vary inversely as the waves traveling in all directions. The presence of the
square of the distance. The (‘far awayzone”should inhomogeneouswaveswhich areattenuated in the
somehow be related to gn-e,. An order of magnitude vertical direction and whose velocities in the radial di-
may be determined from the conditionsprevailingin rection are less than thevelocity of uniform plane waves,
the case of an elevated dipole. The radius of the circle accounts for the fact that trappedwaves can be “stirred
of minimum reflection depends on the height of the di- up” by a dipole above the layer-a fact incomprehen-
pole and on 4n-e,. But it may be conjecturedthat sible in the light of pure geometrical optics.The stirring
when the height becomes less than X/2, or possibly X/4, up of trapped waves by a dipoleisanalogous to the
theradius becomes substantially constant.
Hence, stirring up of free oscillations of a system by an im-
“far away” meansa t distances much greater than pressed impulse of force. Mathematically both phenom-
d = (aX3170/8?r)1’2. (14 ena are associated with the poles of the reflection coeffi-
cient (or certainimpedancefunctions). The Brewster
Little needs to be said about “trapped”waves in metal- effect is associated with the zero of the reflection coeffi-
lic media. They are attenuatedextremely rapidly. cient or the “matching” of characteristic impedances.
A DIPOLE
IN OR SLIGHTLY
A NONDISSIPATIVE
LASER
DISSIPATIVE SEBIITK4PPED \ITAVES ON A PERFECTLY
Let us now return to a nondissipative dielectric layer, CONDUCTING WIRE
and assume a dipole inside i t (Fig. 10). In an infinite In free space, electric and magnetic fields are gen-
space, the dipole pattern is a toroid. If the layer is very erally diffuse. In the vicinity of a thin charged wire, on
thick compared with the wavelength, we could deter- the other hand, theelectric field is highly concentrated,
mine the pattern, more or less, with the aid of geomet-
rical optics. IM.,pp. 413417, 428-431.
as is the magnetic field in the vicinity of a thin wire
carryingcurrent.Hence, we suspect that a thin wire
will exhibit a tendency to trap electromagnetic energy
and guide it. This is indeed the case. Fig. 11 shows sche-
matically a quarter-waveantennaconnectedtoone
terminal of a generator and a semi-infinite wire to the
other. Some of the energy will be radiated away and
some trapped by the semi-infinitewire. However, if the
wire is perfectly conducting and if its radius is finite,
the current at large distances from the generator will
vary inversely as the logarithm of the ratio of the dis-
tance to the radiusof the wire. Thus, the energy in the
vicinity of the wire will be slowly diminishing, and the
field will be spreading farther and farther from thewire.
Even a thin layer of the dielectric coating will convert
this semitrapped wave into a fully trapped wave. On
the other hand, the resistance in the wire will have the
oppositeeffect.Inadditiontotheexpected loss of
energy in heat, a t large distances from the generator
there will be a tendency for the wave to break away
from the wire as in the case of spherical waves over an
imperfect ground.
In this case of an imperfectly conducting wire (un-
coated), the current will vary at first more or less as it
does in a perfectly conducting wire (there will be some
attenuation); but at very large distances, the current
and the field around the wire will vary inversely with
the distance from the generator. Thus imperfectly con-
ducting wires eventually lose their “grip” on the energy.
CONCLUSION
We have discussed a t some length the behavior of
plane and radial wavesa t plane and cylindrical bounda-
ries across which the index of refraction .is discontinu-
ous. We have been concerned, in particular, with the
conditions of total transmission and total reflection. At
the Brewster angle of incidence the vertically polarized
waves are totally transmitted. If the waves are notver-
tically polarized, the reflected waves will be horizontally
polarizedsince theothercomponent will betotally
transmitted. Sharp spherically divergent beams aimed
in the Brewsterdirection mill belargelytransmitted
across the boundary, with some reflection. The same
would be true of beams falling on a spherical boundary
of large radius. Sharp beams aimed in the Brewster di-
rection a t a large, dielectric-coated, prefectly conducting
sphere will generally pass through the dielectric and will
be reflectedfrom the sphere-but there will be small
multiple reflections off the axisof the beam.
We have also examined the case of total internal re-
flection andtheconsequenttrapping of waves.This
occursinthedielectriclayersorcylinderswhenthe
waves are incident on the boundary from the dielectric
side at certain angles larger than the critical angle of
Fig. 11.
total internal reflection. When the index of refraction is
large, this angle is only slightly larger than the Brewster
angle. Hence, even fairly narrow spherical beams aimed
at the Brewsterangle may excitetrappedwaves, al-
though a considerable fraction of power will be trans-
mitted across the boundary.
Trapped waves follow slow bends in dielectric layers
and rods, although some energy escapes.
Referring to Table I in this paper, we note that the
wave types 1, 2 and 4 are associated with the Brewster
angle of incidence. Wave types 5 through 11 are trapped
waves. In highly conductingdielectric
layersand
cylinders, the trapped waves attenuate so fast that they
represent merely local effects.
ITTave type 3, theNorton‘“surfacewave,”’ is not
related to any of the above types. This wave was de-
fined as the difference between the exact field of a dipole
above an imperfect ground, and the field calculated by
the rules of geometrical optics. This “wave” does not
satisfy Maxwell’s equations.
There is also the term “ground wave” which is used
by radio engineers to denote the total wave which would
haveexistedonthegroundsurface if theKennelly-
Heaviside layer were absent. The wave reflected from
the layeris called the “sky wave.” In the primary service
area for all broadcasting stations operating in the lo.lrr
andmediumfrequencyranges,theskywaveisvery
weak andonlythegroundwaveisimportant.This
groundwavehassomerelationtotheNorton “‘sur-
face wave,”’ but is not identical to it. The latter vanish
for a perfect ground when the ground wave of the radio
engineer is the strongest. The ground wave also has been
confused with the Zenneck “‘surface wave.”’
I t is this writer’s opinionthat theloose use of the term
“surface wave” is unfortunate and causes a great deal
of unnecessaryconfusion. If it is continued, the best
that onecould hope for isthat the termwill become en-
tirely devoid of meaning. This writer hopes, however,
that theclassical definitionof the term(Lord Rayleigh’s)
will be restored. Sommerfeld and Zenneck adheredto it
(see the appendix below), although they have made an
unfortunate slip in their analysis which subsequently
confused.the issue. Inthe classicalsense, theterm
“surface wave” applies only to wave types5 through 11
of all those mentioned in TableI.
1959 Schelkunof: Anatomy of ‘ “Surface Waves” ’ S139

APPENDIX That is, the nature of the wave constantly approaches that of a sur-
face wave. When the distance becomes very great, the surface wave
T h e following excerpt fromZenneck’s “Wireless may again give way to the space wave, as the former is more rapidly
T e l e g r a ~ h y ”shows
~ that Sommerfeld and Zenneck ac- absorbed. It is questionable, however, whether this effect is of practi-
cal importance.
cepted Rayleigh’s definition of “surface waves”as far as This change is the more rapid, the shorter thewave-length is and
the most significant physical properties are concerned. the lower the conductivity and dielectric constant of the ground are.
Zenneck writes: X calculation of the distance a t which the actual amplitude of the
wave differs by 10 per cent from the amplitude of the space wave,
Instead the facts, according t o -1.Sommerfeld’s theory, are as results in the following figures:
follows: Sea water X = 2 km. . Distance=20,000 km. approx.
a. Surface and Space Waves.-The waves which emanate fromwater Sea X = l km. Distance= 5000 l m . approx.
a transmitter placed in a homogeneous insulating material were dis- Sea water X = 0.3 km. Distance = 500 km. approx.
cussed in Art. 20. They are characterized by the fact thatenergy is water Fresh X = 2 km. Distance= 4 km. approx.
radiated in straight lines, radially from thetransmitter. Conse-
quently, the energy varies as l/r2 (?=distance from source) and the The distance becomes still shorter with dry ground.
amplitudes of the electric and magnetic field strengths vary as I/?‘. Hence, while with sea water for all distances which come into
U’e will refer to these as “space waves’ in what follows. consideration-20,000 km. is half the circumference of the earth-and
A different kind of wave is obtained, e.g., with Lecher’s system for all wave-lengths over 1 km. the waves have the characteristics of
[Art. 72~1.Here the waves travel along the wires, following any space waves, with fresh water and even far more so with d q ground,
bends they may have. The flow of energy along the wires and the they assume the characteristics of surface waves a t distances of only
amplitude of the waves would remain constant during their progress, a few wave-lengths or even less than one wave-length. Hence the
were it not for the fact that a pnrtion of the energy is consumed in nature of the wave propagation in this case muat not he conceived as
the wires (due to Joulean heat developed). This causes a gradual being the same as that described in Art. 138 over sea water.
reduction in the energy and wave amplitude along the course of
travel, a phenomenon which is termed “absorption.” We will refer The above quotedconclusion of Zenneck’s is based on
to waves of this kind as “surface waves,” as they follow the surface the original formulasobtainedbySommerfeld.Bur-
of the conductor. rows6 has pointed out that numerically the transmission
b. The wave emanated into the air by an antennaa t the earth’s
surface may be conceived as consisting of two component parts, one formulasbasedonSommerfeld’sresults differ from
of which is of the nature of a space wave, the other of a surface wave. those of U7eyl by just the surface wave termP,and has
In the former the energy l/P, the amplitude therefore x l / r ; in made careful measurements which support the results
the latter the energy x l / r , the amplitude 1 / 4 7 . The fact that in
the latter there is a decrease in the energy as the distance increases, of Weyl.
in contrast to the wave following a wire-and in addition to and Subsequently, it became clear that the source of the
entirely aside from such absorption as occurs-is explained by the difficulty involving the surface wave term in Sommer-
fact that theenergy is spreading itself out over ever-increasing circles,
as the wave travels its course. feld’sformulaswasthedouble-valuednature of the
-Absorption of course occurs in addition to thisreduction in ampli- square root terms in the reflection coefficient appearing
tude due to the expansion of the wave in space. As each wave ad- in the integrand. I n themathematicalformulation of
vances through the air it is accompanied by a wave in the ground.
And as the ground always has more or less conductivity, the moving the physical problem, it isessential that the square
electric field, constituting the wave, results in the formation of cur- roots be assigned the values whose real parts are posi-
rents, just as in the wires of the Lecher system. These currents con- tive. Subsequent deformation of the contour of integra-
sume energy, which is drawn from that of the aaves radiated by the
antenna, so that an absorption occurs in this way. tion has to be conducted with great care and circum-
spection. No difficulty would have arisenif the deforma-
This much is relevant to the classical distinction be- tion were made in a complex plane with a n impassable
tween space and wave types. The next excerpt led t o a cut so that the square roots could take on only their
controversy and contributed to subsequent confusion. principal values. As i t happened, the deformation was
He continues: made on a Riemann surface where it is quite easy for
c. LX’hile a t short distances from the transmitter, the waves are the reflection coefficient in the integrand to turn into its
almost entirely of the nature of space waves, as the distance increases reciprocal.
the surface component becomes more and more predominant, as its
amplitude decreases more slowly than thatof the surface component.
6 C. R. Burrows, “Existence of a surface wave in radio propaga-
tion,” Xature, vol. 138, p.284, August 15, 1936; also, “The surface
5 J. Zenneck, “Wireless Telegraphy,” McGraw-Hill Book CO., wave in radio propagation over plane earth,“ PROC. IRE, vol. 25, pp.
Inc., New York, N. Y . , pp. 249-250; 1915. 219-229; February, 1937.