Y SYSTEMS

UNIT I - ALCOHOLS AS FUELS

 Introduction to alternative fuels
 Need for alternative fuels
 Availability of different alternative fuels for SI and CI engines
 Alcohols as fuels
 Production methods of alcohols
 Properties of alcohols as fuels
 Methods of using alcohols in CI and SI engines Blending, dual
fuel operation, surface ignition and oxygenated additives
 Performance emission and combustion characteristics in CI and SI engine
Introduction to alternative fuels
 Alternative fuel is a non-conventional and advanced fuel
 Derived from sources other than petroleum
 For use in motor vehicles to deliver direct propulsion
 Most are produced domestically, reducing our dependence on imported oil
 Some are derived from renewable sources
 Often, they produce less pollution than gasoline or diesel
 Examples: Biodiesel, Bio-alcohol, Stored Electricity, Hydrogen and other
bio mass sources

Need for alternative fuels

 Fossil fuels are in limited supply
 Global consumption of fossil fuels is increasing
 High crude prices
 Highly concentrated in certain regions of the world
 Stringent environmental regulation
 Fossil fuel combustion releases large amounts of greenhouse gases,
The most significant being CO2
 Greenhouse gases trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere Rural economy and
employments
 3/10/2017

Alternate Fuel vehicle population in the world

Country Vehicles Refueling

Argentina 14,13,66 Stations
1,3
Brazil 10,00,00
4 100
42
Pakistan 06,00,000 067
Italy 4,20,000 050
India 2,04,000 419
USA 1,30,00 1,38
China 069,300 0027
0
Business Driving Factors for Alternative Fuels

 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

 Air Quality
 Depletion of Fossil Fuels
 National Security
 Customer Preference
 Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) Phase-out
Implementation Barriers For Alternative Fuels

 Codes, Standards and Regulation

 Safety
 Low Oil Prices
 Lack of a Fueling Infrastructure
 Price Premium

Government Promotion of Alternative Fuels

 Regulatory incentives, such as a tax credit or deduction, for the purchase of an AFV
or AFV-related equipment
 Mandates and directives to both public and private fleet operators to purchase AFVs
 Emission standards for low-emission or zero-emission vehicles that encourage
market shifts towards increased
 development and deployment of AFVS
 Special regulations that provide advantages to AFV owners, such
as access to high occupancy vehicle lanes, parking lanes or
simplified vehicle registration

2
 3/10/2017

SCENARIO OF CONVENTIONAL AUTO FUELS

 India is a diesel-based economy
o Diesel consumption is around five times
the consumption of petrol
 Large scale use of trucks for goods transportation
 Use of buses for short and medium distance travel
o Use of diesel in agricultural machinery like tractors,
water pump sets, earthmoving machines, et.,
o Large scale use of diesel-powered gensets in power
deficient states/cities
o Use of diesel as an industrial fuel

Availability of different alternative fuels for SI engines

 Ethanol
 Methanol
 Butanol
 P-Series
 Compressed Natural Gas
 Liquefied Natural Gas
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
 Hydrogen

Availability of different alternative fuels for CI engines

 Ethanol
 Methanol
 Butanol
 Bioethanol
 Biogas
 Alkyl esters of fatty acids (FAME, FAEE)
 Compressed Natural Gas
 Vegetable oils
o Waste
vegetabl
e oils
o Straight vegetable oils
 Biodiesel
 Hydrogen
3
 3/10/2017

Alcohols as fuels
 Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol, and Butanol are widely used as fuels
 They can be synthesized chemically or biologically
 When obtained from biological materials and/or biological processes, they are known
as bio alcohols
 There is no chemical difference between biologically produced and chemically
produced alcohols
 They have characteristics which allow them to be used in internal combustion engines
 The general chemical formula for alcohol fuel is CnH2n+1OH
 They have high octane rating resulting in better fuel economy in terms of kmpl

Alcohols as fuels
 The physical and chemical characteristics of alcohols make them
better suited for SI engines rather than CI engines
 The ignition quality of alcohols being poor, these cannot replace diesel fuels directly
 The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio due to presence of oxygen in the
molecule is much lower than gasoline.
 The latent heat of vaporization of methanol and ethanol is
nearly 4 and 2.7 times,
 respectively compared to gasoline
 When used in spark ignition engines alcohols have the potential to
reduce NOx, CO, HC and particulates

Properties of ethanol

Formula C2H5OH
Molecular Weight 46.07
Carbon 52.2
Hydrogen 13.1
Oxygen 34.7
Boiling Point (°C) 78
Freezing Point (°C) -114
Viscosity, mPa-s at 20 °C 2.4
Latent heat of 923
Flash Point (°C)
vaporization, kJ/kg 13
Autoignition Temperature 423
Stoichiometric
(°C) air fuel 9
Flame
ratio visibility Difficult to see in daylight
Octane Number 108.6

4
 3/10/2017

Production methods of alcohols

Milling
The feedstock passes through a hammer mill, which grinds it into a fine powder
called meal
Liquefaction
 Meal is mixed with water and alpha-amylase, and then passed through
cookers where the starch is liquified.
 Cookers with a high temperature stage (120-150 C) and a low temperature
holding period (95 C) are used
 High temperatures reduce bacteria levels in the mash
Saccharification
 It is the process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (as starch) into simple
sugars
 Mash from the cookers is cooled and the secondary enzyme (gluco-amylase)
 is added to convert the liquified starch into fermented sugars (dextrose)
Fermentation
 It is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol
 Yeast is added to the mash to ferment the sugars to ethanol and carbon
dioxide
 In a continuous process, the fermenting mash is allowed to
Flow through several fermenters until it is fully fermented and leaves the final
tank
 In a batch process, the mash stays in one fermenter for about 48 hours
before the distillation process is started
Distillation
 It is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid
mixture by selective evaporation and condensation.
 The fermented mash, called beer, contains about 10% alcohol and all the
non-fermentable solids from the corn and yeast cells
 The mash is pumped to the continuous f low, multi-column distillation
system where the alcohol is removed from the solids and the water.
 The alcohol leaves the top of the final column at about 96% strength and
the residue mash called stillage, is transferred from the base of the column
to the co-product processing area
Dehydration
 It is the loss or removal of water from something

5
 3/10/2017
 The alcohol from the top of the column passes through a dehydration
system where the remaining water will be removed
 Most ethanol plants use a molecular sieve to capture the last bit of water in the
ethanol
 The alcohol product at this stage is called anhydrous ethanol
 (pure, without water)

Denaturing
 Ethanol that will be used for fuel must the denature or made unfit for human
consumption with a small amount of gasoline (2 to 5%)
 This is done at the ethanol plant
Centrifuges
 The stillage from the bottom of the distillation columns contain solids from
the grain and added yeast, as well as liquid from the water added during the
process.
 It's then sent and separated through the centrifuges into thin stillage (a liquid
with 5-10% solids) and wet distillers grain
Evaporators
 The liquid that is not routed back to the cook/slurry tanks is sent through a
multiple-effect evaporation system where it is concentrated into syrup
containing 25-50% solids
Syrup Tanks
 The syrup, which is high in protein and fat content, is then mixed back in
with the wet distiller’s grain.
Grain Drying
 The wet cake is conveyed to dryers where it is converted into a low-moisture
(10-12%) product called dried distillers grains with soluble.
Evaporators
 The liquid that is not routed back to the cook/slurry tanks is sent through
a multiple-effect evaporation system where it is concentrated into syrup
containing 25-50% solids

6
 3/10/2017
Co-products

 Distillers grain and Carbon dioxide are the co-products in

the production of ethanol
 Distillers grain, used wet or dry is a highly nutritious livestock
feed
 Carbon dioxide is give off in great quantities during fermentation
and many ethanol plants collect, compress, anmd sell it for use in
other industries
 Dry mill ethanol production process uses only the starch portion
of the corn, which is about 70% of the kernel
 All the remaining nutrients – protein, fat, minerals and vitamins – are
 concentrated to form distillers grain, a valuable feed for
livestock
 A bushel of corn weighs 56 pound and will produce at least 2.7
gallons of ethanol and 17 pound of distillers grain

C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

Flow Chart for Dry Milling Process for Producing Ethanol

7
 3/10/2017

Advantages of Ethanol

 10% ethanol blends reduce CO and HC emissions better than

any other reformulated gasoline blend as much as 25%
 Ethanol contains 35% oxygen by weight, making it burn
cleaner than gasoline
 Ethanol contains 80% fewer gum-forming compounds
than gasoline
 Ethanol is highly biodegradable, making it safer for
the environment
 Ethanol use reduces CO2 equivalent GHG emissions
 Ethanol can be generated from waste or biomass
 Ethanol promotes rural economy
Disadvantages of Ethanol

 Higher ethanol blends require vehicle modifications

 Sustained availability of ethanol is difficult
 Ethanol has a lower density than gasoline
 Poor lubricity, leading to increased wear and tear
 More aldehyde emissions
 Deposits and fouling may occur on fuel injection equipment

Production of methanol
 Methanol is produced from synthesis gas which is a mixture of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen
 The feedstock, over the last 40 or more years, has been oil or
natural gas
 Particularly in China, coal, rather than natural gas or oil is being used.
 Any solid biomass including for example agricultural, city and
industrial waste can be used to make synthesis gas using
techniques similar to its production from coal

 More recently, in the Netherlands, a plant uses liquid propane-

1,2,3-triol (glycerol), a by-product from the production of
biodiesel, from animal fats and vegetable oils , to produce the
gas
8
 3/10/2017

Production of methanol
 At moderate pressure of 1 to 2 MPa and high temperatures around 850 °C,
methane reacts with steam on a nickel catalyst to produce syngas according to
the following chemical equation
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2O

 This reaction, commonly called as stem methane reforming is endothermic

 The carbon monoxide and hydrogen then react on a second catalyst to produce
Methanol
 The most widely used catalyst is a mixture of copper, zinc oxide and alumina
 At 5 – 10 Mpa and 250 °C, it can catalyze the production of methanol from
carbon and monoxide and hydrogen with high selectivity as per the following
reaction
CO + 2H2O CH3OH
 A low pressure process came about by the discovery of a copper-based catalyst
which was active at 475-575 K, thus allowing economical conversions to occur
at 40-100 atm
 A low pressure process came about by the discovery of a copper-based catalyst
which was active at 475-575 K, thus allowing economical conversions to occur
at 40-100 atm
 One plant, for example, operates at 525- 575 K and 100 atmospheres eventually
achieves a 97% conversion of the reactants

9
 3/10/2017

Properties of Methanol
Formula CH3OH
Molecular Weight 32.04
Carbon 37.45
Hydrogen 12.5
Oxygen 50
Boiling Point (°F) 149
Freezing Point (°C) -143
Liquid Viscosity at 60 °F
0.59 centipoise Latent heat of
vaporization, at 60 °F 3340
Btu/gallon Flash Point (°F)
52
Autoignition Temperature (°F) 867
Stoichiometric air fuel ratio 6.45
Flammability Limit (% in air) 7.3 to 36
Octane Number 106

10
 3/10/2017

Uses of methanol

 M-85 is a mixture of methanol (85%) and petrol used in many cars in China
 Pure methanol is used in diesel engines in some buses in China
 Methanol is used to produce a variety of chemicals, including formaldehyde
and acetic acid
 Formaldehyde is added to adhesives used in the wood industry, such as
plywood, particle board and laminates
 Formaldehyde is also a key component of resins used to coat paper and
plastic products
 Industrial uses of acetic acid include preparing metal acetates, used in some
printing processes; vinyl acetate, used to produce plastics; and cellulose
acetate, used in photographic films and textiles; and butyl acetates, widely
used as solvents in paints, lacquers and resins.
 Globally, methanol is also used to produce chemicals used to manufacture
polyester fabrics and fibers; acrylic plastics; pesticides; textile solvents;
pharmaceuticals; and windshield wiper fluid
 Methanol is also used as a direct fuel for automobile engines, as a blended
fuel with gasoline (M85), and as an octane booster/additive in MTBE
(methyl tertiary butyl ether) reformulated gasoline.
 Methanol is primarily used as an industrial solvent for inks, resins,
adhesives to wood items, and dyes.
 Methanol is used as an antifreeze for automotive radiators, an
ingredient of gasoline
 Methanol is also an ingredient in paint and varnish remover

Advantages of methanol
 Methanol is a liquid under normal conditions, allowing it to be
stored, transported and dispensed easily, much like gasoline
 It has a higher octane number
 It can be produced from a wide variety of sources including
fossil fuels like coal, wood and municipal waste
 The volumetric energy density of methanol is considerably
higher than liquid hydrogen
 It has a lower temperature catalytic reforming than gasoline,
hence making it a better fuel for fuel cells
 It can be blended with gasoline (M85)

11
 3/10/2017

Disadvantages of methanol

 Methanol is toxic in nature

 Its energy density is one half of that of gasoline and 24% less than ethanol
 It is corrosive to some metals including aluminium, zinc, and
manganese
 It is hydrophilic in nature, that is, it attracts water, leading to phase
separation and difficulty in starting the engine
 Cold starting is poor due to low volatility in cold weather
 Methanol leaks do not dissipate, causing a fire hazard

Methanol combustion

 It has high octane number indicating antiknock performance

 It has high latent heat of vaporization allowing a denser fuel-air charge
 It has excellent lean burn properties
 It is a simple, single-compound fuel
 It is very flammable and is sometimes used as an additive in gasoline
 When methanol is injected, an increased surface area speeds up the rate of
vaporization of methanol
 The vapor pressure of methanol is higher than that of water, so the liquid methanol
enters the gaseous phase faster than water
 In the presence of oxygen in the air, the methanol gas burns when ignited with a
flame, producing carbon dioxide and water

12
 3/10/2017

Fuel properties
Auto Ignition Temperature
It is a minimum temperature of a substance to initiate self-
sustained combustion independent of any ignition source
Boiling Temperature
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid
changes into a vapor
Fuels that are pure compounds (such as methanol) have a single temperature as
their boiling point
Fuels with mixtures of several hydrocarbons (such as gasoline) have boiling
points of each individual compound in the mixture. For these mixtures, the 10%
point of distillation is often used as the boiling point of the fuel
FlameVisibility
It is a degree to which combustion of a substance under various
conditions can be seen
Odor Recognition
It is the degree of smell associated with that of fuel vapor
Flammability Limits
Minimum and maximum concentrations of vapor on air below and
above which the mixtures are unignitable
A vapor-air concentration below the lower flammable limits is too lean to ignite
A vapor-air concentration above the upper flammable limits is too rich to ignite
Flash point
It is the minimum temperature of a liquid at which sufficient vapor as produced to
form a flammable mixture with air
Freezing Point
It is the temperature where a liquid can exist as both a liquid and a solid in
equilibrium
Heating Value
It is the heat released when a fuel is combusted completely corrected to standard
pressure and temperature

13
 3/10/2017

Latent Heat of Vaporization

It is the quantity of heat absorbed by a fuel on passing between liquid and
gaseous phases
The condition under which latent heat of vaporization is measured is the
boiling point and atmospheric pressure
Specific Gravity
It is the ratio of the density of the material to the density of water
Specific Heat
The ratio of the heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance one degree
compared to the heat needed to raise the same mass of water one degree
Vapor Density
Weight of a volume of pure vapor compared to the weight of an equal volume of dry
air at the same temperature and pressure
A vapor density of less than one describes a vapor which is lighter than air
A vapor density of greater than one describes a vapor which is higher than air
Air Fuel Ratio
Because the alcohols contain oxygen in their chemical form, they require less air to
complete combustion. (A/F ratio is low with alcohol fuels)
For methanol it is 6.4 : 1 and ethanol it is 9 : 1
Theory of Combustion
The ratio of moles of product and reactants for alcohols is higher compared to
gasoline.
Assuming all the fuels enter the engine completely evaporated, the fuel giving largest
number of moles of products per mole of reactant should produce more pressure after
combustion and hence power in the cylinder, all other factors being equal

Volatility
A fuel’s ability to vaporize or change from liquid to vapor is referred to as its volatility
Fuels that do not vaporize readily may cause hard starting of cold engines and poor
vehicle driveability during warm-up and acceleration
Fuels that vaporize too readily at higher operating temperatures will cause too much
vapor to form causing a decrease in fuel f low to the engine (known as ―vapor lock’)

14
 3/10/2017
These extremes of difficult starts on the one hand and vapor lock on
the other can be minimized by changing fuel volatility specifications
for seasonal, geographical, and elevation considerations
Therefore, it is important that a fuel’s tendency to evaporate is controlled to certain
standards
Gasoline is composed of a number of compounds having boiling points ranging
from approximately 27- 225°C(80-437°F)
Unlike gasoline, methanol and ethanol are single compounds that boil at
64.7°C (149°F) and 78.3°C (173°F), respectively
In fuel applications, alcohols lack the light fractions with boiling points near 38°C
(100°F) which are essential for starting spark-ignited engines in severe cold

Volatility
ASTM Distillation Curves for Gasoline and Alcoho

Calorific Value
 When the alcohol is burned, the hydroxyl combines with a hydrogen atom to
form a molecule of water
 Thus, the oxygen contained in the alcohol contributes nothing to the fuel value
 The relative atomic weights of the atoms involved are: hydrogen, 1 ; carbon,
12; and oxygen, 16
 Since methyl alcohol has an atomic weight of 32, half the molecule cannot
be
 "Burned" and does not contribute any fuel value
 As expected, methanol has less than half the heat value (expressed in Btu/lb)
of gasoline
 Ethanol, with 35% oxygen, is slightly better with 60% of the heat value of
gasoline

15
 3/10/2017

 To generate equal amount of energy as that of gasoline, methanol has to

be supplied 2.2 times as that of gasoline and ethanol 1.64 times greater
 If the heating value of methyl and ethyl alcohol were considered alone, they
would appear to be poor choices as motor fuels
 However, other redeeming qualities such as "latent heat of vaporization" and
anti- knock values make alcohol fuels superior, in some ways, to gasoline

Vapor Pressure
 A fuel’s tendency to vaporize is measured by Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)
 The Reid Vapor Pressure or RVP (ASTM D 323) is a measurement of a
fuel’s
 frontend volatility
 The determination of RVP is performed by submerging a fuel sample (sealed
in a f lask) in a 100°F water bath
 More volatile fuels will vaporize more readily, producing higher pressure
readings.
 Less volatile fuels will not create as much readings.
 Alcohols have a very low vapor pressure because of their high boiling point and
high latent heat of vaporization
 This makes alcohol unsuitable for severe cold environment operation
 When alcohol is added to gasoline in small amount it tends to increase the RVP
of t fuel

16
 3/10/2017

 Latent Heat of Vaporization

 When a liquid is at its boiling point, a certain amount of additional heat is
needed to change the liquid to a gas. This additional heat is the latent heat of
vaporization.
 Alcohols have higher Latent Heat of Vaporization
 In an engine, vaporization of the gasoline fuel/air mixture results in a
temperature drop of about 4.5 degrees Celsius
 Under similar conditions, the temperature drop for ethyl alcohol will be more
than twice that of gasoline, and for methanol the drop will be over three times as
great
 These temperature drops result in a considerably greater "mass density" of the
fuel entering the engine for alcohol as compared to gasoline

 The result is a greatly increased efficiency for alcohol fuels

 In an engine, a stoichiometric mixture of methanol and air would be over three
times colder than the same gasoline/air mixture
 This means that there is now over three times (by weight) as much methanol in
the cylinder
 Now, even though methanol has only half the heat value of gasoline, the net
gain in "volumetric mass efficiency" is over three times So, for example, if the
gasoline/air mixture in a given engine cylinder produces
 100 kJ on each stroke, the same engine would produce kJ Btu per stroke with
 methanol

17
 3/10/2017

 This power gain due to increased volumetric mass efficiency is the primary
reason for the popularity of methyl alcohol

Water Content
 Gasoline and water free alcohol are miscible in all proportions over a wide
 range of temperatures
 However, even a small addition of water to this blended fuel causes separation
of the alcohol and gasoline which can be one of most difficult problems for the
blends to be used as motor fuels
Octane Number
 The Octane number of methanol and ethanol are higher than gasoline
 Hence higher compression ratios can be used with alcohols resulting in higher
thermal efficiency
 Alcohols have the ability to raise considerably the octane ratings of gasoline’s
with which they are mixed
 The effect is greatest on the poorer grades of gasoline
 A 25% blend of ethanol and 40 octane gasoline will have a net increase of
almost 30 points!
 This increase is one of the major advantages of "gasohol―
 The ability to increase octane rating means that:
 A lower (therefore cheaper) grade of gasoline can be used to obtain a fuel with a
certain octane rating
 The use of traditional pollution producing anti-knock additives such as
tetraethyl lead can be eliminated

Flammability limits
 Alcohols have extended f flammability limits
 They can be combusted with very leaner mixture
 This results in the reduction of emissions

18
 3/10/2017

High laminar burning velocity

 A faster burning chamber with its r burn time permits operation with more
provides a more repeatable combustion pattern
 This provide lower cycle-by-cycle variability over the entire operating range
 The higher laminar burning velocities of alcohols makes it suitable for the
faster burning chamber
Gasoline 1.058
Methanol 1.061
Ethanol 1.065
Combustion characteristics of alcohols

Combustion characteristics of alcohols

High laminar burning velocity

 The higher f lame speed, giving earlier energy release in the power
stroke, results in a power increase of 11% at normal conditions and up to
 20% at the higher levels of a compression ratio
 The optimum spark setting will depend on the rate of f lame
development and propagation and the length of the f lame travel
path across the combustion chamber
 The use of both ethanol and methanol has shown to decrease the spark
advance required for MBT

19
 3/10/2017

High Pressure development

 Alcohols during combustion produce a great number of product moles per
mole of fuel burnt, therefore, higher pressure are achieved
 This results in the increase in work output and hence the power of the engine
Non Luminous f lame
 Low f lame luminosity of methanol causes safety concern
 The formation of submicroscopic soot particles during the combustion
process provide the luminosity of a carbon containing fuel
 These particles which are heated by the f lame emit light at visible
wavelengths in a process called gray-body radiation
 When methanol burns, it has a cooler f lame and a few soot particles occur
 The tendency to soot increases with molecular weight
 Therefore, methanol produces less soot than ethanol
 The f lame of methanol radiates at infrared wavelengths due to the absence of
gray-body radiation
 A visible luminous f lame during the combustion process is a desirable fuel
characteristic in point of safety view in order to detect of the f lame in the event
of an accidental fire
 Non-luminous f lame can cause danger to people close to the fire
 Some additives can improve the luminosity of methanol

Combustion characteristics of alcohols

20
 3/10/2017

 Lower Adiabatic Flame Temperature

 The adiabatic f lame temperature of alcohols is lower compared with the
gasoline
 In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h l o w e r f lame temperature, about 10% less heat is
lost to the engine coolant
 The lower f lame temperature of alcohols results in much lower NOx
(Nitrogen Oxides) emissions

High laminar burning velocity

Performance of alcohol engines

Effect of Compression Ratio

 Compression ratio (CR) is defined as the maximum cylinder volume divided by
the minimum cylinder volume
 Increasing the compression ratio increases fuel economy by improving thermal
efficiency
 Because of their higher octane ratings, alcohol fuels allow the use of higher
compression ratios
 However, the introduction of high compression ratios has two potential
drawbacks: an increased tendency to knock and higher NOx emissions
 Alcohol blends can help solve the problem of knock at elevated
compression ratios
 Using a variable-compression ratio, single-cylinder engine, the effect of
methanol content on the knock-limited compression ratio (KLCR) is shown
 Compression ratio is increased to higher level from nearly
 7.75 to around 9.75 when the fuel is replaced by methanol
 As the CR is increased, the temperature in the combustion chamber increases,
resulting in increased NOx formation.
 However, methanol has inherently lower f lame temperatures than gasoline, and
therefore tends to produce less NOx

21
 3/10/2017

Effect of Equivalence Ratio

 The equivalence ratio (φ) is a measure of the actual fuel/air mixture (F/A) to the
stoichiometric fuel/air ratio (F/A)
 Stoichiometry is the proportion required between fuel and air for a specific fuel to
allow complete combustion of the chemical reactions to occur
 The excess air ratio is also used and is inverse of the equivalence ratio
 Its purpose is to describe whether the engine is operating on a lean or rich fuel/air mixture
 At lower equivalence ratios or lean burn conditions, engines operate more efficiently
 Because of their oxygenated composition, alcohol fuels and alcohol based ethers allow the
use of leaner equivalence ratios

 Figure shows the relation between equivalence ratio and thermal efficiency for methanol
and gasoline
 The maximum efficiency attainable by a lean mixture of gasoline (27%) can be attained
with rich mixtures of methanol
 Work conducted on a test engine operating on ethanol produced similar results
 Because the efficiency values are measured at the fuel’s knock limited compression
ratio (KLCR), the second figure is included to discriminate between the effect of the fuel
and the effect of KLCR on efficiency

22
 3/10/2017

 Figure shows the relation between equivalence ratio and power for methanol and
gasoline
 The peak power achieved with gasoline was attained by the fuels containing
methanol at much leaner conditions
 Again, because an increase in compression ratio is accompanied by an increase in
power
 The right hand illustration in Figure shows the contribution of the compression
ratio vs. the methanol fuel content

 Figure shows a plot of 198 proof (99%) ethyl alcohol as compared to gasoline
 "Mean effective Pressure" in the graph is a direct indication of the power
produced

23
 3/10/2017

 The increased mean effective pressure (M.E.P.) of alcohol at all mixture

ratios is the most noticeable difference between the two fuels
 This increase in M.E.P. is due mainly to the greater volumetric efficiency that
results from the high latent heat of vaporization of ethanol and the resulting
greater mass density of the fuel/air mixture
 M.E.P. of ethanol increases with mixtures having up to 40% excess fuel,
whereas for gasoline, the maximum pressure is reached at 20% excess fuel
 To achieve maximum power from an alcohol-burning engine there would be a
temptation to burn very rich mixtures.
 The rich mixtures necessary to obtain maximum M.E.P. are accompanied by
incomplete burning of the fuel and the resultant lowering of overall thermal
efficiency
 The lean limits for alcohol and gasoline, therefore, are about the same, and
both fuels develop maximum thermal efficiency at about 15% excess air. With
mixtures leaner than 15% both fuels loose thermal efficiency.
 Figure compares engine
horsepower and air/fuel ratios for
ethanol and gasoline in a six-cylinder
engine

24
 3/10/2017

Emission characteristics of alcohols

 Increasing the percentage of methanol and lowering the equivalence ratio
decreases hydrocarbon and CO emissions but increases the creation of NOx and
formaldehyde
 Lean burn strategies, while providing better thermal efficiency and lower
hydrocarbon and CO emissions, produce higher NOx emissions
 When the fuels are burnt in near equivalence ratio the NOx is found to be
reduced.

Emission characteristics of alcohols

 The moment of ignition has the greatest influence on pollutant emissions
 Both HC and NO, emissions are much higher at 50 degree before TDC than at
 20°, for the range of equivalence ratios from 0.75 to 1.2
 As the spark is advanced, HC emissions increase up to the lean misfire limit
 As the timing is advanced, the combustion temperature is increased and NO,
formation increases
 CO emissions a r e a l m o s t completely independent of ignition timing and are
primarily a function of the fuel/air ratio.

25
 3/10/2017

Methods of using alcohols in ci engines

 Surface ignition, alcohol with cetane improvers, fumigation, dual injection, and
emulsification
 The first two methods require engine operation with alcohol alone as fuel
 The other three techniques need some amount of diesel fuel to start ignition
and/or to control combustion
 The techniques differ in the way alcohol is introduced into the engine
 Alcohol is introduced with the intake air in the fumigation technique
 Dual-fuel injection employs two separate injection systems, one for alcohol and
the other for diesel fuel
 With emulsification, alcohol and diesel fuel are injected into the combustion
chamber as a prepared emulsion.

Generally, diesel engines produce high levels of NOx emissions and

significant smoke and particulate material levels
Smoke may be classified as "Hot Smoke" or "Cold Smoke"

Hot Smoke

26
 3/10/2017
 Hot Smoke results from incomplete combustion during heavy engine loads or
from an over-rich fuel mixture
 Insufficient oxygen prevents the diesel fuel from completely oxidizing
 Besides generating particulate pollution, hot smoke performs no useful work;
it reduces net engine power and lowers vehicle mpg
 Traditional engine adjustments do nothing to hot smoke production
 Fumigation reduces most hot smoke production resulting in reduced pollution
and increased vehicle mpg
Cold Smoke
 Smoke produced during light engine loads is called "cold smoke"
 Traditional engine adjustments (engine timing and advance), leaking injectors,
and poor quality diesel fuel are the contributors to cold smoke
 Cold smoke produces the same emission pollutant particulate matter
 Fumigation does not abate cold smoke
 A fumigation system injects a gaseous or liquid fuel into the intake air stream
of a compression ignited engine
 This fuel burns and becomes a part-contributor to the power producing fuel

27
 3/10/2017
Fumigation
 Fumigation, is a process where a part of the fuel in a diesel engine is supplied by
alcohol through engine air intake
 The remaining diesel fuel is delivered normally by a high-pressure injection
system into the engine cylinder.
 The energy released from alcohol addition reduces the diesel fuel consumption,
and thus fumigation presents a relatively easy method to burn lower proof
alcohol without requiring major engine modifications
 While alcohol and gasoline may be used, gaseous fumigation seems to exhibit the
best overall power yields, performance, and emissions benefits
 LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) or CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is used.
 The fumigation process is divided into major fraction and minor fraction
fumigation
 When more than 50% gaseous injection is used, it is known as major
fraction fumigation
 Minor fraction fumigation is under 50% gaseous injection
Fumigation
 In 1980, researchers at IIT Madras embarked on a collaborative project with the
erstwhile Standard Motor Company and Carburettors Ltd on the vehicular
application of ethanol in diesel vehicle by fumigation and conduct the road trials
 The heart of the technique was a special air-alcohol inductor, designed after
extensive tests on a laboratory dynamometer
 The novelty of this gadget is that under starting and idling conditions, the throttle
of the single jet carburettor is closed and there is no f low of alcohol and the
vehicle works on neat diesel oil
 The throttle in the air arm is fully open when the throttle in the carburettor arm is
fully closed
 Together, they are linked by a flexible coaxial cable to the control lever of the diesel
injection system which, in turn, is linked to the accelerator pedal.
 The relative sizes of the venturi and the carburettor jet, and its position relative to
the venturi, are designed such that the jet does not allow any alcohol till the
predetermined speed compatible to efficiency and smoke number (as determined
by the static dynamometer tests) is reached
 At speeds higher than this, there is automatic controlled f low of pre-
determined alcohol f low conducive to the fuel efficiency and low smoke
number
 This technique permits complete working on diesel fuel in case of disruption in the
supply of alcohol
28
 3/10/2017

Types of fumigation systems

 In-line heated vaporizer
 The vaporizer consists of a heated metal container in the intake air supply line
 Liquid alcohol evaporates when dropped on the container bottom and then mixes
with an intake air stream
 Some alcohol droplets can also be carried by the air stream
 The heating of the container results in a penalty of higher intake air temperature,
reducing volumetric efficiency

Auxiliary mist generator

 A "micro-fog" of alcohol mist (droplet size less than 4 microns) produced by a mist
generator is used to convey alcohol to the air intake manifold

Carburetor
 A conventional carburetor is employed to supply an alcohol/air mixture to the engine
 However, it is necessary to throttle a pair of the air f low to ensure adequate air supply
through the carburetor, and this may present problems
 The carburetor can also be preceded by a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the
exhaust gas to the intake air

Direct Manifold Injection

 Alcohol is injected directly into the intake manifold
 The injection is possible at a number of positions; e.g., upstream of a turbocharger,
downstream of the compressor, before or after the after cooler and immediately
upstream of individual inlet ports

Direct Manifold Injection

 The location and arrangement of spray nozzles strongly inf luence engine
performance
 The orientation of nozzles relative to the intake air stream has noticeable
effects; e.g., injecting alcohol against the air f low increases the relative velocity
many times compared with parallel f low and thus significantly increases the
vaporization, and high intake air velocities may be required to aerodynamically
shatter and vaporize the injected alcohol, therefore presenting more potential
design and performance problems.

29
 3/10/2017

 For turbocharged engines, high-pressure injection equipment can be used to

inject a fine spray of alcohol ahead of the turbocharger, but this is an expensive
arrangement
 A less costly arrangement is to use air from the compressor to introduce liquid
alcohol ahead of the turbocharger
 This method, however, has been reported to damage the compressor wheel of
the turbocharger as a result of droplets impacting this high speed component

Alcohol Injection System Control

 This system is similar to a diesel injection system
 Manifold injection of alcohol, continuous or pulsed, can be controlled by
mechanical or electronic and hydraulic means, and alcohol f low rates must be
controlled for various speeds and loads to optimize diesel fuel replacement
 However, this system may become complex and expensive.
 The hot surface assisted ignition overcomes the low temperature starting
problem in diesel engines
 Introducing extremely low cetane fuels like ethanol, require an extended
application of the hot surface as continuous ignition assistance
 The function of the hot surface is to provide favorable local ignition condition,
followed by f lame propagating through the fuel air mixture to establish a stable
diffusion f lame
 Surface ignition occurs when the temperature of the air-fuel mixture adjacent
to the hot surface exceeds its self-ignition limit
 The minimum surface temperature depends on both physical and chemical
properties of the fuel to be ignited and the operating conditions prevailing
inside the combustion chamber as well
 A slab of insulator material, wound with a few strands of heating wire is fixed
on the combustion chamber with the wire running on the face exposed to the
gases
 The fuel injector is located such that a part of the spray impinges head on this
surface, thus initiating the ignition
 Since the part of fuel burns on the insulator surface and the head losses from
the plate are low, the surface after some minute’s operation reaches a
temperature sufficient to initiate ignition without the aid of external electrical
supply

30
 3/10/2017

 The engine was found to run smoothly on ethanol with performance compared
to diesel operation
Observations made on using alcohol in hot surface ignition engine:
 Ignition characteristics of ethanol affected by fuel amount, injection timing,
position and length of glow plug, glow plug temperature and water content in
ethanol
 Engine speed, fuel injection timing and position of the glow plugs have a strong
effect on the ignition characteristics.
 Combustion difficulties appear as the load decreases, making idling impossible
 Glow plug surface temperature for proper ignition is around 850oC
 Brake thermal efficiency is comparable to that of diesel
 Higher carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions
 Larger reduction in NOx emissions
 Soot free combustion
 Quieter operation
 Longer ignition delay
Dual-fuel mode
 The dual fuel engine is an ideal multi-fuel engine that can operate effectively on
a wide range of fuels with the flexibility of operating it as a conventional diesel
engine
 The main aim is to minimize the use of diesel fuel and maximize its
replacement by alternative fuel throughout the load and speed ranges
 The energy release by combustion comes about partly from the combustion of
either carburated or manifold injected alternative fuel, while the remaining part
of the energy release comes from diesel fuel throughout, through timed
cylinder injection

31
 3/10/2017

Observations made on using alcohol in the dual-fuel mode

 Brake thermal efficiency increases at high loads.
 Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon formation increases.
 No significant effect on carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons with water content and
type of alcohol used.
 NOx and particulate matter reduces.
 NOx emissions decreases with higher water content in alcohol.
 Ignition delay increases at all operating conditions.
 Higher water content of alcohol lengthens delay period.
 Delay period for methanol fuels are longer than those of ethanol fuels.
 Methanol produce lower NOx and particulates than ethanol.
 Maximum displacement of diesel is only 80% of the total fuel energy in conventional
engines and 85% in the LHR engine
Advantages
 Longer engine life
 Potential cleaner operation and
 Long lasting lubricants with fewer filter changes
Disadvantages
 Simultaneous availability of two or more fuels
 Increased complexity in controls
 Additional cost
 Relatively poor light load and idling performance associated with low efficiency
 Inferior emission characteristics.

32
 3/10/2017

IGNITION IMPROVERS
 Ethanol has too low an ignition quality for use in a diesel engine
 The ignition quality of ethanol is increased by adding ignition improvers to
ethanol or by the introduction of ignition improvers that have very low self-
ignition temperatures, into the intake manifold
 Isoamyl nitrate, Ethyl nitrate, Butyl nitrate, Di-Ethylene Glycol Di-Nitrate
(DEGDN), Tri-Ethylene Glycol Di-Nitrate (TEGDN) and Kerobrisol are some
good ignition improvers, but can aggravate NOx emissions
 With the addition of upto 25 % by volume it is possible to increase the cetane
 number of ethanol to about 60
 Di-Methyl ether (DME) and Di-Ethyl ether (DEE) are the ignition improvers that
have very low self-ignition temperatures and wider flammability limits are
introduced in a small quantity into the intake manifold, that mixes with the
combustion air
 This mixture would begin a slow combustion in the compression stroke forming a
pool of species and raising the temperature and pressure inside the engine cylinder
 This would create an ideal environment for igniting the subsequently injected
ethanol

Observations made on using ignition improved alcohol fuels in

diesel engines
 The concentration of DEE required for stable combustion of alcohol varies from
 59% by mass at no load to less than 1% at full load
 Fuel injection system modified to accommodate extra volume of fuel

Compared to normal diesel operation the following observations are made

 Thermal efficiency is higher
 Unburnt hydrocarbon emissions are higher
 Carbon monoxide emissions remain unchanged
 NOx emissions are lower
 No soot formation
 Ignition delay longer
 Aldehyde emissions doubled with ethanol and methanol
 Ethanol exhibits lower aldehydes than methanol

33
 3/10/2017

SPARK IGNITION
 For smooth operation of an engine, combustion must spread smoothly throughout
the combustion chamber
 This is accomplished in a gasoline engine by having a homogeneous mixture in the
cylinder ignited by means of a spark
 The heterogeneous mixture in a diesel engine, when using high cetane fuels,
combustion depends upon simultaneous auto ignition at different locations rather
than a f lame propagation
 When using low cetane fuels like alcohol in a diesel engine with spark ignition, the f
lame propagate from the f lame nucleus fast enough to achieve smooth combustion
and rapidly induce auto ignition in the rest of the mixture
 Thus, for spark assisted diesel, smooth operation depends upon the formation of air
vapour mixture through which the f lame can propagate
The literature survey made on spark plug assisted alcohol
operation shows the following points as made compared to diesel
operation:
 Proper timing of both injection and ignition is vital for ignition of alcohol fuel
 Injection timing to be advanced
 Higher efficiency at full load
 More unburnt hydrocarbons
 Reduced NOx and noise
 Shorter ignition delay
 Lower maximum pressure, temperature and rate of pressure rise

Emulsification
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible
(unmixable or unblendable)
The dispersion produces a continuous and finely dispersed droplets phase
An emulsifier (also known as an "emulgent") is a substance that stabilizes an
emulsion by increasing its kinetic stability
One class of emulsifiers is known as "surface active agents", or surfactants
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension (or interfacial tension)
between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as
detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants
A surfactant added to the mixture reduces the oil and water surface tension, activates
their surfaces and maximizes their superficial contact areas to make emulsion
34
 3/10/2017

Most of the properties of emulsion systems (stability, viscosity etc) depend on the
droplet size and size distribution

Emulsification

 Alcohol-diesel emulsions and blends are compatible with most commercial

diesel engines
 Emulsions are difficult to achieve and tend to be unstable
 Blends—either as micro-emulsions or using co-solvents—are stable and can be
used in engines with relatively no modifications
 Blends of ethanol with diesel fuel are often referred to as ―E-Diesel‖ or
―eDiesel‖.
 Sometimes, ethanol-diesel blends are also called ―oxygenated diesel‖
 Diesel blends containing methyl ester biodiesel or any other additive that
includes oxygen can be also described as oxygenated diesel
 In e-diesel blends, standard diesel fuel is typically blended with up to 15% (by
volume) of ethanol using an additive package that helps maintain blend
stability and other properties—most importantly cetane number and lubricity
 The additive package may comprise from 0.2% to 5.0% of the blend

35
3/10/2017