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Abstract
If there are still disagreements about whether Confucianism is a religion, there
seems to be a consensus that Confucianism does not have a theology. In this article,
I attempt to show that there are at least three models of serious god-talks in the
Confucian tradition: (i) heaven is discussed in the Confucian classics of Book of
Documents, Books of Poetry, and Analects as something transcendent of the world,
similar to Christian God in crucial aspects; (ii) heaven is discussed among contem-
porary Confucians, represented by Xiong Shili, Mou Zongsan, and Tu Weiming,
as something ‘immanently transcendent’, the ultimate reality immanent in the
world to transcend the world; and (iii) heaven is discussed by neo-Confucians,
particularly the Cheng brothers of the Song dynasty, as the wonderful life-giving
activity transcending the world within the world.
I. Introduction
The title of this essay seems somewhat presumptuous: does Confucianism
have a theology? This is indeed a legitimate question, as the title presup-
poses a positive answer to the prior question: is Confucianism a religion?
It is true that, while we are still far from reaching a definitive answer to
this prior question, many scholars do regard Confucianism as a religion.
However, for most people to say that Confucianism is a religion does not
© 2007 The Author
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456 Yong Huang
imply that it must have a theology. For example, Joel Kuppermann claims
that ‘there are important religions in which a theistic element is negligible
or entirely missing (e.g., early Buddhism and Taoism, as well as Confu-
cianism)’ (Kupperman 1971, p. 189).
So, instead of god, scholars have often searched for other religious
dimensions in Confucianism. For example, Mary Evelyn Tucker focuses
on self-transformation. In her view,
[R]eligion in its broadest sense is a means whereby human beings, recognizing
the limitations of phenomenal reality, undertake specific practices to effect self-
transformation within a cosmological context. This is not simply a passing or
superficial enterprise but one that is all encompassing. In these general terms,
Confucianism can certainly be regarded as religious in the sense that the
primary activity of Confucians is the establishing of moral reflection and spiritual
awareness within the changes of cosmological processes. (Tucker 1998, p. 14)
Herbert Fingarette thinks that Confucian religiosity comes primarily from
its emphasis on ritual or ceremony, li . In his view,
[U]nlike the way he appears in the Christian view, man is not holy by virtue
of his absolute possession, within himself and independently of other men, of
a ‘piece’ of the divine and immortal soul. Nor is flowering of the individual
the central theme; instead it is the flowering of humanity in the ceremonial
acts of men. (Fingarette 1972, p. 78)
praised as the author of the ordered and regular aspects of the world’
(Schwartz 1985, p. 125).
This is also an approach taken by Julia Ching. Recognizing that there
is a gradual transition in the Confucian tradition from the earlier theistic
belief to the later philosophical interpretation of the Absolute, Ching
claims that the early Confucianism is clearly theistic. In examining the
theism in early Confucianism, Ching focuses on the similar texts as
Schwartz does. However, with her Christian background, Ching is more
interested in comparing and contrasting the Confucian shangdi and heaven
with Christian God. In Ching’s view, just like Christian God, Confucian
shangdi or heaven is also regarded as the Creator. Acknowledging that
Confucianism does not have a doctrine of creation, Ching claims that ‘the
Confucian Classics clearly enunciate a belief in God as the source and
principle of all things, the giver of life and the protector of the human
race’ (Ching 1977, p. 118). To substantiate her claim, Ching cites a speech
attributed to King Wu, the founder of Zhou dynasty, in the Book of
Documents: ‘Heaven-and-Earth is the Father-and-Mother of the Myriad
creatures’; as well as a verse of the Book of Poetry: ‘Heaven gave birth to
the multitude of the people’ (Ching 1977, p. 118).
More similar to Christian God, Ching claims, is the Confucian shangdi/
heaven regarded as the lord of history. In Confucianism, ‘God has not
created man in order to neglect him. God is always with man – especially
with the good ruler, who is repeatedly told to “have no doubt nor
anxiety, because the Lord-on-High is with you” ’ (Ching 1977, p. 120).
Ching argues that, on the one hand, the rulership itself is derived from
heaven, as the following passage in the Book of Documents attests: ‘Heaven,
to protect the inferior people, made for them rulers, made for them
teachers, that they may be able to assist the Lord-on-High, to secure the
peace of the four quarters [of the Earth]’ (Ching 1977, p. 120); on the
other hand, Heaven gives rulers instructions to rule, as the following verse
the lord said to King Wen in the Book of Poetry makes clear: ‘Be not like
those who reject this and cling to that; Be not like those who are ruled
by their likings and desires’ (Ching 1977, p. 120).
The third similarity is between Confucian Mandate of Heaven and
Christian Will of God. For Ching, it is true that Confucius, in the
Analects, does not invoke heaven, unless ‘in moment of distress and crisis,
such as at the death of his favorite disciple (11:8), as a source and principle
of his own virtue and mission (9:5), and witness to the integrity of his
life and actions (7:22)’ (Ching 1977, p. 121). However, Ching argues that
Mandate of Heaven is an important idea in the Analects, which, where
Confucius is concerned, ‘connotes the meaning of “God’s Will” – the will
of a personal God. Confucius speaks it with reverence. Unless one knows
the Will (ming), he says, one cannot be a gentleman, that is, a person of
high moral character (20.3)’ (Ching 1977, p. 122). It is sometimes claimed
that the Confucian heaven is nothing but the will of the people. In
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460 Yong Huang
In this relation, Hall and Ames argue that tianming, which others trans-
late as the mandate of heaven, for Confucius is not an imperative (ming)
coming from an external and independent source (tian). Rather, ‘ming
constitutes the causal conditions that sponsor the emergence of a particular
human being, or any other phenomenon, and that these conditions are
neither predetermined nor inexorable’ (Hall & Ames 1987, p. 207). 2
In his two recent articles, Kelly James Clark defends the theistic inter-
pretation of the early Confucianism against Ames and Hall’s criticism.
He acknowledges that he makes few pretensions to originality in his
interpretation. Nevertheless, he states that ‘it is worth considering because
of the increasing tendency among sinologists, especially philosophers, to
claim that ancient China had no concept of a personal deity. Hall and
Ames are representative and influential proponents of this view’ (Clark
2005, p. 119). In an article focusing on the theology of Zhou people as
evidenced in The Book of Documents, Clark argues against the naturalistic
interpretation of tian, claiming that ‘Tian functions in precisely the personal
and providential way of Di’ (Clark 2005, p. 124), the supreme personal
god of Shang people. After some detailed comparisons between this
Confucian conception of tian and the Hebrew notion of god, he con-
cludes that there are striking similarities between the two: ‘both traditions
affirmed, or came to affirm, a single, ultimate, and personal source of
both value and power, both beings were deemed worthy of worship’
(Clark 2005, p. 129). In an article focusing on Confucius, Clark argues
that Confucius self-consciously aligns himself with the golden traditions
of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Thus, Confucius believes in an anthro-
pomorphic Heavenly Emperor, tian. Clark cites Analects 2.4 where Con-
fucius claims that he understood heaven’s mandate at the age of 50 and
thereafter he was able to follow his heart’s desire that is to accord with
heaven’s mandate. Clark argues that Confucius’ belief in heaven as some-
thing transcendent is further supported by many other Analects passages,
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462 Yong Huang
such as 7.23, where Confucius claims that heaven itself has endowed him
with virtue; 6.28, where Confucius requests that heaven punish him if he
does anything wrong; 9.6, where Confucius says that if heaven does not
intend that a culture perish, then no one can do anything with it; and
8.18, where Confucius claims that Yao is great because he models himself
on the great heaven. Thus, Clark concludes that Confucius’ heaven is
‘god-like, perhaps in a way that invites comparison to the Western sense’
(Clark 2007).
transcendent. Of course, it is not outside the finite human lives and other
finite beings but lies right within them. It is in this sense that it is also
immanent.
Tu Weiming, a student of Mou, further develops this type of god-talk.
He argues against the interpretation of Confucianism as atheism on the
one hand and as a religion of externally transcendent god on the other.
In his view, ‘the former significantly limits Confucian thought and ignores
its many vital sources, while the latter unilaterally transplants the religiosity
of one particular culture to Confucianism’ (Tu 1999, p. 43). The unique
Confucian religiosity for Tu is its immanent transcendence in contrast to
external transcendence in Christian theology. Tu believes that tian for
Confucius ‘is not an objective and external God’; it is rather the ‘tran-
scendent substance’ immanent in human (as well as natural) world (Tu
2002, p. 343). For this reason, he argues that
[A] person is in this world and yet does not belong to this world. He regards
this secular world as divine only because he realizes the divine value in this
secular world. Here the secular world in which the divinity is manifested is
not a world separate from the divinity, and the divinity manifested in the
secular is not some Ideal externally transcendent of the secular world. (Tu
1999, p. 45)
However, what he means is not that the divinity only partially resides
within; we cannot fully embody heaven, just as we cannot fully touch
the source of water, although the heaven is fully within us, just as the
whole source of water is under our foot. However, even though we
cannot fully embody heaven in our humanity, Tu claims that ‘our inborn
ability to respond to the bidding of Heaven impels us to extend our
human horizon continuously so that the immanent in our nature assumes
a transcendent dimension’ and we can become increasingly human (Tu
1989, p. 97). By emphasizing the ‘faithful dialogical response to the tran-
scendent’ and ‘response to the bidding of Heaven’, Tu attempts to show
that this human self that undertakes cultivation and transformation is at
the same time the transcendent Heaven. Without the bidding of this
transcendent heaven, human self is merely a phenomenal self and will be
unwilling ‘to open up to the dimension of reality,’ which is ‘a fulfillment
of humanity as well as an answer to the Mandate of Heaven’ (Tu 1989,
p. 97).
In this connection, Tu also makes a contrast between Confucianism and
Christianity in terms of their respective religious experiences with the
Ultimate. In Tu’s view, as Christian God is an externally transcendent
being, ‘there is a huge and unsurmountable gap between humans and
God. Therefore one has to rely upon faith’ in order to know God (Tu
1999, p. 57). In contrast, as the transcendent divinity is immanent within
humans, one can obtain knowledge of divinity through one’s inner
experience, tizhi , one of Tu’s favorite ideas. Tu’s notion of tizhi is
fundamentally related to Zhang Zai’s (1020 –1077) knowledge of/as
virtue (de xing zhi zhi ) in contrast to knowledge from hearing
and seeing (wen jian zhi zhi ). While the latter is merely intel-
lectual, the former is also affectional: the one who has knowledge of/as
virtue is committed to act according to such knowledge. Using tizhi to
characterize the knowledge of/as virtue, Tu explains why there is such a
difference between these two types of knowledge:
The Confucian tizhi is not empirical knowledge commonly understood. It is
something known and justified by oneself, similar to the Chan Buddhist idea.
We can obtain such knowledge because we are both affectional and rational
animals. It is the knowledge upon which human religiosity ultimately depends.
(Tu 1999, pp. 57–8)
In other words, the inner experience through which one obtains such
knowledge is not merely experience of mind (rational) but also experience
of heart (affectional).
This conception of immanent transcendence has been under some
severe criticisms, particularly from Roger Ames and David Hall in the
English-speaking world and Feng Yaoming in the Chinese-speaking
world.5 Hall and Ames’s criticism starts from a definition of strict tran-
scendence. In their view,
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Confucian Theology: Three Models 467
and li are ontologically prior to things, they are indeed similar. However,
it is important to not ignore a fundamental difference between the two.
In Plato, while everything must partake in a form, a form does not have
to exist in a thing. This is made most clear in his analogy of image or
reflection. A shadow of a tree cannot exist without a tree of which it is
a shadow; yet a tree can exist without any shadows. However, for the
Chengs, while li is indeed ontologically prior to things, it does not exist
outside things. To use the language in the previous section, we may say
that Plato’s ‘form’ is externally transcendent, while the Chengs’ li is
immanently transcendent. This is better understood through their view
about the relationship between li and vital force (qi ), of which actual
things are made. In Chengs’ view, li or dao cannot be outside qi. Com-
menting on the statement in the Book of Change that ‘the unceasing
transition between yin and yang is dao,’ Cheng Yi claims that ‘dao is
not yin and yang. Dao is the unceasing transition between yin and yang’
(p. 67). Here, although he says that li or dao is not the qi of yin and yang,
he also states that li is the unceasing transition between yin and yang. It is
then clear that li cannot be outside these vital forces. Cheng Yi further
argues that ‘there is no dao if there is no yin and yang. The becoming so of
qi is dao. Yin and yang are qi and so is physical, while dao is metaphysical’
(p. 162). Such an interpretation is confirmed by the Chengs’ view on the
relationship of a related pair of concepts: dao and qi (instrument or a
concrete thing). Regarding the distinction between the two, Cheng Hao
quotes the Book of Change: ‘what is metaphysical or above the form (xing
er shang ) is called dao, while what is physical or below the form
(xing er xia ) is called concrete thing’ (p. 119). Although it is
important, for the Chengs, to make the distinction between dao as the
metaphysical and qi as physical and emphasize the ontological priority of
the former over the latter, they also emphasized their inseparability:
‘outside dao there are no things and outside things there is no dao’ (p. 73).
What is then li that ontologically determines qi and qi and yet
is temporally and spatially inseparable from them? Li in the Cheng brothers
is primarily not some thing, but the activity of things. According to Xu
Heng’s Explanation of Script and Elucidation of Characters (Shuo wen jie
zi ), li originally is a verb, meaning to work on jade. As jade is
a gemstone with veins and clouds of varying colors, a carver has to be
adept at following the veining. Chen Rongjie (Wing-tsit Chan),
noticing this original meaning, argues that the meaning of li has since
undergone through a transition from the physical (xing er xia) meaning of
‘governing’ in ancient classics to its metaphysical meaning of ‘pattern’ in
Neo-Confucianism, a transition from its use as a verb to its use as a noun
(Chen 1991, p. 57). However, the transition of its use from a verb to a
noun, if there is indeed such a transition, really indicates the reification
of li as some thing, as it is originally not a thing but an activity. From the
Heideggerian point of view, nothing reified can be regarded as metaphysical
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Confucian Theology: Three Models 471
in its true sense. Even god conceived as the absolute being, however
different it is from any other beings, is still some thing, and in this sense
is still xing er xia (below the form), whose ontological or metaphysical
being still needs to be explained. It is my contention that the unique
contribution of the Cheng brothers is precisely to de-reify the Confucian
idea of the ultimate reality by their unique interpretation of the term li.
In other words, li used in the Cheng brothers is still a verb meaning some
activity, not a noun referring to some thing. For example, illustrating what
he means by ‘nowhere between heaven and earth is there no dao’ (p. 73),
Cheng points out that
[I]n the relation of father and son, to be father and son lies in affection; in the
relation of king and minister, to be king and minister lies in seriousness
(reverence). From these to being husband and wife, being elder and younger,
being friends, there is no activity that is not dao. That is why we cannot be
separated from dao even for a second. (Chen 1991, pp. 73–4)
It is in this sense that in his commentary on the Book of Change, Cheng
Yi complains that ‘Confucians in the past have all seen the heart/mind of
the heaven and earth as something quiet. They did not know that it is the
origin of activity that is the heart/mind of heaven and earth’ (p. 819).
Yet what exactly do the Chengs mean by activity? It is the life-giving
activity (sheng ). Cheng Hao, for example, claims that ‘the reason we
say that ten thousand things form one body is that they all have this li. It
all comes from this fact. “The unceasing life-giving activity is called
change.” It is right in this life-giving activity that li is complete’ (p. 33).
His brother Cheng Yi concurs: ‘li as the life-giving activity is natural and
ceaseless’ (p. 167). The Chengs believe that the existence of ten thousand
things is due to li precisely because the life-giving activity of ten thousand
things is ontologically prior to the ten thousand things that have the
life-giving activity. Without the life-giving activity, the ten thousand
things will be nothing, as they would lack the act of ‘to be’. Of course,
for the Chengs the life-giving activity is always the life-giving activity of
ten thousand things, and the ten thousand things are always things that
have the life-giving activity. As we have seen, the Chengs idenitified li
with many other things that have traditionally been regarded as the
ultimate reality of the world. In their view, this is also because all these
terms have the same meaning of the life-giving activity. Regarding dao
and tian, Cheng Hao, commenting on the statement from the Book of
Change that ‘the unceasing life-giving activity is called change,’ makes it
clear that ‘this [the unceasing life-giving activity] is how tian can be dao.
Tian is dao only because it is the life-giving activity’ (p. 29). With this,
his brother Cheng Yi completely agrees: ‘dao is the natural life-giving
activity of ten thousand things. A thing’s coming into being in the spring
and its growing in the summer are both dao as the life-giving activity. . . .
Dao is the unceasing natural life-giving activity’ (p. 149). Regarding the
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472 Yong Huang
heart/mind, both of humans and of heaven and earth, they claim that ‘the
heart/mind is nothing but the dao of the life-giving activity. Because of
this heart/mind, one’s body is born. The heart/mind of commiseration
is the human Dao as the life-giving activity’ (p. 274); and ‘the heart/
mind resembles the seed of grain. Its li as life-giving activity is ren’
(p. 184). Cheng Hao explains xing (human nature) also in terms of
life-giving activity, particularly in his interpretation of Gaozi’s
sheng zhi wei xing in the Mencius. This phrase of four Chinese
characters originally means ‘what one is born with is the human nature.’
However, Cheng Hao, relating it to the statement from the Book of Change
that ‘the greatest virtue of heaven and earth is the life-giving activity,’
explains: ‘the most spectacular aspect of things is their atmosphere of
life-giving activity’ (p. 120). Therefore, this phrase, to Cheng Hao, no
longer means ‘what one is born with is human nature’ but ‘one’s life-giving
activity (sheng) is the human nature.’
My claim is that Chengs’ doctrine of li can be properly regarded as a
Neo-Confucian theology. To make this claim, it is important to examine
the role of another important idea of the Chengs’: shen , which can be
literally translated as divinity or god. It is true that sometimes shen,
particularly in Cheng Yi, means spirit and so often goes together with
ghost as in the phrase guishen . Yet, as we have seen earlier, the
Chengs do also use shen in a different sense to refer to the same ultimate
reality referred to by such terms as heaven, li, dao, and nature. For example,
talking about heaven, Cheng Hao claims that ‘its reality (ti ) is change,
its li is dao, and its appearance is shen . . .’ (p. 4). Cheng Yi relates shen
to human nature and argues that ‘shen and human nature are always
together’ (p. 64). In this sense, shen is obviously not the physical vital force
but is the metaphysical reality: the life-giving activity. In their view, ‘the
reason that it is cold in the winter and it is hot in the summer is yin and
yang; the reason of change and movement is shen. So shen does not have
a location and change does not have a body’ (p. 121). Here shen is clearly
distinguished from qi. Shen does not have a location, as change does not
have a body, because both refer to the life-giving activity. While things
that act have locations and bodies, the act of things does not.
However, if shen is indeed a metaphysical and ontological idea, in what
sense can we regard it as theological? The reason that the Chengs use
‘shen’ to refer to the Confucian ultimate reality is to illustrate the two
related aspects of the life-giving activity: the mysterious wonderfulness
(miao) and the unpredictability or incomprehensibility. For example,
Cheng Hao states that ‘tian is nothing but li. We call it shen to refer to the
wonderful mystery of li in ten thousand things, just as we call it lord (di )
to emphasize its being the ruler of events’ (p. 132); and ‘the mysterious
wonderfulness of transformation is what is meant by shen’ (p. 121). With
this Cheng Yi agrees: ‘when the qi is complete, the li is straight; and when
the li is straight, there will be impartiality, and when the impartiality is
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Confucian Theology: Three Models 473
V. Concluding Remarks
In the above, I have presented three models of theological interpretation
of Confucian tradition, particular its conception of heaven. In presenting
these three models, no claim is made as to whether such theological
interpretations are any more authentically Confucian than other interpre-
tations of the Confucian tradition, religious or non-religious. It does
show, I believe, that there is at least some legitimacy in talking about
‘Confucian theology’. Also, in presenting these three models, no claim is
made as to which of the three is the best candidate for Confucian
theology. Perhaps Confucian theology itself is pluralistic. From the
perspective of comparative theology, however, the first model, which
emphasizes the Confucian heaven as something more or less similar to the
Judea-Christian God: both personal and (externally) transcendent, has less
to contribute and may suffer the same problem that Kaufman claims the
traditional Christian theology suffers.7 In contrast, the second and third
models can provide a viable alternative to this traditional thinking by
reconciling the transcendental and the immanent dimensions of the
ultimate reality, the heaven. As we have seen, the second model regards
Confucian heaven as something that is immanent in the world as its
ultimate reality and yet has the ability to transcend the world, thus
forming a contrast with Christian God. The third model is similar to the
second one in the sense that it also regards the Confucian heaven as both
immanent in and transcendent of the world, but it becomes different as
it regards the Confucian heaven, not as a reality that has the transcending
activity, but as the activity, the life-giving activity, the creativity itself. In
other words, in the second model, the transcendent heaven is regarded as
the nature or essence of the ten thousand things, including, human
beings; in this sense, we can say that it is essentialist. In the second model,
however, the transcendent heaven is seen as the life-giving activity of the
ten thousand things, including human beings; in this sense, it is existentialist.9
Short Biography
Yong Huang is a Professor of Philosophy at Kutztown University of
Pennsylvania. He is editor of Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy and
serves as Co-chair of Columbia University Seminar on Neo-Confucian
Studies. His research interests include philosophy of religion, philosophical
and religious ethics, and Chinese and comparative philosophy. As author
of Religious Goodness and Political Rightness: Beyond the Liberal and Commu-
nitarian Debate in the Harvard Theological Studies series (2001), he has
also published in Philosophy Today, Philosophy and Social Criticism, Religious
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Journal Compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
476 Yong Huang
Notes
*Correspondence address: Dr Yong Huang, Department of Philosophy, Kutztown University,
Kutztown, PA 19530, USA. Email: yhuang@kutztown.edu.
1
As Benjamin Schwartz points out, ‘these texts are not simply pre-Confucian; they might in
fact be called proto-Confucian. While they may have not been selected and edited by Confucius
himself, as tradition would have it, they do seem to represent a vision of the world which may
have been characteristic of the scribal circles from which Confucius himself emerged’ (Schwartz
1975, p. 57; see also Schwartz 1985, p. 41).
2
In rejecting this ‘familiar Heaven (tian) centered “Christianized” interpretation of classical
Confucianism’, however, Ames also challenges the interpretation of it as merely a secular
humanism. In Ames’ view, ‘classical Confucianism is at once atheistic and profoundly religious’
(Ames 2003, p. 165). By ‘religious’, of course, Ames does not mean Schleiermacher’s feeling of
absolute dependence. Rather it refers to ‘a person’s attainment of a focused appreciation of the
complex meaning and value of the total field of existing things through a reflexive awakening
to the awesomeness of one’s own participatory role as co-creator’ (Ames 2003, p. 177), or to
‘the sense of the connection of man, in the way of both dependence and support, with the
enveloping world that the imagination feels is a universe’ (Ames 2007).
3
Philip H. Huang makes a good point in this connection: Confucius’ ‘true teaching is that
man is both rational and magical, natural and supernatural, empirical and superempirical,
humanistic and divine, secular and sacred, this-worldly and other-worldly, utilitarian and inten-
tional’ (Huang 1989, p. 56).
4
Commenting on the Mencian passage on heart/mind, human nature, and heaven discussed
above, Tu makes a similar claim: ‘existentially we cannot fully realize our heart-and-mind. Thus,
in practical terms, it is unlikely that we will ever know our nature in itself and, by inference,
it is unlikely that we will ever know Heaven in its entirety. But, in theory and to a certain
extent in practice, we can be attuned to the Way of Heaven; specifically a sympathetic resonance
with the cosmic process is realizable through our persistent self-cultivation’ (Tu 2007).
5
Some other scholars argue that this whole issue of transcendence and immanence is misguided
in the exploration of Confucianism as a religious tradition (Tucker 1998, p. 11; Taylor 1998, p. 89).
6
Zheng Jiadong , through a careful examination of Mou’s translation and exposition
of Kant’s philosophy, reaches the same conclusion that the transcendent in Mou’s ‘immanent
transcendence’ really corresponds to ‘transcendental’ in Kant’s sense (see Zheng 2001).
7
Moreover, Kaufman believes that such a reified conception of god is politically dangerous, as
it ‘can easily become, for example, a notion of an essentially authoritarian tyrant, one who is
arbitrary and unjust in the exercise of omnipotence’ (Kaufman 1993, p. 270); it is metaphysically
unintelligible, as ‘the world-picture generated in connection with it is fundamentally dualistic
and is thus difficult to reconcile with major strands of contemporary thinking’ (Kaufman 1993,
p. 271); and it is theologically naïve, as ‘this model presupposes that selfhood or agency can be
conceived as freestanding, as metaphysically self-subsistent and self-explanatory; but everything
we know today about persons suggests that they could neither come into being, nor continue
to exist, independently of long and complex cosmic, biological, and historical processes’
(Kaufman 1993, p. 271).
8
Robert Neville, an influential Christian theologian who is seasoned with the Confucian
tradition, also calls Christians to abandon the view that ‘God is a being apart from the world’;
instead of creator, Christian God should be understood as the act of creativity. In his view, ‘the
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Confucian Theology: Three Models 477
act depends on nothing and the world depends on the act. The world has no separate being
from the act, although the ontologically creative act is not itself another thing within the world.
Its nature is part of the created world, but its creativity is not. In the West, the ontological
creative act is called God’ (Neville 2007).
9
While we can make such a clear distinction between these two models, it is sometimes
difficult to determine whether a particular Confucian theologian advocates this or that model.
For example, in this essay, we discuss Tu Weiming’s theology in the second model. However,
in a recent article, he sometimes seems to advocate a Confucian theology of the third model,
as he de-reifies heaven and regards it as creativity itself: ‘Heaven as a life-generating creativity
may have been present all along’; ‘Heaven is creativity in itself and human beings learn to be
creative through self-effort’; and ‘there is an explicit way that the Confucians understand
Heaven as creativity in itself ’ (Tu 2007). Still, even in the same article, Tu sometimes also speaks
in a way that reifies heaven as some thing (entity) that is creative: ‘there is nothing in the world
that is not a demonstration of Heaven’s creativity’; ‘Heaven emerged as the result of billions of
years’; Heaven ‘is the generative force that has created all modalities of being’; and there is an
‘interplay between Heaven’s creativity as expressed in the cosmological process and humans’
creativity as embodied in Heaven’s life-generating transformation’ (Tu 2007).
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