Gramatica limbii engleze în tabele şi scheme

INTRODUCTION

Gramatica limbii engleze în tabele şi scheme este o lucrare ce cuprinde morfologia şi sintaxa. Ea este
elaborată pentru studentii al caror scop este de a studia limba engleză. Aceestă carte are drept obiective de
bază familiarizarea şi asimilarea de către studenţi a structurilor gramaticale de bază ale limbii engleze,
folosirea părţilor de vorbire precum şi evitarea dificultăţilor întîmpinate de către studenţi în utilizarea acestor
părţi de vorbire şi a categoriilor lor gramaticale. Lucrarea dată cuprinde de asemenea, sistemul timpurilor
verbale, corespondenţa timpurilor, vorbirea directă şi indirectă îmbinarea cuvintelor în propoziţie şi a
propoziţiilor în frază.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I: MORPHOLOGY

Grammatical structure of the English language.

General classification of the parts of speech.

THE NOUN
Definition
Morphological and syntactical characteristics
Morphological composition
Classification
The category of number
The category of case
The category of gender

THE ARTICLE
Use of articles with common nouns
Use of articles with proper nouns
Special difficulties in the use of articles
Absence of articles

THE ADJECTIVE
Definition
Morphological and syntactical characteristics
Morphological composition
Classification

THE ADVERB
Definition
Classification
Degrees of comparison

THE PRONOUN
Definition
Classification

THE NUMERAL
Definition
Classification

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OS STATE

THE VERB
Definition
Grammatical categories
Types of verbs
Tenses in the Active Voice
The Present Indefinite
The Present Continuous
The Past Simple
The Past Continuous
The Present Perfect
The Present Perfect Continuous
The Past Perfect
The Past Perfect Continuous
The Future Indefinite
Going to – construction
The Future Continuous
The Future Perfect Simple
The Future Perfect Continuous
The Future – In – The – Past Simple
The Future – In – The – Past Continuous
The Future Perfect– In – The – Past
The Future Perfect Continuous – In – The – Past
Tenses in the Passive Voice
The formation of the Passive Voice
The use of tenses in the Passive Voice
The use of the Passive Voice
Modal Verbs
Moods
The Imperative Mood
The Subjunctive Mood
The Conditional Mood

THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)

The Infinitive
The Gerund
The Participle

THE MODAL WORDS

THE INTERJECTION
Definition
Classification

THE PREPOSITION
Definition
Classification

THE CONJUNCTION
Definition
Classification

THE PARTICLE
Definition
Classification

PART II: SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Definition
Classification
Parts of the Sentence
The Main Parts of the Sentence
The Subject
The Predicate
Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence
The Object
The Attribute
The Adverbial Modifier.
Detached Parts of the Sentence
The independent Elements of the Sentence
Sentences with Homogeneous Parts

WORD ORDER
General remarks
Inverted order of words
Position of the object
Position of the attribute
Position of the adverbial modifiers

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

The Compound Sentence
General Notion
Types of Coordination
The Complex Sentence
General Notion.
Types of clauses.

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

THE INDIRECT SPEECH

EXERCISES

MORPHOLOGY
THE NOUN
THE ARTICLE
THE ADJECTIVE
THE ADVERB
THE PRONOUN
THE NUMERAL
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OS STATE
THE VERB
Tenses in the Active Voice
Tenses in the Passive Voice
Modal Verbs
Moods
THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)
THE MODAL WORDS
THE INTERJECTION
THE PREPOSITION
THE CONJUNCTION
THE PARTICLE

SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

The Main Parts of the Sentence
The Subject
The Predicate
Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence
The Object
The Attribute
The Adverbial Modifier.
Detached Parts of the Sentence
The independent Elements of the Sentence
Sentences with Homogeneous Parts

WORD ORDER

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

The Compound Sentence
The Complex Sentence

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

THE INDIRECT SPEECH

 GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

§ 1.

Give a short description of types of languages

Flexional Languages

synthetic (inflections) analytical (words and word order)

§ 2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb-form consists of one or more form
words, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of
person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e. g.
He has come, I am reading.

The analytical forms are: Examples

1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms
 the Continuous form: I am writing
 the Perfect form: I have written
 the Perfect Continuous form: I have been writing
 the Future Indefinite: I shall write
 all the other forms of the Future; also the Does he sing?
interrogative and the negative forms of the He doesn’t sing
Present and Past Indefinite:
2. The Passive Voice: I was invited to the theatre.
3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: I should go there if I had time.

§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the
English language there are:

The synthetic forms in English are: Examples

1. Endings:
 -s in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: speaks
 -s in the plural of nouns: tables
 -s in the genitive case: my brother's book
 -ed in the Past Indefinite of regular verbs: smoked
2. Inner flexions: man - men; speak - spoke
3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc.

§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires
extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
A deviation from the general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.

§ 5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word
substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.

 One replaces class nouns in the singular and in Thanks for the compliment, if it is one.
 the plural: The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happy ones
he had, and they were not all happy.
He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in front
 That generally substitutes nouns, especially of him, and for the first time realized that his walk was
abstract nouns and nouns of material followed different from that of other men.
by an attribute, mostly introduced by the Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go for
preposition of: a ride in her own car or that of Castleman.
 Do substitutes verbs: You know your law better than I do.
Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness; I only
do so because I care.

PART I: MORPHOLOGY
Give a short definition of Morphology
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Notional - perform certain functions in the sentence: Structural - either express relations between words
the functions of subject, predicate, attribute, object, or sentences, or emphasize the meaning of words or
or adverbial modifier. The notional parts of speech sentences. They never perform any independent
are: the noun; the adjective; the pronoun; the function in the sentence. Here belong: the
numeral; the verb; the adverb; the words of the preposition; the conjunction; the particle; the
category of state; the modal words; the interjection. article.
Characteristics

THE NOUN
The noun is a word expressing substance.

morphological syntactical
case
subject
Number
number object
gender
predicative
attribute
Predicative
adverb. modif.

Morphological composition of nouns

 Nouns

simple derivative compound

Types of nouns Characteristics Examples

Simple are nouns which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. chair, table, room, map, fish,
They are indecomposable: work.
Derivative are nouns which have derivative elements (prefixes reader, blackness, childhood,
or suffixes or both) misconduct, inexperience.
Compound are nouns built from two or more stems.
The main types of compound nouns are as follows:
(a) noun-stem + noun-stem: snowball;

(b) adjective-stem + noun-stem: blackbird, bluebell;

(c) verb-stem + noun-stem: pickpocket;

the stem of a gerund or of a participle may be the dining- room, reading-hall,

first component of a compound noun: dancing-girl.

Classification of nouns

Types of nouns Explanation Example

A) Proper They are individual names given to

separate persons or things. They are used
to designate:
 personal names: Deborah, Smith

 titles: Mr. Jackson, Lord Byron, Dr.

Johnson

 calendar items: Sunday, January, Christmas

 geographical names: Britain, Europe, The Pacific

Ocean, The Black Sea, the
Caucasus
 titles of books, newspapers, Gone with the Wind, The
institutions: Guardian, The United Nations
Organization
 names of nationalities and English, Greek, Spanish
languages:
Mayflower, the Regent Hotel
 names of ships, hotels, clubs etc.
B) Common are names that can be applied to any man, tree, curiosity
individual of a class of persons or things.

 class nouns denote persons or things belonging to a a part of the town

class. They are countable and are
generally used with an article.
 collective
denote a number or collection of similar
individuals or things regarded as a
singular unit. They denote:
 nouns used only in the singular: machinery, foliage

 nouns that are singular in form police, poultry, cattle, people

though plural in meaning:

 nouns that may be both singular family, crowd, fleet

and plural:
 nouns of
material denote material and are uncountable. iron, gold, paper, tea, water

 abstract denote some quality, state, action or, idea: kindness, sadness, fight
They are usually uncountable; though
some of them may be countable: idea, hour

 concrete Existing in a form that can be touched, girl, apple, pen

seen, etc.
 countable nouns that can be counted
nouns denoting things that cannot be computer, table
 uncountable
counted: freedom, goodness

THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Number

singular plural

Rules for forming the plural of English nouns: Examples

1. By adding the ending -s (-es) to the singular; -s is
pronounced in different ways:
[iz] after the sounds [s] ; [∫], [d ], [t∫ ], [ ], [z] noses, bushes; villages; benches;
horses, bridges
[z] after vowels and the sounds [b], [d], [g], [l], [m], [n], bees, pubs, beds, mornings, cans doves,
[ ŋ], [ð], [v]

[s] after the sounds: [k], [ƒ], [p], [t], [ө] caps, books, hats, cliffs, months

2. If the noun ends in -s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch, or -tch, the plural is bus- buses glass- glasses
formed by adding -es to the singular: box – boxes brush - brushes
 bench – benches match - matches

3. If the noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant, y is changed fly – flies army- armies
into i before –es:
Note: If the final -y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is day – days toy - toys
formed by simply adding -s to the singular: monkey - monkeys

4. If the noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, the plural is hero – heroes potato - potatoes
generally formed by adding -es. echo – echoes

Only a few nouns ending in –o preceded by a consonant piano – pianos photo - photos
form the plural in -s

All nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel form the plural cuckoo – cuckoos
in -s and not in -es. portfolio - portfolios

There are some nouns ending in –o that may have both –s motto –motos/-es
and –es for the plural: tobacco – tobaccos/-es

5. a) Most nouns ending in –f or –ef get –s in the plural: belief – beliefs cliff –cliffs
grief – griefs roof – roofs

b) There are a few nouns that change –f or –fe into –ves half – halves knife – knives
when turned into the plural: leaf – leaves life –lives
loaf –loaves shelf – shelves
thief – thieves wife –wives

NB. There are some nouns ending in -f which have two scarf- scarfs/ scarves
forms in the plural: wharf – wharfs/ wharves

6. Nouns ending in –th get –s in the plural. The ending –th is a) bath – baths
pronounced: a) [ð] b) [ө] b) death - deaths
a) Nouns ending in -th [ө] after long vowels change it into
[ð] in pronunciation (which does not affect their spelling). bath [ba:ө]- baths [ba:ðz]
path [pa:ө]- paths [pa:ðz]
oath [ouө] - oaths [ouðz]
b) [ ] is always retained after consonants (including r) and
short vowels: month - months [m n s]
myth - myths [mi s]
birth - births [b : s]
health - healths [hel s]
NB. There are some nouns whose plural form –ths may be
pronounced either [ө] or [ð]. cloths – clothes truth - truths
sheath – sheaths wreath – wreaths

7. The noun house has the plural houses [hauziz ]

8. There are certain irregular nouns, i.e. they do not need –s at child – children man – men
the end to form the plural form: mouse - mice foot -feet
woman – women tooth - teeth
goose – geese louse - lice
ox – oxen
9. A number of nouns get zero plural i.e. have the same form cod; sheep; deer; Chinese; Japanese
in both singular and plural:
10. In compound nouns the plural is formed in different ways: armchair-armchairs
a) adding –s to one of the parts of speech forget-me-not – forget-me-nots
brother-in-law – brothers-in-law
b) or changing the root vowel man - servant – men-servants

11. Some words borrowed from Latin or Greek keep their Latin phenomenon - phenomena
or Greek plural forms: datum – data crisis - crises
stimulus - stimuli formula - formulae
index - indices terminus - termini

Some of these nouns have acquired English plural forms: formulas, indexes, terminuses, etc.

12. A few nouns are used only in the singular being called advice, barley, bread, business, butter,
Singularia Tantum nouns. cotton, furniture, income, information,
knowledge, luggage, nylon, etc.

None of these nouns can be preceded by the indefinite a {piece/slice} of bacon/cake

article a/an and, as some of them have a collective meaning,
when we want to refer to the singular, we must use the
words: piece, item, bar, bag, etc.:
13. A number of nouns (Pluralia Tantum) have only a plural
form:
a {piece/loaf} of bread
a {piece/word} of advice
a {piece/item} of information/news
shorts, trousers, measles, mumps,
hysterics, glasses, scissors, billiards,
cards, economics, informatics, politics,
doings, funds (fonduri), remains
(resturi), savings (economii), etc

THE CATEGORY OF CASE

- the grammatical category which shows the relations of the noun to the other words in the sentence.

Case

Nominative Genitive

Case Explanations Examples

Nominative Answers the questions: who? and what? The teacher asks us a lot of
questions.
A strong wind is blowing.

Genitive It answers the questions: whose? (al cui, a cui, ai cui, ale
cui?) which? what? (care ?)
It is formed by adding ‘, ‘s, or of:
‘ is used with plural forms ending in –s The girls’ coats
NB.1. Nouns forming their plural by changing the root Men’s hats
vowel take ‘s in the plural:
 ‘s is usually used with:
 Proper names: Deborah’s town

 Names of persons: My friend’s bag

 When the possessor is represented by several words, The boy and the girl’s toys. (they
the possessive ending is added after the last one only: have the same toys)

 If each possessor is followed by ‘s, this means that The boy’s and the girl’s toys (the
the possessed objects differ: boy has some toys and the girl
has others)

 When we have groups of words and composed titles, My mother-in law’s words,
the sign of the ‘s is added to the last word. In Henry VIII’s reign

 Collective nouns: The government’s decisions –

deciziile guvernului.
 Abstract nouns:
Liberty’s defense
 Names of countries, towns:
Romanian’s towns, London’s
parks.
 Names of celestial bodies: The sun’s rays
 Names of vessels, boats, ships: Our ship’s crew.
 Names of chronological divisions or nouns denoting (today, week, month, etc. ):
measurements, distance, weight, etc. You must come to tomorrow’s
meeting.
 With some of the indefinite pronouns: another, either, another’s claim,
neither, one, etc. and the composed forms of: some, somebody’s advice, either’s
any, no, every, etc. offer, anyone’s opinion

 With some expressions: for God’s sake

NB. 2. Nouns ending in -s form the genitive case in two Dickens' novels, Dickens's
ways: The pronunciation of the genitive case -ending novels. [dikinsiz]
follows the same rules as the pronunciation of the plural
ending.
of is used:
 when the possessor is a small animal, insect, etc.: The wings of the fly.

 when the possessed object is preceded by a Those toys of the children

demonstrative adjective or by the indefinite article: Tom is a cousin of my friend.

 in some idiomatic expressions: Of a size, in order of, in sight of

 sometimes we avoid of and form compound words: A writer of prose – a prose-

writer = un scriitor de proza
The cover of the book – the book
cover = coperta cartii

 with common nouns The leg of the table

 THE CATEGORY OF GENDER

It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English for it is hardly ever
expressed by means of grammatical forms. There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in Modern
English, the suffix -ess, expressing gender. It is not widely used.
heir - heir-ess poet - poet-ess

Gender

masculine feminine neuter common

using different words using a word that indicates sex

adding suffixes

Feminine gender

a) adding suffixes to actor – actress; waiter – waitress; master – mistress;

the masculine form author – authoress; duke – duchess; hero – heroine;
fiancé - fiancée; widow-widower; bride-bridegroom
comedian-comedienne; director-directrix (directress);

b) using different boy – girl; father – mother; sister- brother; husband - wife;
words uncle – aunt; nephew – niece; wizard - witch;
bachelor - maid/spinster; drake – duck; gander-
goose
c) using a word that a) nouns denoting persons
indicates the sex. boy fried-girl friend male patient - female patient
brother-in-law - sister-in-law man friend – woman friend

b) nouns denoting animals

he-bird – she-bird male camel – female camel
male/tom cat – female/tabby cat cock-pheasant – hen-pheasant
he/billy-goat – she /nanny- goat buck-rabbit – doe-rabbit
The use of compounds
in which the second grandfather - grandmother landlord - landlady
element specifies chairman – chairwoman half brother – half sister
gender:
The nouns that an Englishman – an Englishwoman a Dutchman – a Dutchwoman
indicate nationality or
origin. (man - the a Frenchman – a Frenchwoman a Scotsman – a Scotswoman
masculine gender;
woman – the feminine).

All the other nouns that

indicate a person’s British American Chinese German
nationality or origin Greek Italian etc.
 have one form for the
both genders:

Sometimes for clarity a Romanian woman (girl) a Japanese woman

the word woman or girl a Spanish woman etc.
is used:
Common gender

denotes either sex and adult animal cook doctor

the same word maybe neighbour professor relative servant etc.
used both of male and
female:
Neuter gender

denotes things, ideas or book house thought, etc.

beings whose sex are
not interested in:

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of noun.
2. Give the definition of proper and common nouns.
B. Application
1. Give examples of proper, common, abstract, concrete, countable, and uncountable nouns.

C. Integration
1. Compare the category of gender in English and Romanian.

THE ARTICLE

Article

definite: the indefinite: a, an

USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS

I. The use of the definite article with common nouns.

1. When the noun has already been mentioned or it is How did you like the play?
well known.
2. When the speaker uses an attribute pointing out a This is the house that Jack built.
particular object. The wedding looked dismal. The bride was
too old and the bridegroom was too young.

The English use the definite article much oftener than Let me have the book.
the demonstrative pronouns this or that.

3. Before a noun followed by a prepositional phrase. The capital of France.

The house with large windows.

4. Before nouns which are considered unique: the The sun was getting warmer.
earth, the Bible, the sky, the sun.

NB. The indefinite article can be used when we mean a A pearl-white moon smiles through the
certain aspect in which the sun, moon and sky appear to green trees.
us, a certain state of the sun, the moon, the sky. In this
case an attribute is used.

5. Before a singular noun used as a representative of a The elephant is a big animal.

class: But: Elephants are big animals.

NB. a) With the noun man no article is used. Silas felt that his trust in man had been
cruelly destroyed.
b) The noun woman is used with the definite article or He had always been interested in that
occasionally without an article. mysterious being – the woman.
Woman is man's helpmate.

6. Before superlatives and ordinal numbers: the best, the second etc.

7. With nouns in word – groups the first component of Most of the gentlemen looked both angry
which is: some, many, none, most and the second a and uncomfortable.
noun wit the preposition of:

8. With nouns modified by the pronoun same and the To all invitations he replied with the same
adjectives wrong, right, very. courteous and positive refusal.
I do wish we had not opened the door of
the wrong room.

9. With substantivized adjectives and participles. Only the simple and the humble were there.

10. With the names of materials when they are narrowed But suddenly he heard steps on the snow.
in their meaning.
NB. With nouns of material used in a general sense, Honey is wholesome.
when a certain material as such is meant, no article is
used.
11. With abstract nouns that are modified by a He was the courage of his father, the spirit
particularizing attribute or the situation makes the of his brothers, the hope of his children.
idea definite.
12. Before a common noun followed by a proper noun The novelist Hemingway.
which identifies it:
But nouns expressing professions usually follow the Brown, the lawyer – Brown, avocatul
proper names and are preceded by the:
NB. If a noun is modified by a proper noun in the I met Robert’s father.
genitive case no article is used.

13. Before names of musical instruments: To play the piano/violin

14. With the words: the police, the fire-brigade, the I must go to the bank to change some
army, the bank, the post office. money and then I am going to the post.
John isn’t very well. He has gone to the
15. Also with the words: the doctor, the dentist:

16. We say the cinema/ the theatre:
NB: when we say the cinema/ the theatre we do not We went to the cinema last night.
necessarily mean one particular cinema or theatre.
 We usually say the radio;
But we usually say television (without the).
17. In a number of phrases:
doctor. (his doctor)
We often listened to the radio.
We often watch television.
But: Can you turn off the television,
please?
By the way, on the one hand, in the
country, at the seaside, in the evening, etc.

II. The use of the indefinite article with common nouns.

1. When the speaker presents the object expressed by Close beside them grew a rose-bush
the noun as belonging to a certain class. covered with scarlet hips.

2. With a predicative noun. Miss Sharp's father was an artist.

NB. After the conjunction as a predicative noun is often She was engaged as governess.
used without an article.
3. When the noun is used in a general sense. The A drowning man catches at a straw.
article has the meaning of every.
4. There are cases when the indefinite article preserves A stitch in time saves nine.
its old original meaning of 'one'.

5. Abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite In her eyes there was an eagerness, which
article. In this case the abstract noun denotes a could hardly be seen without delight.
certain kind of a quality, feeling, state, etc.

6. With the nouns period, population, distance, height, Simpson was out of the city for a period of
salary etc. followed by of + numeral + noun. ten days.

7. When we want to classify people in terms of their I am a doctor. – Eu sunt doctor.

occupation:
NB.1 If the noun denotes a title or office that can only Jack was elected captain of the team. – a
be held by one person at a time the indefinite article is fost ales capitan.
no longer used:
NB.2 The indefinite article is not used after the verb to She used to be a dancer, but then she
turn when it means to become. turned singer.

8. In expression of measurements, when we refer to 90p a kilo/ 80 km an hour/ twice a week.

one unit of measurement in terms of another.
9. In exclamatory sentences beginning with what, such What a day!
or so.
NB. The indefinite article precedes the adjective when He was such (atît) a good worker!
used with such and it follows the adjective when used He was so (aşa) good a worker.
with so:
NB. If the noun following what or such is uncountable, What weather we are having at the
the indefinite article is not used: moment.
However, it is corrected to say what a pity, although
pity is an uncountable noun.

10. In a number of phrases: as a rule = de regulă; as a reward = ca

 USE OF ARTICLES WITH PROPER NOUNS

I. Names of persons
rasplată; at a distance = la distantă, etc.
1. Names of persons are used without articles. He looked at Lanny and Ann.

2. In most cases no article is used with names of persons She is the widow of poor Giovanni
modified by the adjectives old, young, poor, dear, little, Bolla.
honest, lazy. SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF ARTICLES
NB. When modified by other adjectives and participles, the The astonished Tom could not say a
definiteI.article
The useis used. word.
of articles with the nouns morning, day, night, evening, afternoon, midnight
3.
1. Nouns denoting the
Nouns denoting military ranks
parts of the and
day; titles suchday,
morning, as Painter Gainsborough
The night was fine but left
verymany
dark.fine
academician, professor,
evening, afternoon, doctorare
midnight (both
useda profession and a pictures.
with the definite
title), count, lord, etc. followed by names of persons
article when a particular morning, evening etc. is meant. do
not take the article.
2. The nouns day, night etc. have no article when they are
4. Nouns
used in indicating relationship,
a more general abstract such
sense:as farther, mother, Mother trimmed the hats.
a) sister,
when brother,
the nouns aunt,day,
master, etc. arenight
morning, used etc.
by the
are It was midnight. - Era miezul noptii.
members of the family or by
predicatives, sometimes - objects:intimate friends, are used
b) without an article.
in one member sentence: Morning, cold and gray. –
Or when a proper name is added to the nouns aunt, sister,
cousn, etc. Uncle Benjamin lived in a very nice
c) in phrasiological combinations of these nouns with the It is easier to work by day than at night.
town.
prepositions: by day; at night, at noon, etc.
5. The indefinite article is used when names of persons:
a)
NB.are Sometimes
used to denotethea representative
article is also of aabsent
family:with other We Florence
reachedwillhome
never, never, evening.
towards never be a
b)are modified by the adjective certain: dumber.
prepositions. But in these cases both absence of the article (time) – Am ajuns acasă spre seară.
and the definite article may be found depending on the (Towards I heard it from a certain
the evening Mr.evening
– the Brown. of
6. The definite
meaning implied. article is used: that particular day.)
a)
d) When these
after such names denote the whole family.
constructions: The Dashwoods
Morning were now settled at
after morning.
Berton.
b) When day
e) When names of persons
or morning are modified
means light andby a particularizing
evening or night You're notsoon
I rose as the Andrew Manson -I Eu m-
as day dawned.
attribute.
means darkness. married.
am trezit numai cum s-a luminat de zi.
II. The use of articles with names of seasons.
7. when we want to classify people in terms of:
a) their origin: He is a Mexican. – El este Mexican.
1. Names of seasons are used without articles:
b) their religion: She’s a Catholic. - Ea este catolică.
a) if they show a certain time of the year. It was spring.
c) their politics:
b) when they are modified by the adjectives early or It was early Tom isspring.
a Republican.
late.
2. The definite article is used when these II. Geographical
nouns are Itnameshappened in the spring of 1930.
modified by a particularizing attribute or the situation
makes them definite. No article is used with:
1. Continents:
3. The indefinite article is used when these nouns It was aAfrica, Asia, Europe
cold spring.
2. Countriesby
are modified anda descriptive
States: attribute. France, Japan, Texas
But we say the
a) with names III.
which Theinclude
use ofwords like
articles “republic”,
with the nouns school, The
union, U.S.A,
college, theprison,
bed, U.K., the
jail.Republic of
kingdom, states: Ireland
1. with
b) These nouns
plural are used without an article when Mary goes
names: The to school. (She is a pupil)
Netherlands
they loose their concrete meaning and express the
3. Cities/ New York, Madrid
purposetowns/ villages:
for which the objects denoted by these
Exception: The Hague (in the Netherlands)
nouns serve.
2.
4. When these
Individual nouns: denote concrete objects the MotherBermuda,
islands went to the school
Easter yesterday to attend
Island
NB.articles are usually
Island groups used according
have pluraltonames
the with
general
the: a parents’ meeting.
principle. The British
She worked Isles in Siberia.
at a school
5. Lakes: Lake Superior
IV. The use of articles with the names
6. We don’t normally use the with names of streets/ roads/ Regent of meals.
Street, Red Square
squares etc.
1.
NB.Names of meals
The Mail, are used
the High without
Street, articles.
the Strand. When did you have dinner?

We use the with:

2. The definite article is used when these nouns are The dinner we had today was very substantial.
modified by a particularizing attribute or the
situation makes them definite.
3. The indefinite article is used when these nouns After a hearty breakfast the four gentlemen left.
are modified by a descriptive attribute.

V. The use of articles with the names of languages.

1. These names are used without articles when they She knows English.
are not followed by the noun language.
2. When the noun language is mentioned the The English language.
definite article is used.
VI. The use of articles with the word space.

We say space (not “the space) when we mean space There are millions of stars in space. ( not in the
in the universe. space)
But: He tried to park his car but the space
wasn’t big enough.

ABSENCE OF ARTICLES

1. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense:
But, if the reference is made to certain abstract
nouns, they are preceded by the.
2. Before names of materials used in a general
sense: milk, bread, snow.
3. Before plural nouns used in a general sense.
4. Before names of meals used in a general sense.
Life, death, freedom, liberty, love
The life of this child.
NB. The coffee is very expensive.
Books are silent friends.
But: the books you lent me are very interesting.
We have breakfast at 7 o’clock every morning.

5. Before such nouns cook, nurse, teacher,

gardener, milkman: when they have the meaning Teacher is going to give us a test today.
“our cook/ teacher/ etc.

6. Before names of days, months, seasons, Monday is the first day of the week in our
holidays. country.
7. Before names of subjects, sciences. Phisics, Chemistry
measles
8. Before names of illnesses.

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. What kinds of articles are there in English?

B. Application
1. Give examples of proper nouns used with definite articles.

C. Integration
1. What does the article used before a noun depend on?

THE ADJECTIVE
The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.

Adjective

Morphological characteristics Syntactical characteristics

degrees of comparison attribute predicative

comparative

superlative

Meaning Examples

One object has more of the quality named by the adjective She is taller than her sister.
than some other. This task is more difficult than that one.
Than is often used after a comparative degree.
Much can come before the comparative to give emphasis. Is Tokyo much more modern than London?

The greatest degree of the quality among the things being This is the highest building I have ever seen.
compared. It is the most wonderful party.
The objects are equal in the quality named by the adjective. Peter is as tall as Nick.

One object has less of the quality named by the adjective
than the other does.
The least degree of the quality named by the adjective.
Something is acquiring or losing a quality.
Peter is not as tall as Nick.
Jane is less beautiful than Kate.
This is the least interesting film I’ve seen
lately.
Your English is getting better and better.
I am less and less satisfied with my job.

Comparative – denotes a Superlative– denotes the

higher degree of a quality highest degree of a
quality

Short adjectives cheap cheaper (the) cheapest

small smaller (the) smallest
Adjectives of two happy happier (the) happiest
syllables which end in narrow narrower (the) narrowest
–y, -ow, -er, -le. clever cleverer (the) cleverest
simple simpler (the) simplest
Adjectives with two careful more careful (the) most careful
syllables or more interesting more interesting (the) most interesting

Irregular adjectives good better (the) best

bad worse (the) worst
many, much more (the) most
little less (the) least
far farther/ further (the) farthest/ furthest
old older/ elder (the) oldest/ eldest

Spelling rules

1. Short adjectives with one vowel + one hot hotter hottest

consonant double the consonant. fat fatter fattest

2. If the adjective ends in –y preceded by a busy busier busiest

consonant, y is changed into i before –er, early earlier earliest
-est.
3. If the adjective ends in –e the e is dropped fine finer finest
before –er and -est. nice nicer nicest

Morphological composition of the adjective

Adjectives

simple derivative compound

simple They have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are good, red, black.
indecomposable:
derivative They have derivative elements, suffixes or prefixes, or beautiful, foolish, unkind,
both: etc.
compound They are built from two or more stems:
a) noun-stem + adjective stem: snow –white
b) noun-stem + participle stem: life – giving, smoke –dried
c) adjective-stem + adjective stem: deaf – mute
d) adjective stem + noun-stem + suffix cold – hearted
- ed:
e) noun-stem + noun-stem + suffix - ed: lynx – eyed
f) numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix four – wheeled
– ed:
g) adverb-stem + noun-stem + suffix over - peopled
– ed:

Classification of adjectives
 Adjectives

qualitative relative

Qualitative They denote qualities of a substance directly, not Little, large, high, soft, hard,
adjectives through its relation to another substance, as size, warm, white, blue, pink, strong,
shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities bold, beautiful, important,
of general estimation: necessary, etc.
Grammatical characteristics:
 most of them have degrees of comparison: big / bigger/ the biggest
 some of them have no degrees of comparison: greenish, unsuitable
 they have certain typical suffixes, such as -ful, careful, careless, dangerous,
-less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: convenient, etc.
 from most of them adverbs can be formed by the graceful – gracefully.
suffix –ly:

Relative They denote qualities of a substance through their

adjectives relations to:
 materials silken, woolen, wooden
 place Italian, Asian
 time monthly, weekly
 some action preparatory
Grammatical characteristics:
 they have no degrees of comparison:
 they have certain typical suffixes, such as –
en, -an, -ist, -ic, -ical, : wooden, Italian, synthetic, etc.
 they do not form adverbs with the suffix –ly:

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of adjective.

B. Application
1. Give examples of qualitative and relative adjectives.

C. Integration
1. Compare the degrees of comparison of the adjective in English and your mother tongue.

THE ADVERB
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points
out some characteristic features of an action or quality.
The function in the sentence: adverbial modifier.
 Adverbs
According to the meaning
According to the structure

simple
time

derivative frequency
place and direction
compound Compound
degree, measure, and quantity
cause and consequence
composite
Composite
manner

degree, measure, quantity

Types of adverbs Examples

simple long, enough, then, etc.

derivative (suffix or prefix + word) slowly, likewise, forward, etc.

compound anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.

composite at once, at last, etc.

time today, tomorrow, soon, etc.

frequency often, seldom, never, sometimes, etc.

place and direction inside, outside, here, there, upstairs, etc.

cause and consequence therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.

manner kindly, quickly, hard, etc.

degree, measure, quantity very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, quite, etc.

Degrees of comparison

comparative superlative

An adverb of one fast faster fastest

syllable hard harder hardest
Adverbs ending in -ly wisely more wisely most wisely
 beautifully more beautifully most beautifully
Irregular forms of well better best
comparison badly worse worst
much more most
little less least

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of adverb.
2. According to the structure adverbs are …
3. According to the meaning adverbs are …

B. Application
1. Give examples of time, frequency, place, cause and consequence, and manner adverbs.

C. Integration
1. Compare the degrees of comparison of the adverb in English and your mother tongue.

THE PRONOUN

Types of pronouns Examples

1. Personal Subject: I, he, she, it, we, you, they

pronouns
Object: me, him, her, It, us, you, them

2. Possessive mine; his; hers; ours; yours; theirs

pronouns
3. Reflexive myself; himself; herself; itself; ourselves; yourselves; themselves
pronouns

4. Reciprocal each other; one another

pronouns

5. Demonstrative this – these; that – those; the former; the latter; the first; the last; the same;
pronouns such; such- and-such; suchlike; one –ones.

6. Indefinite all; both; much; many; more; most; little, few; a little; a few; another; the
pronouns other; others; the others; either; neither; each; everybody; everything;
everyone; some; any; no one/ none; somebody; something; someone; anybody;
anything; anyone; nobody; nothing; enough; several; one

7. Interrogative who; whom; whose; what; which

pronouns

8. Relative pronouns who; whom; whose; whoever; which; whichever; that; what
Types of Explanations Examples
prono
uns
Personal Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in
Prono the third person singular) gender.
uns  two cases:
a) the nominative case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
b) the objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
NB. If the pronoun is used as part of the subject, use Eric and I are good friends.
a subject pronoun:
If it is part of the object, use an object pronoun: Ann met Eric and me at the museum.

 two numbers:
a) singular I, he, she, it,
b) plural we, they
NB. you is both singular and plural
 He, she, it distinguish gender

a) Male beings (man, uncle, boy, etc.) are referred to
as he:
b) Female beings (woman, aunt, girl, etc.) are
referred to as she:
c) Inanimate things (house, tree, cap, etc.) are
referred to as it:
Functions: of subject, object, predicative.
Her husband asked only a few
questions. He was a silent man.
He turned and saw the girl. She was a
pale, ethereal creature…
Where’s your car? - It is in the
garage.

Possessive Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in mine; his; her; ours; yours; theirs
prono the third person singular) gender.
uns
 A possessive pronoun is used alone, Possessive pronouns Possessive adjectives
without a noun following it. I have mine. I have my pen.
You have yours. You have your pen.
 A possessive adjective is used only She has hers. She has her pen.
with a noun following it. He has his. He has his pen.
We have ours. We have our pens.
NB. The form its, although it may occur You have yours. You have your pens.
in some constructions, is no longer used They have theirs. They have their pens.
today being considered obsolete. I have a book. Its cover is
black.
Reflexive Grammatical categories: of person, I saw myself in the mirror.
prono number and (in the third person You saw (one person) yourself in the mirror.
uns singular) gender. She saw herself in the mirror.
 End in –self/ -selves. They are used He saw himself in the mirror.
when the subject (e.g., I) and the It saw itself.
object (e.g., myself) are the same We saw ourselves.
person. The action of the verb is You (plural) saw yourselves.
pointed back to the subject of the They saw themselves.
sentence.
Incorrect: I saw me in the mirror.

 By + a reflexive pronoun = alone. Greg lives by himself. (i.e. alone without family or
roommates.)
 Enjoy and a few other verbs and Believe in, blame, cut, enjoy, feel sorry for, help,
phrases are commonly followed by a hurt, give, introduce, kill, pinch, be proud of, take
reflexive pronoun. care of, talk to, teach, tell, work for.
Functions: of prepositional object,
predicative.
Those verbs which describe actions Jimmy usually shaves before breakfast.
that people do to themselves ( to
shave; to dress; to wash, etc.) do not
usually take reflexive pronouns:
With these verbs, reflexive pronouns
are only used for emphasis: I prefer shaving myself to going to the barber’s
Reciprocal The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another
prono indicate that two people do the same thing, feel the
uns same way, or have the same relationship, that is the
feeling or action is mutual.
He had never heard his father or his
 Each other generally implies only two people:
mother speak in an angry voice to
each other.

 One another generally implies more than two Seated in a row close to one another
were three ladies – Aunt Ann, Hester,
people:
and Julie.

There are some verbs in English that describe to argue, to hug, to compete, to kiss,
processes which involve two people or two groups of to consult, to marry, to embrace, to
people doing the same thing to each other, having, match, to engage, to meet, to fight, to
thus, a reciprocal meaning: touch.
We kissed.
If, however, we want to emphasize that both
participants are equally involved in the action, we use We kissed one another.
each other or one another after the verb:

Demonstra This is used to point at what is nearer in time or
-tive space:
pronouns That is used to point at what is farther in time or
space:
This – these; that – those may be applied to both
persons and things.
The former – the latter: these pronouns have the
meaning of the first and, respectively, the second of
two. They have the same form for singular and plural:
The same is used as a:
 demonstrative adjective
 demonstrative pronoun
The same may also replace a whole sentence:
Such can be both a demonstrative adjective:
a demonstrative pronoun:
This is an interesting book.
That was a serious problem.
This is a French girl.
Ann and Janet are cousins: the former
is a student, the latter is a pupil.
Ann si Janet sunt verişoare: prima e
studentă, a doua e elevă.
George learns in the same school as
his friend.
I think the same about this.
I drank a glass of milk and my sister
did the same.
Have you ever read such stories?
Such is the present situation.

Suchlike: We have never listened to suchlike

songs. (adjective)
I don’t like books about love, romance
and suchlike. (pronoun)
Indefinite All is a generalizing pronoun; it takes a group of And Martin forgot all about it.
Pronouns things or people as a whole. It may be used as
subject, predicative, object, and attribute.
Both points out two persons, things or notions Both seemed to implore something to
mentioned before. It may be used as subject, object, shelter them from reality.
prepositional indirect object, and attribute.
Each and every refer to all the members of the group They began to deal swiftly with the
of persons, things, or notions mentioned before and cocoa tins, slipping a stick of
taken one by one. They require a verb in the singular. dynamite in each.(prepositional
Each may be used as subject, object, and attribute. indirect object)
This is something more than genius. It
Every is used only as an attribute.
is true, every line of it.

Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the

group of persons mentioned before or taken one by You walked into the waiting-room, into
one. They have two cases: a great buzz of conversation, and
there was everybody; you knew almost
a) the common everybody.
b) the genitive He almost forgot the discomfort of
being set up as a target for
Functions of: subject, object, and attribute. everybody’s gaze.

Everything may be applied to things, animals, and

No one will see us. Pull down that veil
abstract notions. It is used as subject, predicative, and
and everything will be all right.
object.
Either has two meanings: a) each of the two, b) one
or the other. It is usually used as attribute or part of
“Which book do you prefer?”
the subject.
“Either”.

Other –others have two cases:

a) the common (other –others)
b) the genitive(other’s –others’)
The other means the “the last one in a specific
group, the only one that remains from a given There are two apples on the table.
number of similar items”. It can be pronoun and Paul is going to eat one of them. Sara
adjective. It used as subject, object, and attribute. is going to eat the other.(pronoun)
Sara is going to eat the other apple.
(adjective)
Other(s) (without the) means “several more out of a
group of similar items, several in addition to the one There are many apples in Paul’s
(s) I have already talked about.” kitchen Paul is holding one apple.
The adjective other (without an –s) can be used with There are other apples (ones) in a
a plural noun or with the word ones. bowl. (adjective)
Others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not used
There are others on a chair.(pronoun)
with a noun.

The other(s) means “the last ones in a specific

group, the remains from a given number of similar
items”.
There are four apples on the table.
The other (without an –s) can be used as an Paul is going to take one of them.
adjective in front of a plural noun or the word ones. Sara is going to take the other apples.
The others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not (ones) (adjective)
used with a noun. She is going to take the others.
(pronoun)

Another means “one more out of a group of similar

items, one in addition to the one(s) I have already There’s a large bowl of apples on the
talked about”. table. Paul is going to eat one apple.
It may be used as subject, object, and attribute. If he is still hungry after that, he can
eat another ( apple). There are many
apples to choose from.
Another can be used as an adjective in front of a There were two apples on the table.
noun or in front of the word one. Paul ate one apple. Then he ate
Another can also be used alone as a pronoun. another one. (adjective)
Paul ate one apple. Then he ate
another. (pronoun)
Somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one have
two cases: Some, any, somebody, anybody,
someone, anyone, something,
a) the common anything, one.
b) the genitive
Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences.
I’m sure some will agree.
Any is used in negative and interrogative sentences
and in conditional clauses. Cats? I don’t have any.
Do you see any?
If you have any, show them to me
please.
Some, not any, is used in special and general
questions expressing some request or proposal. Do you want some?
Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the
meaning of ‘every”. Any are allowed to do it..
Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in
affirmative sentences. There’s someone in front of our house.
I would like to say something.

Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative I don’t want anything.

and interrogative sentences and in conditional Is there anything you would like to tell
clauses. me?
If anybody comes, tell me please.

Somebody, someone, something are used in special Will someone help me?
and general questions if they express some request or
proposal.
Anybody, anyone, anything may be used in “You’ve no business to say such a
affirmative sentences. Anybody, anyone are used thing!” she exclaimed. : Why not?
with the meaning of “everyone”; anything is used Anybody can see it”.
with the meaning of “everything’. ...she sank in spirit inwardly as she
thought of asking for something to do
Some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, – something that she could do –
something, anything may be used as: subject, anything.
object, attribute, predicative.
One is used to avoid the repetition of a/ an + noun. I forgot to bring a pen. Can you lend
me one?

None may be applied both to human beings and None of us can hold on forever!
things. It can be used as subject or object. It is
opposite to the pronouns some, something, someone,
all, everybody, every, each.
Nobody, no one refer to human beings. They are Nobody seemed to know him well.
opposite to the pronouns somebody, someone, all, We have no one to help us.
everybody, every, and each.
 They are mostly used as subjects and objects.
Nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the
Nothing can satisfy me more.
pronouns something and everything. It may be used
as subject, predicative or object.

Neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either, Do you like any of these two cars? – I
both. It may be used as subject, object, and attribute. like neither.

Interro- Are used to form special questions: who; whom; whose; what; which
gative Who has the category of case:
pronouns a) the nominative: who
b) the objective: whom
NB. There’s a tendency in Modern English to use
who, instead of whom, as an object.
Who refers to human beings: Who has watered the flowers?
What usually refers to things but it may be applied to “What are you looking for, Tess?”
persons when one inquires about their occupation: “Hairpins”, she replied.
“What was he?” “A painter.”
Which has as elective meaning; it refers to an
“Which of us does he mean?” asked
individual of the group. It may refer to persons or
the boy.
things.
Which side of the bed do you like,
Functions: subject, predicative, object, and attribute. Mum?
Relative Refer to somebody or something that has already who; whom; whose; whoever; which;
pronouns been mentioned and, at the same time, join clauses whichever; that; what
together.
Who refers to persons. It is the subject of a relative The boy who is answering the
teacher’s question is my friend.
clause:
Whom is the object of a relative clause, although, This is the girl who(m) we met
yesterday.
nowadays, the form who is also accepted:
Whose refers to persons, animals, and things. It
shows who or what something belongs to or is The woman whose hat is red is our
connected with. It must always come in front of a neighbour.
noun.
Which always refers to things or animals and can be Here was her own style- a bed which
did not look like others.
the subject or the object of a relative clause:
That may refer to either people or things and has the The girl that you see is my sister.
same form as the subject or the object of a relative
On one side was a low wall that
clause, or of a preposition:
separated it from the street.

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of pronoun.
2. Name the types of pronouns.
B. Application
1. Give examples of personal, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, relative, interrogative, indefinite,
demonstrative pronouns.
C. Integration
1. Compare the types of pronouns in English and your mother tongue.

THE NUMERAL

cardinal

adverbial ordinal

numeral

multipli-
distribu- cative
tive adver-
adverbial bial

Types of
numeral
Cardinal Are used to refer to an exact number of things,
etc.
Notes:
 The figure 0 can be written and
pronounced in the following ways:
Zero – usually used in American English, in
mathematics, for temperature;
Nought – used in British English, in
mathematics;
Oh – used when reading out long numbers,
one figure at a time (e. g. telephone numbers,
account numbers, etc);
Nil – used to express scores in team games;
Love – used to express scores in tennis.
Examples
0 - zero; 1 – one; 2 – two; 3 – three; 4 –
four, 5 – five; 6 –six; 7 – seven; 8 – eight; 9
– nine; 10 – ten; 11 – eleven, 12 – twelve; 13
– thirteen; 14 – fourteen; 15 – fifteen; 16 –
sixteen; 17 – seventeen; 18 – eighteen; 19 –
nineteen; 20 – twenty; 21 – twenty-one; 22
– twenty-two, etc.; 30 –thirty; 40 –forty; 50
– fifty; 60 –sixty; 70 – seventy; 80 – eighty;
90 ninety; 100 –one hundred; 205 – two
hundred and five; 1,000 – one thousand;
1,325 - one thousand, three hundred and
twenty-five; 1,000,000 – one million;
5,000,000 – five million; 1,000,000,000 -
one billion.
 Unlike most other languages, in English
the numbers over 999 that are written in 1,987 – 1 987
figures get a comma or a blanc dividing the 2,513,608 – 2 513 608
figures into groups of three:
 When the cardinal number contains a full
stop, the number or numbers that occur after 7.25 (seven point twenty-five)
the full stop indicate a fraction:

 When we write in words or say a number 102 = one hundred and two
over 100, we must put and before the number 1120 = one thousand, one hundred and
expressed by the last two figures: twenty
But and is often omitted in American English: 129 = one hundred twenty-nine.

 A is usually used before hundred, This watch costs a hundred dollars.

thousand, million when they stand alone or in There were not more than a thousand people
informal English: on the beach.
and one in formal English or when these One hundred and twenty-four.
words are followed by other numbers: One thousand and five.

 The words hundred, thousand, million,
dozen (= 12), score (=20) and gross (= 144)
are never used in the plural when preceded by
a definite number or by several, a few or a
couple of:
But the words hundred, thousand, million,
billion, dozen, score and gross are used in the
plural when they express an indefinite number
or are preceded by many:
Two hundred years, five thousand books,
ten million people, three dozen books,
ten score.
Hundreds of girls, thousands of flowers,
millions of people, scores of letters
They sell in dozens and in grosses.
Many hundreds/ thousands/ etc.

Expressing Age
We can express a person’s age in the following
ways:
 with the help of the verb to be followed Tom is fifteen (years old).
by a number:
She was a girl of twelve.
 with the preposition of after a noun,
followed by a number:
 with the word aged after the noun,
He had a daughter aged fifteen.
followed by a number:
 with the help of a compound adjective, A fifteen year-old boy
made up of a number followed by a A two-month-old baby
singular noun referring to a period of
time, followed by the word old. These
words are hyphened:
 with the help of a compound noun We were met by Kerry, a pretty twenty-year-
consisting of a number followed by year old.
old: All the seven-year-olds will go to school in
September.
If we want to refer to somebody’s age in an When Rosemary was in her teens, ...
approximate way, we can do it in the The two men were both in their mid-fifties.
following ways: I think she is over fifty.
All those present were under twenty.
She is below the age of thirty.
I’m sure he sisters are above the age of
twenty.
 The over-eighteens will be allowed to see
this film.
The under-fourteens will not be given
identity cards.

Telephone Numbers
Each digit of a telephone number is usually
spoken separately except in the case of two
identical digits occurring together, which are
said as “double three”, “double seven”, etc.
The digits are spoken in groups of two or
three, with slight pauses between the groups.
142093 (one-four-two-oh-nine-three)
43338 (four-double three-three-eight)/
(four-three-double three-eight)
NB. In American English, zero or nought is
usually used instead of oh

Ordinal They are used to identify something by The first; the second; the third; the fourth;
indicating where it comes in a series of the fifth; the tenth; the eleventh; the twelfth;
sequence. They are formed with the help of the thirteenth; the twenty-first; the twenty-
the suffix –th added to the cardinal numbers or fourth; the thirtieth; the one hundredth; the
their equivalents, except the first three ten thousandth; the one millionth; the thirty-
numbers which have irregular forms, and the somethingth; etc.
compound numbers with which only the last
figure gets its ordinal form.
The 1st; the 2nd; the 3rd; the 4th; the 10th; the
They can also be written in abbreviated form:
21st; the 52nd; the 76th;
April 1, 1946 1 April 1946
 dates may be written in the following st
April 1 , 1946 1st April 1946
ways: st
1 of April 1946
But, when reading or speaking, the ordinal
numbers must be used in all these cases.
1969 - nineteen hundred and sixty-nine, or
 years: nineteen sixty-nine.
2006 – two thousand and six

Charles I, Richard II, Henry VIII

 titles of kings must be written in Roman Charles the First, Richard the Second, Henry
numbers, but they are read using ordinal the Eighth.
numbers:
Multipli- This numeral shows the proportion in Double/ twofold; threefold; fourfold; tenfold;
cative which a quantity is increased: hundredfold; etc.
adver-bial
Distributi- It shows the distribution or grouping of One by one; two by two/ by twos/ in twos;
ve objects: ten by ten/ by tens/ in tens; etc.
adverbial
Adverbial It shows how many times an action is Once; twice; three times; ten times; etc.
performed. We sang that song twice.

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of numeral.
2. Name the types of numeral.
3. Which type of numeral is used to write dates years, telephone numbers, and age.
B. Application
1. Give examples of cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative adverbial, distributive adverbial, and adverbial
numerals.

C. Integration
1. Compare the use of cardinal and ordinal numerals in English and Romanian.

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE

Characteristics Examples
 denote the temporary state or condition of But Johnny and Paddy were as1eep, the rose-red
persons or things. glow had paled, bats were flying, and still the
bathers had not returned.
"I'm afraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal
of the leaflet."
 have the prefix a. ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, awake.
 are mainly used in the function of a predicative. He is awake.
 may be used as objective predicative. She was saying that she intended to leave him
entirely alone again.
 may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff
adjectives they cannot be placed before the as though they had fainted in the drawing-room, and
words they modify. As attributes they may be their two little children asleep upstairs were really
only used in post-position: too big for the doll's house.
 can be modified by adverbs of degree: Sally had been half asleep with her head on Eddie's
lap.
 may take prepositional indirect objects. I am ashamed of you.

THE VERB
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.

A) The grammatical categories:

Grammatical Characteristics Examples

categories
person In Modern English there are but few forms indicating a) the third person singular Present
person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb. Indefinite Indicative: He speaks.
These are: b) the Future Indefinite Tense: I
number shall speak/ he will speak
tense It denotes the relation of the action either to the 16 tenses in English
moment of speaking or to some definite moment in
the past or future.
aspect It shows the way in which the action develops, Perfective – non-perfective
whether it is in progress or completed. Progressive – non-progressive
voice It indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject a) active
and the object. There are two voices: b) passive

mood It indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the a) the indicative mood
action expressed by the verb from the point of view of b) the imperative mood
its reality. c) the subjunctive mood
d) the conditional mood

B) Types of verbs:

Types of Characteristics Examples

verbs
transitive Require a direct object, i.e. they express an action I’ve known these people for a
which passes on to a person or thing directly. Here long time.
 belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make,
to see, to show, to bring, to love etc.
There are other verbs which can be used either with or I wrote (a letter) to him a month
without a direct object, such as to read, to write, to ago.
hear, to see. Usually, in this case the object is clear
from the context.

intransitive Cannot take a direct object. Here belong such verbs as She shrank slowly away from him,
to stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim. and stood quite still.
Note:
There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive She sells books. (transitive)
and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here This book sells well.
belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.
There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive Yesterday I walked far.
and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here (intransitive)
belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to He walked the horse to and fro.
run, etc. ( transitive)

finite forms Verbs may have finite forms - which can be used as the Hearing the noise, she opened the
predicate of a sentence. door.

non –finite Verbs may have non-finite forms - which cannot be Hearing the noise, she opened the
forms used as the predicate of a sentence. door.

According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:

simple Read, live, hide, speak

derived Have affixes. Magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose
compound Consist of two stems. Daydream, browbeat
composite Consist of a verb and a postposition of Sit down, come in, go out.
adverbial origin.

According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:

notional Are those which have a full meaning of their own and Ricky surrounded her with great care
can be used without any additional words as a simple and luxury.
predicate. Here belong such verbs as to write, to She knew what he was thinking.
read, to speak, to know, to ask.

auxiliary Are those which have only a grammatical function. I don’t recollect that he ever did
They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such anything, at least not in my time.
verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should,Their father ... had come from
would. Dorsetshire near the beginning of the
century.
link Are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have The house was big.
lost their meaning and are used in the compound The old face looked worn and hollow
nominal predicate. again.

NB. In different contexts the same verb can be used ... She turned her head sullenly away
as a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a link from me. (notional verb)
verb: She ... turned deadly pale. (link verb)

modal Are a special group of verbs which cannot be used You must come on time.
without additional words, though they have a You should listen to her more
 meaning of their own, such as can, may, must, ought,
etc.
The same verb in different contexts can be modal and
auxiliary.
attentively.
I crouched against the wall of the
gallery so that I should not be seen.
(auxiliary verb)
I don’t honestly think Lady Crowan was
exaggerating when she said something
should be done in your honour. (modal
verb)

According to their lexical meaning verbs are divided into:

terminative Denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which He went to the kitchen and
it cannot go: to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, brought him a cake and a plate of
to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to biscuits.
stand up, to sit down, to come to.
durative Denote a certain action which does not imply any limit: He loved the Old Masters of
to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to painting.
possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to smoke, etc.
verbs of In certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and in He sat very still a moment.
double others, a durative meaning: to stand, to kneel, to sit, to (durative)
lexical know, to remember, etc. I went and sat beside him.
character (terminative)

TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE

THE INDICATIVE

Table of tenses

Present Past Future Future in the Past

Indefinite I go to the theatre I went to the I shall go to the I said I should go
every week. theatre last week. theatre next week. to the theatre next
week.
Continuous Don’t speak to him. When I came, he Don’t come at 8. I He said he would
He is working. was working. shall be working. be working at 8
o’clock.
Perfect I have known him When I came, he By 2007 I shall I said I should
for two years. had already left. have known him have read all the
for twelve years. books by the first of
April.
Perfect My hands are dirty. I was very tired. I By the first of May I said that by the
Continuous I have been had been reading I shall have been first of May I
working in the a lot. reading the book should have been
garden. for a fortnight. reading the book
for a fortnight.

1. The Present Indefinite

1.1 Form
Affirmative and negative
Positive Negative
I live do not (don’t) live
We
You in Chisinau.
They
He/ She/ It lives does not (doesn’t) live

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Do I I I
we we we do not (don’t)
you you do. you
they live in Chisinau? Yes, they No, they
Does he he does. he
she she she does not (doesn’t)
it it it

1.2 Use
The Present Simple is used to express:
a repeated action, a habit. It is used with adverbs of We go to school by bus.
frequency (always, often, sometimes, usually, never) We sometimes sleep late.
to express how often something happens.
a fact which is always true. Ice melts in the sun.
My daughter has brown eyes.
a fact which stays the same for a long time. He works in a bank.
sometimes in giving the summary of a story. The prince decides to enter the cave. He enters the
cave and there sees a witch.
an officially planned action or an action belonging to The championship starts next Saturday.
a settled program.
a future action
a) in a conditional clause: If you come tomorrow, we’ll go to the cinema.
b) in a time clause: You will see your cousin when you come.
c) with verbs of motion such as to go, to come, to The train leaves at 10.00 tomorrow.
leave, etc.

1.3 Spelling of verb + -s

The normal rule is to add –s to the base form of the Wants, eats, drives, reads
verb.
Add –es to verbs that end in –ss, -sh, -ch, -x, z. Kisses, washes, watches, fixes, buzzes.

Verbs that end in a consonant + y change to –ies. Carry - carries, fly - flies, worry - worries, try - tries
NB. Verbs which end in a vowel + y only add –s. Buys, says, plays, enjoys
A few verbs have irregular forms. Be – is, are do –does
Go –goes have- has

1.4 Pronunciation.
There are three different pronunciations for the final
-s of the third person singular: [s], [z], [iz].
[s] after the sounds: [p], [t], [k], [f]. Tops, gets, takes, laughs
[z] after the sounds [b], [d], [g], [v], [ ŋ], [m], Describes, sends, hugs, lives, bathes, seems,
[n], [ð], [l], and [r], and all vowel sounds. remains, sings, tells
[iz] after the sounds [s], [z], [∫], [t∫] [ ], [ ]. Relaxes, freezes, rushes, massages, watches, judges
Do and say have a change in vowel sound. Say [ ], says [ ]
Do [ ], does [ ]

2. The Present Continuous

2.1 Form
am/ is/ are + verb + -ing (present participle)
Affirmative and negative
Positive Negative
I ‘ m (am) ‘ m not
We working.
You ‘re (are) aren’t (are not)
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Am I I am. I ‘m not.

he he he
Is she working? Yes, she is. No, she isn’t.
it it it
we we we
Are you you are. you aren’t.
they they they

2.2 Use
The present continuous is used to express:
an activity that is happening now.
an activity or situation that is true now, but is not
necessarily happening at the moment of speaking.
a temporary activity.
a planned future arrangement.
a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinct
meaning of annoyance, irritation, sarcasm. In this case the but never gives it back.
verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as: always,
constantly, continually, for ever.
with verbs to get or to grow to express a transition from
one state to another.
You can’t see Jane. She’s having a bath.
Don’t take that book. Jane is reading it.
I’m doing a French evening course this year.
I’m living with my friends until I find a place of
my own.
I’m having lunch with Jane tomorrow.
He is always borrowing money from his friends
It is getting dark
Our parents are getting older and older.

2.3 Spelling of verb + -ing

Add –ing to the base form of the verb. going, wearing, visiting, eating
Verbs that end in one –e lose the –e. smoking, coming, hoping, writing
NB. Verbs that end in –ee don’t lose an –ee. agreeing, seeing
In verbs of one syllable, with one vowel and one stopping, getting, running, planning, jogging
consonant, the consonant is doubled.
NB. If the final consonant is –y or –w, it is not doubled playing, showing
Note: lie lying

2.4 Verbs not used in the Continuous

Verbs of thinking and opinion
Verbs of emotions and feelings
Verbs of possession
Believe, think, understand, suppose, expect, agree, doubt, know,
remember, forget, mean, imagine, realize, deserve, prefer, foresee,
guess, mind, regard, suppose, trust, recollect.
Like, love, hate, care, hope, wish, want, admit, abhor, adore, detest,
please, dislike, displease.
Belong, have, hold, keep, owe, own, possess.

Verbs of senses Look, hear, taste, smell, feel, notice.

Verbs of state/ condition appear, be, consist, contain, differ, deserve, equal, exist, resemble,
seem, suit.

NB. When the subject is a person,
we often use can:
Some of these verbs can be used in
the Present Continuous, but with a
change of meaning. In the
Continuous, the verb expresses an
activity, not a state.
Can you smell something burning?
I think you are right. (opinion)
I was just thinking what a long way it is. (mental activity)
He has a new car. (possession)
She’s having a bath. (activity)
The tea tastes strongly of mint. (activity)
I’m tasting the soup to see if it needs salt. (activity)

3. The Past Simple

3.1 Form
verb + -ed
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It arrived
We went did not (didn’t) arrive/ go yesterday.
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
I I I
he/ she/ it he/ she/ it he/ she/ it
Did we arrive? Yes, we did. No, we didn’t.
you you you
they they they

To be
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It was was not (wasn’t)
yesterday.
We
You were were not (weren’t)
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
 I I I
Was he/ she/ it he/ she/ it was. he/ she/ it wasn’t.
there? Yes, No,
Were we we were. we
you you you weren’t.
they they they

Verbs

regular irregular

3.2 Spelling of regular verbs

1. add -ed to the infinitive of the verb: worked, started
2. if the verb ends in –e, add –d: lived, loved
3. if the verb has only one syllable and ends in a vowel-consonant stopped, planned
combination, the final consonant doubles.
NB. cooked, seated, , moaned, because there are two vowels.
The consonant is not doubled if it is y, x, or w. played, mixed, showed
4. In most two-syllable verbs, the end consonant is doubled if the stress is pre`ferred, ad`mitted
on the second syllable.
NB. Exception is the final consonant –l. traveled
5. verbs that end in a consonant + -y change to –ied: studied, carried
NB. We write enjoyed , because it ends in a vowel + y.

3.3 Pronunciation
-ed is pronounced in the following way:

[d] after [b, g, n, l, m, v, z, w, r, ŋ, ð] opened [oupnd], answered [ans d]

and the vocalic sounds:
[t] after [,f, k, p, s, ∫, t∫ ]: worked [w kt], hopped [ ], published
[id] after [d, t ]: lasted [ la:stid ], intend [ in tendid]

3.4 Use
The past Indefinite expresses:
a past action that is now finished. John left two minutes ago.
a succession of past actions. He threw down his spade and entered the house.
repeated actions in the past. He made an entry in his diary every night.
in conditional clause If I were you, I would accept the proposal.
in time clauses He promised me that he would tell me the truth when
he knew it.

3.5 The translation of the Past Simple into Romanian

Perfect cmpus When he opened the door, he saw the dog.
Perfect simplu Cînd a deschis uşa, văzu cîinele.
Imperfect The little boy was very tired.
Băieţelul era foarte oboist.
Conjunctive perfect Helen said that she felt lonely before she met him.
Elena a spus că se simţea singură înainte să-l fi întîlnit.
Condiţional prezernt I would read that letter if he gave it to me.
 Aş citi scrisoarea aceea dacă el mi-ar da-o.
Prezent I didn’t know she loved music.
Nu ştiam că-i place muzica.
Viitor He girl said that she would come here when she was free.
Fata a spus că va veni aici cînd va fi liberă.

4. The Past Continuous

4.1 Form
was/ were + verb + -ing (present participle)
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I was wasn’t (was not)
He/ she/ it
We working.
You were weren’t (were not)
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Was I I I
he he was. he wasn’t
she she she
it working? Yes, it No, it
we we we
Were you you were. you weren’t.
they they they

4.2 Use
The Past Continuous is used:
to express an activity in progress before, and At 7.00 I was having breakfast.
probably after, a particular time in the past.
to describe a situation or activity during a period in Jane looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton
the past. dress. Her eyes were shining in the light of the
candles that were burning nearby.
to show that two or more actions were going on at While mother was cooking, father was reading and
the same time in the past. grandmother was knitting.
to express an interrupted past activity. When I returned, she was sweeping the floor.
to express an incomplete activity in the past in order
I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn’t
to contrast with the Past Simple which expresses a finish it.)
completed activity. But: I wrote a letter during the flight. ( the whole
letter)
with always to express repeated action in the past These children were always laughing during my
which annoys the speaker. classes.
in conditional clauses. What would you say if the boys were sleeping now?

5. The Present Perfect

5.1 Form
have/ has + verb + -ed (regular verbs) have/ has + past participle (irregular verbs)
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I have not (haven’t)
We ‘ve (have)
You worked/ begun.
They
He ‘s (has) has not (hasn’t)
She
It

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
I I I
Have we we have. we haven’t.
you you you
they worked/ begun? Yes, they No, they
he he he
Has she/ it she/ it has. she/ it hasn’t.
5.2 Use
The Present Perfect is used:
to look back from the present into the past, and I’ve met a lot of famous people. (before now)
express what has happened before now. The action She has won awards. (in her life)
happened at an indefinite time in the past.
The action can continue to the present, and probably Many pupils have learnt in this school. (many still
into the future. learn here)
to express an experience as part of someone’s life. I’ve traveled a lot in Europe.
Ever and never are common with this use. Have you ever been in a car crash?
My mother has never flown in a plane.
to express an action or state which began in the past How long have you worked as a teacher?
and continues to the present.
For and since are common with this use. We use for We’ve lived here for two years. (a period of time)
with a period of time, and since with a point in time. I’ve had a beard since I left the army. (a point in
time)
to expresses a past action with results in the present. I’ve lost my wallet. (I don’t have it now).
when we are no longer interested in the time when I have visited an interesting museum. (I still
the past action took place, but in its result into the remember the things seen there).
present.
to express completed activities in the immediate past. The train has just left. (I left a little time ago)
In this case, the verb is generally accompanied by:
just, lately, of late, lately, till now, up to now, so far,
up to the present, during the last week the last too
days, these twenty minutes, etc.
with words denoting an incomplete period of time: Last week we wrote three letters, but this week we
today, this week, this month, this year, this night, this have written only one.
morning etc.
to express a future action, in a time clause I shall ring you up as soon as/ after mother has
come back.

6. The Present Perfect Continuous

6.1 Form
have/ has + been + verb + -ing
Affirmative and negative
 positive negative
I have (‘ve) have not (haven’t)
We
You been running.
They
He has (‘s) has not (hasn’t)
She
It

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
I I I
Have we we have. we haven’t.
you you you
they been running? Yes, they No, they
he he he
Has she she has. she hasn’t.
it it it
6.1 Use
The Present Perfect Continuous is used to express the same kind of meaning as the Present Perfect, though
the action is very often still happening. This tense emphasizes the length of time the action has taken place.
There is no clear division between the use of the Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous. Time
indications: how long?, since when, since, for
I have been writing since I came here.

The Present Perfect Continuous is used:

to express an activity which began in the past and continues Mary has been watering the flowers for half
to the present, emphasizing its duration in the present. an hour. (she is still doing the job)

NB. Present Perfect implies that the attention is focused on Mother has watered the flowers. (Her job has
the repetition or on the completion of an action. just been done.)
to refer to an activity with a result in the present. My hands are dirty because I have been
working in the garden.
since the Present Perfect Continuous describes an action I have been drinking tea since 5’oclock.
which is apparently uninterrupted, it will not be employed But I have drunk three cups of tea since
when we mention the number of times a thing has been done 5’oclock.
or the number of things that have been done.

7. The Past Perfect

7.1 Form
had + verb + -ed (regular verbs); had + past participle (irregular verbs)
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It
We had arrived/ gone had not (hadn’t) arrived/ gone before 10.00.
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
 I I I
he/ she/ it arrived/ he/ she/ it he/ she/ it
Had we gone Yes, we had. No, we hadn’t.
you you you
they they they

7.2 Use
to express an action in the past which happened When I got home, John had cooked a meal.
before another action in the past. When I got home – action 1
John had cooked a meal – action 2
to express duration up to a certain moment in the By the time the rain started, we had cleaned the
past: whole house.
often with just, already, hardly/ barely/ scarcely I had hardly/ scarcely/ entered the room, when
and no sooner, to show that the past action was somebody rang the bell.
finished a little time before another past action.
to express a Past Conditional in a conditional clause: I would have helped her if I had known.

8. The Past Perfect Continuous

8.1 Form
had + been + verb + -ing
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It
We had had not (hadn’t) been running.
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
I I I
he/ she/ it he/ she/ it he/ she/ it
Had we been Yes, we had. No, we hadn’t.
you running? you you
they they they

8.2 Use
to underline the continuity of a past action to a past The pupils had been reading the lesson for five
moment or just before it. minutes when the school master entered the
classroom.
The streets were wet. It had been raining.

9. The Future Indefinite

9.1 Form
shall/ will + short infinitive

Affirmative and negative

positive negative
I shall/ will (‘ll) live shall not (shan’t)/
We will not (won’t) live
He/ She/ It will (‘ll) live will not (won’t) live in Chisinau.
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Shall/ I I I
will we we shall/ we shan’t/ won’t
will.
Will he live in Chisinau? Yes, he No, he
she she she
it it will. it won’t
you you you
they they they

9.2 Use
to express a future event, a prediction about the I will go on an interesting trip next week.
future. Don’t worry Tom, you’ll pass the exam.
When we decide to do something at the moment of Oh, I’ve left the door open. I’ll go and shut it.
speaking.
in the following situations:
a) offering to do something. That bag looks heavy. I’ll help you with it.
b) agreeing or refusing to do something. A. You know that book I lent you? Can I have it back?
B. Of course, I’ll bring it back this afternoon.
c) promising to do something. Thank you for the money. I’ll pay you back on Friday.
d) asking someone to do something. Will you shut the door, please?
with these words and expressions:
a) probably I’ll probably be a bit late this evening.
b) sure You must meet Ann. I’m sure you’ll like her.
c) expect I expect Carol will get the job.
d) think I think I’ll stay at home this evening.

Going to – construction

Form
am/ is/ are + going + to + infinitive
Affirmative and negative
I ‘ m (am)
‘ m not
He
She ‘s (is) going to work.
It isn’t (is not)
We
You ‘re (are)
They aren’t (are not)

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Am I I am. I ‘m not.

he he he
Is she going to work? Yes, she is. No, she isn’t.
it it it
we we we
Are you you are. you aren’t.
they they they

NB. INCORRECT: I am going to go. I am going to come.

CORRECT: I am going. I am coming.
Use
Going to is used:
To express a future decision, intention, or plan made I’m going to travel to Scotland on Monday.
before the moment of speaking.
When we can see or feel now that something is Look at these clouds! It is going to rain.
certain to happen in the future.

10. The Future Continuous

10.1 Form
shall/ will + be + verb + -ing (present participle)
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I shall/ will shan’t (shall not)/ won’t (will not)
We
be working.
He/ she/ it won’t (will not)
You will
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Shall/ I I shall/ I shan’t (shall not)/
Will we we will. we won’t (will not).

he be working? Yes, he No, he

Will she she will. she
it it it won’t (will not).
you you you
they they they

10.2 Use
To express a future activity or state that will be in progress This time tomorrow we shall be watching TV.
at a specific time in the future.
To indicate that an activity or state will extend over a John will be reading newspapers all day long.
whole future period.

11. The Future Perfect Simple

11.1Form
shall/ will + have+ verb + -ed (past participle)
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I shall /will shall not/ will not
have read the book by 10.00.
We
He/ She/ It will will not
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Shall/ I I shall/ I shall/
Will we We will we will
have read? Yes, No,
Will he/ she/ it he/ she/ it will he/ she/ it will
you you you
they they they

11.2 Use
The Future Perfect Simple is used to indicate:
an action which will be finished before a certain It is 10 o’clock. I will have finished my homework
moment or another action in the future. In this case it by 12 o’clock.
is usually associated with the preposition by.
the duration up to a certain time in the future. Next year Tom and Amy will have been married for
25 years.
possibility or assumption. If Jack has taken a taxi he will have arrived at the
concert in time.

12. The Future Perfect Continuous

12.1 Form
shall/ will + have+ been + verb + -ing

Affirmative and negative

positive negative
I shall /will shall not/ will not
have been reading for two hours.
We
He/ She/ It will will not
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Shall/ I I shall/ I shall/
Will we We will we will
have been Yes, No,
Will he/ she/ it reading? he/ she/ it will he/ she/ it will
you you you
they they they
12.2 Use
The Future Perfect Continuous is used:
to express the duration of an action up to a certain At 6 o’clock your sister will have been sleeping for
moment in the future. two hours.

13. The Future – In – The – Past Simple

13.1 Form
should/ would + short infinitive

Affirmative and negative

positive negative
I should/ would should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t)
We
live in Chisinau.
He/ She/ It would would not (wouldn’t)
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.

he live in Chisinau? Yes, he No, he

she she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they

13.2 Use
to express a future action or state seen from a She told me that she would go there soon.
viewpoint in the past.

14. The Future – In – The – Past Continuous

14.1 Form
should/ would + be + verb + ing

Affirmative and negative

positive negative
I should/ would should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t)
We
He/ She/ It would would not (wouldn’t) be sleeping.
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.

he be sleeping? Yes, he No, he

she she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they

14.2 Use
To express a Future Continuous seen from a past The woman assured us that, in less than half an hour,
viewpoint. her boy would be sleeping.

15. The Future Perfect– In – The – Past

15.1 Form
should/ would + have + past participle
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I should/ would (‘d) should not (shouldn’t)/
We would not (wouldn’t)
He/ She/ It have worked/ gone.
You would (‘d) would not (wouldn’t)
They
Interrogative and short answers
Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.

he have worked/ Yes, he No, he

she gone. she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they

15.2 Use
it is used to denote an action completed before a I wondered whether they would have reached
definite moment which was future from the point of the place by noon.
view of the past.

16. The Future Perfect Continuous – In – The – Past

16.1 Form
should/ would + have been + verb + ing
Affirmative and negative
positive negative
I should/ would (‘d) should not (shouldn’t)/
We would not (wouldn’t)
He/ She/ It would (‘d) would not (wouldn’t) have been working.
You
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
 positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.

he have been Yes, he No, he

she working? she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they

16.2 Use
It is used to denote an action lasting during a certain I wondered how long they would have been packing
period of time before a definite moment which was by the time I returned.
future from the point of view of the past.

TENSES IN THE PASSIVE VOICE

THE INDICATIVE
Form
to be (different tenses) + past participle

Table of tenses
Present Past Future Future in the Past
Indefinite I am invited to the I was invited to the I shall be invited to I should be invited
theatre. theatre. the theatre. (voi fi to the theatre. (voi
(eram/fusei/fui/am invitat) fi invitat)
fost invitat)
Continuous I am being invited to I was being invited
the theatre. to the theatre.

Perfect I have been invited I had been invited I shall have been I should have been
to the theatre. to the theatre. invited to the theatre. invited to the
(fusesem invitat) (voi fi fost invitat) theatre. (voi fi fost
invitat)

Notice the passive infinitive: We’d love to be given this flat.

These books should be read by the end of this week.
Use
Passive sentences move the focus from the subject to the object of Millions of people buy it.
active sentences. The object of an active sentence becomes the It is bought by millions of people.
subject of the passive sentence.
Passive is not another way of expressing the same sentence in the Columbus discovered America.
active. We choose the active or the passive depending on what we America was discovered by Columbus.
are more interested in. In the first sentence we are more interested
in the person performing the action; in the second we want to show
that we are more interested in the receiver of the action. (i.e.
America)
Very often by and the doer are omitted. In this case: My car was stolen last night.
 the doer is unknown. In silence the work was done.
 the doer is unimportant. Tom was sent off early, however, to a
 we understand who the doer is. school in London.
The passive is associated with an impersonal, formal style. It is It has been noticed that reference
often used in notices and announcements. books have been removed from the
library.
In informal language, we often use you, we, and they to refer to We travel by train in this country.
people in general or to no person in particular. In this way we can
avoid using the passive.
The same meaning is expressed in formal language using one. One should dress to suit the occasion.
NB! Many past participles are used more like adjectives. We are very worried about you.
I’m exhausted! I’ve been working all
day.
Only transitive and prepositional verbs are used in the passive. The article is referred to.

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of verb.
2. Name the grammatical categories of the verb.
3. According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:

B. Application
1. Explain the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs.
2. Explain the common features of simple and continuous tenses.
3. Explain the common features of perfect and perfect-continuous tenses.

C. Integration
1. Compare the Active and Passive Voice.

MODAL VERBS
Form
Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, need, ought to, dare, had better (to be able to,
to have to) – modal verbs.
They are helping verbs that express a wide range of meanings: ability, permission, possibility, necessity, etc.
Most of the modals have more than one meaning.
Characteristics

There is no –s in the third person. He can speak English.

Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. He needs a new car.
There is no auxiliary verb in the question. May I ask a question?
Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. He didn’t dare to meet his uncle.
There is no auxiliary verb in the negative. I cannot speak English.
Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. You don’t have to go there at 8 o’clock.
They are followed by an infinitive without to. It might rain.
Exception: ought to, to be able to, to have (got) to, and Kate ought to study harder.
sometimes need, dare.
They don’t really have past forms or infinitives or –ing I had to work hard when I was young. (trebuia)
forms. Other verbs are used instead.
They can be used with perfect infinitives to refer to the She must have been crazy to marry him.
past.

Ability  Can Bob can play the piano.

Can  The past is expressed by could. Bob could play the piano when he was
Could three.
Be able to  Other forms are provided by be able to. I love being able to drive.
  Was able to or managed to (not could) is The fire spread through the building very
used to express a fulfilled ability on one quickly but everyone was able/ managed
particular occasion in the past. to escape.

 Could + the perfect infinitive is used to We could have gone to the cinema last
express an unrealized past ability. Someone night, but we decided to stay at home.
was able to do something in the past, but
didn’t try to.
 Could can be used to criticize people for not You could tell me if you are going to be
doing things. We feel that they are not doing late!
their duty. You could have done something to help
me instead of just sitting there!
Possibility/  Will and won’t are used to express what we Leave the meat in the oven. It won’t be
probability/ believe or guess to be true about the present. cooked yet.
assumption They indicate an assumption based on our You’ve got a letter. – It’ll be from my
knowledge of people and things their aunt.
Will routines, character, and qualities.
Must
Have to  Must/ have to is used when you are almost You must be joking. I don’t believe you.
Should 100 percent certain that something is She can’t have a ten-year-old daughter.
May possible. The negative of this use is can’t. She’s only twenty-five herself.
Might
Could  May and might is used when you are less
Couldn’t certain. They express possibility in the We may come very early. We don’t know
present or future. There’s no important exactly.
difference between them.
 Might is more tentative and slightly less It might rain. Take your umbrella!
certain than may.

 Could has a similar meaning to might. It There could be another rise in the price
expresses present and future possibility. The of petrol soon.
negative of could in this use is might not. Jack might not be in his office.

 Can’t/ couldn’t is used when you are almost

100 percent certain that something is She couldn’t have a ten-year-old
impossible. Couldn’t is only slightly weaker daughter. She’s only twenty-five herself.
than can’t.
He should be home at the usual time. (if
 Should expresses what may reasonably be
there’s no traffic jam)
expected to happen. Expectation means
believing that things are or will be as we
want them to be. This use of should has the
idea of if everything has gone according to
plan.
 Use could in questions. We rarely use might
Could he be at home?
and we never use may in questions about
possibility.
I met a tall girl at your party. Very
NB. All the modal auxiliary verbs above can be
attractive. – That will have been my
used with the perfect infinitive. They express the
sister, Nancy.
same varying degrees of certainty.
He may have got lost.
Will have done is the most certain.
She didn’t answer. She might have been
Might/ could/ have done is the least certain.
in the bath.
Permission May, can, and could are used to ask for May I use your phone?
May permission.
Can
Could May, can can’t – to give permission.
 May sounds very formal.
 Can and can’t are more common.
 Can, could, or be allowed to are used to talk
about permission generally, or permission in
the past.
Request  Can, could, will, would express a request.
Can Could  Could and would are more polite.
Will Would NB. Do not use could and would to answer
polite requests.
Advice/ mild  Should, ought to, and had better have
obligation basically the same meaning. They mean this
Should, is a good idea/ this is good advice.
Ought to  Ought to is not usually used in the negative.
Had better
 Had better often carries a warning of bad You had better not be late! If you are
consequences. It never refers to the past. late, you will get into a lot of trouble.
 Should/ ought to/ could/ might + the perfect
infinitive is used to refer to a past action that
didn’t happen. The action would have been a
god idea. The good advice is too late!
 Should not have/ ought not to have are the He shouldn’t have missed the exam.
only forms used in negative statements.
 Use only should in questions.
Obligation/  Must expresses strong/ important obligation.
necessity
Must  Other verb forms are provided by have to.
Have to
Need
 Must expresses an obligation imposed by the
speaker. It expresses the opinion of the
speaker, his feelings.
 Must is associated with a more formal,
written style.
 Have to expresses a habitual, repeated
obligation.
 Have to expresses an obligation imposed
from the outside. It gives facts, not feelings.
Can/ could I go home?
You can go.
You can’t smoke in here. It’s forbidden.
Children can/ are allowed to do what
they want these days.
I couldn’t/ was allowed to have a cookie.
Can/ could/ will/ would you please open
the door?
Yes. Of course./ I’d be happy to.
The children shouldn’t be playing. They
should be at school.
You ought to study tonight.
Hello, Ann. The party last night was
great. You should have come. Why didn’t
you.
I ought to have taken that job.
(I didn’t take the job. That was a mistake)
She could have gone to a better school.
(She didn’t go to a good school. Now she
regrets.)
You might have told me.
(You didn’t tell me. That was wrong.)
Should I apply for this job?
You must try harder! I must be at the
hospital at 2. It’s most important.
You mustn’t hit your baby brother.
You will have to do this exercise again.
I must get my hair cut. (I’m telling
myself)
Candidates must answer three questions.
(on an exam paper) Books must be
returned by the end of the week.
(Instructions in a library)
I have to be at the hospital at 7 o’clock
every morning. I begin work at 7.00.
I can’t meet you on Friday. I have to
work.
You mustn’t steal. It’s very naughty.
  Mustn’t expresses negative obligation.
 Don’t have to expresses the absence of
obligation.
 Have got to is common in British English. It
is more informal than have to.
You don’t have to go to England if you
want to learn English.
I’ve got to go now. Cheerio!
Don’t have a late night. We’ve got to get
up early tomorrow.

NB. Sometimes there’s no difference between I have to / must go now.

must and have to.

 Need – which has two forms: regular verb He needs to hurry.

and modal verb. As a regular verb, it has the
meaning to require, to be in the need of
and it forms the negative and the
interrogative with the help of do/ did.
 As a modal verb it means to have to. Need she get up early? – Yes, she must.

 Didn’t need to shows that the action was not I didn’t need to go at 8, so I didn’t.
necessary and it was not performed.
I needn’t have bought any eggs, because
 Needn’t have + Past Participle expresses an
I had plenty. (but I bought)
unnecessary action, which was, nevertheless,
performed.
Willingness/  Will I will not answer it.
refusal  Shall is used in questions. Shall I shut the door?
Will Shall  Wouldn’t is used in the past. Ann said she wouldn’t help him.
Wouldn’t
Indignation,  Might/ how dare express indignation, You might listen to me when I am talking
reproach reproach. to you.
Might/ How dare you interrupt me?
How dare
Supposition  I daresay – I suppose. I daresay you are my neighbour’s
Daresay brother.
Should  Should If he is eight years old, he should be
taller than your daughter.
They should have finished their work by
now.

Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of modal verbs.
2. What do the modal verbs express?

B. Application
1. Explain the common features of modal verbs.

C. Integration
1. Suggest another way of classifying the English modal verbs.
2. Compare the modal verbs that express ability, possibility, advice, and necessity.
 MOODS

Moods

Indicative Imperative Subjunctive Conditional

THE IMPERATIVE
The imperative expresses a command, an order, an invitation, etc.

Form
Singular Affirmative Negative

The 1st person Let + me + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let + me + Short
Let me repeat! Infinitive
Do not let me repeat!
The 2nd person Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Short Infinitive
Repeat! Don’t repeat!
The 3rd person Let + Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Noun/ Pronoun +
Let Tom repeat! Short Infinitive
Let the cat eat! Don’t let Tom repeat!
Don’t let the cat go!

Plural Affirmative Negative

The 1st person Let + us (Let’s) + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let + us + Short Infinitive
Let us/ let’s repeat! Do not let us repeat!
The 2nd person Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Short Infinitive
Repeat! Don’t repeat!
The 3rd person Let + Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Noun/ Pronoun +
Let the children repeat! Short Infinitive
Don’t let them repeat!

THE CONDITIONAL

The Present Conditional

Form
should/ would + short infinitive
Affirmative and negative
I should/ would
We should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t)

He/ She/ It would live in Chisinau

You would not (wouldn’t)
They

Interrogative and short answers

 Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.

he live in Chisinau? Yes, he No, he

she she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they

The Past Conditional

Form
should/ would + have + Past Participle
Affirmative and negative
I should/ would
We should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t)

He/ She/ It would have lived in Chisinau

You would not (wouldn’t)
They

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.

he have lived in Yes, he No, he

she Chisinau? she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they

Use
MAIN/ REGENT CLAUSE “IF” CLAUSE

Type I Future Present

(open/ probable condition)
Such sentences express a condition that may or John will help you if he has time.
may not be fulfilled. John te va ajuta dacă va avea timp.
Type II Present Conditional Past Tense
( rejected/ improbable/ hypothetical/ unreal (be – were)
condition)
The past tense in the conditional clause is not a John would help you if he had time.
real Past a tense, but a Subjunctive, indicating John te-ar ajuta dacă ar avea timp.
improbability or unreality.
Type III Past Conditional Past Perfect
( impossible condition)
The conditional clause expresses something John would have helped you if he had had time.
completely hypothetical, and represents what is John te-ar fi ajutat dacă ar fi avut timp.
contrary to past fact. The Past Perfect indicates
past unreality.
 Other Possible Variants of Tenses Rules Used in Conditional Sentences

“IF” CLAUSE MAIN/ REGENT CLAUSE

Present Tense Present Tense
If you boil water, it turns to vapour.
Dacă fierbi apa, ea se transformă în vapori.

Past Tense Past Tense

If he did that, he was courageous.
Dacă el a făcut aceasta, el a fost curajos.

Past Tense Future Tense

If Jane didn’t manage to call yesterday, she will do it tomorrow.
Dacă Jane n-a reuşit să sune ieri, ea va suna mîine.

Present Perfect Present Tense

If John hasn’t finished his homework, why is he playing?
Dacă John nu şi-a făcut temele, de ce se joacă ?

Present Perfect Imperative

If you haven’t understood the instructions, read them again.
Dacă n-ai înţeles instrucţiunile, citeşte-le din nou.

Past tense Imperative

If she didn’t read it yesterday, tell her to read it today.
Dacă n-a citit ieri cartea, spune-i să o citească astăzi.

Should + Infinitive Imperative

If you should meet them, remind them of our appointment.
Dacă se întîmplă sa-i intîlneşti, aminteşte-le de întîlnirea noastră.

Present Tense (real condition) Present Conditional (unreal action)

If you have a few hours to spare, I would invite you to the cinema.
Dacă ai cîteva ore libere, te-aş invita la cinema.

Past Tense (condition contrary to present fact) Past Conditional (unfulfilled action in the past)
If she were a better singer, she would have participated in the festival
Dacă ar fi o cîntăreaţă mai bună, ar fi participat la festival.

Past Perfect (unreal condition in the past) Present Conditional (the result of the condition in
the present)
If he hadn’t had an accident, he wouldn’t be in hospital now.
Dacă n-ar fi avut un accident, n-ar fi în spital acum.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

- is used to express either a possible action, or unreality, improbability, that is something contrary to fact.
 Subjunctive

Synthetical Analytical

Present Past Past Perfect

Use/ Form
The Synthetical Subjunctive

The Present Subjunctive is identical to the short infinitive. It occurs in formal, informal, and American
English. It is used:
 to express wishes or set expressions. Long live peace! – Traiasca pacea!
God forbid! – Fereasca Dumnezeu!
 in subordinate that-clauses when the main clause
expresses a desire, a demand, a requirement, an
obligation, a necessity, etc.
a) in direct object clauses, after such verbs as: to They suggested that steps be taken to consolidate
suggest, to order, to demand, to urge, to peace and security in Europe. – S-a propus luarea de
recommend, to require, to propose, to arrange to: măsuri pentru consolidarea păcii si securitaţii .
b) in subject clauses after such impersonal It is necessary that your friend inform us of the
constructions as: it is necessary/ advisable/ decision.
possible/ impossible, etc.
c) in appositive attributive clauses. There was a proposal that he be elected captain.
 In conditional clauses. If this rumour be true, we cannot stay here.

The Past Subjunctive is identical to the Past Tense of the verb. It is used:

 in conditional clauses, to express a Present If I saw her, I would be glad.

Conditional.
 after wish, it’s (high) time, as if/ though, even
if/ though, would rather/ sooner, suppose
(that).
 after it’s (high) time we can also use for +
object + long infinitive.
It’s (high) time + for + object + long infinitive - it
is the exact time for the action.
It’s (high) time + Subjunctive – it is already a little
late.
He wishes he were in France now.
He is singing as though he were a great artist.
It’s (high) time for him to start learning a foreign
language. ( it is the proper time)
It is high time he started learning a foreign
language. ( E de mult timpul)

The Past Perfect Subjunctive is identical to the Past Perfect of the verb. It is used:

 in conditional clauses to express a Past If she had read the book, she would have answered
Conditional. my questions better.

 after wish (to express a regretted action in the I wish(ed) I had been there too.
past), as if/ though and even if/ though. He talked as if he had seen her.
 The Analytical Subjunctive
Shall/ should/ would/ may/ might/ could + Present/ Perfect Infinitive.
It is much more often used than the Synthetic Subjunctive.
Shall + Infinitive is used:

 in main clauses. Shall I help you with your homework?

 in subordinate clauses. They have decided that you shall go there. (is not
generally used in spoken English)
Should + Infinitive is used:

 in main clauses. Why should they behave in this way? ( De ce-ar

trebui ...)
 in subordinate clauses:
a) in direct object clauses, after such verbs as: to They demanded that the meeting should be held
suggest, to insist, to demand, to propose, to without delay. (Au cerut ca ...)
command, etc.
b) in subject clauses after such impersonal It is necessary that they should come so early. (Este
constructions as: it is/was necessary/ impossible/ necesar ca ei ...)
essential/ important, vital/ right/ advisable/
natural/ surprising, etc.
c) in appositive attributive clauses. There’s no reason why he should be late.
d) in conditional clauses. If he should come, tell him to wait. (Dacă vine
cumva/ se intimpla să vina ...)
e) subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by He hurried for fear he should be late. ( ... de frică
lest, for fear (that), in case. să nu ...)
f) concessive clauses introduced by though, Whatever he should say, I don’t believe him. (ce n-
although, whatever: ar zice ...)
May/ Might + Infinitive is used:

 in main clauses to express a wish.
 in subordinate clauses:
a) subject clauses after such impersonal
constructions as: it is/was possible/ probable/
likely, etc.
e) subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by
that, in order that, so that.
f) concessive clauses introduced by though,
although, however, whatever, no matter:
Would + Infinitive is used:
May you live long! ( Să traiesti mulţi ani!)
It is possible that she may know the answer. (E
posibil ce ea să ştie ...)
She spoke clearly so that everyone might
understand. (... aşa ca toţi să înţeleagă)
However tired he might be, he must come down and
talk to us. ( Oricît de oboist n-ar fi ..)

 in direct object clauses after wish. (to express a They wish we would pay them a visit soon.
wish for a future action which doesn’t have
chances to be completed)
 in subordinate clauses of purpose. She learnt a lot so that she would be able to pass
the exam.
Could + Infinitive
This construction is used to express purpose as an alternative to may/ might.
May/ Might + Infinitive is more formal.
Could + Infinitive has a higher degree of certainty.
 VERBALS

THE INFINITIVE
Form
Active Passive
Indefinite To write (a scrie) To be written ( a fi scris)
Continuous To be writing (a scrie)
Perfect To have written (a fi scris) To have been written (a fi fost scris)
Perfect Continuous To have been writing (a fi scris)

A) The infinitive has verb characteristics:

1. Tense: Present and perfect:
The Present Infinitive may refer to:
 the Present:
 the Past:
 the Future:
The Perfect Infinitive shows either that the
action expressed by it precedes
 a past action/ moment:
 or a future action/ moment:
 or that it has a hypothetical meaning
2. Voice: Active
Passive
3. Aspect: Common and continuous
to go; to have gone
I want to go on a trip.
I was glad to see your sister.
I’ll tell her to read that book.
She left too early to have met them. (ca să-i fi întîlnit)
He will want to have read this before he goes to bed.
I expected him to have understood us.
We hope to come tomorrow.
It is glorious to be loved.

B) The infinitive has noun characteristics. It

has the function of: subject, direct object, To doubt is almost to insult. (subject)
predicative, attribute. At boarding school she learned to dance. (direct object)

C) The use of the infinitive without to:

 after modal verbs: One cannot have what one loves.
Exception: ought You ought to go earlier.
 after verbs denoting perception: I never saw you look so well before.
 after to make and to let: What makes you think so?
 after had/would rather, had better, would
sooner, better than, rather than, sooner than, I had better go now.
more than, can (not) but, nothing but:

D) Constructions with the Infinitive

1. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used:
 After verbs that express perception: to hear, to
feel, to notice, to perceive, to see, to watch and I heard the baby cry.
after to let, to make, to have (to experience, to
cause), to have known.
 After verbs expressing volition: to want, to I want you to come and dine with me.
desire, to forbid, to intend, to demand, to wish:
 After verbs expressing mental activities: to
believe, to consider, to expect, to imagine, to Everybody expected her to marry Pete.
know, to suppose, to think, to trust, to
understand, etc.:
 After verbs expressing permission or a
command: to allow, to command, to compel, to He ordered his carriage to be ready early in the
morning.
 force, to oblige, to order, to permit, to urge, to
warn:
 After verbs like: to advise, to appoint, to assist,
to choose, to challenge, to convince, to enable, to She advised me not to gossip.
persuade, to send, etc.:

2. The nominative with the Infinitive is used:

 With the following verbs in the Passive Voice: to
believe, to expect, to feel, to find (out), to hear, to He was supposed to be a gifted doctor.
imagine, to know, to notice, to perceive, to
report, to say, to see, to suppose, etc.:
 With the following verbs in the Active Voice: to
appear, to chance, to happen, to prove, to seem, He happens to know English. Din întâmplare ştie
to turn out, etc.: Engleza.
 With such constructions as: to be
lucky/fortunate/unlucky/unfortunate, to be He is sure to be late as usual.(Sigur că are să
certain/positive/sure, to be likely: întîrzie. )

THE GERUND

Active Passive
Indefinite writing Being written
Perfect Having written Having been written

Use
A) The Gerund has noun characteristics:
 It can have a plural form. I can’t understand his comings and goings.
 It can have a Genitive form. I didn’t like the idea of staying there
 It can be preceded by a genitive or possessive They disliked Jane’s smoking so much.
adjective. Her being late was noticed.
 It can perform the function of: subject, Reading is her best relaxation. (subject)
object, predicative, attribute, adverbial Have you given up smoking?(object)
modifier. I don’t understand his way of behaving. (attribute)
B) The Gerund has verb characteristics:
 It may have tense: Present I don’t mind her seeing me. (că m-a văzut ori m-a vedea)
Perfect I don’t mind her having seen me. (că m-a văzut)
 Voice: Active He loves writing poems.
Passive I don’t mind being seen by her.
 It may have an object. Singing folk songs is her greatest talent.
 It may have an adverbial modifier. This is worth doing well.
C) Use

 To express prohibition No Parking!

 After such verbs and phrasal verbs as: to admit, to
advise, to anticipate, to avoid, to begin, to consider, to He avoided looking at Ann.
continue, to delay, to deny, to detest, to dread, to Forgive my speaking rudely!
dislike, to enjoy, to escape, to excuse, to fancy, to Give up smoking, please!
finish, to forget, to forgive, to hate, to imagine, to
intend, to involve, to go on, to give up, to keep (on), to
like, to love, to mind, to miss, to omit, to postpone, to
practice, to put off, to recollect, to remember, to regret,
to resist, to risk, to save, to start, to stop, to suggest, to
try, to understand, etc.:
 After the following verbs with the prepositions: to They accuse me of having dealt with the
accuse of, to aim at, to agree with, to approve of, to Germans.
consist in, to count on, to dissuade from, to rely on, to I insist on being treated with a certain
result in, to succeed in, to think of, etc.: consideration.
 After be/get + adjective/Past Participle + preposition:
to be afraid of, to be agreeable to, to be annoyed at, to She was not pleased at my coming.
be capable of, to be intent on, to be interested in, to be She was surprised at seeing me there.
responsible for, to be suitable for, to be surprised at, to
be tired of, to be/get used to, to be/ get accustomed to,
etc:
 After such nouns with prepositions: apology for, art
of, change of, disappointment at, experience in, habit The art of letter writing is disappearing.
of, necessity of objection to, opportunity of, pleasure He is well known for his art in marketing.
of, necessity of objection to, opportunity of, pleasure
of, possibility of, reason for, skill in, surprise at, etc.:
 After there is, there was, it is no good, (it is) no use, it There was singing and dancing everywhere.
is useless, etc.: No use buying it, it isn’t new.

 There are some verbs or nouns that can be followed

either by the Gerund or by the Infinitive: to begin, to I began reading/to read an interesting book.
cease, to continue, to start.

THE PARTICIPLE

The Participle

The Present Participle The Past Participle

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

Active Passive
Indefinite writing being written
Perfect having written having been written.

Use
A) It has verb characteristics:
 It has tense and voice.
 It can be modified by an adverb.
 It can have a direct or indirect object.
 It is used with to be
a) to show simultaneous actions:
b) to show simultaneous actions
B) The participle has adjective characteristics:
 Sometimes it has degrees of comparison.
 It can have the functions of attribute and
predicative:
C) The participle has adverb characteristics:
writing, being written, having written, having been written.
We are reading now.
They are building a house.
A boy passed by me carrying a box.
Frankly speaking, he is a smart man. (if we speak ...)
She is more amusing than I thought.
This is no laughing matter.
The effect of her words was terrifying....
 It modifies an adjective: It is raining cold.
 It has the function of adverbial modifier: When going to school, he met his friend.
D) Participial Constructions

1. The Accusative with the Participle is used:

 after verbs of perception: to feel, to hear, to I can smell something burning.
listen, to see, to observe, to notice, to smell, etc.
 after to catch, to find, to imagine, to keep, to I found her reading a book.
leave, to start, etc.
2. The Nominative with the Participle is used:
She was heard speaking English.
 with verbs of perception in the passive:
3. The Absolute Nominative
In this construction the Present Participle is used
independently from the predicate of the sentence and The door being open, we looked in.
its subject is different from the subject of the
sentence:
4. The Absolute Participle
The Present Participle that occurs in this Frankly speaking, he is right.
construction has no subject:

THE PAST PARTICIPLE

Form: translated, broken, read.
Use
 as an adjective a locked door, a written letter
 as part of the perfect forms of the verb I have already made a mistake.
 as part of the Passive Voice It is said that you are a liar.
 its functions in the sentence: attribute, adverbial They were into a large room lit up with Chinese
modifier, predicative, part of a complex object. lamps. (attribute)
In spite of himself, Val was impressed. (predicative)

THE MODAL WORDS

The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability the action he
speaks about.

Characteristics Examples

According to their meaning modal words express:

a) certainty: Certainly, surely, of course, no doubt, apparently, etc.
b) supposition: Perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.
c) whether the speaker considers the action he speaks Happily – unhappily, luckily – unluckily, fortunately
about desirable or undesirable: – unfortunately.

In the sentence they are used as parentheses:
Most of them have developed from adverbs, so very
often there exists a formal identity between modal
words and adverbs:
Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a
month.
Certainly, surely, happily (which are homonymous
with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily)
 THE INTERJECTION
The interjection is the part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.

Interjections

According to their meaning: primary

emotional imperative secondary

Types of Characteristics Examples

interjections
emotional Express the feelings of the speaker. Ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.
Alas! The white house was empty and there was
a bill in the window “To let” (sorrow).
Psha! There’s no possibility of being witty
without a little ill nature. (contempt)

imperative Show the will of the speaker or his order Here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.
or appeal to the hearer. Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going.
(protest)

primary Are not derived from other parts of Ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, etc.
speech. Most of them are simple words.
Only a few primary interjections are Heigh – ho, hey – ho, holla – ho, gee – ho.
composite.
secondary Rederived from other parts of speech. Well, now, here, there, come, why, dear me, hang
They are homonymous with the words it, etc.
they are derived from.

THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the
relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
 Prepositions

According to their form According to their meaning

simple place and direction

derivative time

compound abstract relations

composite

simple derivative compound composite place and time abstract

direction relations

In, on , at, Behind, Inside, outside, Because of, in In, on , After, at, By, with,
for, with, below, across, within, without, front of, in below, under, before, etc. because of,
etc. along, etc. etc. accordance etc. with a view
with, etc. to, etc.

Prepositions in time expressions

at in on no preposition
at six o’clock in the morning/ on Saturday today
at noon/ midnight/ night afternoon/ evening on Monday morning yesterday
at Christmas in December on Christmas Day tomorrow
at the weekend in summer on January 18 the day after tomorrow
in 1995 on holliday the day before yesterday
in two weeks’ time last night
last week
two weeks ago
next month
yesterday evening
tomorrow evening
this evening
tonight

Prepositional Constructions that Present Difficulties

On time – in time

On time At exactly the right time. Our English class always starts on time.
In time Early, soon enough for something. We got to the station in time. (before the
train left)

At the end - in the end

At the end At the point when something stops. We are going on a trip at the end of this
week.
In the end Finally, at last. At thirst, we didn’t understand that
 exercise, but in the end we could do it.

As – like

As Refers to a job, role or a function of someone She works as a teacher. (She really is a
or something. teacher.)
Like When we make comparisons. She is talking like a teacher. (She is not a
teacher)

NB. Either as or like can be used before a We are spending this weekend as/like we
clause that means “in the same way”: usually do.

Before - in front of

Before It is used with dynamic and static verbs He was sitting before us.
meaning before one reaches.
In front of Refers to position and often presupposes a The tree in front of my house is a chestnut
surface. – tree.

Between – among

Between Is usually used for two objects, clearly distinct
from the others.
Among Refers to a mass, a crowd, or a group, a
collection of things which do not see
separately.
The verbs to divide and to share are followed
by between when used with several singular
nouns.
She was sitting between the table and the
chair.
We saw a house hidden among the trees.
She shared her property between her
brother, her son and her daughter.

Of – from – with + made

Of When the materials can be recognized clearly.

Made of iron/ plastic/wood
From When the ingredients are not obvious. The ice-cream is made from cream, sugar
and lemon.
With When we try to identify one or more of the This chocolate is made with milk.
ingredients.

Arrive in – arrive at

Arrive in A country or town. They arrived in England/ Paris last week.

Not: arrived to England.
Arrive at Other places. Arrive at the station, at work, at the hotel.
NB. arrive home
 In the corner – on the corner – at the corner

In the corner When the corner is inside something. In the corner of a room, triangle, square.
On the corner When there’s no enclosure. There’s a lamp on the corner of our road.
At the corner Can be used for either.

In a photograph/ picture – on a photograph/ picture

In a For the persons/ things portrayed in the Are you in this photograph?
photograp picture or photograph.
h/ picture
On a For something which is not part of it, but only There’s some dust on this photograph.
photograp on its surface.
h/ picture

To –in denoting direction

To Denotes position in relation to a country or Hungary is to the west of Romania.

city. Iasi is to the north-east of Bucuresti.
In Denotes position within that country or city. Iasi is in the north –east of Romania.
Transylvania is in the north of Romania.

At – in

At Is preferred with names of buildings and I was educated in Cluj-Napoca at Babes –

institutions, with villages and small Bolyai University.
towns.
In Is used with names of countries, provinces, He lives in Italy.
cities.

The Difference between English and Romanian Prepositions

English Romanian English Romanian

In the playground Pe terenul de joc In the sky Pe cer

In the sun La soare In the open air La aer curat
On the way to În drum spre On the first floor La etajul I
Round the corner După colţ At present În prezent
At the same time În acelaşi timp At this moment În acest moment
In a year’s time Peste un an In my opinion După parerea mea
In English Pe englezeşte Word for word Cuvînt cu cuvînt
By my watch După ceasul meu By mistake Din greseală
To look out of the A privi pe fereastră To get in through the A intra pe fereastră
window window
On fire În flăcări In the reign of Sub domnia lui
Wild with happiness Nebun de fericire Drenched to the skin Udat pîna la piele
A lesson in English O lecţie de Engleză A professor in the Profesor la Universitate.
University
 THE CONJUNCTION

The conjunction is a word that connects sentences, clauses or words with the same syntactical function.

Conjunctions

According to their form According to their function

simple coordinating

compound subordinate

correlative

conjunctional phrases

Type Characteristics Examples

Simple and, but, if, that.

Compound however, notwithstanding, otherwise, unless.
Correlative as... as; both... and; either... or; neither... nor; not
only... but also; whether... or.
Conjuncti- as well as...; as if/though...; for that reason...; for
onal phrases instance...; in order that/to...; that is why...; so long as.
Coordinate  copulative conjunctions - and; and... as well; as well as; besides; both...and;
imply that something or further; furthermore; no less than; neither... nor; not...
somebody is added to either; not... but also; not only... but... too;
something or somebody else. She opened the door and went inside.
If you go, I'll go as well.
 adversative conjunctions – but; whereas; while.
express a contrast. He's tall whereas I am short.
 disjunctive conjunctions - or; else; or else; otherwise; either... or.
express an alternative. Take this taxi; else you will miss the train.
She must either go now or stay.
 causative-consecutive so; for; accordingly; consequently; on that account;
conjunctions – denote hence; so; then; that is why; therefore.
consequence, result, or reason. My sister has a headache. So, she can't come with us.
The teacher didn't explain that problem clearly;
consequently we didn't understand it.
Subordinate  connect subordinate clauses that; what; who; which; whoever; whatever;
with their corresponding regent whichever; when; how; why; where; whosoever; if;
sentences or clauses. Some of whether.
such conjunctions introduce
only certain clauses Who will be captain of the team has not yet been
(although/though - concessive decided. (subj. clause)
clauses; as if/though - The woman whose hair is grey is our grandmother.
comparison clauses; etc.), (attributive clause)
others can introduce several Before you go, you must finish your job. (adverbial
 types of clauses (that – clause of time)
object/subject/predicative/at-
tributive clauses; if -
conditional/direct object
clauses etc.). They can also be
introduced by relative adverbs
or relative pronouns which
play the part of a conjunction.

THE PARTICLE

The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or
clauses.

Particles according to their meaning:

limiting intensifying connecting negative

Types of Examples
particles:
limiting Only, just, but, alone, solely, I only wanted to make you speak.
merely, barely, etc. Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your
husband?
intensifying Simply, still, just, yet, all, He just did dislike him.
but, only, quite, even, etc. They did not even know that he was married.
connecting Too, also. He was silent. Soames, too, was silent.
Higgins takes off the hat and overcoat. Pickering comes in. He
also takes off his hat and overcoat.
negative Not, never. No, he was not afraid of that.
I never spoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me.
 PART II: SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

The simple sentence

According to the purpose According to the

of utterance structure

declarative two-member

interrogative one-member

imperative

exclamatory

Types of sentence Characteristics Examples

the declarative States a fact in the affirmative or negative form He was born in 1962.
sentence
the interrogative a) general questions: Do you like art?
sentence: b) special questions: Where do you live?
c) alternative questions: Do you live in town or in the
country?
d) disjunctive questions: You speak English, don’t you?

the imperative Induces a person to do something, so it expresses Stop talking!

sentence a command, a request, an invitation, etc.
the exclamatory Expresses some kind of emotion or feeling What a lovely day it is!
sentence
two-member  it has two members: a subject and a She had established immediate
sentence predicate (if one of them is missing it is contact with an architect.
easily understood from the context). It can
be:
a) complete when it has a subject and a I met her yesterday.
predicate:
b) incomplete: (when one of the principal parts or Who does it for you?
both of them are missing, but can be easily James, of course.
understood from the context – they are called: Where were you yesterday?
elliptical): At the cinema.
a one member-  it has only one member which is neither Dusk – of a summer night.
sentence: the subject, nor the predicate
 it is generally used in descriptions and
emotional speech To have his friendship, his
 the main part is often expressed by: admiration, but not at that price.
1) noun (sometimes modified by attributes)
2) infinitive
unextended  consists only of the principal parts: She is a student.
Winter!
extended  consists of the subject, predicate and one They visited me yesterday.
or more secondary parts:

QUESTIONS

Questions

General Special Alternative Disjunctive

Types of Characteristics Examples

questions
General  require the answer yes or no. Do you have classes on
Saturday?
Are you well today?
Special  begin with an interrogative word. Who is Cher?
How do people communicate?
Alternative  indicate choice. Do you have English on
Monday or on Tuesday?
Disjunctive  require the answers yes or no and consist of an You are Jenny, aren’t you?
affirmative statement followed by a negative It isn’t a very nice day, is it?
question, or a negative statement followed by
an affirmative question.
 we repeat the auxiliary verb in the question. You haven’t been here before,
have you?
NB. If there’s no auxiliary we use: do, does, did. She bought this book, didn’t
she?
 If we have modal verbs, we repeat them in the You can speak French, can’t
question. you?
 Notice the meaning of yes and no in answer to You’re coming, aren’t you?
question tags. Yes. (I am coming.)
No. (I’m not coming.)

THE MAIN PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE SUBJECT

Ways of expressing the subject: Examples

 a noun in the common (or occasionally The teacher brought a map.

possessive) case
 a pronoun (personal, demonstrative, indefinite,
possessive, interrogative)
 a substantivized adjective or participle
 a numeral (cardinal or ordinal)
Ada’s is a noble heart.
That set me thinking of my plan of action.
All were happy.
Hers is not a very successful plan called me.
The wounded were taken good care of.
The two were quite unable to do anything.
 The fist stood in front of him.
 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction To live is to work.
To be a rich man is not always roses and beauty.
 a gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction Lying doesn’t go well with me.
Winning the war is what counts.
 any part of speech used as a quotation On is a preposition.
 a group of words which is one part of the The needle and thread is lost. (here the subject
sentence, i.e. a syntactically indivisible group. represents one person).
Their friend and defender is darkly groping towards
the solution.

It as the subject of the sentence

The subject it

notional formal

introductory
impersonal emphatic
or anticipatory

Type of Characteristics Examples

subject
notional it represents a living being or a thing and has the following
characteristics:
 stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea – The door opened. It was opened
the personal it: by a young girl.
 points out a person or thing expressed by a It is John.
predicative noun, or it refers to the thought It was a large room with a great
contained in a preceding statement, thus having a window.
demonstrative meaning – the demonstrative it: Dick came home late, it provoked
his father.
formal it does not represent any person or thing. Here we must
distinguish:
a) the impersonal it, which is used to denote: It is cold in winter.
 natural phenomena or that which characterizes the It is delightfully quiet in the night.
environment.
 to denote time and distance: It is morning already.
b) the introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real It was curious to observe that
subject: child.
c) the emphatic it is used for emphasis: It was he who had brought the
book.
 THE PREDICATE

Predicate

Simple Compound

Compound nominal Compound verbal

Compound verbal modal

predicate

Compound verbal
aspect predicate

Type of Expressed by:/ characteristics Examples

predicate
The  a finite verb in a simple or compound tense Yesterday, Ann arrived home late.
simple form My dear I have been looking for
predicate you everywhere.
 a phraseological unit: to get rid, to take care,
to pay attention, to lose sight, to make fun, to
take care, to take part, to have a swim, to have
a run, to give a laugh, to give a push, to take a
look, etc.
a) a finite verb which lost its concrete Burton gave a kindly little chuckle.
meaning + a noun mostly used with the
indefinite article

b) a finite verb + abstract noun without Then we got rid of such

article inconveniences.

NB. The characteristic feature of this predicate is that C o m p a r e:

the finite verb has lost its concrete meaning to a certain My friend gave me an interesting book
extent and forms one unit with the noun, consequently to read.
the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb. It is The man gave a violent start.
impossible to put a question to the second component.

The  consists of two parts:

compound a) a finite verb + b) some other part of speech: a
predicate noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verbal, etc.

The  link verb + predicative. He grew more cheerful.

compound  it denotes the state or quality of the person or
nominal thing expressed by the subject.
predicate
The It is of two types:
compound 1. the compound verbal modal predicate
verbal 2. the compound verbal aspect predicate
predicate
The shows whether the action is possible, impossible,
compound obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. It consists of:
verbal  a modal verb and an infinitive. You can prove everything and
modal nothing.
predicate  modal expressions: to be + Infinitive, to The operation was to take place in
have + infinitive. the capital of the city.
I have to work for my living.

 a verb with a modal meaning ( to hope, to He wanted to throw himself into

expect, to intend, to attempt, to try, to the whirlpool of Paris.
endeavor, to long, to wish, to want, to desire, He tried to open the tin with a
etc.) and an infinitive or a gerund. pocket knife.

 modal expressions ( to be able, to be obliged, I am going to leave Paris.

to be bound, to be willing, to be anxious, to be
capable, to be going) and an infinitive.
The  consists of such verbs as: to begin, to start, to His bones ceased to ache.
compound commence to fall, to set about, to go on, to
verbal keep on, to proceed, to continue, to stop, to
aspect give up, to finish, to cease, to come and an
predicate infinitive or gerund.
 Would and used + Infinitive, which express a I used to write poetry myself when I
repeated action in the past, also belong here. was his age.

Mixed  the compound modal nominal predicate. He greatly longed to be the next
types of heir himself.
predicate:  the compound aspect nominal predicate. I continued to be glad for that.

 the compound modal aspect predicate. I had to begin living all over again.

NB.
The link verbs and their characteristics Examples
 have partly lost their original concrete meaning: to appear, to get, The nightmare of my life had
to grow, to continue, to feel, to keep, to look, to turn, to hold, to come true. (link verb)
prove, to turn out, to loom, to rank, to remain, to run, to seem, to Giles and Beatrice were coming
smell, to taste, to fall, to stand, to go, to work. Many of these verbs for the night. (verb of complete
can be used both as verbs of complete predication fully preserving prediction)
their concrete meaning and as link verbs: to be, to grow, to look, to
feel, to come, to go.
 There are some verbs which, though fully preserving their concrete The poor man sat amazed.
meaning, perform the function of link verbs: to lie, to sit, to die, to Tome went home miserable.
marry, to return, to leave, to come, to stand, to fall, to go, etc. They
are used with a predicative. According to their meaning link verbs
can be divided into two large groups:
a) link verbs of being and remaining: to be, to remain, to keep, to He was a nice-looking man of
continue, to look, to smell, to stand, to sit, to lie, to shine, to seem, to thirty perhaps...
prove, to appear, etc.
b) link verbs of becoming: to become, to get, to grow, to come, to go, ... he grew handsomer and more
to leave, to run, to turn, to make, etc. interesting.
 The predicative is expressed by:
 a noun in the common case, occasionally by a noun
in the possessive case.
 an adjective
 a pronoun – personal, possessive, negative,
interrogative, reflexive, indefinite, defining.
 a word of the category of state:
 a numeral, cardinal or ordinal.
 a prepositional phrase:
 an infinitive, infinitive phrase, or an infinitive
construction.
 a gerund, gerundial phrase, or gerundial
construction.
 Participle II or very seldom Participle I; the latter is
generally adjectivized.
 an adverb.
Examples
She is a pretty child.
He’s awfully dear and unselfish.
It was he. You are nobody. What is he?
He was aware of the state in which he was.
I’m only 46.
He was the first to break the dead silence.
The things were outside her experience.
June’s first thought was to go away.
His first act was to bolt the door on the inside.
The best thing is for you to move in with me.
My favorite sport is swimming.
The topic of their conversation was their going
on an expedition.
He was surprised at the sound of his voice.
The moment was soothing to his sore spirit.
It was enough the way she said it.

AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

 a singular subject takes a singular verb and a This girl speaks English.
plural subject takes a plural verb: These girls speak English.
 Collective nouns may be followed either by a My family is called Smith.
singular verb or a plural one. When such a noun
is regarded as a whole it takes a singular verb:
But when it is thought of as a group of individuals,
it takes a plural verb: My family are at home.
However, such collective nouns as: cattle, clergy,
people, police, public are always followed by a The cattle were gazing in the field.
plural verb. The police are investigating the case.
 Two singular subjects connected by either... or; Either the boy or the girl knows the answer.
neither ... nor; not only ... but also; no less
than ... ; and not are followed by a singular
verb:
But when one subject is singular and the other one Neither the teacher nor the pupils are in the
plural, the “rule of proximity” must be observed: classroom.
Neither the pupils nor the teacher is in the
classroom.
 Two or more subjects connected by and take a The dog and the cat are under the table.
plural verb:
However, when the two subjects are regarded as a Fish and chips is a traditional English food.
whole, a “single idea”, they are followed by a Whisky and soda is Tim’s favourite drink.
singular verb: My neighbour and friend comes here every day.
(one person)
My neighbour and my friend come here every
day.(two different persons)
 Nouns denoting units of measurement take a Fifty pounds is a lot of money.
singular verb when they are preceded by a Five years is a long time. (= period)
numeral: Twenty miles is a long distance.
 A singular noun proceeded by each, either, ever, Each boy tells us a joke.
 or neither takes a singular verb. Either book is interesting.
Every student knows this answer.
Neither solution was good.
 When a plural noun is preceded by neither of, it Neither of the girls lives/live in this house.
can be followed either by a singular or a plural
verb:
 The nouns body, heart, life, mind, soul are Many people lost their lives in World War II.
used in the plural whenever they refer to more
than one person:
 When the “formal subject” of a sentence is there, the
There’s a book on the table.
predicate must agree with the “real subject”: There are many trees in the garden.
 The noun number takes a singular verb when it The number of mistakes is very large.
is preceded by the definite article the and a A number of people were waiting for me.
plural verb when it is preceded by a:
 When the pronoun it is used in identifying or It is these boys who broke my window.
emphatic constructions, it is followed by a
singular verb:
 Singularia Tantum nouns (advice; information; Your information is very interesting.
furniture; damage; luggage; knowledge; Kerry’s luggage was very heavy.
machinery, etc.) are followed by a singular verb:
 Pluralia Tantum nouns will be followed either
 by plural verbs:
a) when they name things made of two parts His trousers are very smart.
(glasses; scissors; trousers)
b) when they are one of these: chemicals; contents;
ashes; surroundings, etc.
 or by singular verbs:
a) when they name diseases: measles; mumps Mumps is a very common illness with children.
b) games: billiards; draughts
c) when they are one of these: news; works, etc. Her news is extremely interesting.
 either by singular or by plural verbs after Acoustics is the scientific study of sound.
names of sciences, subjects or after such The acoustics of this room are very good.
nouns as: means; series; species.
 The words hundred, thousand, million etc., take Three hundred men were coming to the meeting.
the plural verb:
 The fractions -their verb depends on the noun Half the land is hilly.
determined by them: Half of the puppies were black.
Nine-tenths of English speech is idiomatic.
Two thirds of the flowers were faded.
 A great (good) deal – takes the singular verb: A great deal of time and pains is necessary for
the study of English.
 A great (good) many – the plural verb. A great many of the children were present.

 Fish. Fruit. (pesti, fructe) – take the pluralAre the fish fresh?
The fruit were green.
 A + noun + or two very often takes the plural A word or two is sufficient to convince him.
verb:
 THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

The secondary parts of the sentence

object attribute adverbial modifiers

THE OBJECT

The object

direct indirect complex cognate

of the first type of the second type

Ways of expressing the object: Examples:

 a noun in the common case We ought to give him a present, too.

 a pronoun ( personal in the objective case, You ought to know all about statues and things.
possessive, defining, reflexive, demonstrative,
indefinite)
 a substantivized adjective or participle Jane Forsyte always championed the
unfortunate.
 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive The sergeant ordered his men to stop.
construction
 a gerund, a gerundial phrase, or a gerundial Could they prevent flying in war-time?
construction
 any part of speech used as a quotation He called “hsst” several times.
 a prepositional phrase with a noun or a gerund Do you object to my going away for a month.
 a group of words which is one part of the sentence, He found a number of persons in that room.
i.e. a syntactically indivisible group
Kinds of The direct object The indirect object The complex object The cognate object
objects
Charact  is a noun in  denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is  consists of two components  it is used with intransitive
eristics the common directed  it can be prepositional and verbs though it has no
case or a  sometimes it also denotes a thing non-prepositional preposition
pronoun in the  the first component is a noun  it is expressed by a noun
objective case 1. of the first type, which expresses the addressee of the in the common case or in the which is either of the
that completes action. possessive case, a personal same root as the verb or
the meaning  is used with transitive verbs which take a direct object, pronoun in the objective is similar to it in meaning
of a transitive so it hardly ever stands alone. case, or a possessive pronoun  it is almost regularly
verb E.g. She gave him an interesting book to read.  the second component is an attended by an attribute
 is used after infinitive, a participle, a with which it forms a
transitive NB. As a rule the indirect object comes before the direct object. In gerund, seldom a noun, an combination that is close
verbs this case it is used without a preposition. adjective, a word denoting in meaning to an
 is used E.g. Without hope she sent Soames the telegram. state, or a prepositional adverbial modifier: to
without any When the direct object precedes the indirect object, the latter is used phrase live a happy life – to live
chiefly with the preposition to and sometimes for.
preposition happily
E.g. He was giving an interview to the correspondents.
But when the direct object is a pronoun and the indirect object a E.g. She thinks herself very  it is generally used in
noun, the indirect object follows the direct object. clever. such combinations as: to
E.g. I sent him to his mother. He could see the man and Great smile a sad smile, to
When the direct object is expressed by the pronoun it, it always Beaver talking together. laugh a bitter life, to die
precedes the indirect object. E.g. Give it to him. a violent death, etc.
There are a number of verbs after which the indirect object is used Thus these two waited with
with the preposition to even when it comes before the direct object. impatience for the three years to E.g. That night the roused
These are: to explain, to dedicate, to suggest, to relate, to announce, be over. forces of god and Evil fought
to ascribe, to attribute, to communicate, to introduce, to submit, to their terrible fight for her
repeat, to dedicate, to disclose, to interpret, to point out. soul...
E.g. I shall dictate to you the names of books.

2. of the second type (prepositional indirect object),

 which is more frequently used with intransitive verbs
 does not always express the addressee of the action.
 it can be used with any preposition
 is used with verbs, adjectives, words denoting state,
and nouns of verbal origin.
E.g. She was not aware of his being there.
 THE ATTRIBUTE

 is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that
has a nominal character
 can be either in pre-position or in post-position to the word it modifies

Ways of expressing the attribute: Examples

 an adjective The big girl is very lazy.

 a pronoun (possessive, defining,
demonstrative, interrogative, relative)
 a numeral (cardinal or ordinal)
 a noun in the common or possessive case
 a prepositional phrase
 an adverb
 Participle I and II or a participial phrase
 a prepositional phrase or a prepositional
construction with a gerund
 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an
infinitive construction
 quotation group
I looked at her from that moment.
In his final examinations he won six distinctions.
I recognized him as Todd, the village painter and carpenter.
Her father’s nerves would never stand the disclosure.
The letter from her sister reassured her.
The room above is large and light.
I was dazzled by the snow glittering on the tree tops.
Sally hated the idea of borrowing and living on credit.
All right, go back to your office; you’ve got work to do.
I don’t like “don’t-talk-to-me” air.

The apposition
 is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by a noun (with or without accompanying words)
which characterizes or explains the word modified by giving the person or thing another name

The apposition

close loose or detached

Types of Characteristics: Examples:

apposition
the close  is not separated by commas and stands in
apposition close connection with the word modified
(usually it is a proper noun). It denotes:
a) a title, rank, or profession, or relationship Professor Brown, Captain Marryat,
Aunt Polly, etc
b) or a geographical name: The River Thames, Mount Everest, etc.
NB. Sometimes the apposition consists of the the city of London
preposition of + noun.
the loose  it is not so closely connected with the noun Dr. Smith, my predecessor, was a
or  it is always separated by commas and has a classmate of my father’s.
detached stress of its own.
apposition
 THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

 it is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

 according to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifiers:

con-
cession
com-
pari-
purpose son

condi-
time tion

adverbia
fre- l
result
quency modifier
of

cause
place

man- degree
ner and
attendan measur
t e
circum-
stances

The adverbial modifiers: Examples:

 of time We shall try it tomorrow.

 of frequency
 of place and direction
 of manner
 of attendant circumstances
 of degree and measure
They had often bothered him.
Gains had spies everywhere.
Their conversations were conducted with icy formality.
Now I can go to bed at last without dreading tomorrow.
It is rather good.
It weighs a pound.
 of cause The men were weary, having run behind the beasts all day.
 of result (consequence) She is too fond of the child to leave it.
 of condition In case of your absence I shall leave you a note.

 of comparison Judice is as white as mud.

 of concession. (it is very rare) Though frightened he carried it off very well.
 of purpose They opened the way for her to come to him.

Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier: Examples

 an adverb Rachel turned instinctively t prevent a misfortune.

 a noun with or without accompanying words
 a prepositional phrase
 a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle,
or prepositional phrase with a subordinating
conjunction
 a participle or a participial phrase
 absolute constructions
 a prepositional phrase or construction with a
gerund
 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive
construction.
Next days the hours seemed to pass very slowly.
I walked straight up the lane.
Mary swims better than her sister.
While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face
over the stove.
When questioned, she explained everything very
carefully.
He stopped and turned about, his eyes brightly
proud.
His father looked up without speaking.
They rose to go into the drawing-room

REMARKS

It is not always easy to discriminate between different parts of the sentence expressed by prepositional
phrases. The following parts of the sentence are not to be confused:
1. a prepositional indirect object and an adverbial modifier.
2. an attribute and an adverbial modifier of place.

1. a) Kate removed her eyes from the window and gazed directly at Papa.
b) Decimus had been born in Rome.

In (a) at Papa is a prepositional indirect object as the noun denotes a living being.
In (b) in Rome – adverbial modifier, as the noun denotes an inanimate object and the question is: where had
he been born?

When the noun in the prepositional phrase denotes an inanimate object, very often 2 ways of analysis are
possible. E.g. His wife was sitting before a very little fire.
Before a very little fire can be treated either as an adverbial modifier or an object.

2. an attribute and an adverbial modifier of place.

a) I thought you were going to a party at the club.
b) The party will take place at the club.

In (a) at the club is an attribute as it modifies a noun. It answers the question: What party?
In (b) the same prepositional phrase modifies a verbal group; consequently it is an adverbial modifier of
place.
 DETACHED PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
 These are secondary parts which assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence. This
phenomenon is due to their loose connection with the words they modify.

Detached Characteristics Examples

parts of the
sentence
The detached  Any part of speech used in the function of One summer during a brief vacation at
adverbial an adverbial modifier may be detached, Knocke, his visit has come to the notice
modifier which accounts for the comma that of Brande.
separates it from the rest of the sentence.
 An adverbial modifier expressed by any The train coming in a minute later, the
absolute construction is generally detached. two brothers entered their respective
compartments.
 Of all kinds of adverbial modifiers, that of
attendant circumstances is most apt to He took farewell tired with waiting.
become detached.
The detached  can modify not only a common noun as Stout, middle – aged, full of energy,
attribute an ordinary attribute does but also a proper she bustled backwards and forwards
noun and a pronoun. from the kitchen to her room.
The detached  The prepositional indirect object is often She does not change – except her hair.
object detached. A silver tray was brought, with
German plums (stafide).

THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE

They are words and word – groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence as:

The independent elements of the sentence

Interjections Direct Address Parenthesis

The Independent Elements of the Sentence Examples

1) Interjections: ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness Oh, if I only knew what a dreadful thing it is to
gracious, good heavens etc. be clean, I’d never come.
2) Direct address: Good morning, sweet child!

3) Parenthesis. Characteristics:
 shows the speaker’s attitude towards the thought To be sure, Morris had treated her badly.
expressed in the sentence.
 or connects a given sentence with another one Unfortunately, it will be you who will have to
 or summarizes what is said in the sentence. explain that to him.
 is connected with the rest of the sentence rather
semantically than grammatically.
 no question can be put to it.
 very often it is detached from the rest of the
sentence and consequently it is often separated from it
by commas or dashes.

A parenthesis can be expressed by:  indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in

 Modal words: fact, truly, naturally, surely, actually,
possibly, perhaps, evidently, obviously,
maybe, luckily.
 Adverbs wich to a certain extent serve as  firstly, secondly, finally, thus, consequently,
connectives, such as: then, anyway, moreover, besides, still, yet,
nevertheless, otherwise, notwithstanding,
therefore etc.
 Prepositional phrases:  in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short,
by the by, on the one hand, on the
contrary, at least, etc.
 Infinitive and participial phrases:  to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with,
generally speaking, strictly speaking etc.

SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS PARTS

two ore more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same part of the sentence.
They are linked either by means of:
 coordinating conjunctions
 or asyndetically.

Homogeneous parts Examples

1) two or more homogeneous subjects to one From the edge of the bed came a ripple and whisper.
predicate.
2) two or more homogeneous predicates to one
subject:
 simple predicates: That gentleman started, retreated, rubbed his eyes,
stared again and finally shouted: “Stop, stop!”
 a compound verbal predicate with homogeneous These sheets must be printed, dried, cut.
parts within it.
 a compound verbal aspect predicate with First he began to understand and then to speak
homogeneous parts within it. English.
 a compound nominal predicate with several
predicatives within it. The sky was clear, remove, and empty.
3) two or more attributes, objects, or adverbial The unlighted, unused room seemed to absorb the
modifiers to one part of the sentence. moods of the house.

WORD ORDER

S – subject A. - attribute
P – predicate Cog. O – cognate object
O – object Comp. O – complex object
DO – direct object Prep. O – prepositional object
IO – indirect object Ad. M. – adverbial modifier
1) direct word order in the English declarative sentence: S + P + Os + Ad. Ms.
2) inverted order of words: P + S.
 Inverted order of words is used in: Examples
A)
 interrogative sentences: Where did they find her?
 sentences introduced by there: There is nothing marvelous in this.
 compound sentences, their second part beginning with so or Their parents escaped unhurt, so did three
neither: of their sons.
 simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish: Be it so!

B)
The inverted word order is widely used when a word or a group of words is put in a prominent position. In
this case inversion is due to the author’s wish to produce a certain stylistic effect. Thus inversion occurs
when:
 adverbial modifier opens the sentence:
a) Ad. Ms. expressed by a phrase or phrases open the sentence, In an open barouche stood a stout old
and the subject often has a lengthy modifier: gentleman.

b) an Ad. M. with a negative meaning opens the sentence. Here Never before and never since, have I
belong such adverbial modifiers as: in vain, never, little, etc. In known such peace, such happiness.
this case the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not
contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

c) Ad. Ms. expressed by such adverbs as so, thus, now, then, Now was the moment to act.
etc. placed at the head of the sentence, if the subject is
expressed by a noun.
NB. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion does not take place. Thus he thought and sank down upon the wet
earth.
d) Ad. Ms. of M. may or may not cause inversion. In case of Silently did the doctor bear all this.
inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not
contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.
 only, hardly, scarcely, (correlated with the conjunction Scarcely was one long task completed
when), no sooner (correlated with the conjunction than), when a guard unlocked our door.
nor open the sentence.
 the sentence begins with the word here which is not an Here is my card, Sir.
adverbial modifier of place but has some demonstrative
force.
NB. If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the word order
is direct.
 postpositions denoting direction open the sentence and the Out went Mr. Smith’s head again.
subject is expressed by a noun. Here belong such words as:
in, out, down, away, up, etc.
NB. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion does not take place.
 an object or an adverbial modifier expressed by a word- Not a soul did I meet with in all my drive.
group with not a..., or many a... opens the sentence. In case
of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate
does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.
 a predicative expressed by an adjective or by a noun Sweet was that evening.
modified by an adjective or by the pronoun such opens the Such is life.
sentence (in case the subject is a noun or an indefinite
pronoun).
 the predicate, which introduces conditional clause, is Even were they absolutely hers, it would
expressed by was, were, had, could, or should. be a passing means to enrich herself

Position of the object

 a) in declarative sentences:
 P. + O. (usually)
 O. + S. + P. ( the purpose of emphasis) A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the
NB. As a rule this prominent position of the object causes vessel.
no inversion except when the object is expressed by word
– groups with not a ..., or many a...
 S + P + Ad. M / Prep. I. O + D.O ( it occurs
when the object has an attribute)
 I. O + S. + P. (very rare)
b) in exclamatory sentences we may have:
 O + S + P: What wonderfully blue eyes you have!
NB. This position of the object usually causes inversion
only in poetry, high prose, and negative exclamatory Passage after passage did he explore!
sentences.

Position of the attribute

It has 2 positions:
a) pre-position
The usual way of the attribute is before the word it What extraordinary ideas you have!
modifies.
b) post-position
 Most adjectives in –able, -ible are generally sufferings unspeakable, the only person visible, etc.
placed after the noun, especially when the noun
is preceded by the adjective only or an adjective
in the superlative degree:
 in some stock phrases: from times immemorial, a poet laureate, court
martial, etc.
 the adjective proper and present are placed after We shan’t find anything about sculpture in this book,
the noun. it deals with architecture proper. (propriu-zis)
All the people present ( prezenţi) welcomed Paul
enthusiastically.
NB. This is not a proper (correct) answer to the question.
Our present (actuală) task is to preserve peace in the
world.
 attributes expressed by cardinal numbers: page ten, room two.
 adjectives stand after indefinite and negative I’d like to read something very interesting.
pronouns. There’s nothing extraordinary in her dress.
 attributes expressed by prepositional phrases As a gesture of proud defiance he had named his son
follow the noun modified. Francis Nicholas.
 to emphasize: He gave Annette a look furtive and searching.

Position of the adverbial modifier

 S. + Ad. M + P.: Helen patiently heard me to the end.
 S. + P. + D. O. + Ad. M.: Helen heard me patiently to the end.
 S + P. + Ad. M. + D.O. (when the object has an She knew instinctively the principles of “kiting”.
attribute).

1. The adverbial modifier of time (Ad. M. T.)

 Ad. M. T. + S + P...: On Tuesday night the new laundrymen arrived.
 or S. + P. + ... Ad. M.: We shall try tomorrow.
 Now and then can be placed in nearly any She then remembered that there would have been
position: time for this.
 The hour is generally mentioned before a day, At nine in the evening Mr. White opened the door.
night, evening...
 2. The adverbial modifier of place (Ad. M. Pl.)
 Ad. M. Pl. + S. + P. + ...: Down in the mill yard a little girl was playing.
 S. + P. + O. +... Ad. M. Pl.: A library was a common place for her, and he might
see her there.
 Sometimes: S. + P. + Ad. M. Pl. + Prep. O. He emerged from the theatre with the first of the
crowd.
 S. + P. + ... + Ad. M. Pl. + Ad. M. T. I’m going to the country tomorrow.
 S + P. + ... + Ad. M. Pl. + Ad. M. Purp. Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet.

3. Adverbial modifier of frequency (Ad. M. F.)

 S. + Ad. M. F. + P.: (very often) She seldom comes on time.
 but S + to be/ modal verbs + A. M. F.: She is seldom on time.
N.B. but to emphasize: S + Ad. F. + P.: You always are good with her.
 st nd
S. + 1 aux. + Ad. M. F. + 2 aux. + V.: She has never been asked about this.
 S. + sometimes/generally + P. or S. + P. + For he sometimes thought that...
sometimes/generally: And I got so lonely here sometimes.
 Sometimes Ad. M. F + S. + P.: Occasionally they followed the preachers.

4. Adverbial modifier of manner (Ad. M. M.)

 S. + intrans. verbs + Ad. M. M.: “Don’t worry”, Louise said stoutly.
 S. + transitive verbs + D.O. + Ad. M. M. Ann shakes hands effusively with Soames.
 S. + P. + Ad. M. M. + Prep. I. O.: She leaned lightly against his shoulder.
 S. + Ad. M. M. + P.: I slowly descended.
 S. + aux. verb + Ad. M. M. + verb...: These ladies were deferentially received by Miss
Temple.
5. Adverbial modifier of degree. ( Ad. M. D.)

 always S + Ad. M. D. + P.: I entirely agree with you.

 S. + P. + Ad. M. D. ( enough): He is clever enough. ( in case of an adjective )
 S. + P. + noun + enough...: I have time enough to do it.
 or S. + P. + enough + noun +...: I have enough time to do it.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE( Fraza prin coordonare)

 it consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other
 a clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.
 the clause may be connected in two ways:
 The compound sentence
is connected

syndetically by means asyndetically (without

of: connectives)

coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor,

else, for, yet, but, still, etc

conjunctive adverbs: otherwise, however,

still, yet, etc.

1) syndetically: a) The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.
b) He knew there were excuses, yet he felt sick at heart.

2) asyndetically: The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.

The types of coordination:

The types of Expressed by: Examples

coordination:
copulative coordination
( connects the ideas)
disjunctive coordination
( indicates choice)
adversative coordination
( shows opposition)
 and, nor, neither...nor, not only...but (also). Not only did he speak more
correctly, but he spoke
more easily.
 or, else, or else, either...or, otherwise. Either our union must be
consecrated and sealed by
marriage or it cannot exist.
 but, while, whereas, nevertheless, still, yet. I was not unhappy, not
much afraid, yet I wept.

causative – consecutive
coordination
 for, so, therefore, accordingly, consequently, There was something
hence. strange with him, for he
was strangely grave and
NB. For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the looked ill.
preceding statement.
So, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence
introduces coordinate clauses denoting cause,
consequence and result.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE ( Fraza prin subordonare)

Characteristics Examples
 it consists of a principal clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.
 The clauses may be linked in two ways:
1) syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating More and more she became convinced that some
conjunctions or connectives: misfortune had overtaken Paul. (conjunction)
 All that he had sought for and achieved seemed
suddenly to have no meaning. (connective)
2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel.
connective.

 it may contain two or more homogenous clauses
coordinated with each other.
 it may be subordinated to the principal clause or
to another subordinate clause.
They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor
girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had
destroyed herself in terror of being found out.
I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent
way of speaking about her, as if she had made
some great self- interested success in marrying
Mr. Gowan.

Types of subordinate clauses

Sub-
Com- ject Pre-
pa- dica-
rison tive

Direct
Man- Objec
ner t

Prep.
Ind.
Resul
Objec
t
subor t
-
dinate
clause
Con- s
cessio Attri-
n butive

Pur-
pose Time

Con-
dition Place
Cause
Types of Definition/ Characteristics Examples
subordinate
clauses
The subject Performs the function of subject to the predicate of the What I want to do is to save us
clause principal clause. both.
It is connected with the principal clause in the
following ways:
 by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether. It was unfortunate that the patient
was brought in during the
 by means of the connectives: who, which, what, evening.
whoever, whatever, where, when, how, why. It’s a grand thing when you see the
 asyndetically. It appears before or after: working class in action.
 the verbs: seem, chance, appear, turn out.
 such adjectives as: likely, certain, possible, clear, It seemed that he was wrong.
true, important, alarming, etc. It’s important that the students
 some transitive verbs expressing mood: alarm, have fulfilled the tasks earlier.
trouble, amaze, attract, confuse, relieve,
discourage, embarrass, scare, etc. That she hasn’t written yet amazes
me.
The Performs the function of a predicative. The link verb
predicative together with the predicative clause forms a compound
clause nominal predicate. It is connected with the principal
clause in the following ways:
 by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether, as I felt as if death had laid a hand
if. on me.
 by means of the connectives: who, which, what, The question was how was the
where, when, how, why. matter to be kept quiet.
 asyndetically
The direct Performs the function of direct object to the predicate-
object clause verb of the principal clause.
 The affirmative and interrogative sentences We asked him whether he had
transformed into direct speech are also direct object understood the instructions.
clauses.
It is connected with the principal clause in the
following ways:
 by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether.
Remember that we have to leave
 by means of the connectives: who, which, what, by 11.00 a.m.
whoever, whatever, where, when, how, why.
 asyndetically
The Performs the function of indirect prepositional object to
prepositional the predicate-verb of the principal clause.
indirect  It is introduced by wh – elements both with and Look at who has come.
object without prepositions: Look where he is going.

Attributive They are divided into:

clauses 1) attributive relative restrictive clauses
(relative)  restrict the meaning of the antecedents. The bus that goes to the station
 they cannot be removed without destroying the stops at this corner.
meaning of the sentence
 they are not separated by a comma from the
principal clause
 they are introduced by:
a) relative pronouns: who, whose, which, etc.
b) relative adverbs: where, when, etc.
 c) asyndetically I liked the film we saw yesterday.

2) attributive relative non-restrictive (descriptive)

clauses
 do not restrict the meaning of the antecedents; it Your desk mate, whose name I can
gives some additional information about them never remember, has just phoned.
 can be left out without destroying the meaning of
the sentence
 they are often separated by commas

3) attributive appositive clauses

 disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is I don’t know the reason why he
expressed by an abstract noun (opinion, reason, left so quickly.
idea, problem, impression, doubt, excuse, question,
fact).
 are not separated by the principal clause by a
comma
 are usually introduced by: when, where, why, how,
that, whether.
The Shows the time of the action expressed in the principal I hope to visit you whenever I
adverbial clause. happen to be in London.
clause of  it is introduced by: when, while, whenever, as, till,
time until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before,
now that.
The Shows the place of the action expressed in the principal Deronda placed himself where he
adverbial clause. could see her.
clause of  it is introduced by: where, wherever.
place

The Shows the cause of the action expressed in the As he had a liking for the spot, he
adverbial principal clause. seldom let a week pass without
clause of  it is introduced by: as, because, since, for fear that, paying it a visit.
cause on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.

The States the condition which is necessary for the I will do anything you wish, my
adverbial realization of the action expressed in the principal brother, provided (dacă) it lies in
clause of clause. my power.
condition  it is introduced by: if, provided ( that), so long as,
suppose, in case, unless, etc.
The States the purpose of the action expressed in the I crouched against the wall of the
adverbial principal clause. gallery so that I should not be
clause of  it is introduced by: that, in order that, so that, lest, seen.
purpose in case, for fear that.

The Denotes the presence of some obstacle which

adverbial nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the
clause of principal clause.
concession  It is introduced by: though, although, as, no matter I enjoyed that day though it was
how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever, cold and rainy.
notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that.
The Denotes the result of the action expressed in the Darkness had fallen and a keen
adverbial principal clause. blizzard was blowing, so that the
clause of  It is introduced by: so that, that. streets were nearly deserted.
result It was so hot that we opened all
the windows.
The Characterizes in a general way the action expressed in Joe left the house as he had
adverbial the principal clause. entered it.
clause of  It is introduced by: ( exactly) as, (just) as.
manner
The Denotes an action with which the action of the We were going up the road as fast
adverbial principal clause is compared. as we could.
clause of  It is introduced by: than, as, as...as, not so...as, as
comparison if, as though.

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

It applies to

direct object clauses conditional clauses adverbial clauses of time

DIRECT OJECT CLAUSES

A)
Main / Regent Clause Subordinate Clause Examples
PRESENT Any tense required by he Mary explains/has explained/will explain that she
PRESENT PERFECT meaning of the clause goes/will go/has gone/went/had gone to London.
FUTURE

B)

Past Tense
(main clause)
b) Past Tense (sub. clause)
a) Past Perfect (sub. clause) c) Future-in-the-past (sub. clause)
(to express a simultaneous action)
(to express an anterior/prior action) (to express a posterior action)
I thought they were at home.
a) He said he had seen that film.
b) I thought they were at film.
c) They promised they would write that exercise again.

However, there are some exceptions to the rules of sequence of tenses in direct object clauses:
a) The verbs to ask, to demand, to insist, to order, to She demands/requires/insists/etc. that you
recommend, to require, to urge, etc. in the main clause should arrive in time.
are followed by the Analytical Subjunctive)
b) Expressing
 general (universal) truths (those statements that The pupil said that five and five is ten. It was
are either generally accepted or can be scientifically proved that water boils at 100 C.
proved)
 lasting (irreversible) truths are statements whose I knew that she is a widow. (her condition of
validity exceeds the moment of speaking: being a widow was irreversible at that moment)
The Past Tense forms of the verbs to know, to believe, You realized that the boy is right.
to realize may be followed by Present Tense since, in
themselves, they imply the veridicity of the direct
object.

TIME CLAUSES
A basic rule is that no Future Tense can occur in a time clause. In its stead, the following tenses are used:
Main/Regent Subordinate Clause Examples
Clause
a) FUTURE PRESENT TENSE Margaret will tell us the truth when she knows it
( for simultaneous actions)
b) FUTURE PRESENT PERFFCT The boy will translate the lesson after he has learnt the
new words.
(for anterior / prior actions)
PAST TENSE (for Mary visited us whenever she was free.
simultaneous actions)
c) PAST TENSE I promised mother I would buy that book when I saw it.
or FUTURE-IN- PAST PERFECT (for The children went to bed after they had done their
THE-PAST anterior/prior action) lessons.
We understood that they would come home after they
had finished their work.

NB. In the other types of subordinate clauses, there will usually occur those tenses that will be logically
required, with no constraint:
Types of clauses Examples
Attributive clauses Yesterday I bought a book which is very interesting/I will read this
week/I have been looking for since April.
Adverbial clause of manner Jack played tennis that day as he will never be able to play again
Adverbial clause of comparison Last year Mary spoke English better than her sister does now.
Adverbial clause of reason My brother finished his work in the morning because he will go to a
party this evening.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

A) USE
In Direct Speech we give the exact words of the speaker, while in Indirect Speech we explain/report what the
speaker has said.
A) Reporting Statements
When changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, there take place some changes. Generally speaking,
words expressing “nearness” in Direct Speech become words expressing “remoteness” in Indirect
Speech.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
I he/she
we they
My his/her
our their
This/ these That/ those
here there
now then
today that day
tonight that night
tomorrow the next day / the following day
yesterday the day before / the previous day
ago before
next the next
the day after tomorrow in two day’s time
the day before yesterday two days before

As for the tenses used in Indirect Speech it must be shown that, when the reporting verb is in the Present
Tense or in the Present Perfect, no tense change occurs in Indirect Speech:
“I shall buy this book tomorrow,” Jane says. (Direct Speech) - Jane says that she will buy this book
tomorrow. (Indirect Speech)
But, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, the following change of tenses takes place:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech Examples
Present Past Tense “I live in this house now,” the girl explained.
The girt explained that she lived in that house then.
Past Tense Past Perfect “We saw this film yesterday,” the children told me.
Present Perfect The children told me that they had seen that film the day before.
“I have not visited New York yet” the tourist said.
The tourist said that he had not visited New York yet.
Future Future-in-the-Past “We shall not be late,” my friends promised.
My friends promised that they would not be late.

Exceptions Examples
 When the subjects of the reporting verb and of “I must do all these exercises today,” my son
the action in the direct object clause are complained.
identical, the verb must may remain unchanged: My son complained that he must do all those
exercises that day.
However, even in this case, the more frequent form My son complained that he had to do all those
would be: exercises that day.
 Conditional sentences of Type II remain “I would write to her if I knew her address,” the
unchanged, as well as the subjunctive after: boy explained.
wish, would rather, it’s (high) time: The boy explained that he would write to her if he
knew her address.
She said: “I wish I were younger.”
She said she wished she were younger.
 Had better, might, ought to, used to, could, “You might be right,” she said.
should, needn’t do not normally change in She said that he might be right.
Indirect Speech:
 When expressing repeated actions in the past: “We often walked on the beach when we were
young,” my grandparents told me.
My grandparents told me that they often walked on
the beach when they were young.

B) Reporting Questions
 General (Yes/No) questions will be “Is your mother at home?” aunt Maggie wanted to know.
introduced by if/whether: - Aunt Maggie wanted to know if/whether mother was at
home.
“Will you go to the mountains or will you spend this
 Whether usually expresses a doubt and a week-end in town?” my friend asked me. - My friend
possible choice between two alternatives: asked me whether I would go to the mountains or would
spend that week-end in town.
 Special questions will maintain, in Indirect “Where do you live?” the policeman wanted to know.
Speech, the interrogative word they begin The policeman wanted to know where I lived.
with:

NB. The word order of questions changes to the word order specific to statements when these questions are
turned into the Indirect Speech.

Direct Speech
Affirmative commands
Negative commands
C) Reporting Commands
Indirect Speech Examples
Long infinitives “Come in!” she told me. - She told me to come in.
Not + long infinitives “Don’t run in the street!” mother advised her son.
Mother advised her son not to run in the street.

The Imperative with let, when turned into the Indirect Speech, is normally introduced by the verb to suggest:
“Let’s hurry now,” he said. ≈ He suggested that they should hurry then.

D) Reporting Exclamations
 Exclamations with What a... , or “What a sunny day” she said. – She said that it was a sunny
How... are reported by: day.
 Exclamations such as: “Heavens “, “She gave an exclamation of surprise/disgust/etc.” or ‘She
 “Oh “, etc. are usually reported by: exclaimed with surprise/disgust/etc.”
She said “Good morning! - She greeted me/wished me a good
morning.
 Other Changes
She said “Thank you! - She thanked me.
She said “Merry Christmas! - She wished me a merry Christmas.
She said “Liar! - She called him a liar.
He said “Damn! - He swore.
 EXERCISES

MOERPHOLOGY

THE NOUN

1. Read this article. Circle all the proper nouns. Underline once all the common count nouns. Underline
twice the common non-count nouns.
Was Columbus really the first explorer to discover the Americas? Thor Heyerdahl didn’t think so. He believed
that ancient people were able to build boats that could cross oceans. To test his ideas, he decided to build a
copy of the reed boats that were pictured in ancient paintings and sail across the Atlantic from North Africa to
Barbados. Heyerdahl’s team also copied ancient Middle Eastern pots and filled them with food for their
journey – dried fish, honey, oil, eggs, nuts, and fresh fruit. Ra, the expedition’s boat, carried an international
group including a Norwegian, an Egyptian, an Italian, a Mexican, and a Chadian.
The first trip failed, but everyone survived and wanted to try again. Departing on May 17, 1970, under the flag
of the United Nations, Ra II crossed the Atlantic in 57 days. The expedition proved that ancient civilizations
had the skill to reach the Americans long before Columbus.

Write the plural of the following nouns.

Hat, box, day, boy, job, bag, mouth, clock, map, plant, class, birth, branch, bath, factory, family, house, play,
key, leaf, knife, life, wife, chief, roof, man, woman, tooth, foot, child, ox, sheep, bush, Negro, quantity, fox,
species, hero, valley, means, thief, volcano, quiz, epoch, studio, bus, photo, mouse, scarf, tomato, potato,
belief, goose, path, country, toy, church, dish, crisis, thesis, shoe.

Ask your group-mates to give the singular of the following nouns:

children, umbrellas, gentlemen, teeth, parties, geese, lives, dictionaries, factories, deer, leaves, zoos, photos,
pianos, plays, cities, stomachs, shelves, dishes, dogs, hens, friends, maps, data, oxen, handkerchiefs, trays,
heroes, wolves, couches, bushes, phenomena, means, loaves, stimuli, halves.

Explain and reproduce the following dialogue:

Teacher: Is “trousers” plural or singular?
Pupil: Singular at the top and plural at the bottom.

Make these sentences plural.

1. He is a teacher. 2. She is a pretty girl of sixteen years old. 3. The church is old. 4. There is a man behind
you. 5. The glass is broken. 6. Here is a book and a notebook. 7. A mouse is an animal. 8. A goose is a bird.
9. A calf is a little cow. 10. A dog is bigger than a cat. 11. The classroom is large. 12. A woman is busier than
a man. 13. The leaf is green. 14. Give me the key. 15. The shop is open today. 16. The door is shut. 17. The
book is on the shelf. 18. The shelf is on the wall. 19. The child is ill. 20. The deer is young. 21. The tooth is
broken. 22. The foot is sore. 23. The sheep is in the field. 24. The brother-in-law is in the garden. 25. The
knife is sharp. 26. The photo is excellent. 27. The piano is beautiful. 28. The hero is unknown. 29. The thief
was found. 30. The scarf is red. 31. The toy is pretty.

Make these sentences singular.

1. The boxes are heavy. 2. The men are in the shop. 3. There are forget-me-nots in the garden. 4. The villages
are far. 5. The leaves are dry. 6. The wolves are stronger than the foxes. 7. The plays are interesting. 8. The
branches are broken. 9. The mice are grey. 10. The animals in the zoos are funny. 11. My teeth ache.12. The
days are long in summer. 13. There are boys and girls in the classrooms. 14. My friends are good. 15. The
knives are sharp. 16. The jobs are interesting. 17. There are hats and bags in my car. 18. There are buses and
cars in the street. 19. The babies are crying in the dining-room. 20. The watches are new. 21. Take these
loaves. 22. There are interesting flies in my collection. 23. His shoes are at the shoemaker’s. 24. The oxen
are in the yard. 25. These heroes are known to everybody.

Give the plural of the following nouns.

Housewife, Englishman, passer-by, Frenchwoman, businessman, fireman, postman, workman, mother- in-
law, forget-me-not, step-daughter, fingertip.

8. Write the nouns denoting parts of the human body on the blackboard.
one (a) nose.
Model: I have
two eyes.

Head, face, shoulder, eye, cheek, lip, tooth, mouth, tongue, brain, ear, chin, neck, throat, thumb, finger, hand,
wrist, elbow, chest, leg, fingernail, knee, ankle, foot, toe, arm.

Choose the singular or plural nouns from the given list and fill in the blanks using the possessive forms:
problem lives toys parks fur
shoes teeth friends storm skin
mistake name songs visit decisions
house wife car rays climate
newspaper jobs product environment holiday
history health room influence

Model: A – home is his castle. => A man’s home is his castle.

1. People – are interesting to a writer. 2. Men – are very different from women’s. 3. The children – are on the
sofa. 4. Their wives – are very interesting. 5. The boys – are on the shelf. 6. The men – are hard. 7. The
child – is in danger. 8. The patients – are healthy. 9. The Negroes – are beautiful. 10. John – is serious. 11.
The ladies – is upstairs. 12. The Joneses – is large. 13. The hero – is unknown. 14. My brother-in-law – is
new. 15. Charles – is a famous singer. 16. New York – are dangerous at night. 17. This factory – are very
good. 18. Today – is full of interesting news. 19. The earth – is in danger. 20. Yesterday – is over and the
week – came to an end. 21. The sun – are very strong in the South. 22. The school – is long. 23. Science –
is great. 24. The fox – is red. 25. The mouse – is grey. 26. The country – is different. 27. The Party – are
important. 28. The month – is over.

Fill in the blanks using the given nouns (piece, blade, block, pile, lump, sheet, bar, glass, slice). Make up
situations of your own using the expressions.
Model: A – of paper. => A piece of paper.
1. a – of bread; 2. a – of grass; 3. a – of ice; 4. a – of rubbish; 5. a – of sugar; 6. a – of soap; 7. a – of
chocolate; 8. a – of water; 9. a – of cake.

Put together the words under A and B, making possessive forms.

Model: student – book => the student’s book.
A. student B. book
eye needle
teacher question
yesterday newspaper
children mother
pupil dictionary
friend father
girl answer
boy uncle
a morning trip
mother hair
branches the tree
tomorrow concert
John sister
bottom the river.

Describe your flat, using nouns in the possessive case or of-phrases:

Prompts: the size of the flat (room, kitchen), the colour of the room (carpet, furniture, curtains, walls, lamps)
the width (the length) of the balcony (corridor), etc.

Ask your group-mates what they usually do at:

a baker’s (shop), a barber’s, a bookseller’s, a butcher’s, a chemist’s, a dressmaker’s, a grocer’s, a
photographer’s, a shoemaker’s, a stationer’s, a doctor’s.
Prompts: meat, hair, bread, paper, books, shoes, photos, sugar, clothes, drugs.

THE ARTICLE

Put a or an before each of the following if necessary:

1. Does mother take ___ sugar in ___ coffee? 2. You have ___ hour and ___ half for your lunch. 3. Mr.
Jones has ___ little money left. 4. She will travel by ___ plane this time. 5. ___ book on psychology is
not interesting for ___ child. 6. Father always smokes ___ cigarette with ___ cup of ___ coffee in the
morning. 7. I have paid ___ lot of money for ___ Rembrandt today. 8. Does your sister need ___ notebook?
9. John can hardly speak because he has ___ sore throat. 10. The rubbish is collected twice ___ week. 11. My
wife would like ___ coffee and ___ sandwich. 12. ___ boy likes playing football better than studying. 13.
I’ve found ___ item of news that you might be interested in. 14. I think she has made ___ big mistake. 15.
They heard ___ sudden noise. 16. The old woman was knocked down by ___ car. 17. Jane has got ___ pain
in her shoulder. 18. You need ___ visa. 19. My friend is looking for ___ job. 20. Mother saw ___ accident
this morning when ___ car crashed into ___ tree.

Complete the following sentences by putting the into the spaces only where necessary:
1. “Excuse me, can you tell me where ___ theatre is?”
“It’s on ___ left, just after ___ museum.”
2. This thing proves once again that ___ honesty is not ___ best policy. Sometimes ___ diplomacy is ___
more successful.
3. “Do you know who put ___ first man into ___ space? ___ United States of America or Russia?
“___ Russia, but ___ Americans were ___ first on ___ moon.”
4. “What is on ___ TV this evening?”
“It’s a comedy and I don’t like ____ comedies very much.”
5. What ___ present Government has done up to now is that it has made ___ rich richer and ___ poor
poorer.”
6. “Who is ___ man over there talking to ___ woman with ___ grey hair?”
“Oh, that’s Mr. Williams. He’s one of ___ teachers in our school. He came to our town ___ month
before last.”
7. “My sister believes that ___ women are better drivers than ___ men.”
“Not necessarily. Some of ___ worst drivers I know are women.”

Complete the sentences below using the with these adjectives: accused; aged; blind; dead; deaf; disabled;
grey-haired; injured; old; poor; rich; sick; unemployed; young.
1. ___ can read with their fingers. 2. ___ should be held in great respect by everyone. 3. They say one
should never speak ill of ___. 4. The numbers of ___ are still increasing. 5. Only ___ can buy such
expensive cars. 6. He gave away a lot of his money to ___. 7. ___ were permitted to make their last
wishes. 8. She spent her life visiting ___ in the hospitals. 9. ___ have to wear hearing aids. 10. One ought
to help ___. 11. This is a hospital for ___. 12. ___ usually don’t understand the present-day problems of
___.

Supply a/an or the if they are necessary:

1. ___ Lake Ontario is one of ___ five Great Lakes in ___ North America. 2. Andrew and Alice went to ___
school yesterday and then studied in ___ library before returning home. 3. There are only ___ few seats left
for tonight’s musical at ___ university. 4. When you go to ___ supermarket, please buy ___ bottle of ___
chocolate milk and ___ dozen oranges. 5. Your ___ car is five years old and it still runs well. 6. No one in
___ German class knew ___ correct answer to ___ Mr. Gruber’s ___ question. 7. ___ red books on ___ table
are for our Geography class. 8. Please give me ___ cup of coffee with ___ cream and ___ sugar. 9. ___ judge
asked ___ witness to tell ___ truth. 10. Margaret is studying ___ Physics and ___ Chemistry this term. 11.
___ Statue of Liberty was a gift of friendship from ___ France to ___ United States. 12. Peter’s father bought
him ___ ball that he had wanted for his birthday. 13. Our cousin is in ___ hospital so we went to visit him ___
last night. 14. ___ Queen Elizabeth II is ___ monarch of ___ Great Britain. 15. On our trip to Brazil,
we crossed ___ Atlantic Ocean. 16. While Ted was in Alaska, he visited ___ Eskimo village. 17. ___
Declaration of Independence was drawn up in 1776. 18. ___ armchair she is sitting in is broken. 19. ___ Civil
War was fought in ___ United States between 1861 and 1865. 20. Two nights ago there was ___ bird singing
outside our house. 21. George can’t go to ___ cinema tonight because he has to write ___ essay. 22. Scientists
hope to send ___ expedition to ___ Mars during ___ 1990s. 23. John has been admitted to ___ School of
Medicine at ___ Cambridge University. 24. Emma plays ___ guitar and her brother plays ___ violin.

Insert a, an or the if necessary.

(A) 1. Shakespeare? He was ....... poet. 2. Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, they were ....... American presidents.
3. Do you collect ..... stamps? 4. What ...... beautiful garden! 5. Do you enjoying going to .... concerts? 6.
When we found that someone had broken into our house we called ....... police. 7. We didn’t have any money,
so we had to go to ..... bank. 8. I’m not very hungry. I had ....... big breakfast. 9. It was a beautiful day. .......
sun shone brightly in ...... sky. 10. ..... piano is my favourite instrument. 11. Why do ...... English think they are
so wonderful. 12. Agnes has been ..... nurse all her life. She has spent her life caring for ...... sick. 13. I like
your garden. ....... flowers are beautiful. 14. Do you like ...... coffee? 15. ....... women are often better teachers
than ..... men. 16. I know someone who wrote ...... book about ..... Smith’s life. 17. Two of ..... biggest
problems facing our society are: ...... crime and ..... unemployment. 18. I hate ..... violence. 19. After I
leave ..... school, I want to go to ....... university. 20. Mr. Kelly went to .... school to meet his daughter. 21. I
was very tired and it was very late, so I went to ..... bed. 22. A friend of mine used to work as ..... reporter
in ..... Middle East. 23. .... Nile is ...... longest river in Africa. 24. We went to Spain for our holidays and swam
in ..... Mediterranean. 25. Last year we visited ........ Canada and ...... United States. 26. The British Prime
Minister lives in ...... Downing Street. 27. Frank is ....... student at ..... Liverpool University. 28. Open ......
book at ..... page 12. 29. Is there ........ park near here? “Yes, ...... Victoria Park. 30. Is there ........ restaurant
near here? “Yes, ...... Pecking Restaurant. 31. Which country is Manila the capital of? ....... Philippines. 32.
The name of ocean between ....... America and ...... Asia is ...... Pacific Ocean. 33. She is rather ...... nice
person. 34. Excuse me, can you tell me where ..... theatre is? 35. Please give me ..... cup of coffee with ......
cream and ..... sugar. 36. ....... stamps in my collection may be valuable. 37. ....... rabbits run very fast. 38. ....
Doctor Taylor has performed some interesting transplants. 39. ...... lion can be dangerous. 40. ..... morning
after morning I have taken my walk in the same direction. 41. ..... dead silence prevailed. 42. ..... We usually
have ..... tea at four o’clock. 43. .... Browns lived in the next house. 44. She was born ...... Gibson, rather
than ...... Watson. 45. ..... sun rises at six. 46...... French are famous for their food.

B)
1. There was ___ knock on ___ door. I opened it and found ___ small dark man in ___ blue overcoat and ___
woolen cap.
2. He said he was ___ employee of ___ gas company and had come to read ___ meter.
3. But I had ___ suspicion that he wasn’t speaking ___ truth because ___ meter readers usually wear ___
peaked caps.
4. However, I took him to ___ meter, which is in ___ dark corner under ___ stairs (___ meters are usually in
___ dark corners under ___ stairs).
5. I asked if he had ___ torch; he said he disliked torches and always read ___ meters by ___ light of ___
match.
6. I remarked that if there was ___ leak in ___ gaspipe there might be ___ explosion while he was reading
___ meter.
7. He said, ‘As ___ matter of ___ fact, there was ___ explosion in ___ last house I visited; and Mr. Smith,
___owner of ___ house, was burnt in ___ face’.
8. ‘Mr. Smith was holding ___ lighted match at ___ time of ___ explosion’.
9. To prevent ___ possible repetition of this accident, I lent him ___ torch.
10. He switched on ___ torch, read ___ meter and wrote ___ reading down on ___ back of ___ envelope.
11. I said in ___ surprise that ___ meter readers usually put ___ readings down in ___ book.
12. He said that he had had ___ book but that it had been burnt in ___ fire in ___ Mr. Smith‘s house.
13. By this time I had come to ___ conclusion that he wasn’t ___ genuine meter reader; and ___ moment he
left ___ house I rang ___ police.
14. Are John and Mary ___ cousins? ~
No, they aren’t ___ cousins; they are ___ brother and ___ sister.
15. ___ fog was so thick that we couldn’t see ___ side of ___ road. We followed ___ car in front of us and
hoped that we were going ___ right way.
16. I can’t remember ___ exact date of ___ storm, but I know it was ___ Sunday because everybody was at
___ church. On ___ Monday ___ post didn’t come because ___ roads were blocked by ___ fallen trees.
17. Peter thinks that this is quite ___ cheap restaurant.
18. There’s been ___ murder here. ~
Where’s ___ body? ~
There isn’t ___ body. ~
Then how do you know there’s been ___ murder?
19. Number ___ hundred and two, ___ house next door to us, is for sale. It’s quite ___ nice house with ___ big
rooms. ___ back windows look out on ___ park.
20. I don’t know what ___ price ___ owners are asking. But Dry and Rot are ___ agents. You could give them
___ ring and make them ___ offer.
21. ___ postman’s little boy says that he’d rather be ___ dentist than ___ doctor, because ___ dentists don’t get
called out at ___ night.
22. Just as ___ air hostess (there was only one on the plane) was handing me ___ cup of ___ coffee ___ plane
gave ___ lurch and ___ coffee went all over ___ person on ___ other side of ___ gangway.
23. There was ___ collision between ___ car and ___ cyclist at ___ crossroads near ___ my house early in ___
morning. ___ cyclist was taken to ___ hospital with ___ concusion. ___ driver of ___ car was treated for
___ shock. ___ witnesses say that ___ car was going at ___ seventy miles ___ hour.
24. Professor Jones, ___ man who discovered ___ new drug that everyone is talking about, refused to give ___
press conference.
25. Peter Piper, ___ student in ___ professor’s college, asked him why he refused to talk to ___ press.
26. We’re going to ___ tea with ___ Smiths today, aren’t we? Shall we take ___ car? ~
We can go by ___ car if you wash ___ car first. We can’t go to ___ Mrs. Smith’s in ___ car all covered
with ___ mud.
27. He got ___ job in ___ south and spent ___ next two years doing ___ work he really enjoyed.
28. It is ___ pleasure to do ___ business with such ___ efficient organization.
29. ___ day after ___ day passed without ___ news, and we began to lose ___ hope.
30. Would you like to hear ___ story about ___ Englishman, ___ Irishman and ___ Scotsman? ~
No. I’ve heard ___ stories about ___ Englishmen, ___ Irishmen and ___ Scotsmen before and they are all
___ same.
31. But mine is not ___ typical story. In my story ___ Scotsman is generous, ___ Irishman is logical and ___
Englishman is romantic. ~
Oh, if it’s ___ fantastic story I’ll listen with ___ pleasure.
32. My aunt lived on ___ ground floor of ___ old house on ___ River Thames. She was very much afraid of
___ burglars and always locked up ___ house very carefully before she went to ___ bed. She also took ___
precaution of looking under ___ bed to see if ___ burglar was hiding there.
33. “___ modern burglars don’t hide under ___ beds,” said her daughter. “I’ll go on looking just ___ same,”
said my aunt.
34. One morning she rang her daughter in ___ triumph. “I found ___ burglar under ___ bed ___ last night,”
she said, “and he was quite ___ young man.”

THE ADJECTIVE
Answer the following questions.
Model: Which is larger: a sea or a lake? => A sea is larger than a lake. (A sea is)
1. Which is more comfortable: a chair or an armchair? 2. Which is lighter: paper or wood? 3. Which is
sweeter: honey or sugar? 4. Which is heavier: wood or stone? 5. Which is quicker: a cat or a dog? 6. Which
is more difficult: English or Chinese? 7. Which is more interesting: the book or the film?

Use the adjectives in the comparative or in the superlative degree.

1. He usually brought many bottles of lager with him; it was _______ (clean) and ________ (safe) than water.
2. She was a small woman, a little _______ (short) than Roy and considerably ________ (thin). 3. Marlow is
one of _______ (pleasant) river centres I know of. 4. They are certainly much _______ (useful) in the Gredos
than here. 5. “That’s right, miss,” said ________ of the men. 6. I suppose she was ________ (beautiful)
creature I ever saw in my life. 7. It was _______ (early) than I thought, not yet four. 8. The house seemed
_______ (large) than before. 9. If I could live my life again I would try to do _______ (much) work. 10. I can’t
send him straight into _______ (bad) job on the battalion front. 11. I think my father is the ________ (good)
man I have ever known. 12. Women cry for ________ (odd) things, sometimes for pleasure. 13. The _______
(much) money I make, the _______ (happy) I am. 14. He wanted to help those ________ (little) fortunate than
him.

Correct these sentences

1. He’s more older than he looks. 2. Jessica’s as tall than her mother. 3. Trains in London are more crowded
that in Paris. 4. Oxford is one of oldest universities in Europe. 5. He isn’t as intelligent than his sister. 6. This
is more hard than I expected. 7. Who is the most rich man in the world? 8. Everything is more cheap in my
country. 9. Rome was hoter than I expected.

Rewrite the sentences with as ... as or not as ... as.

1. Bob’s taller than Jack.
Jack’s not as tall as Bob.
2. Bob got more presents than Jack.
3. Jill’s more intelligent than Bill.
4. The sun’s hotter than the moon.
5. Are you and your husband the same age?
6. You can read more quickly than I can.
7. Harry won more money than Bill.
8. ‘Is Switzerland bigger than Luxembourg?’ ‘Yes, it is.’
9. Eva’s work is better than mine.
10. Dogs are friendlier than cats.

THE ADVERB

Form the adverbs from the following adjectives by adding the suffix –ly.
Polite, happy, complete, just, real, nice, gay, recent, right, bad, quick, wide, deep, attentive, high, careful,
close, sharp, strict, loud, unfortunate, serious, slow, clear, exact, wonderful.

State whether the words given in bold type are adjectives or adverbs.
1. All is well that ends well. 2. He kept close to the road. 3. You look quite ill. 4. Look straight ahead. 5.
Let’s meet at 5 o’clock sharp. 6. We shall return early. 7. It takes me long to come here. 8. When I came
back he was fast asleep. 9. I shall come in half an hour. 10. It’s half white and half red.

Use the comparative or superlative degree of the adverbs.

1. Then the bus... began to run, ______________ (fast) still, through a long avenue. 2. ... moreover, he was
_______________ (well) educated than the others. 3. She “was the one who was being hurt
_________________ (deeply). 4. He contrived to get a glimpse of Montanelli once or _______________
(often) in every week, if only for a few minutes. 5. Driving _______ slowly now, she arrived between four and
five. 6. However, I must bear my cross as _______ well I may. 7. Then he dismissed the thought as unworthy
and impossible, and yielded himself _________ (freely) to the music. 8. He followed her mental process
_________ (clearly) now, and her soul was no __________ (long) the sealed wonder it had been. 9. Felix’s
eyebrows rose _________ (high) than ever. 10. It was a comfort to Margaret about this time, to find that her
mother drew _______ (tenderly) towards her than she had ever done.

Complete Maggie’s letter with the correct word in parentheses.

Dear Mom and Dad,
Life in New York is very (exciting/excitingly). Luis and I weren’t sure we’d like such a (large/largely) city,
but it’s so interesting! Yesterday we saw a street musician near school. He played the violin so (beautiful/
beautifully) we couldn’t believe he wasn’t in a big concert hall. You’d be surprised to see us. We walk
(happy/happily) down the (busy/busily) streets, and the noise doesn’t bother us at all! I’m sending a photo of
our apartment building. It looks (nice/nicely), doesn’t it? It’s so (quiet/quietly) we can (hard/hardly) believe
it’s in New York. Our next-door neighbor is very (nice/nicely). At first she seemed (shy/shyly) but now we are
(good/well) friends.
We hope you’re both well. Please give our love to everyone and write soon.
Love,
Maggie

Make up sentences of your own.

Model: Come as quickly as possible.
Prompts: to come – soon, to smoke – little, to get up – early, to read – much, to do it – quickly, to listen to the
tape-recorder – often, to study – well, to read – loud, to finish the work – quickly, to treat it – seriously.

THE PRONOUN

1. Replace the nouns with pronouns:

1. Peter sees Mary. 2. The girl has the answer. 3. The cat is sleeping. 4. George is studying French. 5. Mrs.
Craig is with my brother. 6. Jimmy and Alison are outside the shop. 7. The dogs have played with the cat. 8.
The teacher is in front of the house. 9. Alice is watching TV. 10. Loren wants to see Julie. 11. The present is
for the children. 12. The girl bought the books.

1. Choose the correct form of the personal pronouns given in brackets:

1. My husband and (I/me) have just come back home from the theatre. 2. If you see Jane, please give (she/her)
my regards. 3. So, this is the baby! Is (it/she) a girl? 4. (We/Us), the Romanians, are very proud of our past. 5.
That’s very kind of (they/them). 6. Pass (I/me) the bread, please! 7. Let (we/us) go on this trip together. 8. It is
said that (she/her) likes playing tennis. 9. We wanted to know where (they/them) lived. 10. Your friend enjoys
fishing, doesn’t (he/it)?

2. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding possessive pronouns or adjectives:

1. Mr.Brown is painting ___ house. 2. It seems to him that my secretary is more efficient than ___. 3. What did
they think of that party of ___? 4. She offered ___ services. Did any of the other people offer ___? 5. Grannie
can’t find ___ glasses. 6. I always pay ___ bills on time. 7. Look at those puppies biting ___ tails. 8. You have
found ___ umbrella, but I haven’t found ___. 9. I like ___ job, but you don’t like___. 10. She is typing ___
reports and we are typing ___.

Complete the sentences with another or the other.

1. There are many kinds of animals in the world. The elephant is one kind, the tiger is ___________.
2. There are two colors on this page. One is white, ____________ is black.
3. Alex’s bicycle was run over by a truck and destroyed. He needs to get _______________ one.
4. The Smiths have two bicycles. One belongs to Mr. Smith, ___________ - to his wife.
5. There are three books on my desk. Two of them are dictionaries. __________ one is a telephone directory.
6. The puppy chewed up my telephone directory, so I went to the telephone company to get ___________
phone book.
7. Vietnam is a country in Southeast Asia. Thailand is _______________.
8. It rained yesterday, and from the looks of those dark clouds, we’re going to have ___________ rainstorm
today.
9. Nicole and Michelle are identical twins. The only way you can tell them apart is by looking at their ears.
One of them has pierced ears and _____________ doesn’t.
10. Of the 50 states in the US, 49 are located on the North American continent. Where’s _________ located?
11. I have 2 brothers. One is named Nick. __________ is named Matt.
12. There are 5 names in this list. One is Adam. __________ is Greg. __________ is Nick. _________ of the
names is Eric. ___________ name on the list is Jessica.

Complete the sentences with other(s) or the other(s).

1. There are many kinds of animals in the world. The elephant is one kind. Some _________ are tigers,
horses, and whales.
2. There are many kinds of animals in the world. The elephant is one kind. Some __________ kinds are
tigers, horses and whales.
3. There are three colors in the US flag. One of the colors is red. ___________ are white and blue.
4. There are three colors in the US flag. One of the colors is red. ___________ colors are white and blue.
5. There re four seasons. Spring and summer are two. ____________ are fall and winter.
6. Spring and summer are two of the four seasons. _____________ seasons are fall and winter.
7. There are many kinds of geometric figures. Some ar circles. __________ figures are squares. Still
_________ are rectangular.
8. There are three geometric figures. One is a square. ___________ figures are a rectangle and a triangle.
9. Of the four geometric figures, only the circle has curved lines. ___________ have straight lines.
10. Some ships are fuelled by petroleum. ___________ are propelled by atomic power.
11. Some boats are used for pleasure. ____________ boats are used for commercial fishing.
12. Many people like to get up very early in the morning. __________ like to sleep until noon.
13. Out of the twenty students in the class, 18 passed the exam. __________ failed.
14. Out of the 20 students in the class, only two failed the exam. __________ students passed.

Choose the correct variant.

1. They sat for two hours without talking to (each other, another). 2. Jill and Jack write articles for (their,
theirs) school newspaper. 3. Most of the sports articles are (their, theirs). 4. Have you got any (other, another)
colours? 5. it is a good idea of (your, yours) to go to the theatre tonight. 6. Be nice to (one another, the other).
7. “Is it (your, yours) article about snakes?” “No, it’s not (my, mine). It’s Jane’s”. 8. Do you want a blue pen or
black (one, ones)? 9. Some people like hamburgers; (other, others) prefer fishburgers. 10. We are going
boating with some friends of (our, ours). 11. I’ve already had (one, ones) tea. I don’t want (another, the other).
12. We’ve got the same kind of flat as the Martins, but his is a bit bigger than (our, ours). 13. Alice has blue
shoes. (Her, hers) shoes are shiny. 14. Dan bought two folders. He gave (one, ones) to me and kept (another,
the other).

Make up sentences of your own. Use one or ones to the model:

1. suitcases (this brown); 2. jackets (that leather); 3. newspapers (these weekly); 4. dictionaries (that French);
5. TV sets (those colour); 6. records (that long-playing); 7. chairs (those soft); 8. notebooks (these pink); 9.
beds (that double); 10. typewriters (those portable).

Rephrase the following sentences according to the model using possessive pronouns:
E.g. Fishing is one of my hobbies.
Fishing is a hobby of mine.
1. Jack is one of their friends. 2. Mary lent me one of her English books. 3. Becoming an architect is one of his
ambitions. 4. Jane is one of your neighbours. 5. That is one of his pencils. 6. That is one of his favorite songs. 7. Show
me one of her dresses, please! 8. This is one of your drawings. 9. This is one of my valuable stamps. 10. These are
some of their toys.

Complete this text with reflexive and reciprocal pronouns. (This is the talk of a high school French
teacher to a group of new teachers.)
I teach French, but the subject itself isn’t that important. I think my experience applies to all subjects. Your
first year may be hard, so teach __________ to use positive self-talk and keep things simple. Remember that a
good teacher helps students learn by __________. Recently, John, one of my students, was having trouble
teaching _________ how to bake French bread. I encouraged him to keep trying, and in the end he succeeded.
 As far as discipline goes, I have just a few rules. I tell my students, “Keep __________ busy. Discuss the
lessons, but don’t interfere with ________ ‘s work.” Keep teaching materials simple too. I pride ________ on
being able to teach anywhere, even on a street corner. Finally, the salary for teachers is not great, but you have
a lot of freedom. I run my class by ________ - just the way I want to. You will have to decide for ________ if
it’s worth it. I can’t afford to travel to France, but I satisfy ________ with trips to Quebec!

Join the sentences using a suitable relative pronoun to form defining and non-defining clauses.
1. He put the ring through her nose. It was made of gold.
2. I know somebody. Her father has got a tattoo on his back.
3. I read a leaflet. It said body piercing was dangerous.
4. I went to a salon. They did body piercing there.
5. My sister dyed her hair pink. I find it an attractive colour.
6. I saw a girl. She had each part of her face pierced.
7. They opened a beauty salon in St George’s Square. There used to be a perfume shop there.
8. You can see people. They have rings.
9. Mick pointed out his certificate. It was on the wall.
10. I only pierce young people. Their parent or guardian is with them.
11. He marked the area. He had disinfected the skin there.
12. It’ll be a little secret. I won’t share it with anyone.
13. My sister is sixteen. She had her eyebrows pierced yesterday.
14. People spray paint on walls. They are spoiling the environment.
15. Merchandise is sold on the Internet. It has an enormous market.
16. I went to an art gallery. There was an avant-garde exhibition there.
17. Jeans used to be considered working clothes. They became fashionable among young people.
18. Tom’s father plays the cello. Tom wants to be a musician.
19. Some graffiti artists have moved into designing products. They can make a lot of money.
20. He marked the area near the navel. He had disinfected her there.

Fill in the blanks. Use some, something, somebody, somewhere, any, anything, anybody, anywhere, no,
nothing, nobody, nowhere, every, everything, everybody, everywhere.
1. He never puts ________ sugar in his tea. 2. ________ children don’t like reading. 3. There’s ________ to be
done about it. 4. I must find ________ for you to play badminton with. 5. There’s _________ at the door. I
heard the door-bell ring. 6. Do they live ________ near Fleet Street? 7. Don’t worry about your mistake.
_______ is all right. 8. I can’t find my shoes. I’ve looked_________. 9. Stop sitting there doing ________ and
help me. 10. Can you get me ________ to eat, please? 12. I can do the job alone. I don’t need _______ to help
me. 13. I’ve hardly been _________ since last holiday. 14. would you like _________ more coffee?

THE NUMERAL

I. Read and write the following cardinal numerals.

12; 19; 30; 100; 1, 207, 641; 14; 40; 9.90; 236; 12,752,894.

II. Read and write ordinal numerals from the following cardinal numerals.
1; 5; 11; 21; 62; 100; 690; 3; 8; 13; 30; 76; 108; 4; 9; 19; 50.

III. Read and write the following dates:

6/IV.1799 8/XII.1930 12/IV.1961 7/XI.1917 6/III. 1997 31/ VII. 2006.

IV. Translate:
1. Copiii au intrat la scoala doi cite doi. 2. Am citit deja sute de pagini. 3. Numai dupa ce am citit problema de
trei ori, am inteles-o. 4. Regele Richard III este unul dintre cei mai singerosi. 5. Capitolul IX mi s-a parut mai
interesant.

Write on the blackboard 10 telephone numbers and read them.

 THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE

Point out the words denoting state. Translate the sentences.

1. "I am an old man who is afraid of no one," Anselmo told him. 2. When the soldiers found him ... he was
still alive. 3. She was ashamed both for herself and for Constance. 4. Sophia was not aware of this
grievance, for Amy had hidden it under her customary… politeness to Sophia. 5. Her little resolute face...
was suspiciously eager and aglow. (Galsworthy). 6. "What’s amiss in the Square?" Constance exclaimed. 7.
"I wish you wouldn't try to domineer over me!" - "Domineer !" exclaimed Sophia, aghast. 8. A moment
later... I noticed that he was asleep. 9. Ben thought the boy was afraid they would be caught doing something
wrong.

THE VERB

Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Continuous tense.
1. Cuckoos (not build) nests. They (use) the nests of other birds. 2. You can't see Tom now: he (have) a bath. 3.
He usually (drink) coffee but today he (drink) tea. 4. A. What she (do) in the evenings? ~ B. She usually (pray)
cards or (witch) TV. 5. I won't go out now as it (rain) and I (not have) an umbrella. 6. The last train (leave) the
station at 11.30. 7. He usually (speak) so quickly that I (not understand) him. 8. Ann (make) a dress for herself
at the moment. She (make) all her own clothes. 9. Hardly anyone (wear) a hat nowadays. 10. A. I'm afraid I've
broken one of your coffee cups. ~ B. Don't worry. I (not like) that set anyway. 11. I (wear) my sunglasses
today because the sun is very strong. 12. Tom can't have the newspaper now because his aunt (read) it. 13. I'm
busy at the moment. I (redecorate) the sitting room. 14. The kettle (boil) now. Shall I make the tea? 15. A. You
(enjoy) yourself or would you like to leave now? ~ B. I (enjoy) myself very much. I (want) to stay to the end.
16. A. How you (get) to work as a rule? ~ B. I usually (go) by bus but tomorrow I (go) in Tom's car. 17. A.
Why you (put) on your coat? ~ B. I (go) for a walk. You (come) with me? ~ A. Yes, I'd love to come. You
(mind) if I bring my dog? 18. How much you (owe) him? 19. A. You (belong) to your local library? ~ B. Yes,
I do. A. You (read) a lot? ~ B. Yes, quite a lot. ~ A. How often you (change) your books? ~ B. I (change) one
every day. 20. Mary usually (learn) languages very quickly but she (not seem) able to learn modern Greek. 21.
I always, (buy) lottery tickets but I never (win) anything. 22. A. You (like) this necklace? I (give) it to my
daughter for her birthday tomorrow. 23. A. I won't tell you my secret unless you (promise) not to tell anyone. ~
B. I (promise). 24. You always (write) with your left hand? 25. A. You (love) him? ~ B. No, I (like) him very
much but I (not love) him. 26. A. You (dream) at night? ~ B. Yes, I always (dream) and if I (eat) too much
supper I (have) nightmares. 27. The milk (smell) sour. You (keep) milk a long time? 28. These workmen are
never satisfied; they always (complain). 29. We (use) this room today because the window in the other room is
broken. 30. He always (say) that he will mend the window but he never (do) it. 31. You (know) why an
apple (fal1) down and not up? 32. A. You (write) to him tonight? ~ B. Yes, I always (write) to him on his
birthday. You (want) to send any message? 33. Tom and Mr Pitt (have) a long conversation. I (wonder) what
they (talk) about. 34. A. You (believe) all that the newspapers say? ~ B. No, I (not believe any of it. ~ A. Then
why you (read) newspapers? 35. A. This car (make) a very strange noise. You (think) it is all right? ~ B. Oh,
that noise (not matter). It always (make) a noise like that. 36. A. The fire (smoke) horribly. I can't see across
the room. I (expect) the birds (build) a nest in the chimney. ~ B. Why you (not put) wire across the tops of
your chimneys? ~ A. Tom (do) that sometimes but it (not seem) to make any difference.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Continuous tense.
1. A. What Tom (think) of the Budget? ~ B. He (think) it most unfair.~ A. I (agree) with him. 2. A. What this
one (cost)? ~ B. It (cost) forty pence. 3. You (hear) the wind? It (blow) very strongly tonight. 4. A. You (see)
my car keys anywhere? ~ B. No, I (look) for them but I (not see) them. 5. He never (listen) to what you say.
He always (think) about something else. 6. This book is about a man who (desert) his family and (go) to live
on a Pacific island. 7. A. You (understand) what the lecturer is saying? ~ B. No, I (not understand) him at all.
8. A. What you (have) for breakfast usually? ~ I usually (eat) a carrot and (drink) a glass of cold water. 9.
When the curtain (rise) we (see) a group of workers. They (picket) a factory gate. 10. A. Why you (walk) so
fast today? You usually (walk) quite slowly. ~ B. I (hurry) because I (meet) my mother at 4 o'clock and she
(not like) to be kept waiting. 11. A. I (wish) that dog would lie down. He (keep) jumping up on my lap. ~ B. I
(think) he (want) to go for a walk. 12. You (recognize) that man? ~ B. I (think) that I have seen him before
but I (not remember) his name. 13 Look at that crowd. I (wonder) what they (wait) for. 14 This message has
 just arrived and the man (wait) in case you (want) to send a reply. 15. A. Stop! You (not see) the notice? ~ B. I
(see) it but I can't read it because I (not wear) my glasses. What it (say)? ~ A. It (say) 'These premises are
patrolled by guard dogs'. 16. She always (borrow) from me and she never (remember) to pay me back. 17.
You (need) another blanket or you (feel) warm enough? 18. A. It (save) time if you (take) the path through
the wood? ~ B. No, it (not matter) which path you take. 19. I (save) up because I (go) abroad in July. 20. I
(think) it is a pity you don't take more exercise. You (get) fat. 21. The plane that you (look) at now just (take)
off for Paris. 22. Tom never (do) any work in the garden; he always (work) on his car. 23. A. What he (do) to
his car now? ~ B. I (think) he (polish) it. 24. That film (come) to the local cinema next week. You (want) to
see it? 25. A. How Peter (get) on at school? ~ B. Very well. He (seem) to like the life. 26. A. Why Mrs Pitt
(look) so angry? ~ B. Mr Pitt (smoke) a cigarette and (drop) the ash on the carpet. 27. A. This is our itinerary.
We (leave) home on the 8th, (arrive) in Paris on the 9th, (spend) the day in Paris, and (set) out that night for
Venice. ~ B. That (sound) most interesting. You must tell me all about it when you (get) back. 28. This story
is about a boy who (make) friends with a snake which he (find) in his garden. Then he (go) away but he (not
forget) the snake and some years later he (return) and (look) for it. 29. He (find) the snake who (recognize) its
old friend and (coil) round him affectionately. But, unfortunately, the snake is by now a full-grown boa-
constrictor and its embrace (kill) the poor boy. 30. A. The snake (feel) sorry about this? ~ B. I (not know).
The story (end) there. 31. A. How you (end) a letter that (begin), 'Dear Sir'? ~ B. I always (put), 'Yours truly',
but Tom (prefer) 'Yours faithfully'. 32. A. What the word 'catastrophe' (mean)? ~ B. It (mean) 'disaster'. 33.
A. What you (wait) for? ~ B. I (wait) for the shop to open. ~ A. But it (not open) till 9.00. ~ B. I (know) but I
(want) to be early, as their sale (start) today. 34. A. Why you (smoke) a cigar, Mrs Pitt? You (not smoke)
cigars as a rule. ~ B. I (smoke) it because I (want) the ash. This book (say) that cigar ash mixed with oil
(remove) heat stains from wood. 35. A. Who (own) this umbrella? ~ B. I (not know). Everybody (use) it but
nobody (know) who (own) it. 36. A. You (mind) if I (ask) you a question? ~ B. That (depend) on the question.
~ A. It (concern) your brother. ~ B. I (refuse) to answer any question about my brother.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or Past Continuous tense.
1. I lit the fire at 6.00 and it (burn) brightly when Tom came in at 7.00. 2. When I arrived the lecture had
already started and the professor (write) on the overhead projector. 3. I (make) a cake when the light went
out. 4. I didn't want to meet Paul so when he entered the room I (leave). 5. Unfortunately when I arrived Ann
just (leave), so we only had time for a few words. 6. He (watch) TV when the phone rang. Very unwillingly
he (turn) down the sound and (go) to answer it. 7. He was very polite. Whenever his wife entered the room,
he (stand) up. 8. The admiral (play) bowls when he received news of the invasion. He (insist) on finishing the
game. 9. My dog (walk) along quietly when Mr Pitt's Pekinese attacked him. 10. When I arrived she (have)
lunch. She apologized for starting without me but said that she always (lunch) at 12.30. 11. He always (wear)
a raincoat and (carry) an umbrella when he walked to the office. 12. A. What you (think) of his last book? ~
B. I (like) it very much. 13. I (share) a flat with him when we were students. He always (complain) about my
untidiness. 14 He suddenly (realize) that he (travel) in the wrong direction. 15 He (play) the guitar outside her
house when someone opened the window and (throw) out a bucket of water. 16. I just (open) the letter when
the wind (blow) it out of my hand. 17. The burglar (open) the safe when he (hear) footsteps. He immediately
(put) out his torch and (crawl) under the bed. 18. When I (look) for my passport I (find) this old photograph.
19. You looked very busy when I (see) you last night. What you (do)? 20. The boys (play) cards when they
(hear) their father's step. They immediately (hide) the cards and (take) out their lesson books. 21. He (clean)
his gun when it accidentally (go) off and (kill) him. 22. He (not allow) us to go out in the boat yesterday as a
strong wind (blow). 23 I still (lie) on the road when I (see) a lorry approaching. 24. Luckily the driver (see)
me and (stop) the lorry in time. 25. A. How you (damage) your car so badly? ~ B. I (ruffle) into a lamp-post
yesterday. 26. As he (let) into the bus it (start) suddenly and he (fall) backwards on to the road. 27. I (call)
Paul at 7.00 but it wasn't necessary because he already (get) up. 28. When he (mend) the fuse he (get) a very
bad shock. 29. When I (hear) his knock I (go) to the door and (open) it, but I (not recognize) him at first,
because I (nor wear) my glasses. 30. When I came in they (sit) round the fire. Mr Pitt (do) a crossword
puzzle, Mrs Pitt (knit), the others (read). Mrs Pitt (smile) at me and (say), 'Come and sit down.' 31. While the
guests (dance) thieves (break) into the house and (steal) a lot of fur coats. 32. The next day, as they
(know) that the police (look) for them, they (hide) the coats in a wood and (go) off in different directions. 33.
She was very extravagant. She always (buy) herself new clothes. 34. Her mother often (tell) her that she
(spend) too much money but she never (listen). 35. Whenever the drummer (begin) practising, the people in
the next flat (bang) on the wall.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or Past Continuous tense.
1. Mr Smith never (wake) up in time in the mornings and always (get) into trouble for being late; so one day
he (go) to town and (buy) an alarm clock. 2. To get home he (have to) go through a field where a bad-tempered
bull usually (graze). 3. This bull normally (not chase) people unless something (make) him angry.
Unfortunately, as Mr Smith (cross) the field, his alarm clock (go) off. 4. This (annoy) the bull, who
immediately (begin) to chase Mr Smith. 5. Mr Smith (carry) an open umbrella as it (rain) slightly. He (throw)
the umbrella to the ground and (run) away as fast as he could. 6. The bull (stop) and (begin)to attack the
umbrella. While he (do) this Mr Smith escaped. 7. When he (awake) she (sit) by the window. She (look) at
something in the street, but when he (call) her she (turn) and (smile) at him. 8. Why you (interrupt) me just
now? I (have) a very interesting conversation with Mr Pitt. 9. The murderer (carry) the corpse down the stairs
when he (hear) a knock on the door. 10. When I (look) through your books I (notice) that you have a copy of
Murder in the Cathedral. 11. As they (walk) along the road they (hear) a car coming from behind them. Tom
(turn) round and (hold) up his hand. The car (stop). 12. When I (arrive) at the station Mary (wait) for me. She
(wear) a blue dress and (look) very pretty. As soon as she (see) me she (wave) and (shout) something, but I
couldn't hear what she (say) because everybody (make) such a noise. 13. The prisoner (escape) by climbing
the wall of the garden where he (work). He (wear) blue overalls and black shoes. 14. She said that the car
(travel) at 40 k.p.h. when it (begin) to skid. 15. She said that she (not like) her present flat and (try) to find
another. 16. While he (make) his speech the minister suddenly (feel) faint. But someone (bring) him a glass of
water and after a few minutes he (be able) to continue. 17. A. When I (see) him he (paint) a portrait of his
wife. ~ B. You (like) it? ~ A. He only just (start) when I (see) it, so I couldn't judge. 18. A. I (take) my friend to
a murder trial the other day. ~ B. Who (be) tried? ~ A. A man called Bill Sykes. ~ A. Was he acquitted? ~ B. I
don't know. They still (listen) to the evidence when we (leave). 19. I (be) sorry that I (have to) leave the party
early, because I (enjoy) myself. 20. As we (come) here a policeman (stop) us. He (say) that he (look) for some
stolen property and (ask) if he could search the car. 21 A. I (see) you yesterday from the bus. Why you (use) a
stick? ~ B. I (use) a stick because I had hurt my leg that morning falling off a horse. ~ A. Whose horse you
(ride)? 22. The floor was covered with balls of wool. Obviously Mrs Pitt (knit) something. 23. Ann said that
she (be) on holiday. I (say) that I (hope) that she (enjoy) herself. 24. While he (water) the flowers it (begin) to
rain. He (put) up his umbrella and (go on watering. 25. I just (write) a cheque when I (remember) that I (have)
nothing in the bank. 26. I (find) this ring as I (dig) in the garden. It looks very old. I wonder who it (belong)
to? 27. When I last (see) her she (hurry) along the road to the station. I (ask) her where she (go) and she (say),
'London', but I don't think she (speak) the truth because there (not be) any train for London at that time. 28.
The tailor said, 'Your suit will be ready on Monday.' But when I (call) on Monday he still (work) on it. 29. The
teacher (come) into the classroom unusually early and one of the boys, who (smoke) a cigarette, (have) no
time to put it out. So he (throw) it into the desk and (hope) for the best. 30. A little later the teacher (notice)
that smoke (rise) from this desk. 'You (smoke) when I (come) in?' he (ask). 31. While I (swim) someone (steal)
my clothes and I (have to) walk home in my swimsuit. 32. The men (say) that they (work) on the road outside
my house and that they (want) some water to make tea. 33. He (say) that he (build) himself a house and that he
(think) it would be ready in two years. 34. At 3 a.m. Mrs Pitt (wake) her husband and (say) that she (think) that
someone (try) to get into the house. 35. A. Why you (lend) him that book? I still (read) it. ~ B. I'm sorry. I (not
know) that you still (read) it. 36. I (come) in very late last night and unfortunately the dog (wake) up and
(start) to bark. This (wake) my mother who (come) to the top of the stairs and (say), 'Who is there?' I (say), 'It
is me,' but she (not hear) me because the dog (bark) so loudly, so she (go) back to her room and (telephone)
the police.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Simple Past tense. In some sentences the
Present Perfect Continuous is also possible.
1. A. This is my house. ~ B. How long you (live) here? ~ A. I (live) here since 1970. 2. He (live) in London
for: two years and then (go) to Edinburgh. 3. A. You (wear) your hair long when you were at school? ~ B. Yes,
my mother (insist) on it. 4. But when I (leave) school I (cut) my hair and (wear) it short ever since. 5.
Shakespeare (write) a lot of plays. 6. My brother (write) several plays. He just (finish) his second tragedy. 7 A.
I (fly) over Loch Ness last week. ~ B. You (see) the Loch Ness monster? 8. I (not see) him for three years. I
wonder where he is. 9. He (not smoke) for two weeks. He is trying to give it up. 10. Chopin (compose) some
of his music in Majorca. 11. A. When he (arrive)? ~ B. He (arrive) at 2.00. 12. You (lock) the door before you
left the house? 13. I (read) his books when I was at school. I (enjoy) them very much. 14. I can't go out
because I (not finish) my work. 15. A. I never (drink) whisky. ~ B. Well, have some now. 16. I (write) the letter
but I can't find a stamp. 17. A. The clock is slow. ~ B. It isn't slow, it (stop). 18. Here are your shoes; I just
(clean) them. 19. I (leave) home at 8.00 and (get) here at twelve. 20. I (do) this sort of work when I (be) an
apprentice. 21. He just (go) out. 22. He (go) out ten minutes ago. 23. A. You (have) breakfast yet? ~ B. Yes, I
(have) it at 8.00. 24. I (meet) him last June. 25. You (see) the moon last night? 26. The concert (begin) at 2.30
and (last) for two hours. Everyone (enjoy) it very much. 27. The play just (begin). You are a little late. 28. A.
The newspaper (come)? ~ Yes, Ann is reading it. 29. The actors (arrive) yesterday and (start) rehearsals early
this morning. 30 It (be) very cold this year. I wonder when it is going to get warmer. 31. Cervantes (write)
Don Quixote. 32. We (miss) the bus. Now we'll have to walk. 33. He (break) his leg in a skiing accident last
year. 34. Mr Pound is the bank manager. He (be) here for five years. 35. Mr Count (work) as a cashier for
twenty-five years. Then he (retire) and (go) to live in the country. 36. A. You (be) here before? ~ B. Yes, I
(spend) my holidays here last year. ~ A. You (have) a good time? ~ B. No, it never (stop) raining.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or Simple Past tense. Fill the spaces by repeating the
auxiliary used in the preceding verb.
1. A. Where is Tom? ~ B. I (not see) him today, but he (tell) Mary that he'd be in for dinner. 2. A. I (buy) this
in Bond Street. ~ B. How much you (pay) for it? ~ A. I (pay) £100. 3. A. Where you (find) this knife? ~ B. I
(find) it in the garden. ~ A. Why you (not leave) it there? 4. A. I (lose) my black gloves. You (see) them
anywhere? ~ B. No, I'm 'afraid I . . . . When you last (wear) them? ~ A. I (wear) them at the theatre last night.
~ B. Perhaps you (leave) them at the theatre. 5. A. Do you know that lady who just (leave) the shop? ~ B. Yes,
that is Miss Thrift. Is she a customer of yours? ~ A. Not exactly. She (be) in here several times but she never
(buy) anything. 6. A. He (leave) the house at 8.00. ~ B. Where he (go)? ~ A. I (not see) where he (go). 7. A.
He (serve) in the First World War. ~ B. When that war (begin)? ~ A. It (begin) in 1914 and (last) for four
years. 8. A. Who you (vote) for at the last election? ~ B. I (vote) for Mr Pitt. ~ A. He (not be) elected, (be)
he? ~ B. No, he (lose) his deposit. 9. A. You (like) your last job? ~ B. I (like) it at first but then I (quarrel)
with my employer and he (dismiss) me. ~ A. How long you (be) there? ~ B. I (be) there for two weeks. 10. A.
I (not know) that you (know) Mrs Pitt. How long you (know) her? ~ B. I (know) her for ten years. 11. That is
Mr Minus, who teaches me mathematics, but he (not have) time to teach me much. I only (be) in his
class for a week. 12. A. You (hear) his speech on the radio last night? ~ B. Yes, I . . . ~ A. What you (think) of
it? 13. A. I (not know) that you (be) here. You (be) here long? ~ B. Yes, I (be) here two months. ~ A. You (be)
to the Cathedral? ~ B. Yes, I (go) there last Sunday. 14. A. You ever (try) to give up smoking? ~ B. Yes, I (try)
last year, but then I (find) that I was getting fat so I (start) again. 15. A. You (see) today's paper? ~ B. No,
anything interesting (happen)? ~ A. Yes, two convicted murderers (escape) from the prison down the road. 16.
A. Mary (feed) the cat? ~ B. Yes, she (feed) him before lunch. ~ A. What she (give) him? ~ B. She (give) him
some fish. 17. A. How long you (know) your new assistant? ~ B. I (know) him for two years. ~ A. What he
(do) before he (come) here? ~ I think he (be) in prison. 18. A. I (not see) your aunt recently. ~ B. No. She (not
be) out of her house since she (buy) her colour TV. 19. A. The plumber (be) here yet? ~ B. Yes, but he only
(stay) for an hour. ~ A. What he (do) in that time? ~ B. He (turn) off the water and (empty) the tank. 20. A.
Where you (be)? ~ B. I (be) out in a yacht. ~ A. You (enjoy) it? ~ B. Yes, very much. We (take) part in a race.
~ A. You (win)? ~ B. No, we (come) in last. 21. A. How long that horrible monument (be) there? ~ B. It (be)
there six months. Lots of people (write) to the Town Council asking them to take it away but so far nothing
(be) done. 22. A. I just (be) to the film War and Peace. You (see) it? ~ B. No, I . . . . Is it like the book? ~ A. I
(not read) the book. ~ B. I (read) it when I (be) at school. ~ A. When Tolstoy (write) it? ~ B. He (write) it in
1868. ~ A. He (write) anything else? 23. A. Hannibal (bring) elephants across the Alps. ~ B. Why he (do)
that? ~ A. He (want) to use them in battle. 24. A. Where you (be)? ~ B. I (be) to the dentist. ~ A. He (take) out
your bad tooth? ~ B. Yes, he . . . ~ A. It (hurt)? ~ B. Yes, horribly. 25. She (say) that she'd phone me this
morning, but it is now 12.30 and she (not phone) yet. 26. A. I just (receive) a letter saying that we (not pay)
this quarter's electricity bill. I (not give) you the money for that last week? ~ B. Yes, you. . . but I'm afraid I
(spend) it on something else. 27. A. How long you (be) out of work? ~ B. I'm not out of work now. I just
(start) a new job. ~ A. How you (find) the job? ~ B. I (answer) an advertisement in the paper. 28. A. You
(finish) checking the accounts? ~ B. No, not quite. I (do) about half so far. 29. A. I (cut) my hand rather
badly. Have you a bandage? ~ B. I'll get you one. How it (happen)? ~ A. I was chopping some wood and
the axe (slip). 30. A. How you (get) that scar? ~ B. I (get) it in a car accident a year ago. 31. A. You (meet) my
brother at the lecture yesterday? ~ B. Yes, I . . . . We (have) coffee together afterwards. 32. He (lose) his job
last month and since then he (be) out of work. ~ B. Why he (lose) his job? ~ A. He (be) very rude to Mr Pitt.
33. A. What are all those people looking at? ~ B. There (be) an accident. ~ A. You (see) what (happen)? ~ B.
Yes, a motor cycle (run) into a lorry. 34. I (phone) you twice yesterday and (get) no answer. 35. Originally
horses used in bull fights (not wear) any protection, but for some time now they (wear) special padding. 36.
That house (be) empty for a year. But they just (take) down the 'For Sale' sign, so I suppose someone (buy) it.

Complete. Read this entry from Dr.Owen’s field journal about an elephant she calls Grandad. Use the
Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Progressive form of the verbs in parentheses.
We _________________ (hear) about Grandad since we arrived here in Amboseli Park. He is one of the
last “Tuskers.” Two days ago, we finally saw him. His tusks are more than seven feet long. I __________
never __________ (see) anything like them.
Grandad _____________ (live) here for more than sixty years. He _____________ (experience) everything,
and he __________________ (survive) countless threats from human beings. Young men ______________
(test) their courage against him, and poachers ______________ (hunt) him for his ivory. His experience and
courage __________________ (save) him so far.
For the last two days, he _________________ (move) slowly through the tall grass. He __________ (eat)
and ____________ (rest). Luckily, it _________________ (rain) a lot this year, and even the biggest elephants
_________________ (find) enough food and water.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous tense. (In some
cases either could be used.)
1. We (walk) ten kilometres. 2. We (walk) for three hours. 3. You (walk) too fast. That's why you are tired. 4. I
(make) sausage rolls for the party all the morning. 5. A. How many you (make)? ~ B. I (make) 200. 6. That
boy (eat) seven ice-creams. 7. He (not stop) eating since he arrived. 8. The driver (drink). I think someone else
ought to drive. 9. I (pull) up 100 dandelions. 10. I (pull) up dandelions all day. 11. A. What you (do)? ~ B. We
(pick) apples. 12. A. How many you (pick)? ~ B. We (pick) ten basketfuls. 13. I (sleep) on every bed in this
house and I don't like any of them. 14. He (sleep) since ten o'clock. It's time he woke up. 15. He (ride); that's
why he is wearing breeches. 16. I (ride) all the horses in this stable. 17. What a lovely smell! Mary (make)
jam. 18. The students (work) very well this term. 19. I only (hear) from him twice since he went away. 20. I
(hear) from her regularly. She is a very good correspondent. 21. I (grease) my car. That's why my hands are so
dirty. 22. I (polish) this table all the morning and she isn't satisfied with it yet. 23. I (work) for him for ten
years and he never once (say) 'Good morning' to me. 24. He (teach) in this school for five years. 25. I (teach)
hundreds of students but I never (meet) such a hopeless class as this. 26. A. Why you (be) so long in the
garage? ~ B. The tyres were flat; I (pump) them up. 27. I (pump) up three tyres. Would you like to do the
fourth? 28. I (look) for mushrooms but I (not find) any. 29. He (cough) a lot lately. He ought to give up
smoking. 30. A. You (hear) the news? Tom and Ann are engaged! ~ B. That's not new; I (know) it for ages! 31.
I (try) to finish this letter for the last half-hour. I wish you'd go away or stop talking. I hardly (say) anything.
32. The driver of that car (sound) his horn for the last ten minutes. 33. It (rain) for two hours and the ground is
too wet to play on, so the match (be) postponed. 34. He (hope) for a rise in salary for six months but he (not
dare) to ask for it yet. 35. Mr Smith, you (whisper) to the student on your right for the last five minutes. You
(help) him with his exam paper or he (help) you? 36. A. Why you (make) such a horrible noise? ~ B. I (lose)
my key and I (try) to wake my wife by throwing stones at her window. ~ A. You (throw) stones at the wrong
window. You live next door.

Put the verbs into the correct form, the Past Perfect or Past Simple.
1. Jane (to wash) all the test-tubes after she (to complete) the experiment. 2. He (to do) the cleaning by 6
o'clock yesterday. 3. After the stewardesses (to serve) lunch to the, passengers, they (to calm) down. 4. I (not
to have) my watch, so I (not to know) the exact time. 5. He (to feel) sick because he (to eat) too much. 6. She
(to finish) her report, and was feeling rather tired, so she (to go) to bed. 7. By two o'clock he (to answer) all
the letters he, (to receive). 8. The bus (to leave) before I (to reach) the bus station. 9. As soon as they (to
finish) breakfast, they (to run) out to play. 10. When we (to meet) our friends they (already to know) the news.
11. When you (to call) me, I (not yet to do) the sum. 12. She (to intend) to make a cake for you, but she (to
run) out of time. 13. Hardly we (to go) to bed when somebody (to knock) at the door. 14. No sooner she (to
come) than she (to fall) ill.

Use the cues in brackets and the Past Perfect Continuous to explain the situations.
Example 1 His arms were sunburnt because he had been sitting in the sun all day.
1. His arms were sunburnt. (sit in the sun all day)
2. She was very tired. (work for hours without a break)
3. Their clothes were muddy. (play football)
4. She was fired. (not come to work on time)
5. She was very angry. (wait for her boyfriend for half an hour)
6. His ear ached. (talk on the phone for hours)
7. He was covered in oil. (repair his car all afternoon)
8. She was scared stiff. (watch a thriller on TV)

Write two explanations for each situation (1-5), one in the Past Perfect, and one in the Past Perfect
Continuous.
Example 1 She had been eating too many sweets.
She had dropped her keep-fit classes.
1. Sharon put on five pounds.
2. Steve was feeling down.
3. Jack’s shirt was torn.
4. Ann failed her final exam.
5. Emily and Tessa were very excited.

Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous.
1. We couldn’t open the door because it (snow) heavily all night. 2. She looked shocked and she said she (see)
a UFO. 3. Billy had a black eye and Joe’s lip was cut – they (fight). 4. John decided to complain as his
neighbours (have) parties every day for two weeks. 5. Jill looked great – she (lose) a few pounds and (put on)
a smart evening dress. 6. Sheila’s eyes were red and swollen as if she (cry) all night.

Use the Present Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Continuous.

1. It is midnight. I (study) for five straight hours. No wonder I'm getting tired. 2. It was midnight. I (study) for
five straight hours. No wonder I was getting tired. 3. Jack suddenly realized that the teacher was asking him a
question. He couldn’t answer because he (daydream) for the last ten minutes. 4. Wake up! You (sleep) long
enough. It’s time to get up. 5. At least two hundred people were waiting in line to buy tickets to the game.
Some of them (stand) in line for more than four hours. We decided not to try to get tickets for ourselves.

Put the verbs into the correct form, the Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Simple or Past
Continuous.
1. The workers (to be) on a strike for three weeks when the agreement on pay (to be reached). 2. When she
got results of her medical tests, she realised, that she (be feeling) ill since she (to be) on holiday. 3. The door
was unlocked. She (to wonder) who (leave) the door open. 4. He (to play) football when the ball (to hit) his
head. 5. He (to drive) to work for half an hour when suddenly his car (to break) down. 6. When he arrived
at the office he (to discover) that he (to leave) all the necessary papers at home. 7. She looked tired. She (to
type) letters all morning. 8. Yesterday afternoon it (still to rain) when I (to get) home. 9. He (to clean) the car
when the phone rang, so he (not to answer) it. 10. When I (to be) little, my mother (to use) to feed me. 11.
Jane’s clothes were wet. She (to wash) her dog. 12. Jerry (to be) nervous, for he (never to flow) in an
aeroplane before. 13. I (never to like) going to the cinema on my own when I was a teenager. 14. Kate -(to
dance), but when she saw a newcomer she (to stop).

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense, the Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Simple
or Past Continuous.
1. He (give) me back the book, (thank) me for lending it to him and (say) that he (enjoy) it very much; but I
(know) that he (not read) it because most of the pages (be) still uncut. 2. When he (see) his wife off at the
station, he (return) home as he (not have) to be at the airport till 9.30. 3. He (not have) to pack, for his wife
already (do) that for him and his case (be) ready in the hall. 4. He (not have) to check the doors and windows
either, for his wife always (do) that before she (leave) the house. 5. All he (have) to do (be) to decide whether
or not to take his overcoat with him. In the end he (decide) not to. 6. At 8.30 he (pick) up his case, (go) out of
the house and (slam) the door behind him. 7. Then he (feel) in his pockets for the key, for his wife (remind)
him to double-lock the front door. 8. When he (search) all his pockets and (find) no key he (remember) where
it (be). 9. He (leave) it in his overcoat pocket. 10. Then he (remember) something else; his passport and tickets
(be) in his overcoat pocket as well. 11. I (arrive) in England in the middle of July. I (be told) that England (be)
shrouded in fog all year round, so I (be) quite surprised to find that it was merely raining. 12. I (ask) another
passenger, an Englishman, about the fog and he (say) that there (not be) any since the previous February. 13. If
I (want) fog, he said, I (come) at quite the wrong time. 14. However, he (tell) me that I could buy tinned fog at
a shop in Shaftsbury Avenue. 15. He (admit) that he never (buy) fog there himself but (assure) me that they
(sell) good quality fog and that it (not be) expensive. I suppose he was joking. 16. When the old lady (return)
to her flat she (see) at once that burglars (break) in during her absence, because the front door (be) open and
everything in the flat (be) upside down. 17. The burglars themselves (be) no longer there, but they probably
only just (leave) because a cigarette was still burning on an ornamental table. 18. Probably they (hear) the lift
coming up and (run) down the fire escape. 19. They (help) themselves to her whisky too but there (be) a little
left, so she (pour) herself out a drink. 20. She (wonder) if they (find) her jewellery and rather (hope) that they
had. 21. The jewellery (be given) her by her husband, who (die) some years before. 22. Since his death she
(not have) the heart to wear it, yet she (not like) to sell it. 23. Now it (seem) that fate (take) the matter out of
her hands; and certainly the insurance money would come in handy. 24. I (put) the £5 note into one of my
books; but next day it (take) me ages to find it because I (forget) which book I (put) it into. 25. A woman
(come) in with a baby, who she (say) just (swallow) a safety pin. 26. I (think) my train (leave) at 14.33, and
(be) very disappointed when I (arrive) at 14.30 and (learn) that it just (leave). 27. I (find) later that I (use) an
out-of-date timetable. 28. He (park) his car under a No Parking sign and (rush) into the shop. When he (come)
out of the shop ten minutes later the car (be) no longer there. 29. He (wonder) if someone (steal) it or if the
police (drive) it away. 30. It (be) now 6 p.m.; and Jack (be) tired because he (work) hard all day. 31. He (be)
also hungry because he (have) nothing to eat since breakfast. 32. His wife usually (bring) him sandwiches at
lunch time, but today for some reason she (not come). 33. He (keep) looking at her, wondering where he (see)
her before. 34. I (look) out before I (go) to bed and (see) a man standing on the opposite pavement watching
the house. 35. When I (get up) the following morning he (be) still there, and I (wonder) whether he (stay) there
all night or if he (go) away and (come) back.

Choose the best variant:

a) He’s gone/He’d gone/He was going shopping. He’ll be back soon.
b) We were late and the match started/had started/has started.
c) Teresa has never seen/never saw/was never seeing this film before.
d) They were having/had/have had a picnic when it started to rain.
e) Did you do/have you done/Were you doing the washing-up yet?
f) He’s wet because he swam/he’s been swimming/he had swum.
g) I crashed/I’d crashed/I’ve crashed your car last night. I’m really sorry.
h) Had you met/have you met/Did you meet Jim Ward yesterday?
i) I’m/I was/I’ve been in Rome since June.
j) The dogs were barking and the kids had laughed/were laughing/have laughed as I walked into the room.

Complete the text with appropriate past tenses of the verb in brackets.
Ken Coates (1) was enjoying (enjoy) his 52nd birthday at the King’s Arms in Aston. He (2) _____________
(play) in a local pool championship in a room at the back of the pub. Ken (3) ________________ (play) well
for half an hour and (4) _____________ (win) three of the first five games. He (5) __________ (put) down the
glass he (6) __________ (drink) from and (7) ____________ (get) ready to pot the black to win the final game
when his false teeth (8) ______________ (drop out). Unfortunately, instead of potting the ball, he (9)
___________ (pot) his own false teeth! Ken’s wife, Alice, who (10) _____________ (watch) the
championship all night, immediately (11) _________________ (rush) to help her husband. She (12)
_____________ (put) her hand in the pocket to fish out the false teeth when disaster (13) ______________
(strike). Alice’s hand got stuck in the pocket and she (14) _____________ (can not) get in out again. Finally,
after Ken (15) ____________ (make) an emergency phone call, the fire officers (16) _______________
(arrive) on the scene. With the help of a power saw and some washing-up liquid, they (17) ________ (free)
Alice’s hand. ‘Poor Ken, he (18) ________________ (try) to win the championship for years’, said a friend.
‘In the replay, Ken (19) _______________ (play) terribly. I think he (20) _______________ (worry) about his
teeth again’.
From the given situation, make up a "chain story." One person begins the story; then others continue
the story in turn using certain cue words.
Example: (Pierre) had a terrible day yesterday. The trouble began early in
the morning. His alarm clock rang at 7:00.
Cue: when
StudentA: When his alarm clock rang, he got out of bed and stepped on a
snake. He was nearly frightened to death, but the snake slithered
away without biting him.
Cue: after
Student B: After the snake left, Pierre got dressed in a hurry and ran
downstairs to have breakfast.
Cue: while
Student C: While he was running downstairs, he fell and broke his arm. etc.

Work in pairs. Use the cues and the past tenses to write about a disastrous day trip.
 Mr and Mrs Smith never (be) abroad so (decide) to go on a “no passport” day trip to France
 they (go) through Channel Tunnel and (arrive) in Boulogne – first (go) shopping then sightseeing – in the
afternoon they (decide) to visit some friends in Lille – they (go) to the station
 (not learn) French at school so (not understand) the announcements at the station – (get) on the wrong train
 while they (have) a nap on the train, it (cross) the border with Germany
 German police (ask) for their passports – they (say) they (leave) them at home – the police (put) them on a
train back to Boulogne

Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Continuous or the Future Simple. The be going to form could
be used here instead of the Present Continuous, but for the sake of simplicity students are advised to use
only the two tenses first mentioned.)
1. I am sure that I (recognize) him. 2. I (see) her tomorrow. 3. He (play) in a tennis match on Friday. 4. She
(come) back on Monday. 5. I (go) again next year. 6. We (know) tonight. 7. You pay and I (owe) you the
money. 8. I believe) it when I see it. 9. I (have) my car repainted next week. 10. I hope that you (have) a good
time tomorrow. 11. His speech (be) broadcast tonight. 12. The window-cleaner (come) at eight tomorrow. 13.
Tom (catch) the 7.40 train. 14. A. Where you (meet) them? ~ B. I (meet) them at midnight in the middle of the
wood. 15. What horse you (ride) tomorrow? 16. Look! I've broken the teapot. What Mrs Pitt (say)? ~ B. She
(not mind); she never liked that one. 17. I've left the light on. It (matter)? 18. He (not forget) to come. 19. He
(leave) in a few days. 20. I (remember) it. 21. If you drop that bottle it (break). 22. I never (forgive) him. 23.
I'm sure that you (like) him. 24. They (lay) the foundations next week. 25. You (see) a signpost at the end of
the road. 26. A. He has cut my hair too short. ~ B. Don't worry; it (grow) again very quickly. 27. You
(understand) when you are older. 28. The cat (scratch) you if you pull its tail. 29. I (be) back at 8.30. 30. If he
doesn't work hard he (not pass) his exam. 31. She (go) on a cruise next summer. 32. I (move) to anew flat next
week. 33. A. I am sorry that the child saw the accident. ~ B. I don't think it matters. He soon (forget) all about
it. 34. I (wait) here till he comes back. 35. He (not write) to you unless you write to him. 36. There (be) a big
meeting here tomorrow. 37. A. The fire has gone out! ~ B. So it has. I (go) and get some sticks. 38. A. Did you
remember to book seats? ~ B. Oh no, I forgot. I (telephone) for them now. 39. A. He has just been taken to
hospital with a broken leg. ~ B. I'm sorry to hear that. I (send) him some grapes. 40. I've hired a typewriter and
I (learn) to type. 41. I see that you have got a loom. You (do) some weaving?

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (present or future).
1. When he (return) I'll give him the key. 2. He'll be ready as soon as you (be). 3. I'll stay in bed till the
clock (strike) seven. 4. She will be delighted when she (hear) this. 5. When the laundry comes I (have)
some clean handkerchiefs. 6. I shan't buy tomatoes till the price (come) down. 7. Stay here till the lights
(turn) green. 8. When it (get) cold I'll light the fire. 9. The lift (not start) until you press that button. 10.
She'll have to behave better when she (go) to school. 11. When you look at yourself in the glass you (see)
what I mean. 12. He (be) here before you go. 13. I (lend) you my cassette recorder whenever you want it.
14. He (wake) up when we turn the lights on. 15. He (ring) us up when he arrives in England? 16. He will
wash up before he (go) to bed. 17. I won't come to London till the bus strike (be) over. 18. I (give) the
children their dinner before he (come) home. 19. They will be astonished when they (see) how slowly he
works. 20. I'll pay you when I (get) my cheque. 21. I (go) on doing it until he tells me to stop. 22. I'll buy
that house when I (have) enough money. 23. You (fall) rapidly through the air till your parachute opens.
24. We'll have to stay here till the tide (go) out. 25. When the Queen (arrive) the audience will stand up.
26. When the fog (lift) we'll be able to see where we are. 27. The refrigerator (go on) making that noise till
we have it repaired. 28. As soon as the holidays begin this beach (become) very crowded. 29. The car (not
move) till you take the brake off. 30. The alarm bell (go on) ringing till you press this button. 31. As soon
as she (learn) to type I'll get her a job. 32. Look before you (leap). 33. We (have) to stay on this desert
island till we can repair our boat. 34. Don't count on a salary increase before you actually (get) it. 35.
When winter (begin) the swallows will flyaway to a warmer country. 36 We can't make any decision till he
(arrive) here.

Read this paragraph. Find and correct seven mistakes in the use of the Future Continuous.
In the future robots will be perform more and more tasks for humans.
This will be having both positive and negative effects. On the one hand, while robots will be doing the boring
and dangerous jobs, humans will be devoting more time to interesting pursuits. In this way robots is going to
be making life a lot easier for humans. On the other hand, the widespread of robots is going create a lot of
future unemployment. People will loosing their jobs as robots fill their positions. And some robots could even
become dangerous. I’m afraid that in the not-too-distant future, robots will be operating nuclear power
stations! And before too long, robots are going to be fight in wars. Although, on second thought, that will be
better than humans killing each other!

II. Complete the sentences. Use the Future Perfect or the Future Perfect Continuous. Choose between
affirmative and negative.
1. By 2012, they (to buy) ____________________________ a new car.
2. By 2015, they (to live) ____________________________ in their own house for three years.
3. By Travis’s first birthday, Tom (to graduate) _______________________________
4. By 2017, (to attend) ___________________________________ school for four years.
5. By 2019, they (to buy) __________________________________ another car.
6. They (drive) ______________________________________ their old car for eight years by then.
7. By 2020, Linda (open) __________________________________ her business.
8. They (save) _________________________________________ for two years by 2020.
9. By retirement, the couple (accomplish) __________________________________ a lot.

III. Continue the sentences: Future Continuous or Future Perfect.

1. Tomorrow afternoon I’m going to play tennis from 3 o’clock until 4:30. So at 4 o’clock tomorrow I .......
2. You want your friend to give Tom a message this afternoon.(you/ visit/Tom this afternoon?)
3. Tom and Ann are going to the cinema. The film begins at 7:30 and it is already 7: 20. And it will take them
20 minutes to get there. When they get there (the film/already/start).
4. Tom is on holiday. He has very little money and he is spending too much too quickly. Before the end of
this holiday (he/spend/all his money).
5. You want to use your friend’s typewriter tomorrow evening. (you/use/your typewriter tomorrow evening?)
6. John came to Britain from the US nearly three years ago. Next Monday it will be exactly three years since
he arrived. Next Monday (he/be/here/ exactly three years.)

Complete these predictions about the world in 2020 by putting the verbs in brackets either in the Future
Perfect or Future Continuous.
1. people (use) solar energy extensively
1. people (use) up all natural resources of oil
2. people (travel) into space on a regular basis
3. traditional farms (disappear)
4. many new galaxies (discover)

IV. Fill in with an appropriate future tense.

1. We (to work) ____________________________ hard this time tomorrow.
2. He (to pass) ____________________________ his examinations before you return from Chisinau.
3. They (to learn) ___________________________ English and German for ten months by the first of July.
4. The expedition (leave) ___________________________ for the North by April.
5. She (to take) ______________________________ a music lesson at this tomorrow.
6. By 6 she (to take) ________________________________ her lesson.
7. She (to take) ___________________________________ two lessons this week.
8. At 5:30 she (to take) ________________________________ her lesson for forty minutes.
9. They (to build) ________________________________ a new club in our street.
10. They (to build) __________________________________ it when you are in the country in summer.

Comment on the use of the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect and the Future
Perfect Continuous in the past.
1. He knew she would work at the library in the evenings.
He knew she would be working at the library at 9 in the morning.
He knew she would have done her work by 4 o’clock.
He knew she would have been working for some hours before he came to the library.
2. She said she would begin typing the article at 10 o’clock in the morning. The article is not long. She said
she would still be typing it at 11 o’clock; she would have been typing it for two hours by 12; and she
would have finished typing the article by 12:30.

EXERCISES (different tenses)

Match the sentences (1-7) with the situations (a-g)
1. Have you been playing football in the rain again?
2. I play football every day.
3. I’m playing a football game on the computer.
4. I’m playing a football match at 10 o’clock.
5. I’ve already played and won 20 games.
6. I was playing a football when I fell badly.
7. I had played 40 games when I was injured for the first time.

a) a professional footballer talking about his job

b) a patient talking to the doctor
c) someone giving an excuse why they can’t help someone now
d) someone saying how good they are
e) someone explaining why they can’t go shopping the next day
f) a retired footballer looking back on his career
g) a mother to a boy whose clothes are muddy

Write the correct tense form of the verbs in brackets:

a) Charlie (drive)_____________________________________when the accident happened.
b) What on earth (you/do)_______________________________? You are covered in mud!
c) Marta (not/ride)______________________________a camel before and she was terrified.
d) (you/ever/see)________________________the Black Sea? I hear it’s incredible beautiful.
e) How long (you/learn) ______________________________________________ English?
f) Our hamster (die) _________________________________________________last week.
g) Shakespeare (write) _____________________________________poems as well as plays.
h) I (just/speak) ______________________________________to Jan. She told me the news.
i) The jury (not/agree) ___________________________________with the judge’s decision.
j) I (read) ____________________________________________a book when she called me.

Open the brackets and put the verbs into the correct form:
Angus Pym____________ (wake) up on the dot of six o’clock, as he always________(do), no matter where
he _________(be) or what he _________(do)_____________the previous day. His first thought was the
realization that he ________________still (wear) shirt and trousers, and when his eyes______________(fall)
on the reports piled up around him on the bed, the events of the previous evening_____________(come) back
to him. He________(go) to his club for supper, ____________just (finish) his steak
and______________(look) forward to a splendid turkey when his meal was rudely interrupted by a call from
M., his controller.
After an ice-cold shower, Pym _____________ (think) carefully about which suit to put on. He________
(see) M at nine o’clock that morning, and he ________(want) to make a good impression. Glancing at himself
in the mirror, he_____________ (notice) that he___________(put) on weight recently.
He______________(have) to pay more attention to his diet in the future.
An hour later, as he___________(drive) through the rush-hour traffic on his way to meet M, Pym
________________carefully(consider) the contents of the files. So Zircon, the organization which sought to
control the free western world, was back in business? Its founder, Leon Brown, was dead. Pym
______________ (know) this, because he _________________personally (arranged) his death. But
who_________________ (control) Zircon now? Doubtless M ______________ (tell) him.

Correct any mistakes where it is necessary:

a) Have you seen Martin yesterday?
b) When I reached the station, the bus already left.
c) It snows all day. I’m fed up with it.
d) John is here since last Wednesday
e) Did you ever go to China?
f) At three o’clock last night, the children slept.
g) Bill was having a shower when the phone was ringing.
h) Fred is not here. He has been to Geneva.
i) I wasn’t understanding what the teacher said today.
j) Oh no! You just broke my computer!
k) When have you stopped drinking coffee?
l) “You looked tired last night”. “Yes, I had been”.
m) Did the rain stop yet?
n) They have been knowing each other for a couple of weeks.
o) When I got home, Jym is playing the piano and Sam watches TV.

Complete the text with the appropriate form of the verbs in brackets.
I suppose that, in many ways, I (1) _______________ (be) lucky since the day I was born. I was born two
months premature and I was very ill, but somehow I (2) ____________ (survive). Then, when I was three, I
(3) __________ (fall) into a pond on a farm I (4) _______________ (stay) at. My mum (5) ____________
(go) into hospital for an operation and some friends (6) ___________ (look after) me at the time. Luckily, a
man (7) ____________ (work) near the pond and he (8) ____________ (pull) me out! Now I’m in my last
year at school and all my friends (9) ___________ (think) I’m very Lucky. For example, I (10) ___________
(win) money on the lottery four or five times and I usually (11) ________ (beat) everybody at cards.
I can’t say I’m very hard-working, but I (12) ______________ (do) well at exams – the right questions always
come up. I’m also Lucky in Love and I (13) ___________ (go out) with an amazing girl for the last six
months. I hope my Luck (14) ________________ (continue) in the future.
I (15) (take) my university entrance exams in the summer and as soon as I (16) ______________ (finish)
them, I (17) ___________ (travel) for a couple of months. Then, hopefully, I (18) ___________ (study)
architecture at university.

Take turns to say the sentences about your life using the time expressions below.
Example: I usually play basketball on Tuesday night.
usually, never, now, this weekend, last year, in the future, next year, in 19999, for three weeks, since, at ten
o’clock, twice a week, when, while, recently, for a year now.

ACTIVE TO PASSIVE

Put the following into the passive voice. The agent should not be mentioned except in numbers 11 and
28.
1. You should open the wine about three before you use it.
2. Previous climbers had cut steps in the ice.
3. Somebody had cleaned my shoes and brushed my suit.
4. We use this room only on special occasions.
5. You must not hammer nails into the walls without permission.
6. In some districts farmers use pigs to find truffles.
7. Someone switched on a light and opened the door.
8. Somebody had slashed the picture with a knife.
9. They are pulling down the old theatre.
10. Why didn’t they mend the roof before it fell in?
11. The mob broke all the shop windows in recent riots.
12. The librarian said that they were starting a new system because people were not returning books.
13. The police asked each of us about his movements on the night of the crime.
14. Someone will serve refreshments.
15. People must not leave bicycles in the hall.
16. Members may keep books for three weeks. After that they must return them.
17. The burglars had cut an enormous hole in the steel door.
18. I’ve bought a harp. They are delivering it this afternoon. (Do not change the first sentence)
19. Someone has already told him to report for duty at six.
20. They rang the church bells as a flood warning.
21. No one can do anything unless someone gives us more information.
22. People are spending far more money on food now than they spent ten years ago.
23. The organizers will exhibit the paintings till the end of the month.
24. They will say nothing more about the matter if someone returns the stolen gun.
25. It is high time someone told him to stop behaving like a child.
26. A thief stole my dog and brought him back only when I offered $20 reward for him.
27. The judge gave him two weeks in which to pay the fine.
28. They make these artificial flowers of silk.

Put the following into the passive, mentioning the agent where necessary.
1. They feed the seals at the zoo twice a day.
2. Who wrote it?
3. Compare clothes which we have washed with clothes which any other laundry has washed.
4. He expected us to offer the job.
5. They showed her the easiest way to do it.
6. Lighting struck the old oak.
7. Titian couldn’t have painted it as people didn’t wear that style of dress till after his death.
8. A jellyfish stung her.
9. The author has written a special edition for children.
10. Judges used to carry sweet herbs as a protection against jail-fever.
11. What did he write it with? ~
He wrote it with a matchstick dipped in blood.
12. An uneasy silence succeeded the shot.
13. Did the idea interest you?
14. The lawyer gave him the details of his uncle’s will.
15. Beavers make these dams.
16. They used to start these engines by hand. Now they start them by electricity.
17. Most people opposed this.
18. Students are doing a lot of the work.
19. The Prime Minister was to have opened the dry dock.
20. They recommended opening new factories in the depressed area. (Use should.)
21. The closure of the workshops will make a lot of men redundant.
22. Anyone with the smallest intelligence could understand these instructions.
23. We will not admit children under sixteen.
24. Boys of sixteen to eighteen are to man this training ship.
25. A rainstorm flooded the gypsies’ camp.
26. The howling of wolves kept him awake all night.
27. They suggested making the tests easier. (Use should.)
 28. Children couldn’t have done all this damage.

PASSIVE TO ACTIVE

Turn the following sentences into the active voice. Where no agent is mentioned one must be supplied.
1. This speed limit is to be introduced gradually.
2. Why don’t you have your eyes tested? (... get an optician to ...)
3. The runways are being lengthened at all the main airports.
4. It is now 6 a.m. and at most of the hospitals in the country patients are being wakened with cups of tea.
5. Byron is said to have lived on vinegar and potatoes.
6. By tradition, any sturgeon that are caught by British ships must be offered to the Queen.
7. This notice has been altered.
8. The owners went away last March and since then their houseboat has been used continuously by
squatters. (Use a continuous tense and omit continuously).
9. The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the towline broke.
10. Have a lift put in and then you won’t have to climb up all these stairs.
11. Last year a profit of two million pounds was made in the first six months but this was cancelled by a
loss of seventeen million pounds which was made in the second six months.
12. Evening dress will be worn.
13. The ship was put into quarantine and passengers and crew were forbidden to land.
14. Someone will have to be found to take her place.
15. He was made to surrender his passport.
16. This rumor must have been started by our opponents.
17. My paintings are to be exhibited for the first time by New Arts Gallery.
18. This scientific theory has now been proved to be false.
19. The car which was blown over the cliff yesterday is to be salvaged today.
20. The house where the dead man was found is being guarded by the police to prevent it from being and
the interfered with.
21. Why wasn’t the car either locked or put into the garage?
22. It is being said that too little money is being spent by the government on roads.
23. Your money could be put to good use instead of being left idle in the bank.

Rewrite this newspaper report using passive structures when they are more suitable.
Museums used to be dull and dusty places. Then along came a man called Frank Gehry.
They awarded Frank Gehry, the architect of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, the Royal Gold Medal for
Architecture last week. People have called him a 17th century Baroque architect of the 21st century. His latest
building is the Experience Music Project in Seattle. He designed it to look like an electric guitar that someone
had melted. Not surprisingly, when they opened the building, someone labeled him the King of
Baroque’n’Roll.

Use the passive form of the verbs in the first set of parentheses to complete this report. Include the agent
only if absolutely necessary.
Modern Reader Newsletter
Do you know...?
 Modern Reader (found) (A. J. Thompson) ten years ago.
 At first it (print) (the printer) only in English.
 Today it (publish) (the publisher) in three foreign-language editions.
 It (read) (readers) in more than ten countries.
 Since 2000, twenty new employees (hire) (our international offices)
 Back at home, ten new computers (purchase) (the company) last month.
 They (use) (our writers) to write our award-winning articles.
 Modern Reader (advertise) (advertisers) all over the world.
 Our editorial staff (interview) (Live at Ten TV) last month.
 The interview (see) (millions of viewers).
Complete the text with the verbs in brackets in a suitable form, active or passive.
Virtual Reality Art
Examples of the new “virtual reality art” (1) ____________ (show) at the Inter Communication centre in
Tokio. “The Cave” (2) ____________ (build) at a cost of over $1 million. The viewer (3) _________ (put on)
special glasses and (4) ____________ (confront) by a wooden puppet. If the puppet (5) ___________ (move),
the three dimensional world (6) ___________ (twist) and (7) ___________ (turn). This moving world (8)
________________ (accompany) bay music and sounds. A similar exhibit (9) _________ (build) in the USA.
Computer graphics (10) _____________ (combine) with 3-D images WHCH (11) _________ (project) on the
walls and ceiling, and the viewer (12) ___________ (take) on a tour of what seems like another dimension. As
one expert (13) ________________ (point out) recently, the rise of the “Nintendo generation” (14)
______________ (cause) art and game cultures (15) ___________ (merge).

MODAL VERBS

Complete these paragraphs with can, could, or be able to. Choose between affirmative and negative.
1. Steve is enjoying his computer class. Two weeks ago, he __________ even use the mouse, but now he
__________ edit his homework. By next week, he ________ do research on the Internet.
2. Eleni misses her family in Greece. She __________ visit them for years, but they just got an e-mail account,
so now they _________ keep in touch daily.
3. I _________ understand how to set up a presentation. The software instructions do not help. I think I’ll take
a professional development course. In a few months maybe I __________ make that presentation.
4. Mike and I _________ get along since we started this business. He ________ work alone (he needs people),
and I __________ work in a group (I have to work alone). I hope we __________ work out our problem soon.
5. We have been looking for him for three hours, but we _____ not find him. 6. If you enter this room, you
____ see very interesting things.

Find the mistake in each item and correct it.

1. Can he comes on the train with me or does he need a ticket?
2. I’m sorry, he couldn’t. Only passengers can board the train.
3. Could I changed seats with you?
4. Yes, you could. Go right ahead. I’m getting off soon.
5. Mom, may I to have some candy? I’m hungry.
6. No, you mayn’t. I’m sorry, but you’ve already had enough candy.
7. Do you mind if he play his computer game?
8. Yes, I do. He can play if he wants. It won’t bother me.
9. I’m still hungry. Can we’ll get a sandwich soon?
10. Not at all. We can go find the club car.

Read this student’s journal. Find and correct seven mistakes in expressing ability.
Today in my Will B. Happy Teamwork course, I learned about work styles – “Drivers” and “Enthusiasts”. I’m
a driver, so I can make decisions, but I’m not able listen to other people’s ideas. The Enthusiast in our group
can communicates well, but you can’t depend on her. Now I understand what was happening in my business
class last year, when I couldn’t felt comfortable with my team. I thought that they all talked too much and
didn’t able to communicate efficiently. I could get an A for the course, but it was hard. I can do a lot more
alone, but some jobs are too big for that. Our instructor says that soon the Drivers will able to listen and the
Enthusiast could be more dependable.

Read these requests from Marcia’s boss and Marcia’s answers (in dark print). Find and correct the
mistakes in making and responding to requests.
From: Marcia Jones
To: John Sanchez
The meetings are going well but they have been extended a day. Could you call please Doug Rogers to try to
reschedule our sale meeting?
Not at all. I’ll do it right away.
We’ll need three extra copies of the monthly sales report. Would you ask Ann to take care of that?
Yes, I would. (Ann – Could you do this?)

I hate to ask, but would you mind to work on Saturday? We’ll need the exam time to go over the new
information I’ve got.
Sorry, but I couldn’t. My in-laws are coming for a visit. But Bob Lin says he can come in to the office to
help out.

One last thing. I was going to pick up those new business cards, but I won’t be back in time. Would you mind
doing that for me?
Yes, I would. I’ll stop at the printer’s during my lunch break.

Read this advice for job seekers. Complete it with the correct words.
Want or need a new job? When’s the best time to start looking? Right now!
You (ought to/‘d better not) delay, or you’ll start to feel ‘stuck’.
These tips will help:
 A lot of people wait until after the holidays to look for a job. That means less competition for you right
now. You shouldn’t/ should wait!
 Too busy at work to schedule interviews? Early morning interviews have fewer interruptions. You
should/‘d better ask for interviews before nine o’clock.
 If you are laid off, you‘d better/ shouldn’t take a lower-paying job just to get work. If your new salary is
low, your employer won’t appreciate your skills. If possible, you‘d better not/ should ask for a salary that
matches your skills.
 However, money isn’t everything! You ought to/’d better not take a position with a company you dislike,
or you won’t do a good job there.
 Don’t talk about salary too soon. You‘d better/ shouldn’t wait – learn about the job and talk about your
skills first.

VI. Kim’s boss has invited him to dinner at his home. Complete Kim’s conversation with his friend. Use
should, ought to, or had better and the words in parentheses. Choose between affirmative and negative.
K: (how/ dress?) ___________________ In a suit?
S: You don’t have to wear a suit. (look/ neat) ________________ , but you can wear casual clothes.
K: (What time/ arrive?) ___________________
S: It’s really important to be on time. Your boss and his wife are expecting you at 7:00, so (arrive after 7:15)
___________________ . It’s OK to be a little late, but don’t male them wait too long for you!
K: (bring a gift?) _____________________
S: Yes, but get something small. (buy an expensive gift) _________________ . It would embarrass them.
K: (What/ buy?) _____________________
S: I think (get some flowers) ______________________.

Read this letter. Find and correct five mistakes in expressing advice.
Dear son,
We are so happy to hear about your new job. Congratulations! Just remember – you shouldn’t work too hard.
The most important thing right now is your schoolwork. Maybe you only oughta work two days a week
instead of three. Also, we think you’d better ask your boss for time off during exams. That way you’ll have
plenty of time to study. You would better give this a lot of careful thought, OK? Please take good care of
yourself. You’d not better start skipping meals, and you definitely shouldn’t worked at night. At your age, you
will better get a good night’s sleep. Do you need anything from home? Should we send any of your books? Let
us know:
With love,
Mom and Dad.

Find and correct six mistakes in expressing necessity.

Dear Sara,
How are you doing? We’ve been here about six weeks. It’s strange living in the suburbs.
There’s no public transportation, so you’ve get to drive everywhere. I had to signs up for driver’s ed this
semester so I can get my license by summertime. It’s the law here that everyone musts wear a seat belt. I used
to hate to buckle up, but with the traffic here, I have changed my mind. There are a lot of freeways, and you’ve
gotta know how to change lanes with a lot of fast traffic. Even my Mom have had to get used to it. Dad works
at home, so he hasn’t has to do a lot of driving.
I’m having a lot of trouble with “Doom”. You got to write to me and tell me how to get past the fifth level!
Jim

Translate the following sentences paying attention to the difference between the modal verbs may and
must.
1. What you tell me may be true. 2. There must be something wrong in it. 3. But you might not be speaking
the truth. 4. Something might turn up. One never knows. 5. The boy must be forty now. 6. “I can see you
must be very upset”, she said gently. 7. You must be imagining this. 8. I hope I may call on you again. 9.
Well, it must have been about ten. I can’t say exactly. It might have been later. 10. “This man must be mad”,
the traveler thought. 11. He must have gone back to town last night or early this morning. 12. The window
may have been left open after his departure. 13. There may be something missing. 14. You must be starving.
15. Much valuable time may have been lost.

Use can’t + Present/Perfect Infinitive to express impossibility.

Model: John can’t have broken another window.
1. Jack broke another window. 2. I don’t think this boy speaks Japanese. 3. I don’t think the pupils
have finished all the exercises. 4. It’s impossible for that man to have said that. 5. She knows our hiding
place. 6. Peter saw a huge fish. 7. The girls made many mistakes. 8. I don’t think the boys are in the
garden.

Express past possibility by using may/might + have + Past Participle or must + have + Past Participle
according to the meaning:
1. Do you know if it rained in the mountains? 2. Margaret didn’t bring me the book. (to forget it).3. Do you
know if Mary arrived? 4. Do you know if the children saw that film? 5. The cake is not on the table. (the
boy/to eat it). 6. Do you know if Matthew learnt that poem by heart? 7. The little girl didn’t find her key. (to
lose it). 8. Do you know if that patient recovered? 9. Albert didn’t want to go to the cinema. (to see the film).
10. Our friends haven’t arrived yet. (to miss the train). 11. Do you know if the kids fell asleep? 12. The dog
raised its head. (to hear us). 13. Jack didn’t buy that car. (to be too expensive). 14. Do you know if the boy
won the match? 15. The old woman was very sad. (to hear the bad news). 16. His neighbour had a terrible
accident. (to fall asleep while driving his car). 17. The ball is no longer under the tree. (somebody/to take it).
18. Do you know if Jane bought a new umbrella?

Comment on the following sentences using may/might or can’t:

1. Perhaps you’ll find her there. 2. Perhaps she sold her car. 3. I think she knows him. 4. I don’t believe they
found out the truth. 5. I am sure the teacher has corrected our papers. 6. Perhaps your neighbour was not at
home. 7. Maybe Jack is ill. 8. Perhaps the hunter shot that wolf. 9. Maybe Jack knows the poem by heart.
10. I am sure that this girl doesn’t live in this house.

Comment on the following sentences using might + Present/Perfect Infinitive to express reproach.
1. She doesn’t get up early. 2. You didn’t learn the lesson. 3. The boy didn’t greet the old woman. 4.
Mary doesn’t work hard. 5. You were not attentive. 6. You don’t hurry. 7. Father doesn’t give up smoking. 8.
You didn’t bring me my coat. 9. The sick man didn’t take that medicine. 10. My sister doesn’t lock the door.

Fill in the blanks with must or have to. Sometimes it is possible to use either:
1. The pupils in our primary school _____ wear uniforms. 2. If you want to get a good mark, you _______
work hard. 3. He couldn’t come here yesterday because he _______ repair his bicycle. 4. In Romania traffic
_______ keep to the right while in England it _________ keep to the left. 5. I am sure Tim will be punctual
because he _____ to catch the early train. 6. This girl _______ earn her living since she was fifteen. 7. If you
didn’t want to write your homework yesterday, you _______ write it today. 8. I don’t think we can play tennis
tomorrow. We ________ go shopping. 9. I know that he doesn’t like going to school, but he __________. 10.
As the manager was ill, we _________ postpone our meeting.
Fill in the blanks with mustn’t or don’t/doesn’t have to:
1. I tell you this secret but you _________ tell anybody about it. 2. We still have plenty of time so we
_______ hurry. 3. You ___________ cross the street till the traffic light is green. 4. I think your leg is broken.
You _______ move it. 5. We have enough bread, so you _______ go to buy any. 6. I may get up later on
because I __________ go to school today. 7. Granny is sleeping, so we ________ make any noise. 8. It isn’t
raining any longer, so you __________ take your umbrella. 9. Tom, you ___________ be late for school
again! 10. The weather is fine today, so we _________ put on our warm clothes. 11. You _________ stop your
car on the zebra crossing. 12. “Are you going to read that letter?” “No, I ___________ It’s not mine.” 13. We
___________ get up so early. The taxi will come at 8 o’clock. 14. She ___________ enter this building
without permission. 15. You __________ go to the theatre if you don’t want to.

Fill in the blanks with mustn’t or needn’t according to the meaning:

1. People _________ walk on the grass. 2. We __________ take our umbrellas; the rain has stopped. 3. If he
hasn’t finished the book yet, he __________ return it this week. 4. We _________ talk in a library. 5. She
____________ get up so early. It doesn’t take her longer than ten minutes to get to the station. 6. The
president of a country ____________, openly at least, take sides in politics. 7. Children ___________ run in
the street. 8. Think it over. You __________ decide right now. 9. You _________ help me with this exercise. I
can do it myself. 10. We ___________ feed animals in a zoo.

Fill in the blanks with didn’t need to/needn’t have + Past Participle according to the meaning:
1. You _____________ (to tell) her that; you see she is crying now. 2. I ___________ (to knock) on the door
because it was already open. 3. She __________ (to take) a taxi because she still had a lot of time to get there.
4. We ___________ (to stop) here; the policeman has seen us. 5. I ____________ (to wait) long because they
came back home very quickly. 6. You ___________ (to pay) him so much money; it couldn’t be more than
five dollars. 7. We __________ (to water) the flowers because it had rained an hour before. 8. She
______________ (to stay) up so late; now she is very tired. 9. You ________________ (to mention) anything
about the child. Now she understands that we have discussed about him. 10. I ____________ (to show) my
identity card because he had recognized me.

SUBJUNCTIVE
Work on the model:
E.g. We go to school six days a week. (five days) = > I wish we went to school five days a week.
He bought an old car. (new) = > I wish he had bought a new car.

1. You know how to speak Italian. (Spanish, too) 2. He painted the walls blue. (white) 3. My application for
that job was rejected. (accepted) 4. She seldom goes to the theatre. (more often) 5. My father drinks very
much coffee. (less) 6. It was an expensive camera. (cheap) 7. Tom came to the party. (his wife, too). 8. Alice
is present. (her friend, too) 9. I arrived at work late this morning. (in time) 10. We have a small house. (big).

Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Aş dori să pot să o ajut pe sora ta. 2. Aş dori să ştiu unde locuieşte. 3. Aş dori să fiu milionar. 4. Aş dori să
nu se mai repete acest lucru. 5. Aş fi dorit să fiu anunţat de acest lucru în prealabil. 6. Profesorul ar fi dorit ca
noi să nu fi făcut atăt de multe greşeli în lucrare. 7. Mary ar dori să fie la mare acum. 8. Aş dori să fi avut
bani să cumpăr tabloul. 9. Aş fi dorit ca ei să nu mă vadă acolo. 10. Aş fi dorit să am asemenea prilejuri cînd
eram mai tînăr. 11. Se comportă ca şi cum ar fi stăpînul casei. 12. Mary arăta ca şi cum ar fi bolnavă. 13. Te
plimbi ca şi cum nu ai avea ore astăzi. 14. Îmi pui aceste întrebări ca şi cum m-ai vedea pentru prima dată.
15. Miroase în casă ca şi cum am fi într-o farmacie. 16. Te uiţi la mine ca şi cum n-ai şti despre cine vorbim.
17. Mă simt ca şi cum toată lumea s-ar uita la mine. 18. Femeia merse mai departe ca şi cum nu l-ar fi
observat pe cel care o urmărea. 19. Andrew păşeşte ca şi cum l-ar durea piciorul. 20. Pamela vorbeşte
franţuzeşte ca şi cum ar fi fost crescută în Franţa.

Use Past or Perfect Subjunctive after even if/ even though according to the meaning:
1. I wouldn’t to that even if she (to give) me a lot of money. 2. Even though they (to lend) him their new
dictionary, he couldn’t have translated such a difficult text. 3. Even if someone (to be) to leave me 10,000
pounds I would not be able to fulfil my lifelong ambition. 4. He wouldn’t have acted differently even if he (to
know) the real situation. 5. Angela wouldn’t marry this man even though he (to be) rich. 6. Even if Doris (to
come) here, she couldn’t help us. 7. I wouldn’t have told her the truth even though she (to ask) me to do that.
8. Even if he (to get up) earlier he wouldn’t have gone on the trip because of such bad weather. 9. Even
though you (not to tell) me anything I would realize that there something wrong with you. 10. I would
havevbought tickets even if I (to have) to stand in the queuevfor hours.

Open the brackets using the correct form of the Subjunctive.

1. He didn’t switch on the light lest his wife _____________ (wake) up. 2. Do you consider it right that
these people ______________ (be treated) like that? 3. All good luck __________ (attend) you! 4. She left
orders that it _____________ (changed) at once. 5. David works hard so that he __________ (pass) this
difficult exam. 6. She is shocked that such a thing _____________ (happen) in her house. 7. However much
money you ___________ (have), don’t spend it in one day. 8. You insisted that she _________ (be) present,
too. 9. She suggests that our work ____________ (be finished) at once. 10. I propose she __________ (be
asked) to resign. 11. It is quite wrong that people ____________ (forced) to say what they don’t want to. 12.
He hurried so that he ____________ catch the train. 13. Give him my new address so that he ____________
(answer) my letter. 14. Whatever she ____________ (say) about me, don’t believe her! 15. Whoever he
___________ be, don’t open the door! 16. ___________ all your dreams come true. 17. You urge that she
____________ (start) learning English. 18. I wish he __________ (make) so many mistakes. 19. She insists
that everybody ___________ (bring) the dictionaries to school. 20. They look as if they _________ ill.
21. It is important that she __________ (arrive) there before noon. 22. It is high time they __________ (tell)
us the truth. 23. I gave orders that the prisoner _____________ (set) free at once. 24. I wish she _________
(speak) Italian more fluently. 25. No matter how difficult a problem __________ (be), you should try to solve
it. 26. It is scandalous that they __________ (be treated) like that. 27. Should the weather __________ (be)
fine tomorrow, we will all go fishing. 28. It is shocking that some people __________ (live) in such houses.
29. We spoke in a whisper lest mother ___________ (hear) us. 30. They demanded that you ___________ (be)
on time. 31. I demand that she ____________ (tell) the truth. 32. It is quite wrong that pupils ___________
be obliged to wear uniforms. 33. They hurried lest they __________ (be caught) by the rain. 34. However
important this matter ____________ be, we can’t discuss it now. 35. Though she _____________ (be) at
home, she will not answer the phone. 36. God ___________(bless) you! 37. Devil _____________ (take)
you! 38. Long _________ (live) peace all over the world! 39. Heaven ___________ (help) them!

CONDITIONAL
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses: type I
1. If I see him I (give) him a lift. 2. The table will collapse if you (stand) on it. 3. If he (eat) all that he will be
ill. 4. If I find your passport I (telephone) you at once. 5. The police (arrest) him if they catch him. 6. If he
(read) in bad light he will ruin his eyes. 7. Someone (steal) your car if you leave it unlocked. 8. What will
happen if my parachute (not open)? 9. If he (wash) my car I’ll give him $10. 11. If she (need) a radio she can
borrow mine. 12. If you (not go) away I’ll send for the police. 13. I’ll be very angry if he (make) any more
mistakes. 14. If he (be) late we’ll go without him. 15. She will be absolutely furious if she (hear) about this.
16. If you put on the kettle I (make) the tea. 17. If you give my dog a bone he (bury) it at once. 18. If we leave
the car here it (not be) in anybody’s way. 19. He’ll be late for the train if he (not start) at once. 20. If you come
late they (not let) you in. 21. If he (go) on telling lies nobody will believe a word he says. 22. Unless he (sell)
more he won’t get much commission. 23. If I lend you $10 when you (repay) me? 24. We’ll have to move
upstairs if the river (rise) any higher. 25. If he (work) hard today can he have a holiday tomorrow? 26. Ice
(turn) to water if you heat it. 27. If the house (burn) down we can claim compensation. 28. If you (not like)
this one I’ll bring you another. 29. Unless you are more careful you (have) an accident. 30. Tell him to ring me
up if you (see) him. 31. If I tell you a secret, you (promise) not to tell it to anyone else? 32. If you (not believe)
what I say, ask your mother. 33. If he (like) the house will he buy it? 34. If you will kindly sit down I (make)
enquiries for you. 35. Unless I have a quiet room I (not be able) to do any work. 36. She won’t open the door
unless she (know) who it is. 37. Should you require anything else please (ring) the bell for the attendant.

Conditional sentences: type 2

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If I had a typewriter I (type) it myself. 2. If I (know) his address I’d give it to you. 3. He (look) a lot better if
he shaved more often. 4. If you (play) for lower stakes you wouldn’t lose so much. 5. I shouldn’t drink that
wine if I (be) you. 6. More tourists would come to this country if it (have) a better climate. 7. If I were sent to
prison you (visit) me? 8. If someone (give) you a helicopter what would you do with it? 9. I (buy) shares it that
company if I had some money. 10. If he (clean) his windscreen he’d be able to see where he was going. 11. If
you drove your car into the river you (be able) to get out? 12. If you (not belong) to a union you couldn’t get a
job. 13. If I (win) a big prize in a lottery I’d give up my job. 14. What you (do) if you found a burglar in your
house? 15. I could tell you what this means if I (know) Greek. 16. If everybody (give) $1 we would have
enough. 17. He might get fat if he (stop) smoking. 18. If he knew that it was dangerous he (not come). 19. If
you (see) someone drowning what would you do? 20. I (be) ruined if I bought her everything she asked for.
21. If you slept under a mosquito net you (not be) bitten so often. 22. I could get a job easily if I (have) a
degree. 23. If she (do) her hair differently she might look quite nice. 24. If we had more rain our crops (grow)
faster. 25. The whole machine would fall to pieces if you (remove) that screw. 26. I (keep) a horse if I could
afford it. 27. I’d go and see him more often if he (live) on a bus route. 28. If they (ban) the sale of alcohol at
football matches there might be less violence. 29. I (offer) to help if I thought I’d be any use. 30. What would
you do if the lift (gets) stuck between two floors? 31. If you (paint) the walls white the room would be much
brighter. 32. If you (change) your job would it affect your pension? 33. If you knew you had only six weeks to
live how you (spend) those six weeks? 34. You wouldn’t have so much trouble with your car if you (have) it
serviced regularly. 35. I’d climb over the wall if there (not be) so much broken glass on top of it.

Conditional sentences: type 3

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If I had known you were in hospital I (visit) you. 2. The ground was very soft. But for that, my horse (win).
3. If you (arrive) ten minutes earlier you would have got a seat. 4. You would have seen my garden at its best if
you (be) here last week. 5. But for his quickness I (be) killed. 6. I shouldn’t have believed it if I (not see) it
with my own eyes. 7. If he had slipped he (fall) 500 meters. 8. If he had asked you, you (accept)? 9. If I (had) a
map I would have been all right. 10. If I (know) that you were coming I’d have baked a cake. 11. I (offer) to
help him if I had realized that he was ill. 12. If you had left that wasp alone it (not sting) you. 13. If I (realize)
what a bad driver you were I wouldn’t have come with you. 14. If I had realized that the traffic lights were red
I (stop). 15. But for the fog we (reach) our destination ages ago. 16. If you had told me that he never paid his
debts I (not lend) him the money. 17. If you (not sneeze) he wouldn’t have known that we were there. 18. If
you (put) some mustard in the sandwiches they would have tasted better. 19. The hens (not get) into the house
if you had shut the door. 20. If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim across it. 21. If
you (speak) more slowly he might have understood you. 22. If he had known the whole story he (not be) so
angry. 23. I shouldn’t have eaten it if I (know) that there was ginger in it. 24. If I (try) again I think that I
would have succeeded. 25. You (not get) into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions. 26. If you hadn’t been
in such a hurry you (not put) sugar into the sauce instead of salt. 27. If I (be) ready when he called he would
have taken me with him. 28. She had a headache; otherwise she (come) with us. 29. If she had listened to my
directions she (not turn) down the wrong street. 30. If you (look) at the engine for a moment you would have
seen what was missing. 31. Rome (be captured) by her enemies if the geese hadn’t cackled. 32. He would have
been arrested if he (try) to leave the country. 33. I (take) a taxi if I had realized that it was such a long way. 34.
You (save) me a lot of trouble if you had told me where you were going. 35. They would have forced their
way into the house if I (not call) for help. 36. If he had put out his pipe before putting it in his pocket he (not
burn) a hole in his coat.

Conditional sentences: all types

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If you (find) a skeleton in the cellar don’t mention it to anyone. 2. If you pass your examination we (have) a
celebration. 3. What (happen) if I press this button? 4. I should have voted for her if I (have) a vote then. 5. If
you go to Paris where you (stay). 6. If someone offered to buy you one of those rings, which you (choose)? 7.
The flight may be cancelled if the fog (get) thick. 8. If the milkman (come) tell him to leave two pints. 9.
Someone (sit) on your glasses if you leave them there. 10. You would play better bridge if you (not talk) so
much. 11. What I (do) if I hear the burglar alarm? 12. If you (read) the instructions carefully you wouldn’t
have answered the wrong question. 13. I could repair the roof myself if I (have) a long ladder. 14. Unless they
turn that radio off I (go) mad. 15. If you were made redundant what you (do)? 16. We’ll have a long way to
walk if we (run) out of petrol here. 17. If you shake that bottle of port it (not be) fit to drink. 18. I’ll probably
get lost unless he (come) with me. 19. You (not have) so many accidents if you drove more slowly. 20. If you
(wear) a false beard nobody would have recognized you. 21. If she (leave) the fish there the car will get it. 22.
Unless they leave a lamp beside that hole in the road somebody (fall) into it. 23. You’ll get pneumonia if you
(not change) your wet clothes. 24. If I had known that you couldn’t eat octopus I (not buy) it. 25. If they
(hang) that picture lower people would be able to see it. 26. She (be able) to walk faster if her shoes hadn’t
such high heels. 27. I (bring) you some beer if I had known that you were thirsty. 28. If you had touched that
electric cable you (be) electrocuted. 29. If the story hadn’t been true the newspaper (not print) it. 30. I (not
buy) things on the installment system if I were you. 31. Dial 999 if you (want) Police, Ambulance, or Fire
Brigade. 32. You (not be) any use to me unless you learn to type. 33. If anyone attacked me, my dog (jump) at
his throat. 34. If he were in he (answer) the phone. 35. The ship would have run aground if the pilot (make)
one mistake. 36. I shouldn’t have taken your umbrella if I (know) that it was the only one you had.

Make conditional sentences about these situations (1-6).

Example: 1. If he hadn’t taken drugs, he wouldn’t have been banned.
1. Ben Johnson took drugs => he was banned from sport
2. athletes earn a lot of money => they train hard
3. someone will run 100 meters in 9.3 seconds => nobody will believe it
4. Gabriela Szabo is very fit => it’s easy for her to run long distances
5. an athlete will win four gold medals in athletics => they will be a record breaker
6. in 1980 the Olympic Games were organized in Moscow => the USA didn’t take part.

Write answers to the questions.

1. What would the situation be now:
a) if performance-enhancing drugs hadn’t been developed?
b) if penicillin hadn’t been discovered?
c) if the computer hadn’t been invented?
d) if the Second World War had never broken out?

2. What would or would not have happened in the past:

a) if football was a less popular sport?
b) if the Americas and Europe were one continent?
c) if people didn’t like traveling?
d) if the sun was closer to the Earth

Use the cues to write mixed conditional sentences.

Example: If John weren’t so tall, he wouldn’t have had to have the doors in his house changed.

1. John is seven foot tall => he had to have the doors in his house changed
 he joined a basketball team at school
 he had problems finding a date for a school disco
2. Jessica has been a world-class gymnast since she was 11
 she suffers from spine problems
 she is a famous person now
 she is able to support her family financially.

Write about three things that you did or didn’t do, or that happened or didn’t happen to you in the past
and what the present consequences are. Use mixed conditional sentences.
Example: If I had started to play tennis when I was ten, I could be o champion now.

Complete the conditional sentences using a suitable form of the verbs in brackets.
1. If Fleming ______________ (not leave) bacteria in a dish, he wouldn’t have discovered penicillin. 2. Have
you seen your horoscope? I ___________ (not go) out this afternoon if I were you! 3. If you ____________
(not go out) in the rain, you wouldn’t have caught a cold. 4. Many athletes ________________ (not break)
records if they hadn’t used drugs. 5. Unless we control `doping`, the original spirit of the Olympics
____________ (disappear). 6. If you laid out flat the grey matter of a human brain, it _______________
(cover) an office desk! 7. If you have a headache, why ______________ you _____________ (not take) an
aspirin? 8. If farmers used the new types of plants, they ______________ (have) crops that can resist disease.
9. If plants were engineered in the right way, they ________ (have) the taste and consistency of meat – good
news for vegetarians! 10. If we had not bred from the wolf, the astonishing range of dogs _______________
(not exist).

Write sentences about what life would be like now if these things had not been invented or discovered.
Use mixed conditional sentences.
electric lightbulbs, a vaccine for cholera, printing, penicillin, the atomic bomb, computers, guns, the wheel,
cloning, cars
Example: If electric light bulbs hadn’t been invented, we would still have to use candles.

Complete these sentences saying what things would have happened in the past if the world was
different. Use mixed conditionals.
Example: If the Earth was covered by sea, humans would not have evolved.
1. If the Earth was covered by sea, ...
2. If humans had small brains, ...
3. If spaceships could travel at the speed of light, ...
4. If humans lived 200 years, ...
5. If there were intelligent robots, ...

NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

Fill in the blanks with the Short or Long Infinitives of the verbs in brackets:
1. I wanted ____ home earlier. (to go). 2. She made me ______ that incident again. (to think of). 3. Our
friends are expected _____ this evening. (to arrive) 4. I’m sure they’ll be able ______ all the exercises. (to
do) 5. Would you like ______ with us? (to come) 6. Could you _____ this problem to me? ( to explain) 7.
They must _____ this poem by heart. (to learn) 8. She seems _____ the truth. (to know) 9. I told her _____
care of her new book. (to take) 10. When she was a pupil, she used ______ a uniform. (to wear) 11. Let me
_____ you something interesting. (to tell) 12. My brother happened _____ at home at that moment. (to be)
13. How dare she _____ such nonsense? (to talk) 14. They persuaded her ____ her leaving. (to postpone)
15. I refused _____ this question. (to answer) 16. I will help him ____ his luggage. (to carry) 17. As it was
rather late, I had _____ (to leave) 18. May I _____ to bed now? (to go) 19. I suggested to him _____ for
some minutes (to wait) 20. It is better _____ sure than sorry. (to be)

Paraphrase the following sentences using the Nominative + the Infinitive according to the model:
It seems that she knows you.
She seems to know you.
1. We know that she speaks three foreign languages. 2. It so happened that they all were absent. 3. Everybody
expected that the singer would sing his famous song. 4. It is believed that the thief stole a large sum of money.
5. It was said that you were fond of music. 6. We are certain that Tom managed to arrive there on time. 7. It
appears that you are right. 8. It was proved that she was lying to us. 9. It turned out that his grandmother was
the owner of that castle. 10. It is supposed that she knows many interesting things about that expedition.

Translate the following sentences containing the Accusative + the Infinitive into Romanian:
1. They wanted us to go there as soon as possible. 2. She imagined me to be ill. 3. They forbid you to call on
us. 4. I expect him to arrive here in a week’s time. 5. I will let you know about this matter when I get there.
6. She convinced me to join them on the trip. 7. Her funny hat always made me laugh. 8. They enabled us to
attend that famous man’s lecture. 9. I urged him to tell her the truth. 10. I’m sure you will manage to
persuade him to stay here one week longer. 11. It is necessary for them to buy all these books. 12. Why did
you oblige her to keep this secret for such a long time?

Answer the following questions by using the Infinitive to express purpose:

1. Why did Mary go to the post office? (post a letter) 2. Why did you go into the garden? (plant some trees)
3. Why do you learn the new words? (translate this poem) 4. Why did Jane go to the window? (shut it) 5.
Why did the boy come to school so early? (write his homework) 6. Why will she take a taxi? (catch the train)
7. Why did the children hurry? (not to miss the bus) 8. Why do you talk in a whisper? (not to wake up the
children) 9. Why does mother go to market? (buy some vegetables) 10. Why did father borrow this money?
(buy a boat)

Use the verbs in brackets in the Gerund:

They admitted (to be) rude. 2. You suggest (to play) chess. 3. She avoided (to mention) his name. 4. They
stopped (to talk) about that matter. 5. Jane risks (to lose) a large sum of money. 6. We delayed (to go) to the
seaside. 7. Now we can remember (to see) them somewhere. 8. He regretted (to say) such a thing. 9. I
postponed (to meet) them. 10. Would you mind (to ring) me up later? 11. They can’t help (to worry) about
such events. 12. The two girls began (to sing).

Replace the Infinitive by the Gerund according to the model: It is nice to swim – Swimming is nice.
1. It is comfortable to sit by the fireside. 2. It is unpleasant to sleep on the door. 3. It is difficult to do such
exercises. 4. It is illegal to drive without a license. 5. It is tiring to drive at night. 6. It is dangerous to climb
those rocks. 7. It is exciting to travel by plane. 8. It is expensive to eat in restaurants nowadays. 9. It is useful
to learn English. 10. It is enjoyable to eat fresh fruit.

Use the Infinitive or the Gerund of the verbs in brackets:

1. We don’t wish (to reveal) our plans to you yet. 2. Has she finished (to read) the article yet? 3. Would you
mind (to open) that window? 4. Our friend plans (to spend) a few weeks abroad. 5. When Alice was little, she
enjoyed (to watch) cartoons. 6. They demanded (to see) our report immediately. 7. We avoided (to mention)
his name that evening. 8. She hopes (to visit) Paris soon. 9. The boy admitted (to know) the name of that
man. 10. His aunt always tends (to exaggerate) things. 11. Did Albert forget (to tell) you the news? 12. You
seem (to understand) me now. 13. He doesn’t advise (to go) there today. 14. They would appreciate (to
receive) our reply this week. 15. The boys wanted (to explain) to us what had happened. 16. They didn’t
expect (to meet) us there. 17. She denied (to live) in that house. 18. Did they offer (to help) you? 19. You
should postpone (to visit) your friend. 20. We can’t stand (to hear) this man’s complaints again.

Use the verbs in brackets in the right continuous tense:

1. When it started to rain, we (to walk) in the park. 2. Our friends (to come) here tomorrow. 3. What your
sister (to do) now? 4. This time tomorrow we (to have) a test. 5. My brother (to work) in the garden for
more than two hours. 6. When mother came home, the children (to sleep). 7. This old man always (to
complain) about everything. 8. When we got there, it (to snow) for several hours. 9. My brothers (to play)
football since they came back from school. 10. If we were not so busy, we (to watch) TV now.

Work on the model:

The boy is very tired. He is sitting on the bench.
The boy sitting on the bench is very tired.
1. At the gate there was a man. He was talking to a little child. 2. The books were on the top shelf. They
belonged to my sister. 3. I chose a large room. It overlooked the park. 4. We listened to the birds. They were
singing in the trees. 5. Yesterday I saw a dog. It was running after a cat. 6. Do you see the photo? It is lying
on the floor. 7. Suddenly they heard a noise. It was coming from the street. 8. They saw a girl. She was
picking flowers. 9. At last we found the path. It led to the chalet. 10. My sister told me five words. They
ended in the letter “t”.

Use the Accusative + Present Participle according to the model:

The girl is singing. I hear...
I hear her singing.
1. The cake was burning. I smelt... 2. We are dancing. Tom sees... 3. The children were crossing the street.
Mother noticed... 4. The train was moving. We felt... 5. The tennis-player is serving. We watch... 6. A
stranger was talking to the policeman. She observed... 7. Something was happening there. They sensed... 8.
The baby is crying. I hear...
Use the Nominative + Present Participle according to the model:
I noticed a ship, which was approaching the shore.
A ship was noticed approaching the shore.
1. I heard that Mary was playing the piano. 2. They noticed a boy who was running in the street. 3. They see
that the patient is bleeding. 4. We spotted a strange object, which was flying in the sky. 5. They see a man
who is lying on the bed. 6. They hear a strange noise, which is coming from the garden. 7. They noticed a
woman who was trying to steal some jewels. 8. Somebody saw the thief who was killing a policeman.

From each pair of sentences make one sentence according to the model:
I was walking in the park. I was listening to the birds.
I was walking in the park listening to the birds.
1. The boy was running. He was looking back. 2. The children were sleeping. They were dreaming of
something nice. 3. I was singing. I was looking out of the window. 4. The soldiers were marching. They were
singing. 5. You were knocking at the door. You were thinking about the sick woman. 6. We were talking. We
were admiring the landscape. 7. Father was sitting in an armchair. He was reading the newspaper. 8. A man
was standing in front of our gate. He was looking at his watch. 9. I was driving my car. I was whistling an old
song. 10. We were translating the text. We were looking the new words up in a dictionary.

Join the sentences below according to the model:

I wrote my homework. I went to school.
Having written my homework, I went to school.
1. I opened the box. I took some jewels. 2. The boys had their breakfast. They went fishing. 3. The children
said “good night”. They went to bed. 4. She locked the door. She left the house. 5. I chose a summer dress. I
paid at the cashier’s desk. 6. They borrowed a large sum of money. They bought a big house. 7. We received
the telegram. We went to the railway station. 8. I found her address. I wrote her a long letter. 9. You
understood the joke. You started to laugh. 10. Mary finished her dress. She put it on.

Change the adverb clauses to modifying phrases. Work on the models:

Because Lucy was busy, she couldn’t go for a walk. - Being busy, Lucy couldn’t go for a walk.
Because he had learnt the lesson, he answered all the teacher’s questions. - Having learnt the lesson, he
answered all the teacher’s questions.

1. Because Peter lives far from school, he must get up very early. 2. Because Albert had read that book, he
could tell the story to his sister. 3. Because I am well again, I may leave the hospital today. 4. Because you
can speak English fluently, you can work as a guide for foreign tourists. 5. Because your sister was tired, she
went to bed. 6. Because mother didn’t finish cooking the dinner, she asked us to wait. 7. Because father
repaired the engine of our car, we could continue our trip. 8. Because I know her very well, I expect her to
apologize for what she did. 9. Because granny lost her glasses, she couldn’t watch TV. 10. Because we didn’t
write our homework, we got a bad mark.

From each pair of sentences make one sentence according to the model:
The money is on the table. It has been found by my sister.
The money found by my sister is on the table.
1. The cakes are very good. They were made by my sister. 2. The compositions are very interesting. They
were written by my classmates. 3. The toy-horse is very nice. It was bought by Matthew. 4. The portraits are
very expensive. They were painted by John. 5. These exercises contained many mistakes. They were done by
my cousin. 6. Nick showed me a car. I had been bought three days before. 7. We’ll apply a new method. It
was invented by a friend of mine. 8. The solutions are very good. They are suggested by our teacher. 9. These
books are boring. They were read by us. 10. The albums are very expensive. They were printed in our town.

Use the Accusative + Past Participle:

1. During that match, Fred got (his leg; to break). 2. They want (their car; to repair) as soon as possible. 3.
This experiment made (she; to know) all over the world. 4. When he returned from the seaside, he found (his
house; to destroy). 5. I wish (this painting; to restore). 6. The teacher wanted (our test; to complete) in ten
minutes.
Use the Accusative + Past Participle after causative have and translate then the sentences into Romanian:
1. Can I have (this document; to photocopy), please? 2. My daughter must have (her eyes; to test) on
Friday. 3. Can we have (our car; to repair) by 5 o’clock? 4. Henry will have (his hair; to cut) this afternoon.
5. We had (our room; to decorate) last week. 6. The Smiths will have (a new house; to build) soon. 7. Peter
has just had (his new novel; to print). 8. Paul had (his car; to service) a few days ago. 9. We must have (our
chimneys; to sweep) every spring. 10. I have had (my windows; to clean) today.

Turn into the Passive Voice:

1. Mother wakes me at 7 o’clock every morning. 2. Fred will meet her at the station. 3. Little Jane has
broken a vase. 4. Jerry was carrying our suitcase. 5. I would translate this text if I knew all the words. 6. She
went home after she typed all the letters. 7. The teacher is asking me a lot of questions. 8. I gave her some
flowers. 9. I offered mother five white roses. 10. This girl makes very good cakes.

Fill in the blanks with the Past Participle of the verbs in brackets. Translate the sentences into
Romanian:
1. Have you ever ________ (to see) such a strange thing before? 2. My friend said that she had ________ (to
buy) tickets for that show. 3. By 7 o’clock we will have __________ (to finish) our homework. 4. This house
was ______ (to build) in 1980. 5. All the people __________ (to mention) had to leave the room. 6. America
was _________ (to discover) in 1492. 7. I wished they had ___________ (to arrive) there before us. 8. But
for the fog, we could have ____________ (to reach) the village in less than two hours. 9. __________ (to
scare) by the dogs, the boys started to cry. 10. I explained to my sister that I would give her that book after I
had ____________ (to read) it.

MODAL WORDS
Point out the modal words and define their meaning. Translate the sentences.
1. Manson's nature was extraordinarily intense. Probably he derived this from his mother... 2. You come
quickly to a resolution, Mr. Racksole. But perhaps you have been considering this question for .a long .time?
3. Certainly it was astonishing that, she should be… preoccupied with her schemes for the welfare of
Constance... 4. Unhappily a terrible storm broke out before the travellers had reached the place of their
destination. 5. Evidently she treated this experienced and sad woman of fifty as a young girl. 6. Fortunately
there were few people at the morning surgery. 7. Silly, silly Phillip! Of course, it would have been different if
they had married; he would naturally have taken it [the money]. 8. He became conscious of something very
near him; indeed, nearly above his head.

THE INTERJECTION

Point out all the interjections and say whether they are emotional or imperative.
1. "The Boers are a hard nut to crack, uncle James." "Hum!" muttered James. "Where do you get your
information? Nobody tells." 2. "Oh! My eye!" he said looking very lowspirited, "I am sorry for that." 3. "Good
Lord!" said Fleur. "Am I only twenty-one? I feel forty-eight." 4. "Good Heavens!" cried my mother, "you'll
drive me mad!" 5. Heavens! How dull you are! 6. "Oh, Karen," he said, "it's good to have you around!" 7.
Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window. 8. A man jumped on top of the barricade
and, waving exuberantly, shouted: "Americans! Hurrah." 9. Hallo, Michael I'm rather late; been to the club and
walked home. 10. Ah! You are both of you good-natured. (Sheridan) 11. "Hark!" cried Dodger at this moment,
"I heard the tinkle," catching up the light, he crept softly upstairs. 12. "Who is that?" she cried. "Hush, hush!"
said one of the women, stooping over her... 13. Well, I don't like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is
so fond of taking. 14. Now, Maria, here is a character to your taste... 15. Here! I've had enough of this. I'm
going.

THE PREPOSITION

Fill in the blanks with the prepositions at, in or on to express place:

I. Nobody was... home. 2. His flat was... the third floor. 3. She had less than two dollars … her pocket. 4. He
lives ... 62 Berkeley Street. 5. Stratford lies ... the River Avon. 6. Mother is not... the kitchen, she must be ...
the garden. 7. There are a lot of printing mistakes ... this page. 8. We could see a tall tree ... the middle of the
island. 9. She will spend about ten days ... the seaside. 10. You will have to meet her ... the airport. 11. They
found an interesting article ... that magazine. 12. A bird ... the hand is worth two... the bush. (proverb) 13.
There were some very old books... the top shelf. 14. That afternoon there were a lot of people ... the stadium.
15. They walked ... beach for a long while. 16. There was a strange sound ... the back of the car. 17. Her
brother was still ... hospital. 18. When we saw so many people... the platform waiting for the train, I
understood that we had to stand … the queue for the tickets. 19. We stopped ... the bottom of the hill for a rest.
20. They helped their grandparents... the farm.

Complete each sentence using the most suitable prepositions. Sometimes more than one answer is
possible: in; inside; into; off; on; onto; out of; outside
1. The cat jumped... the roof of the car. 2. There is a taxi rank just... the railway station. 3. I saw nobody... the
room. 4. Tom fell ... the ladder when he was trying to pick up some apples. 5. Kerry came... the house, got...
her car and drove away. 6. My sister usually goes to school... the bus. 7. Wait a little ...: the story is on the...
pages of the newspaper. 8. The car ran... the wall. 9. Fish can't live... the water. 10. The ship is anchored a
mile... the coast.

Fill in the blanks with the prepositions at, in or on to express time:

1. My brother was born ... 1984. 2. They saw a good film ... Friday. 3. Is she doing anything special... the
week-end? 4. Let's meet again... the 1st. That's Sunday. 5. ... seven o'clock my sister was still sleeping. .6. The
two children started to laugh ... the same time. 7. I did that exercise... ten minutes. 8. Some children don't see
their parents very often ... ; usually... Christmas. 9. Ch. Dickens lived ... the 19th century. 10. She hears a lot of
noises... night. 11. I always have a lot of guests... my birthday anniversary. 12. Lucy got married ... 22, which
is a good age to get married. 13. Somebody rang me up ... midnight. 14. I reminded her to be present... 10
o'clock ... the morning. 15. Her cousin graduated from school ... 1980 ... the age of nineteen. 16. They always
go to church ... Easter morning. 17. The plane will be taking off ... a few minutes. 18. My neighbour is a
mechanic but he is out of work... the moment. 19. I wanted to talk to her, but she was in town ... that time. 20.
Julie often goes to concerts ... Friday evenings.

Complete the sentences using the prepositions during, for or in. Sometimes more than one answer is
possible:
1. We waited in the rain... almost half an hour. 2. People couldn't get cigarettes... the war. 3. I saw several
plays... my stay in London. 4. Yesterday it rained... four hours. 5. Mike is going to leave the town... a few
days. 6. Our manager will be in Boston... the next five days. 7. Jack broke his leg... the match. 8. They were in
Paris... two weeks last summer. 9. You can walk from this place to the town centre... a quarter of an hour. 10.
We are meeting ... a week's time.

Complete the sentences using the suitable preposition.

1. Beryl, sitting … the window, fanning her freshly washed hair, thought she had never seen such a guy. 2. If
Alice had blacked her face … a piece of cork before she started, the picture would have been complete. 3.
Alice was going … tea with Stubbs, who'd sent her an "invite" … the little boy. 4. She went to the shop to get
something … her mosquitoes. 5. You might have been attacked … cannibals. 6. Mice did wish there'd been a
bit … life … the road. 7. It made her feel so queer, having nobody …her. 8. She pulled … her gloves, hummed
… herself, and said … the distant gum tree, "Shan't be long now." 9. Mrs. Stubbs's, shop was perched … a
little hillock just off the road. 10. It had two big windows … eyes, a broad veranda … a hat, and the sign …
the roof. 11. Even then it was the rarest thing to find the left that belonged … the right. 12. So many people
had lost patience and gone … with one shoe that fitted and one that was a little too big. 13. The two windows,
arranged … the form of precarious pyramids, were crammed so tight, piled so high, that it seemed only a
conjuror could prevent them … toppling over. 14. … and he sighed and took her … his arms again. 15. With
her broad smile and the long bacon knife … her hand she looked like a friendly brigand. 16. Tea was laid …
the parlour table. 17. Alice sat down … the edge of a basket-chair while Mrs. Stubbs pumped the stove still
higher. 18. Suddenly Mrs. Stubbs whipped the cushion … a chair and disclosed a large brown paper parcel. 19.
… her right stood a Grecian pillar with a giant fern tree … either side of it. 20. "Yes," she said thoughtfully,
but I don't care … the size. 21. Alice jumped away … the word like a cat. 22. It was bright pink where it began
and then it changed … apricot, and that faded … the colour of a brown egg. 23. They glanced … one another
like conspirators. 24. Isabel stood up … her excitement and moved her elbows like wings. 25. Little Rags put
… the King of Diamonds. 26. She had hardly any cards left. But when she and Kezia both had one, Kezia
waited … purpose. 27. The others made signs … Lottie and pointed. 28. Lottie turned very red; she looked
bewildered and … last she said, "Heehaw! Kezia." 29. They were … the very thick of it when the bull stopped
them, holding … his hand. 30. "Whatever did we shut the door…?" she said softly. 31. … they were playing,
the day had faded; the gorgeous sunset had blazed and died. 32. And now the quick dark came racing … the
sea. 33. They were frightened to look … the corners of the washhouse. 34. The blinds pulled down; the
kitchen fire leapt in the tins … the mantelpiece. 35. But Jonathan only answered, "A little love, a little
kindness" and he walked … his sister-in-law’s side. 36. Linda dropped into Beryl's hammock … the tree and
Jonathan stretched himself … the grass … her. 37. The voices … children cried … the other gardens. 38. A
fisherman's light cart shook … the sandy road, and from far away they heard a dog barking; it was muffled as
though the dog had its head in a sack. 39. If you listened you could just hear the soft swish of the sea … full
tide sweeping the pebbles. 40. Linda was so accustomed … Jonathan's way of talking that she paid no
attention to it. 41. The" Hum" was so deep. It seemed to boom … … the ground. 42. Looking … him as he lay
there, Linda thought again how attractive he was. 43. What was the matter with Jonathan? He was always full
… new ideas, schemes, etc. 44. The new fire blazed in. 45. "It seems …me just as imbecile, just as infernal, to
be in the office on Monday," said Jonathan. 46. To spend all the best years of one's sitting on a stool … nine
… five. 47. "Tell me, what is the difference … my life and that of an ordinary prisoner?” 48. The only
difference I can see is that I put myself … jail and nobody's ever going to let me…. 49. I dash … the walls,
dash … the windows, do everything … God's earth, … fact, accept fly out again. 50. There's the window or
the door or whatever it was I came in…. 51. …"it's not allowed, it's forbidden, and it’s … the insect law, to
stop banging and flopping and crawling up the pane even for an instant. 52. What are you smiling…? 53. Why
does one feel so different … night? 54. Lightly, stealthily you move … your room. 55. You take something off
the dressing-table and put it down again … a sound. 56. You're not very fond … your room. You never think
… it. You're … and…, the door opens and slams. 57. You sit down … the side … your bed, change your shoes
and dash out again. 58. He leapt … the flower-bed and seized her … his arms. 59. "Forgive me, darling,
forgive me," stammered Stanley, and he put his hand … her chin and lifted her face … him. 60. But now she
was …another difficulty.

THE CONJUNCTION

Point out all the coordinating conjunctions and define the group each belongs to.
1. The stranger had not gone far, as he went after him to ask the name. 2. Be quick, or it may be too late. 3. …
real accuracy and purity she neither possessed, nor any number of years would acquire. 4. Mrs. Septimus
Small let fall no word, neither did she question June about him. 5. The river was not high, so there was not
more than a two or three mile current. 6. It seemed to him that he could contrive to secure for her the full
benefit of both his life insurance and his fire insurance... 7. Karl is solid and extremely certain of himself,
while Joseph on the other hand, though no less certain of himself, is a good deal less solid. 8. He could see no
one, and he began to believe that either his instinct had deceived him, or else that the shadowing was over. 9.
But for a long time we did not see any lights, nor did we see the share, but rowed steadily in the dark riding
with the waves.

THE PARTICLE

Point out the particles and define the group each belongs to.
1. It is just because I want to save my soul that I am marrying for money. 2. Rosa feared this power, but she
enjoyed it too. 3. Oh, doctor, do you think there is any chance? Can she possibly survive this last terrible
complication? 4. We merely want to see the girl and take her away. 5. I shall also try to be there at ten. 6.
Don’t come any nearer. You’re at just the right distance. 7. He had taken up with it solely because he was
starving. 8. Just then the telephone rang. 9. He needed the peculiar sympathy that a woman alone can give. 10.
She ought to have written at once and told him exactly what had happened. 11. I think he’s been a simply
perfect father, so long as I can remember. 12. They did not even look at him.

SYNTAX
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
KINDS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
1. Define the kinds of sentences according to the purpose of the utterance.
A. Presently, looking along the road, she [Kezia] saw two little dots. Now she could see that they were, the
Kelveys... “Hello,” she said to the passing Kelveys. “You can come and see our doll’s house if you want
to” . . .But at that Lil turned red and shook her head quickly. “Why not?” asked Kezia. Lil gasped, then she
said, “Your ma told our ma you wasn’t to speak to us.”— “Oh, well,” said Kezia. She didn’t know what to
reply. “It doesn’t matter… Come on. Nobody’s looking. ... Don’t you want to?” asked Kezia... Kezia led the
way. Like two little stray cats they followed across the courtyard to where the doll’s house stood “I’ll open it
for you,” said Kezia kindly. She undid the hook and they looked inside. “There’s the drawing-room and the
dining-room and that’s the —Kezia!” Oh, what a start they gave! It was Aunt Beryl’s voice. “Run away,
children, run away at once.” (Mansfield).
B. Laura was terribly nervous. Tossing the velvet ribbon over her shoulder, she said to a woman standing by
“Is this Mrs. Scott’s house?” and the woman smiling queerly, said “It is my lass”. “Oh, to be away from this!”
She actually said “Help me God!” as she walked up the tiny path and knocked. To be away from these staring
eyes, or to be covered in anything, one of those women’s shawls even! I’ll just have the basket and go, she
decided. I shan't even wait for it to be emptied. Then the door opened. A little woman in black showed in the
gloom. Laura said, "Are you Mrs. Scott?" But to her horror the woman answered, “Walk in, please, miss," and
she was shut in the passage. "No," said Laura, "I don't want to come in. I only want to leave this basket." The
little woman in the gloomy passage seemed not to hear her. "Step this way, please, miss," she said in an oily
voice, and Laura followed her.
2. Point out one-member and two-member sentences. Say a) if they are extended or unextended, b) if
the two-member sentences are complete or incomplete.
A. 1. Ben closed his eyes to think clearly for a moment. 2. “Two cups of coffee, please,... young Flynn timidly
ordered. “What else do you want?” — “Jam turnover”. (Coppard). 3. “Why did you leave her [baby] in that
mill?” — “Out of the rain.” — “In her pram?” — “Naturally. She’s asleep.” ...The mystery was awful and
complete. Abandoned perambulator! Total disappearance of a baby! Horror! Martyrdom! Death! (Bennett). 4.
Scene I — A room in Harley Street furnished as the Superintendent’s Office in a Nursing Home. (Berkeley).

B. 1. He stared amazed at the calmness of her answer. 2. We must go to meet the bus. Wouldn't do to miss it.
3. Obedient little trees, fulfilling their duty. 4. Lucretius knew very little about was going on in the world.
Lived like a mole in a burrow. Lived on his own fat like a bear in winter. 5. He wants to write a play for me.
One act. One man. Decides to commit suicide. 6. A beautiful day, quite warm. 7. “What do you want?”
“Bandages, stuff for wounded”. 8. “How did he look?” “Grey but otherwise much the same” “And the
daughter?” “Pretty”. 9. And the silence and the beauty of this camp at night. The stars. The mystic shadow
water. The wonder and glory of all this. 10. “I’ll see nobody for half an hour, Macey,” said the boss.
“Understand. Nobody at all.” 11. “Mother, a man’s been killed.” “Not in the garden?” interrupted her
mother. Garden at the manor house. A flight of grey stone steps leads up to the house. The garden, an old
fashioned one, full of roses. Time of year, July. Basket, chairs, and a table covered with books, are set under
a large yew tree.

C. Find in an English text 4 examples of a two-member sentence:

a) complete, b) incomplete, c) extended, d) unextended:
2 examples of a one-member sentence:
a) extended, b) unextended.

KINDS OF QUESTIONS
3. Define the type of question.
1. Lady Bracknell: Where did the charitable gentleman . . . find you?
2. Gwendolen: How long do you remain in town?
3. Jack: What on earth are you so amused at?
4. Algernon: Do you really keep a diary?
5. Gwendolen: I may call you Cecily, may I not? — Cecily: With pleasure! — Gwendolen: And you will
always call me Gwendolen, won’t you?—Cecily: If you wish. — Gwendolen: Then that is quite settled, is it
not? (Wilde).
6. “Won’t you sit down?” said Josephine. (Mansfield).
7. “There’s no point in my seeing your people, is there?” (Berkeley).
8. Is the poem “The Cloud” written by Shelley or by Byron?

4. Make up sentences of different types (declarative, imperative, exclamatory, all kinds of interrogative
sentences) using the given words.
1. of, have, the, map, a, at, look, England.
2. be seen, England’s, the, may, cliffs, mainland, white, from.
3. sea, far, London, from, is, the?
4. close, aren’t, the, Wales, are, they, mountains, sea, to, in, the, quite.
5. weather, how, the, beautiful, is, calm, in, sea!
6. ancient, this, lose, of, post-card, don’t, picture, castle, an.
7. is, a, landscape, this, picturesque, what!
8. centuries, invaded, the, what, in, tribes, Britain, V—VI?
9. the, did, the or, Anglo-Saxons, win, the,’ of, battle, Hastings, Normans?
10. survives, the, in, Celt, language, of, some, Scotland, parts, and, Ireland.

5. Ask questions to which the parts of the sentences or the whole of the sentences given in bold type are
the answers.
1. The first settlers in Britain belonged to the Celtic tribes. 2. The actual conquest of Britain by Rome did
not take place before the 1st century of our era. (general, disjunctive). 3. We do not know the details of
the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. (general, disjunctive). 4. Numerous patients come to Bath to keep up
health. 5. For those who seek a boisterous holiday Devonshire provides everything that could be wished
for: golf, bathing, excursions, and trips. 6. Windsor Castle has been the home of English kings for nine
hundred years. 7. The Castle stands upon a hill commanding the River Thames. 8. It is impossible to live
anywhere in Britain far from the sea. (general, disjunctive). 9. In the month of August numerous yachting
regattas may be seen near the Isle of White. 10. We shall see the highest tide if we come to the shore in full
moon. 11. There are numerous kinds of strange seaweeds in the sea. (general, disjunctive). 12. Man has
fished from earliest times. (general, disjunctive). 13. Although rather close to London, Epping Forest is the
home of such wild creatures as foxes and deer. 14. The journey from London to the sea-shore does not
take more than an hour. (general, disjunctive). 15. Hastings has a high reputation in the world of music by
reason of its annual Festival.

6. Change the following declarative sentences into disjunctive questions.

Model: He is not ill. He is not ill, is he?
1. She is a talented singer. 2. You’ll tell us about it. 3. He can swim. 4. They’ve come. 5. You saw him last
night. 6. There is some time left. 7. It snowed hard yesterday. 8. You’ll have to write to him at once. 9. He
must have a good rest. 10. She was greatly astonished. 11. He doesn’t speak French. 12. They haven’t come
yet. 13. He didn’t ring you up yesterday. 14. They weren’t at home. 15. She wasn’t long. 16. They are not here.
17. She isn’t clever. 18. There isn’t much time left. 19. I’m not good at algebra. 20. We shan’t go to the
concert. 21. She bought a new hat. 22. They live at the corner of our street. 23. We hadn’t been interested in it.
24. They didn’t listen in last night.25. This photo was taken long ago. 26. She couldn’t recollect your address.

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE SUBJECT
7. Point out the subject. State what it is expressed by. Translate the sentences into Romanian.
1. Mary brought in the fruit on a tray ... (Mansfield). 2. “Thinking won’t help”. (Mansfield). 3. From five to
six is my real working time. (Shaw). 4. Captain Shotover: You frequent picture palaces. Mangan: Perhaps I
do. Who told you? (Shaw). 5. Nobody’s well in this world.” (Coppard). 6. The wind blew down from the
headland ... (Du Maurier). 7. “Finding you has not made any difference, has it?” (D Maurier). 8. “The boat has
been there, all these months. No one has moved anything.” (Du Maurier). 9. “...Someone must have been
talking ... You can’t stop these people (Du Maurier). 10. Two is company, three is none. 11. The
rhododendrons were upon us ... Already they looked a little over-blown, a little laded.(Du Maurier). 12. “One
of the second-class passengers has a room in the house...” (Maugham). 13. Those are your clerk’s initials,
aren’t they? (Berke ley). 14. Unfortunately the innocent are always involved in any conflict. (Greene). 15. One
never knows another human being. (Greene). 16. All is well, said that sleeping lace ... But all the same you had
to cry . .. (Mansfield). 17. The three reached the Museum Hotel after one o’clock. (Cronin). 19. The sick do
not ask if the hand that smooths their pillow is pure.

8. State with what meaning the pronouns one, we, you, they are used in the function of the subject.
Translate the sentences.
1. One must spare other people’s feelings.
2. You cannot do different kind of work at a time.
3. We often see other people’s faults without seeing our own.
4. They say the weather will change soon.
5. We rather say “It’s me”, not “It’s I”
6. One should be careful when swimming in an unknown river.

9. State the nature of it. Translate the sentences.

1. It was a rare tonic to see Con again ... (Cronin). 2. It was possible to see the hen-house from the window of
her bedroom ... (Bates). 3. I looked at my watch. It had gone eleven. (Greene). 4. “You heard the news?” —
“Yes”. — “It’s a terrible thing,” he said, “terrible”. (Greene). 5. It was dark in the hall. (Mansfield). 6. It was
she who had stopped the car ... (Galsworthy). 7. “Mr. D’Arcy,” she said, “what is the name of that song you
were singing?” — “It’s called The Lass of Aughrim,” said Mr. D’Arcy ... (Joyce). 8. It cast a gloom over the
boat, there being no mustard. (Jerome). 9. The telephone rang. I went to answer. It was Joe Bjornson.
(Scheurweghs). 10. How far is it from your house to the river? 11. “Who is there?” — “It’s only me and my
friends.” (Scheurweghs). 12 ... it was the steppe that seemed unreal. (Lessing). 13. It was the dignity that
checked my tongue. (Lessing). 14. “This was the Old Chief’s country,” he said. “It stretched from those
mountains over there way back to the river (Lessing).
10. Insert it or there. Comment on their use. Translate the sentences.
1. In the evening of that day __________ rained heavily. I went to the post office, and as I stood on the steps,
umbrellaless ... a little, hesitating voice seemed to come from under my elbow. I looked down___________
was the First of the Barons with the black bag and an umbrella. He was asking me to share the latter. Now,
__________is something peculiarly intimate in sharing an umbrella.— is apt to put one on the same footing as
brushing a man’s coat for him. When we arrived at the pension ____________was very nearly an open riot …
___________ was very friendly of the Herr Oberlehrer to have sent me a bouquet that evening. 2.
“____________ ‘s such a mistake”, sighed Airs. Spears. “To be weak with children when they are little “ “…
____________ is nothing like handing them over to their father”. “Then you don’t whip them yourself?’
“Never, I don’t think ___________‘s the mother’s place to whip the children, __________‘s the duty of the
father”. 3. ___________had been a bad day at the office. He was hot, dusty, tired out. In the corner of the
drawing room _________was a picture, and on the top shelf stood a brown bear with a painted tongue.
__________ seemed in the shadow to be grinning at Dicky’s father… ___________ was nearly dark in the
garden. (Mansfield). 4. “The weather seemed to break this afternoon. ___________‘s the last of the heat
waves for this summer”. __________was hot in London”, I said. The stars raced across the sky.
_________were threads of cloud too ... _________ were woods about me, ___________was no Happy Valley.
_________were nettles in the garden ... 5. ____________ is the middle of July. _________ is hot.
___________ is 30 degrees above zero. _________ is no wind. ___________ are no waves on the sea.
___________ is so pleasant to bask in the sun. ____________ are many people on the beach. __________ is
on such hot days that I like to bathe most of all. 6. Look! _________ is a nest over your window! I know
___________is a swallow’s nest. __________ came in spring and built a nest here. Now ________ are some
little swallows in it. ___________ is interesting to watch them. _____________ is the swallow that I like most
of all the birds. 7. ___________ is late. ____________is 12 o’clock at night. ____________ is very bad to go
to bed so late. I can never go to bed in time: ____________is so much work to do.

THE PREDICATE
11. State the kind of the predicate.
1. “Are you a Devonshire girl?” (Galsworthy). 2. That night he slept like a top ... (Galsworthy). 3. The little
boy was silent. (Galsworthy). 4. “1 can skin rabbits.” (Galsworthy). 5. “... I went on holding his cold hands.”
(Du Maurier). 6. The mast began to shiver, began to crack. (Du Maurier). 7. “It seems so odd to us (Du
Maurier). 8. “... I couldn’t help walking with my shoulders bent.” (Greene). 9. The two guards looked at me ...
(Greene). 10. 1 had a drink of brandy. (Greene). 11. His father might be dead. 12. On the first of October he
was able to tell her to refurnish the house. (Cronin). 13. You weren’t allowed to retreat. (Aldington). 14. The
signal officer made a face. (Aldington). 15. We don’t have the same trouble.. 16. Gerald: I don’t understand
you now. (Wilde).
B. Find in an English text sentences containing different kinds of the predicate.

12. Point out the simple and the compound predicate.

1. “We shall be very pleased.” (Galsworthy). 2. They would never have found her there. (Du Maurier). 3.
Within ten minutes he had been awakened by his servant. (Aldington). 4. “I’ve gone lame.” (Galsworthy). 5.
She was moaning and crying. (Maugharn). 6. The doctor was feeling wan and nervous. (Maugham). 7. “By
this time to-morrow she’ll be gone.” (Maugham). 8. The gramophone which had been silent for so long was
playing ... (Maugham). 9. “It wouldn’t have been very nice for the Davidsons to have to mix with all that
rough lot in the smoking-room.” (Maugham). 10. My memory comes to the surface again ... at Malta, where I
am being rushed by an Orient liner ... (Shaw). 11. “I’ve been trying to get in touch with you all afternoon” ...
(Cronin). 12. Everything seemed new and clear ... 13. He had been polite enough to the Macphails during the
journey. (Maugham). 14. The sick man had been brought ashore ... (Maugham

13. Point out the link-verb of the compound nominal predicate. Translate the sentences.
1. He looked pale and tired. ( Mauriec). 2. “He smokes one hundred and fifty pipes every day.” —“That
sounds a lot”. (Greene). 3. “What is Diolaction?” I said. “It sounds like condensed milk.” (Greene). 4. He
looked puzzled and suspicious. (Greene). 5. Please, keep quiet. 6. Arguments proved useless — the old man
was impla cab ... (Cronin). 7. It was growing twilight. (Bates). 8. Davidson looked scared, and his yellow
drawn face went paler. (Aldington). 9. That peaceful sky hung arched over a desperate death- struggle of the
nations. 10. This excess of caution seemed positively lunatic to troops coming straight from the front line ...
Aldington). 11. Her mind was really getting muddled. (O’Casey). 12 Her lips quivered as she sat silent.
(O’Casey). 13. He felt very conscious now ... 14. With this effort from his neck he passed out again, and this
time into the furious black pain that seemed to last too long, although he remained half aware of it. 15. The
blanched skin was slowly turning pink.

14. Insert the appropriate link-verbs (to look, to feel to be, to go, to stand, to break, to get, to seem, to
grow to become)
1. I ___________ very lonely myself sometimes. 2. He landed perfectly and while the hound ___________
baffled flung him self at his hind-quarters... 3. The he was frightened: she __________ so pale. 4. Her short,
red-brown hair had — wildly loose. 5. Something horrible might happen ... and the money be snatched from
her very lingers. Oh, she would _________ mad then! 6. He _________ very short. 7. Looking round the
restaurant she _____________ sure that no other woman there ... had as much as thirty pounds in her handbag.
8. Returning home in the afternoon she __________ conscious of her own betraying radiance. 9. Repton
shrugged his shoulders, but he _________ happier. 10. She ___________ limp with her suppressed fear. 11. I
_________ ten”, replied the flustered boy.

15. Point out the predicative and state what it is expressed by.
1. “... Now the only thing to do is to admit the error.” 2. My hand was hot, damp. (Du Maurier). 3. He’s a
sticky sort of chap. (Pu Maurier). 4. The air was full of thunder. (Pu Manner). 5. I hope Dominguez is well?”
(Greene). 6. “1 was asleep at first, and then I didn’t want to be disturbed. But I am disturbed, so come in,”
(Greene). 7. Phuong had probably only shown the letter as a kind of boast — it wasn’t a sign of mistrust.
(Greene). 8. “She’s no child. She’s tougher than you’ll ever be”. (Greene). 9. “Don’t be an old stay-at-home
(Cronin). 10. All morning he was in a mood of high satisfaction. 11. They were wider apart than before.
(Cronin). 12. “That’s all,” he said. (Pu Manlier) 13. It was all gone; and he was forty-three. 14. He felt for a
bunch of keys in his pocket. (Bates). 15. 1 felt physically sick. It was a long time since I had received a letter
from my wife. I ... could feel her pain in every line. (Greene).

16. Comment on the use and the meaning of the given verb in the sentences of every group. Translate
the sentences.
to turn 1. M Macphail bent down ... and turned the body over. 2. The metallic blonde at the next table turned
to her companion with a smile of amusement. 3. She wants to turn over a new leaf. 4. Andrew turned giddy.
to give 1. ‘Why didn’t you give it [the telegram] to me?” 2. The girl gave a little gasp.
to cease 1. The dog has ceased barking. 2. The minis ceased.
will 1. We cannot work, we cannot think, unless our stomach wills so. 2. “She was so experienced in a boat”.
— “Yes, Frith ... But accidents will happen 3. Will you pass me the bread, please? 4. “... The jury will believe
that at the inquest too. Phillips will tell them so.”
shall 1. I shall be of age next year. 2. Shall I write? Shall he help you? 3. Do have a short rest! You shall fall ill
if you go on working like that.
to fall 1. At last they the dogs fell on each other with terrible fury... 2. Dr. Macphail did not answer, and
presently he fell asleep. 3. But soon he fell into a walk, then ran, and then walked again. 4. Ben fell back
clumsily on to the two- inch coral edge of the water-line.
to keep 1. I hid the paper under the cushion of the chair ... But I could not keep the morning editions from
him. 2. He kept very still, and when he breathed out he kept the valve well into the coral behind him so that
the air bubbles ... did not frighten them [sharks] off. 3. The perpetual harassing fire had kept him on the alert
day and night.
B) Find in an English text:
1) examples with the verb to be used a) as a notional verb in the function of a simple predicate, b) as an
auxiliary verb, c) as a link-verb, d) with a modal meaning;
2) four examples with the verb to have used a) as a notional verb in the function of a simple predicate, b) as
part of a phraseological unit, c) as an auxiliary verb, d) with a modal meaning;
3) four examples with the verb to do used a) as a notional verb, b) as an auxiliary verb, c) to emphasize the
meaning of the notional verb; d) as a verb-substitute;
4) examples with the verbs to come, to turn, to get, to feel, to keep, to grow, to look, to sound. a) as notional
verbs, b) as link-verbs.

17. Comment on the kind of the predicate as in the given model.

Model: Ben ... took a quick look to see that Davy was not ill ... and went to sleep.
“took a quick look” — a simple predicate expressed by a phraseological unit; “was ... ill” — a compound
nominal predicate ex pressed by the link-verb “was” and its predicative, the adjective “ill”; “went to sleep” —
a compound verbal predicate of aspect containing the finite verb “to go”, which expresses the beginning of the
action, and an infinitive.
1. When he came on deck next morning they were close to land. (Maugham). 2. In fancy he ... saw himself and
her stealing forth at night ... till London swallowed them up, and the dreams of love came true. (Galsworthy).
3. “Hello, Davison! You look hot. Have a cup of tea?” (Aldington). 4. “You’ve been a little brick, Chris, the
whole way through our bad times.” (Cronin). 5. Father Brown made no answer. (Chesterton). 6. He had no
impulse to explore the countryside. (Warner). 7. He was afraid of arriving home alone ... He began to loiter on
purpose to be noticed ... (Greene). 8. He seemed scared about something. (Greene). 9. A table had been set up
under a tree ... (Lawrence).

AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT

18. Use the appropriate form of the verb. Translate.
1. There (was, were) many people in the hall.
2. My school-mate and my new fellow-student (has, have) met at my place lately.
3. a) Our old teacher and friend (is, are) dangerously ill.
b) Our old teacher and our young friend (is, are) dangerously ill.
4. When (is, are) your grandson and your granddaughter coming to see you?
5. a) The family (was, were) sitting round the table.
b) The family (was, were) numerous.
6. The newly married couple (was, were) warmly congratulated by all their friends.
7. A number of people (was, were) standing on the river bank.
8. The number of books in my library (has, have) increased.
9. “The two Gentlemen of Verona” (is, are) a comedy by Shakespeare.
10. Two young men (was, were) smoking in the corridor.
11. The red and green plaid (is, are) on the sofa.
12. The grey and the black puppy (was, were) sleeping on the rug.
13. A lecture and a report on this subject (is, are) to be delivered on Friday.
14. The cattle (was, were) grazing in the field.
15. Twenty dollars (is, are) not much for this nice coat.
16. All the things (is, are) packed up.
17. Everything (is, are) packed up.
18. If one (works, work) hard, one (makes, make) progress.
19. Gymnastics (strengthens, strengthen) one’s health.
20. The wounded (was, were) transported to the hospital.
21. The works (consists of, consist of) different shops.
22. Another three metres (was, were) bought for the girl’s dress.
23. No news (is, are) good news.

19. Comment on the use of the predicate-verb in the singular or in the plural.
1.... His people in Oughterard were written to. (Joyce). 2. After all it was his own fifty pounds ... 3. Yes, the
newspapers were right: snow was general all over Ireland. (Joyce). 4. There stand three young men ... (Shaw).
5. The fleet drops behind ... (Shaw). 6. We found that the band had arrived, and were standing about in the hall
rather pink in the face. ... The band were to be our guests for the night, and after we had welcomed them ..., the
band were borne off to their quarters ... (Du Maurier). 7. Mr. Murdstone and I were soon off. (Dickens). 8.
Before Brodie could speak he added: How are all the family?” (Cronin). 9. “The Mungo Clothing Company
have taken the, shop next door to your husband (Cronin). 10: “Oh, you [the unemployed] weren’t to have been
paid. The North East [Company] never pay their crowds.” (Mansfield).

THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE OBJECT
20. Comment on the kind of the object and say what it is expressed by.
1. You can leave your homework in the meantime. (Cronin). 2. She’s capable of deciding. (Greene). 3. Mr.
Heng sent a polite verbal reply. (Greene). 4. She was leaning on the banisters, listening to something. (Joyce).
5. One must leave some goal for succeeding generations. (Berkeley). 6. And I shall go on lighting for the trust
reposed in me by the dead. (Berkeley). 7. What would she think of him doing that, when everything ...
depended on his not checking the foreman? (Galsworthy). 8. But the one revelation that always hurt her was
his conception of his father as someone ... who knew wonderful things but didn’t like to talk. (Wilson)

21. Oral exercise on the position of the indirect object.

Place the direct object before the indirect object to make the latter more prominent. Use the preposition
to or for.
Model: Give me the book. —Give the book to me.
1. Show the children this wonderful picture book. 2. Tell somebody else this funny story. 3. Send her people a
telegram. 4. Write his patents a letter of congratulation. 5. Can’t you lend him a small sum of money? 6. Don’t
forget to buy your grandmother a new pair of spectacles in a leather case. 7. Bring us your family photos. 8.
Don’t give me back the money; it isn’t mine. 9. Pass him the butter. 9. You needn’t return him the book: it
belongs to his sister. 11. Show her the snapshots, I’ve seen them already. 12. Buy him a bicycle, his sister has
got one.

22. A. Point out the object; define the kind of the object.
I. Read it! Read it to everybody! She used to read to rue while I was working. 2. Write this word! Write a few
words to them! Write to him, he will be so glad to hear from you. 3. Sing a song! She sang some old Irish
songs to the grateful listeners. Won’t you sing to us?
B. Insert the preposition to where necessary.
1. Explain ____ me how to do it. 2. My sister related ____ me all that had happened. 3. 1 often lend my
dictionary ____ my friend. 4. He can prove this ____ everybody any moment. 5. He did not suggest ____ them
that they should do it. 8. Describe ____ us all the details of the accident. 7. The author dedicated ____ the
memory of his parents all the poems collected in the book. 8. These poems are ascribed ____ the pen of a
young and gifted poet. 9. He introduced ____ his aunt all his young friends. 10. Can you lend ____ me your
raincoat, please? 11. Has the doctor prescribed ____ you any new medicine? 12. We sent ____ her a basket of
beautiful flowers. 13. Don’t send the money ____ me, send it ____ your grandmother. 14. Give it ____ me.
23. A. Make up sentences with the verbs which may have two direct objects (to ask, to answer, to envy, to
forgive, to strike, to excuse, to teach).
B. Complete the following sentences (add a cognate object, using it with the attribute given in brackets).
1. The young man died ... (of a hero)
2. The old man sighed ... (deep).
3. He has lived ... (long and interesting).
4. After the excursion we all slept ... (sound).
5. Listening to the funny story he laughed ... (hearty).
6. Looking at the baby the mother smiled ... (happy).
7. He struck his enemy ... (deadly).
8. The troops won ... (glorious).

24. A. Make up sentences using the following words.

1. you, his, he, to, owes, success.
2. these, show, us, post-cards, to.
3. to, write, people, a, his, letter.
4. boy, explain, difficult, to, sum, the, this.
5. dictionary, her, give, my.
6. secretary, the, your, to, application, hand in.
7. your, buy, this, for, teddy bear, girl, little, wonderful.
8. it, do not, him, about, tell.
9. children, the, read, to.
10. girl, parents, introduce, this, to, young, your, charming.
11. work, suggest, them, method, to, the, of, right.
12. valuable, whom, this, does, to, belong, thing?
B. Find in an English text
some sentences with a) a direct object, b) two direct objects, c) a direct and an indirect object, d) an indirect
object (without a direct object).

25. Ask a question on the prepositional object and its attribute, if any, as in the model.
Model: I am greatly interested in this problem.
What are you interested in? What problem are you interested in?
1. A symphony usually consists of four parts.
2. This collection of stamps belongs to my friend.
3. My decision depends on the state of my health.
4. My parents objected to my buying a motorcycle.
5. The reporter referred to our professor’s works.
6. Everybody spoke of the talented pianist.
7. The newspapers commented upon the proceedings of the conference of physicists.
8. They agreed upon the terms of the contract.
9. The students listened with great interest to the lecture on the international situation.
10. We were waiting for the 5.30 train.
11. The dean sent for the monitor of our group.
12. I looked for my green bag everywhere.

26. Point out the complex object. State what components the complex object consists of. Translate the
sentences.
1. Sun didn’t mind people not noticing him — much.. (Mansfield). 2. And then, as by a miracle, the pigmy
chest, which his hands enclosed, gave a short convulsive heave ... it almost made him faint. (Cronin). 3. We’ve
dreamed of him succeeding old Palmerston as the Head of the Government—brought to the highest position in
the country by us. (Berkeley). 4. She heard him absolutely roaring. “And do you expect me to pay for this
gimcrack excursion of yours?” 5. “Buried. You two girls had me buried” She heard his stick thumping. 6 He
did not want anybody to know, 7. …You know that she took offence at the poor dear boy’s ever being born.
(Dickens). 8. “I will not sit here and hear such comparisons made.” With that she stalked out, and made the
door bang after her. (Dickens). 9. I shan’t even wait for it to be emptied. (Mansfield). 10. “I only say”, he
resumed, ... “that I disapprove of your preferring such company as Mistress Peggotty”. (Dickens).

27. A. Insert a verb suitable to be followed by a complex object (to insist, to make, to keep, find, to wait,
to hear, to want, to expect, to see, to let, to get).
1. Nothing will ________ me believe it was true. 2. I ________ him laughing loudly. 3. The father ________
his son to be an educated man. 4. I shall never be able to ______ my packing done by myself. 5. I am not
going _______ you go home alone so late at night. 6. We _______ them cross the bridge. 7. We ______ him to
come soon. 8. The public were ________ for the curtain to rise 9. He ________ them walking along a shady
alley. 10. I didn’t intend to ______ you waiting. 11. They _______ on my writing another letter.
B. Complete the sentences giving the second element of the complex object.
1. 1 must have my hair … 2. Nobody expected you ... 3. We shall get your luggage... 4. He waited for us ... 5.
You can’t rely on his … 6. She watched the swallows ... 7. I suppose it ... 8. She considered herself ... 9. We
were surprised at your…

THE ATTRIBUTE
30. Point out the attribute and say what it is expressed by.
1. “Perhaps one day you will have a reason for writing about it”. (Greene). 2. Horn made him a sign to come
on to the veranda. 3. “We used to have a very good horse and trap at home,” said Aunt Julia sadly “The never-
to- be -forgotten Johnny” said Mary Jane, laughing (Joyce) 4. They were strangers; they couldn’t be expected
to understand that father was the very last person for such a thing to happen to. (Mansfield). 5. On another
occasion ... the same dear baby ... was the innocent occasion of Miss Murdstone’s going into a passion.
(Dickens). 6. ... he realised suddenly ... that it wasn’t fear of being caught that worried Davy but fear of being
left alone. 7. That night in the surgery there were three patients, two of whom paid him the three and six penny
fee... He had, in his first day’s practice, earned the sum of ten and six, (Cronin). 8. She looked at me ... with
the slightest possible content — a “fancy-not-recognising-that-at-the-first glance” expression. (Mansfield). 9.
And Bertha smiled with that little air of proprietorship that she always assumed while her women friends were
new and mysterious. (Mansfield). 10. I think I come across the same idea in a little French review quite
unknown in England. 11. She was a well made woman of about fifty ... She had the look of a woman well-fed,
well-taken-care-of ... (Cronin). 14. Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great English humorist tells tales out of an
artist’s sheer love of story telling. (Delmer). 15. Bennett was the first to realize that the grey-skied region,
known as the Potteries, contained excellent “copy” for a series of novels. (Delmer). 16. They must have a roof
to cover them, a house to shelter them ... (Cronin).
31. Place the attributes in the proper order in relation to the noun they modify.
Model: a hut, wooden, small — a small wooden hut
1. A man — handsome, grey-haired; 2. a building — ancient, dilapidated; 3. a woman — sick, old; 4. an alley
— shady, broad; 5. a girl — little, thin, with big eyes; 6. a plant — tropical, fragrant; 7. a cliff — lonely, about
20 feet high; 8. baby — two-year- old, charming, this; 9. cousins — his, both; 10. a leaf — faded, oak; 11. a
plaid — checked, Scotch, woollen; 12. music — sweet, exquisite, but quite unfamiliar to the listeners; 13. the
pianist — talented, admired by the public; 14. a report — made by our professor, interesting, on modern
English writers; 15. photo — taken about 10 years ago, my schoolfellow’s; 16. a lady—German, middle- aged,
stout; 17. cap— favourite, my, old; 18. spectacles—old, my, in an old leather case; 19. a doctor— very
experienced, well- known; 20. a story — told by a friend of mine, interesting.

32. Ask questions on the attributes in bold type. (The interrogative words for use: what, which, whose,
what kind of, what sort of, how much, how many).
1. He is a conscientious student. 2. Bus number 2 will take you as far as the Opera House. 3. This is a book
on architecture. 4. Cold winds blow from the North. 5. This is my brother’s tennis racket. To play tennis we
must have four balls. 6. He drinks very much milk. 7. Give me the book on the left. 8. He lives in that house
at the corner of the street. 9. They live in a new house of modern construction. 10. There are ten students
in our group. 11. The meeting will take place in room 32. 12. You mustn’t lift heavy things. 13. I like salt
biscuits. 14. I’ll go by the 3.30 train. 15. My friend spent two years in the North. 16. He delivered an
interesting lecture. 17. Your brother is a most amusing companion. 18. She had a tiny brown spaniel puppy
in her arms. 19. An old orchard of apple-trees stretched down to a stream.

33. A. Point out the attribute. State what it is expressed by. Translate the sentences.
1. There was nothing to say. 2. She was the first to help me. 3. I have a lot of things to see to. 4. There is
nothing more to be done. 5. I have no intention to follow them. 6. Scientists from different countries will be
present at the conference shortly to open in our city. 7. I hope to attend all the lectures to be delivered on this
subject. 8. There is not a second to be lost.
B. Find in an English text
sentences including an attribute expressed by 1) an adjective, 2) a pronoun, 3) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal),
4) a noun a) in the common case, b) in the genitive case, 5) a prepositional phrase, 6) an adverb, 7) Participle I
or II or a participial phrase, 8) a prepositional gerundial phrase or a prepositional construction, 9) an infinitive,
an infinitive phrase or an infinitive construction, 10) a quotation group.

34. A. Make up sentences with detached attributes using the given words.
Model: — dismal cave, dark and cold.
We found ourselves in a dismal cave, dark and cold.
1. — big man, broad-shouldered and heavy.
2. — nice young girl, very graceful and elegantly dressed.
3. — unknown lane, long and narrow.
4. — modern building, built of glass and concrete.
5. — nice room, light and clean.
6. — small kitchen, cosy and tidy.
B. Make up sentences, using the following words and phrases as detached attributes.
rather high-flown; terrified by the accident; sick and tired; greatly surprised, quite depressed; fresh and jolly
usually so considerate (of) ...; engaged in his work.
35. A. Point out the close and the loose apposition.
1. Maidenhead, a river resort, is on one of the River Thames... 2. The town of Windsor is a typically English
town. (“Britain”) 2. William Langland, the humanitarian poet of the 14th century, deeply felt the social evils
he saw around him. 3. Side by side with Langland lived another great English reformer, John Wycliff, one of
the intellectual forces of the 14th century. 3. The poet Pope was Shakespeare’s second editor. 4. Jerome K.
Jerome set England laughing ... with a farcial but exceedingly well- written story “Three Men in a Boat”. 5.
The well known personage Sam Weller was Mr. Pickwick’s witty, light-hearted, shrewd and faithful servant, a
kind of Cockney Sancho Panza. 6. That is his father, Sir Robert, a perfectly honest old cavalier. (Chesterton).

THE ADVERBIAL MODIEIER

36. State the kind of the adverbial modifier. Say what the adverbial modifier is expressed by.
1. “I heard him knocking, so I ran upstairs to let him in.” (Greene).
2. All at once the sheep-dog leapt to its feet. (Bates).
3. Ben was too busy to hear him now ...
4. Gabriel tried to cover his agitation by taking part in the dance with great energy. (Joyce).
5. I’m here; I’m working, morning, noon and night. (Berkeley).
6. Sophie pulled out the dress without saying anything. (Huxley).
7. There was a road to Cairo which went west across the desert.
8. They went down the stairs side by side. (Maugham).
9. Sometimes it is a joy in the very heart of hell to tell the truth. (Chesterton).
10. I believe that I began to know that there was something about my aunt, notwithstanding her many
eccentricities and odd humours, to be honoured and trusted in. (Dickens).
11. “Your hands are like snowdrops, Mary ... They are cool like snow itself.
12. She hung her head a little, conscious of her own deficiencies and the oddity of her up-bringing ... (Cronin).
13. Lord Darlington: ... Go—go out of this house, with head erect, with a smile upon your lips, with courage
in your eyes. (Wilde). 14. Here Nessie burst into the room like a young foal ... (Cronin).
15. Then in a moment she looked up, as though seeing him for the first time. (Cronin).
16. “She sat down on the edge of the table, swinging her legs, watching me (Du Maurier).
17. She paused, her eyes never leaving my face.
18. Everybody coming in time, we shall begin the discussion at 3 o’clock.

37. Point out the adverbial modifiers and state their kinds:
1. A long, soft ripple of wind flowed over the corn...
2. Yesterday I passed by an elm avenue...
3. ...the gardeners were busily potting out spring flowers.
4. The lines of the mountains were sharply defined against the profound blue.
5. Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow.
6. I quite understand you.
7. I was stiff with long sitting, and bewildered with the noise and motion of the coach...
8. The rest of the conversation is not important enough to be here related.
9. In case of your absence I shall leave you a note.
10. Even Miriam laughed in spite of herself.
11. Before switching on the electric light he pulled down the blind and drew the heavy curtain across the
window.
12. She could run like an Amazon.
13. The gale had freshened since noon... and now blew with the strength of a hurricane...
14. She told me we must part, and told me why ...
15. I was completely happy.
16. “You’ve been working too hard lately.”
17. He stood still a long while, surveying the hillside.
18. Martin talked for fifteen minutes with him...
19. By this time it was getting dark and snowing pretty heavily.
20. The stars were very bright.
21. “I think it’s pretty easy, Nick.”
22. I entirely agree with you.
23. Notwithstanding the cold weather, Henry Bosman’s face glowed like the heater in his chambers...
24. They were walking eastward.
25. The door was not fastened within...
26. “We shall be friends in spite of separation...”
27. Outside it was getting dark.
28. Dessie stopped for a moment to ease her back.
29. He moved down the stream a few steps...
30. I flushed simply from being spoken to ...
31. Around them, in the alder clumps, the primroses grew in great profusion.
32. She strained her ears to catch the words.
33. Mrs. Pratt had driven to Winster to see her mother...
34. She walked briskly.
35. The sky had partly cleared, but was very gloomy ...
36. Mauki no longer weighs one hundred and ten pounds.
37. He therefore gave his horsemen orders to advance.
38. He was now a hundred yards from the water...
39. The unexpected offer of shelter was too unexpected to be resisted.
40. Once more he passed my table without stopping.
41. It was very interesting to me to see them together not only on account of their mutual affection, but
because of the strong personal resemblance between them ...
42. Ben was too busy to hear him now...
43. She started the car, and, ... drove at full speed.
44. Being asked to sit down he laid his hat and stick on the table...
45. I thought I should sleep well being tired; but I didn’t.
46. He stood on the porch sunning himself.
47. When dressed, I sat a long time by the window.
48. I did as requested.
49. Nobody spoke unless spoken to...
50. He is extremely well read though very young.
51. If necessary, I shall come tomorrow.
52. Little bare-legged children ran about him, playing on the grass.

38. Insert the adverbial modifier in the appropriate place. (Give more than one variants if possible).
1. It will be raining hard (soon). 2. The climate has been damp (always, in these parts). 3. It rains in autumn
(usually). 4. There is no deep river, except the Tamar (on the southern coast of England). 5. The tourist put all
the equipment which may be necessary during the tour (into his bag). 6. The ascent of the mountain peak will
begin (early in the morning). 7. Ring me up (before leaving the town). 8. One strengthens one’s health (by
mountaineering). 9. I shall sleep much and take long walks (instead of taking medicine). 10. One must have a
good rest (after training). 11. We sat down to table and had a hearty meal (on returning home). 12. He jumped
at the offer (being invited to spend his vacation in a mountain-camp). 13. We shall go on an excursion
(weather permitting). 14. We returned to the camp (the sun setting behind the mountains).

39. Insert the adverbial modifiers in their proper place.

To his orderly he was cold and ... indifferent (at first). ... the change came (then, gradually). He might have
changed his man (easily). He looked direct at his orderly (now, very rarely). ... As the young soldier moved,
the elder watched him (unthinking, about the apartment). And an undiscovered feeling had held between the
two men (from that time). The orderly was afraid of really meeting his master (henceforward). So he stared
past his master (always)... He had served the Captain, and knew his duty (for more than a year). This he
performed (easily) ... This irritated the officer (more and more). I flew into a rage with the young soldier
(sometimes), and bullied him. The words pierced to his intelligence (never). He had a scar on his left thumb.
The officer had suffered from it (long). The Captain grew irritable (madly). He flung a heavy military glove
into the young soldier’s face (once). The youth tried to keep him self intact (instinctively) ... The youth was
frightened (deeply). (Lawrence)

40. Ask questions on the adverbial modifiers in bold type.

1. All the preparations happily completed, we left for the South. 2. I see them twice a week. 3. One must
handle this apparatus with great care. 4. After a good rest I can go miles. 5. The tourists were tired having
covered over 30 miles that day. 6. She opened the window to air the room. 7. We have been living here
since 1930. 8. The sailor ran to the front of the boat. 9. Rumours of his doings reached his relations from
time to time. 10. In the fable the ant spends the summer gathering its winter store. 11. He opened the door
for me to pass.

41. Make up sentences of your own using the following word combinations as adverbial modifiers.
1) of time or frequency: from time immemorial, since then, when a boy, when questioned, on returning home,
from time to time, from that day on, in a day or two, not until, it was done, on that unforgettable day, with the
flush of dawn;
2) of place or direction: behind the house, in front of the house, in the distance, at a distance, across the
street, at the corner of the street, at the top of the page, at the bottom of, downstairs;
3) of manner or attending circumstances: on purpose, by chance, without a glance, with his fists clenched,
with tears streaming down her cheeks, in a whisper, full of indignation, side by side, as if to stop him, never to
come back;
4) of degree or measure: rather (well, badly, etc.), greatly (surprised, astonished, disappointed, etc.), to
perfection, particularly, deeply, fairly well, over head and ears;
5) of cause: quite worn out, because of one’s carelessness, not being able to, there being no time left, it being
late;
6) of condition: weather permitting, but for (one’s help, advice, kindness, etc.), if possible (necessary,
obligatory), if (unless) discovered (asked, required, etc.);
7) of comparison: as if asleep (in doubt, etc.), like (all elderly people, all his relatives; a child, etc.);
8) of concession: difficult as it was, in spite of (the difficulties, the nasty weather, etc.), although quite tired
(much weaker, etc.), notwithstanding his success (promise, etc.);
9) of purpose: for you to (have it, see it, etc.), in order to soothe the baby (to make it clear, etc.), lest he
should forget it.

DETACHED PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

42. Point out and define the detached parts of the sentence. Translate the sentences.
1. He was so earnest in his manner that, despite her apathy, Mary found herself thanking him ... (Cronin). 2. In
spite of himself, he watched him, gave him sharp orders (Lawrence). 3. Then the orderly shut himself off ...
and waited, with sullen, flushed face, for the end of the noise. (Lawrence). 4. Dandy and Winter showed, so
far, no signs of the bankruptcy prophesied for them by Soames ... (Galsworthy). 5. Presently he came to a
standstill, with his hands deep plunged into his pockets and his shoulders hunched. (Galsworthy). 6. Between
Michael and his senior partner a gulf was fixed, not less deep than that between two epochs ... (Galsworthy). 7.
There he was, in his shabby overcoat, with his pale narrow face, and his disproportionately large eyes, and his
sloping shoulders. (Galsworthy). 8. “Jose!” she said, horrified, “however are we going to stop everything?”
(Mansfield). 9 He, however, was a gentleman, with long, fine hands and cultivated movements. 10. Michael
moved his nostrils ... — but he could catch no scent, except incense. (Galsworthy)
Find in an English text sentences with the following detached members:
a) a detached adverbial modifier. b) a detached attribute, c) a detached object.

43. Point out homogeneous parts, define them and state what they are expressed by.
1. She was wearing a black pleated skirt and a bright red blouse of very fine poplin. (Braine). 2. It was a low,
pleasant laugh. (Braine). 3. “Vaults closing!” Samuel would say and yawn. (Bennett). 4. Was he unaware that
his wife was the proudest and the most obstinate woman on earth ...? (Bennett). 5. She turns round and looks
at her husband. (Wilde). 6. Algernon: Ah! that must be Aunt Augusta. Only relatives or creditors ever ring in
that Wagnerian manner. (Wilde). 7. They could not have moved or spoken since he went. (Maugham). 8. He
raised her to her feet and partly dragging her, partly carrying her, got her downstairs. (Maugham). 9. He has
asked his questions querulously but sternly ... (Aldridge). 10. Regret for the past and the future is the same. 11.
But again Ashurst smiled and shook his head. (Galsworthy). 12. She was walking on before him so lightly and
so erect ...(Joyce). 13. Once he was caught in a knot of children running away from some thing or somebody ..
(Greene). 14. Sophia got the kettle and washed it up. (Bennett). 15. There was starlight, but no moonlight.
(Greene). 16. The third [girl] was perhaps seventeen, tall and fair- haired too. (Galsworthy). 17. In the silence
Gabriel could hear the falling of the molten wax into the tray and the thumping of his own heart against his
ribs. (Joyce). 18. Then, suddenly raising herself on tiptoe and resting her hands lightly on his shoulders, she
kissed him. (Joyce). 19. He was both curious and eager to have more precise information of his friends of the
previous evening. (Cronin). 20. Digging went on through Tuesday and Wednesday. (Warner). 21. I watched
him read his letters, saw him frown at one, smile at another ... (Du Maurier).

44. Point out homogeneous parts and state how they are connected.
1. “Both he who chooses heads and he who chooses tails are equally at fault ...” (Greene). 2. Nobody ever saw
Chirac or the old sail. (Bennett) 3. The room was plainly visible as commodious, comfortably, though not
agreeably furnished. (Cronin). 4. She was sitting in a chair idly, neither reading nor sewing ... (Maugham). 5.
She accused Robert of either taking the ornament or breaking it and concealing the breakage. (Du Maurier). 6.
That night Ashurst hardly slept at all. He was thinking, tossing and turning. Next morning he got his cheque
cashed, but avoided the shop of the dove-grey dress ..., and, instead, bought himself some necessaries.
(Galsworthy). 7. But I was more afraid of the pain than of the partisans ... (Greene). S. A moment later she
pulled back the bolt of the bedroom door and then turned the key and opened the door and stood on the
landing outside (Bates).
Find in an English text some sentences containing homogeneous parts.

ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

45. Analyse the following sentences according to the form given.
Model: Clarice was waiting for me in my bedroom. It is a simple extended sentence.
“Clarice” is the subject expressed by a proper noun
“was waiting” is a simple predicate expressed by the verb “to wait’ in the Past continuous tense, singular.
“for me” is a prepositional object expressed by a personal pronoun, first person, singular, in the objective
case, preceded by the pre position “for”.
“in my bedroom” is an adverbial modifier of place expressed by a prepositional phrase.
1. Mary shook off her mantle with a shrug of her shoulders. (Cronin). 2. Passengers getting out of the open
doors were bowled along the platform. 3. Trasker had been watching her with an inexplicable flush on his face
... (Wilson). 4. Dinner at the Traskers had become by this time almost a family routine for the Gorins.
(Wilson). 5. Several shutters were put up in the windows of the shop to indicate a death. (Bennett). 6. The
customer sent up by Constance had occupied the surface of her life for ten minutes, trying on hats. (Bennett).
7. She saw him put a piece of folded white paper on the top edge of the screening box and flick it down to her.
(Bennett). 8. This was a disagreeable way of putting the business. (Dickens). 9. The two women stood side by
side looking at the slender, flowering tree. (Mansfield). 10. She had to talk because of her desire to laugh.
(Mansfield). 11. One winter afternoon she had been buying something in a little antique shop in Curzon Street.
(Mansfield). 12. I opened the knife, and cut a: length of twine, and came back into the room again. 13 This
time he allowed me to touch him and pull hold of his collar. (Du Maurier). 14. Most of the western rivers flow
down a steep slope near the sea and are short and rapid. (Wide World Reader). 15. The southern rivers also rise
near the coast and have short and rapid courses. (Wide World Reader). 16. The valley of the Tweed is
remarkable for its magnificent trees. 17. The ebb flows to and from the great shallow of the North Sea
produces an alternating tidal race, running with a speed of from six to ten knots an hour. 18. The contrast
between the south-east and the north-west of Brit ain depends on a fundamental distinction in rock structure.
19. The well known cyclone on the 28 of December in 1879 was a real storm, the wind amounting in some
places to a severe gale. 20. From the Pennine Chain good building stone, marble, and lime are obtained in
large quantities. 21. Birmingham, England’s “Second City”, has the reputation of being able to make anything
from an ancient relic to the automobile. 22. Stratford is an irresistibly attractive country town.

THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OP THE SENTENCE

46. Point out the independent elements, define them and say what they are expressed by.
1. “Have one each, my dears,” said cook in her comfortable voice. (Mansfield).
2. That was, so to speak, another gift from Warley. (Braine).
3. “Hello, Eva”, I said. “Hello, Alice:..” (Braine).
4. “Well, Miss Spencer,” she greeted the former Baroness Zerlinski. (Bennett).
5. To do that lady justice, Miss Spencer bore the surprising ordeal very well. (Bennett).
6. But, on the whole, England has a gently sloping surface.
7. “Oh, father!” cried Nella, “what a lot of mustard you have taken!” (Bennett).
8. At length the reply from Mr. Murdstone came ... (Dickens).

47. Point out the parenthesis and state what it is expressed by.
1. He is my husband, and, of course, I do what he tells me. (Bennett).
2. As it was, Nella departed with surprising docility. (Bennett).
3. He looked at her in sullen amazement, but refused, none the less, to be diverted from the issue.
4. She glanced, sideways, at the old couple. Perhaps they would go soon. (Mansfield).
5. Gerald: They [women] are awfully interested, certainly, in things we don’t care much about.
6. Needless to say, the total was more and not less than a thousand francs. (Bennett).
7. “... But there’s no chance here, Mrs Bicket. Besides, he couldn’t make two ends meet on this job, he told
me. (Galsworthy).
8. According to your theory, we’re in a mighty soulful era. (Galsworthy).
9. To tell you the truth, I don’t like to get up early.

48. A. Insert an appropriate word (word combination) as a parenthesis evidently, in fact, by the way,
judging by ..., to cut a long story short, may be, besides, luckily, in my opinion, to tell the truth).
1. __________he is quite ill. 2. __________they got married. 3. __________ I don’t like it. 4.____________
N. is the best violinist I’ve ever heard. 5. __________I found out much later that I had been wrong. 6. Don’t
worry, __________she will come soon. 7. I have much work to do for to-morrow, __________my mother is
unwell, so I must leave at once. 8. ____________ the driver managed to avoid knocking down the old man. 9.
You have ____________been working very hard, you look so tired. 10. ____________Henry, how old is your
sister?
B. Make up or find sentences using the following words and word combinations as a parenthesis:
a) modal words (such as: perhaps, maybe, certainly, etc.);
b) adverbs (such as: besides, still, anyway, moreover, firstly, etc.);
c) prepositional phrases (such as: in truth, at least, etc.);
d) infinitive and participial phrases (such as: to be frank, to be quite plain, etc., generally speaking, judging by
your words, etc.).

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

49. Point out sentences with a) syndetic and b) asyndetic coordination. Comment on the types of
coordination and on the conjunctions used in a).
1. I would not listen to her, I thought her hard and cruel. (Du Manner). 2. She put her hands up to her cheeks,
but her eyes seemed to look right into his. (Galsworthy). 3. He went up to his bedroom to get a book, and his
heart began to beat violently, for she was in there making the bed. (Galsworthy). 4. The cuckoos and a
thousand birds were singing; the little streams were very bright. (Galsworthy). 5. Spreading four square in the
midst of the British Kingdom is the inland Irish Sea; while for six hundred miles off the north western shores
is the border of the ocean. (Mackinder). 6. In Britain even the leeward slopes receive abundant moisture; yet
the rain-shadows to eastward and north-eastward of the hills are distinctly indicated upon the map.
(Mackinder).

50. Point out the coordinating conjunctions connecting a) the clauses of the compound sentences and b)
those connecting the homogeneous members of the simple sentences.
1. Miss Sharp only folded her own hands with a very frigid smile and bow, and quite declined to accept the
proffered honour. (Thackeray). 2. A seed-cake and a bottle of wine were produced in the drawing-room and
these refreshments being partaken of, Miss Sedley was at liberty to depart. (Thackeray). 3. He must go, or they
would overtake him. (Lawrence). 4. If you meant to be a guest, you or your courier gave your card to Miss
Spencer. 5. Racksole tried to catch the waiter’s eye, but could not. (Bennett). 6. “She wanted to come and see
you before, but she and Maxim have been so busy.” (Du Maurier). 7. Neither she nor I could pick up any
information on the subject. (Dickens). 8. Mrs. Septimus Small let fall no word; neither did she question June
about it. (Galsworthy).

51. Comment on the meaning of the coordinating conjunction and (addition, succession or simultaneity;
causative-consecutive or adversative meaning).
1. Rebecca’s mother had had some education somewhere, and her daughter spoke French with purity and a
Parisian accent. (Thackeray). 2. She had already taken leave of him once ...; and now she had nothing to say,
nothing whatever. (Bennett). 3. On the instant she straightened up, and her eyes filled with a great pain.
(Dreiser). 4. They were all tremendously great men, and the so-called experts were all tremendously sure they
were right. (Berkeley). 5. A padding of unshod hoofs came up the lane, and three dim, dark shapes passed —
ponies on an evening march. (Galsworthy). 6. The catastrophe came, and she was brought to the Mall as to her
home. (Thackeray). 7. Susan was a princess and I was the equivalent of a swine-herd. 8. There was a pane
missing in the kiosk and a cold wind blew in. 9. That poor boy asked me to help him to get a chance to
propose — and I sent them out for a walk. (Berkeley). 10. Constance, in addition to the sciatica, had caught a
sneezing cold, and the act of sneezing caused her the most acute pain. (Bennett). 11. He laughed, and so did
she. (Dreiser). 12. Then the bazooka shell burst on the tower and I was on my face again. (Greene). 13. “...
they’ve been married nearly ten years and they haven’t had any children.” (Braine)

52. Make up one compound sentence by joining two simple ones with the help of the conjunction.
Model: You don’t like to have a tooth pulled out. I don’t like to have a tooth pulled out. —You don’t like to have
a tooth pulled out, and I don’t like it either.
1. You have not been to London. I have not been there.
2. She does not like jazz-band. My people do not like jazz-band.
3. I never take medicine. She does not take medicine.
4. She is not fond of such kind of poetry. I am not fond of it.
5. My aunt never goes to football matches. My grandmother never goes to football matches.
6. You never make spelling mistakes. My friend never makes spelling mistakes.
7. I do not go to-the South in July. My sister does not go to the South in July.

53. Join the following sentences into one using the conjunction so or neither. (Mind the order of words in
the second clause of the compound sentence).
Model: I am going to hear this concert. My sister is going to hear it too.— I am going to hear this concert, so
is my sister.
Bananas don’t grow in the North. Pine-apples don’t grow in the North either. — Bananas don’t grow in the
North, neither do pine-apples.
1. He would have liked to be present at that lecture. I should have liked to be present at the lecture too. 2. I
have never been to Scandinavian countries. My children have never been to Scandinavian countries either. 3.
You are not responsible for this accident. Your husband is not responsible for it either. 4. But for the meeting I
should have been at the concert yesterday. My fellow-students would have been there too. 5. I am greatly
interested in this subject. My friend is also interested.
54. Using suitable coordinating conjunctions, convert the following simple sentences into compound
ones.
1. It being stuffy in the room, I opened the window.
2. Thanks to the driver’s skill, the old man was not knocked down.
3. Our work being completed, we may have a good rest.
4. For all his experience in this branch of science, he is sometimes compelled to consult the professor.
5. In spite of the snowstorm in the mountains, the geologists managed to carry out their work.
6. She spoke to me in low voice to avoid disturbing the patient.
7. He blamed nobody except his younger brother.
8. Except the pianist himself all the people found the concert to be a success.
9. That day the sea was too stormy for people to bathe.
10. During the holidays I went to Moscow to see an old friend of mine.
11. It being a nice little place, the host and the hostess were rather proud of it.
12. But for the umbrella he would have come home drenched and would have caught cold.

55. Complete the following so that compound sentences should be formed.

1. Take the lid off the pan, or else (the soup, to boil over).
2. Some people like hot weather, whereas (others, can’t stand...).
3. Either you will buy the tickets, or (I, to ask ...).
4. You are inexperienced, hence (you, can’t judge ...).
5. She is small and thin, while (her children, to be ...).
6. Both the friends were fond of music, so (they, to talk...).
7. I asked them to stay some days more, still (they, to make up one’s mind ...).
8. The train started at 5 a. m., therefore (we, to get up ...).
9. He was quite a young boy, nevertheless (everybody, to respect ...).
10. Neither a telegram was sent, nor (a letter, to be written).
11. I met him somewhere, but ( not to remember ...).
13. She is a delicate child, while (her brother, to be ...).
14. He was not much afraid, yet (he, to ask ...).

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

SUBJECT, OBJECT AND PREDICATIVE CLAUSES
56. Point out subject clauses and the connectives they are introduced by.
1. Whatever he thought of her would not go beyond him. (Galsworthy). 2. ... “How that woman ever got into it
[the world] with that name, is unaccountable to me.” (Dickens). 3. What you ask is impossible. (Wilde). 4.
“What we want is rest,” said Harris. (Jerome). 5. One night my father’s big red land was trampled down by
small sharp hooves, and it was discovered that the culprits were goats. 6. What awakened him was the engine
coughing. (Aldridge), 7. Is it to be hinted to me that I want in affection for my precious treasure ... (Dickens).
8. “It’s very strange,” said Mr. Dick ..., “that I never can get that quite right (Dickens). 9. Which side wins
does not concern us here. (Shaw). 10. It’s a good thing she went away with you. (Greene). 11. Whether I was
her rival in sport or in studies seemed equally bad in her eyes.
A. Find in an English text some complex sentences containing a subject clause introduced by a) the
conjunctions that, whether; b) the conjunctive pronouns who, which, what and by the conjunctive adverbs
where, when, how, why.

57. Point out predicative clauses; state by what connectives they are introduced.
1. I had said the name ... It was as though I had taken a purge and rid myself of an intolerable pain. (Du
Maurier). 2. To blow the bridge at a stated hour based on the time set for the attack is how it should be done.
(Hemingway). 3. The provoking thing was that ... Bertha couldn’t make her out. (Mansfield). 4. This was not
how the object itself would look: this was the image in a mirror, reversed. (Greene). 6. And this is what he
remembered. (Gals worthy). 7. Dr. Macphail’s first thought was that something had happened to Miss
Thompson. (Maugham). 8. “The trouble was ... he got mixed up.” (Greene). 9. “We are just as we were,” said
Adrian, “friends.” (Galsworthy).

58. Define the kind of the subordinate clauses; isolate that which appears to be the principal clause.
1. What has happened to me is exactly what I willed to happen. 2. What annoyed me the most about him was
that he stood four inches above me and was broader across the shoulders. (Braine). 3. What she simply
couldn’t make out — what was miraculous was how she should have guessed Miss Fulton’s mood so exactly
and so instantly. (Mansfield). 4. “What we’ve got to decide now, however, is whether we really do trust Kate
or not.” (Mansfield). 5. What I mean is people don’t suddenly for no reason have violent headaches. (Du
Maurier). 6. What I mean is that you can’t go cutting everybody. (Shaw).

59. State whether the object clauses are introduced asyndetically or syndetically; in the latter case pick
out the connectives. Translate the sentences.
1. You must do whatever your conscience tells you to be right, Dr. Gumming. (Berkeley). 2. What Miss Fulton
did, Bertha didn’t know. (Mansfield). 3. What is to guarantee that my orders are not changed? (Hemingway).
4. She found that I listened to what she said. 5. I do not blame the dog because I take it that it is his nature.
(Jerome). 6. “I only want you to re - member what you have seen,” he said ... (Greene). 7. I couldn’t tell who
the speakers were. (Greene). 8. One can allways tell from a woman’s bonnet whether she has got a memory or
- not. (Wilde). 9. I hope I shall remember that. (Wilde). 10. I think there must have been thunder in the air
(Wilde). 11. Nella inquired where the Baroness meant to take lunch. (Bennett). 12. I don’t see why a man
should think he is pleasing a woman enormously when he says to her a whole heap of things that he doesn’t
mean. (Wilde). 13. I see how it is. 14. I was horribly afraid lest some one might walk up Salisbury Lane ...
(Bennett). 15. I wondered if the bishop’s wife saw the flush on my face ... (Du Maurier). 16. Andrew, I am
exceedingly sorry I allowed you to call on us. (Shaw). 17. Dinny felt suddenly that she was on very thin ice.
(Galsworthy). 18. I’m terribly glad I’ve met you at last.” (Galsworthy).
Find in an English text some complex sentences containing an object clause.

60. A. Join the following simple sentences into one complex sentence containing a subject, an object, or a
predicative clause.
1. What kind of books are you fond of? I should like to know it. 2. He told us many things about his journey.
We are greatly interested in it. 3. His children should be decent and educated people. He dreams about it. 4.
What was going on in the street? I wondered at it. 5. Travelling by land is more interesting than travelling by
sea. I don’t think so. 6. He will keep his word. You may rely on it.
B. Complete the following sentences supplying subject, object, or predicative clauses.
1. He has made up his mind ... 2. 1 didn’t hear ... 3. A little bit of pluck is… 4 The trainer’s instructions to the
sportsman were… 5. It was of vital importance… 6. The trainer explained to them ... 7. I’ll do just… 8. His
aim was ... 9. I take it ... 10. It is a pity ... 11. Do you understand...? 12. He felt ... 13. See to it… 14. ... I really
cannot imagine.

ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES
61. Define the kinds of attributive clauses; translate the sentences.
1. It was the hour of rest in the immense courtyard which lay open to the sky. (Greene). 2. The procession of
cars was well ahead of us by the time we started. (Greene). 3. Then Harris, who was sitting next the window,
drew aside the curtain and looked out upon the street. (J. K. Jerome). 4. There is no doubt that my wife was
bitterly jealous. (Conan Doyle). 5. There are times when all of us are afraid of him. (Conan Doyle). 6 I have no
distinct remembrance whether it pleased or frightened me. (Dickens). 7. I had a strong impression that my
company was not wanted. (Greene). 8. We were expected to work all the time, which appears reasonable
enough. 9. She was very much afraid of her husband, who treated her with a harshness for which I frequently
reproached him. (Conan Doyle). 10. In the distance lay the park, where the trees were weighted with snow.
(Joyce). 11. A similar revolver she concealed… in Miss Dunbar’s wardrobe after discharging one barrel, which
she could easily do in the woods without attracting attention. (Conan Doyle).

62. Pick out the attributive clauses; point out the words the clauses refer to; say whether the clauses are
introduced a) asyndetically, b) syndetically define the connectives.
1. Perhaps he was just killed by someone who wanted his money. (Greene). 2 Gabriel went away to a remote
corner of the room where Freddy’s mother was sitting. (Joyce). 3. She has an opportunity which is offered to
very few of us. (Maugham). 4. Ben ... was having trouble with the valve that supplied the right amount of air.
(Aldridge). 5. That was the knife he had had no time to use. 6. Those were the days when there was something
like singing to be heard in Dublin. (Joyce). 7. He wanted to explain all he had felt and thought. 8. She
belonged to a world about which he knew nothing at all. (Greene). 9. They had agreed that during the first
evening they would avoid asking questions about how and why Emil had left Vienna. (Warner). 10. The only
person in the household with whom he seemed to feel at ease was Hannah. (Warner). 11. I felt the same
walking down Piccadilly after the war as I did as a youngster back from India. (Galsworthy).

63. A. Insert: who, whose, whom, which, that.

1. When he reached Andrew, _________ he had seen from halfway down the street, he gave a theatrical start
of recognition, (Cronin) 2. The most- markedly transverse river in Wales is the Wye, __________ general
direction is south – eastward. (Mackinder). 3.This marriage __________ for obvious reasons must inevitably
take place ... will not give me a name ___________ will be really, rightly mine to bear. (Wilde). 4.Cam bridge
is one of the great architectural glories of England. Those ____________ claim that it is more beautiful than
Oxford were educated locally. (“Britain”).
B. Translate:
1. He is not such a timid person as you think him to be. 2. In the picture gallery there -were such pictures as
we had never seen before. 3. Your son is fond of such books as I liked in my childhood.

64. A. Omit the relative pronouns or adverbs where possible.

1. Tell me the title of the book that you have just mentioned. 2. I did not notice the person who has left the
purse - here. 3. The person whose purse we have found will be informed about it. 4. You will like the place
where we are going to. 5. A dog that barks never bites. 6. I am still under the impression of the concert which
took place yesterday.
B. Find in an English text:
1. some sentences containing attributive relative restrictive clauses; 2. some sentences containing attributive
relative non-restrictive clauses; 3. some sentences containing attributive non-restrictive continuative clauses
which refer to the whole of the principal clause; 4. some sentences containing appositive clauses.
65. Join the following simple sentences into a complex one, using suitable connectives or asyndetically.
1. The long struggle in England between the dynasties of Lancaster and York lasted for 30 years. This struggle
is known as the Wars of the Roses.
2. The only Roman theatre in Britain is on the outskirts of the town of St. Albans. There in the 1st century of
our era stood the Roman town of Verulamium.
3. The City Walls have encircled the city of York since the 14th century. Along the top of the City Walls there
runs a footpath.
4. King Harold was killed in the battle. His Anglo-Saxon troops were defeated by the Normans in the battle at
Hastings in 1066.
5. The Norman kings ruled with the help of Norman nobles. They formed a governing body.

66. A. Complete the following sentences supplying attributive clauses.

1. He bought a collection of stamps in the shop ... 2. 1 shall never forget the day… 3. I do not know the
stamp ... 4. A person ... must know geography well. 5. The stamp ... has been sent to me by a friend of mine. 6.
The boy ... will gladly show his collection to you.
B. Insert appositive clauses using the conjunctions that, whether or the adverbs how, why.
1. Their proposal ... cannot be realized.
2. I don’t like the idea...
3. I’ve got rid of the horrible fear…
4. The news ... cheered us greatly.
5. His illness was the reason ...
6. The question ... seemed very important.
7. He expressed his doubt…

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
67. A. Define the kinds of adverbial clauses.
I. They stood waiting where they were. (Maugham). 2. When they knocked at her door Mrs. Davidson came
out. 3 I did as she asked ... (Conan Doyle). 4. I cannot be at ease ... if someone else is in pain ... (Greene). 5.
Eulalia was so moved that she could only weep again. (Coppard). 6. Lunch passed off better than I had dared
to hope. (Du Maurier). 7. Though she had only twice seen Ferse, she recognised him at once. 8. He was
furious with Mrs. Davidson and his wife because they made no effort to help. 9. I turned away, so that Frith
should not see my face. (Du Manner). 10. They liked to criticise my looks ..., they liked to watch how Maxim
and I behaved to each other ..., so that they could go back afterwards and discuss us ... (Du Maurier).
B. Find in an English text some complex sentences containing all kinds of adverbial clauses.
68. Point out the adverbial clauses of time and place; isolate the connectives by which they are
introduced.
1. He woke even before the bugle sounded. (Lawrence). 2. It was raining when we left London. (Du Maurier).
3. “But why shouldn’t they live here until things are settled?” said Lady Cherrell. (Galsworthy). 4. Adrian left
as soon as he had drunk his coffee. (Galsworthy). 5. I was back where I had been before. (Du Manner). 6. She
turned to where a few yards along the pavement a long bald man impatiently awaited her. (Cronin). 7. Now
that Brodie had commenced to eat it was permissible for the others to begin ... (Cronin). 8. I was now free to
live and work wherever I liked. (Moore). 9. I can cut his hair while I’m talking to him. (Galsworthy). 10. A
sergeant was changing the sentries he came down the trench. (Aldington). 11. Come and put up with me till we
get things straightened out. (Galsworthy). 12. The room was spacious ... The moment he entered it he felt that
his premonition was correct. (Cronin). 13. It has not occurred to me to mention Peggotty since I ran away.
(Dickens). 14. 1 shall always think so, as long as I live. (Dickens). 15. Hardly had she brought one gentleman
into the little pantry behind the office ... then the wheezy hall-door bell clanged again. (Joyce). 16. “I’ll come
anywhere you like,” said Ann.

69. Point out the adverbial clauses of manner, comparison, degree and result; isolate the conjunctions by
which they are introduced.
1. Once I shivered as Pyle had done. (Greene). 2 The weather was wet and cold for quite a week, as it often
can be in the vest country in early summer ... (Du Maurier). 3.“... I love her more than I have ever told you, far
more.” (Wilde). 4. The doctor put the case as reasonably as he could ... (Maugham). 5. The change was so
sudden that I was shocked and a little scared. 6. He always treated boys as if they were his equals. (Moore). 7.
He went into the house by the back door ... as though he had something to hide. (Maugham). 8. Lily seldom
made a mistake in the orders, so that she got on well with her three mistresses. (Joyce). 9. The little fellow ...
gave such a lusty shout, that the sound of it made him bashful, and he buried his face in her skirts.

70. Point out the adverbial clauses of condition and concession; isolate the connectives by which they
are introduced.
1. You gave her the wounds she died of. There is the truth for your comfort, however you like it. 2. I am
devoted to Maxim .., though we always bicker like cat and dog when we meet. 3. Although she said nothing I
felt guilty. 4. Unless I receive this requisition in full within an hour, I shall inform the Government that I
cannot continue to hold my post if you remain in yours. 5. Whatever we do we must think of him as well as of
ourselves”. (Galsworthy). 6. I liked his loyalty to Harding - whoever Harding was. 7. Really, it is as simple to
buy a hotel or a railroad as it is to buy a watch, provided one is equal to the transaction. 8. Old as they were,
her aunts also did their share. (Joyce).
71. Point out the adverbial clauses of cause and purpose; isolate the connectives by which they are
introduced.
1. I called him Frank because Maxim did. (Du Maurier). 2. She asked me to leave the answer on the sundial in
the garden as she desired no one to be in our confidence. (Conan Doyle). 3. I informed myself of the hour at
which she left of an evening, in order that our visit might be timed accordingly. (Dickens). 4. Instinctively he
turned his back more to the light lest she might see the shame that burned upon his forehead. 5. Since he
seemed nervous even at the dress rehearsal, Isabel agreed not to go. (Bates). 6. Then I told her to hush, and not
stir, for fear she should make him angry. (F. Bronte). 7. I’ll change the ticket so that you may be able to go
with the evening train.
B. Make a list of the connectives used to introduce subordinate clauses of a) time, b) place, c) manner, d)
comparison, e) degree, f) result, g) condition, h) concession, i) cause, j) purpose in the sentences given above.

72. Insert the appropriate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of time.

I. We have never seen him ................. he left for the Crimea. 2. Send me a telegram ………... you come. 3.
……….. he said it he felt it was wrong. 4. I made his acquaintance …………….. he had graduated from the
University. 5. It had happened …………….. the experiment was completed. 6. Make hay ……………... the
sun is shining. 7. I’ll be glad to see you ……………….... you come. 8. She was standing on the
shore ........................ the ship was lost sight of. 9. ... ………… had I knocked at the door ... …………….it
swung open. 10. Stay here ………….... you can. 11. ………….. the sky began to clear up, the air grew cooler.
12. ……….... had I opened the gate ………….. the dogs began to bark.

73. A. Define the kinds of clauses introduced by where and when.

1. I like the country place where we lived last year. 2. Let us meet where we used to walk in summer. 3. It is of
importance where they will spend their vacation. 4. I wondered where they intended to go. 5. The question is
where they will spend their summer vacation. 6. Do you know the time when he will come? 7. Everybody was
glad when he came at last. 8. I have no idea when he will come. 9. It’s very important when we must start. 10.
The difficulty is when we shall be able to do it.
Find in an English text some sentences with where and when introducing:
a) a subject clause, b) a predicative clause, c) an object clause, d) an attributive relative clause, e) an adverbial
clause of place.

74. Complete the following sentences.

1. We are very fond of the little cottage where ... 2. Don’t you know where ... 3. Where ... is of no importance.
4. It happened where… 5. The problem to settle is where ... 6. She doesn’t tell me where … 7. They are quite
happy where ... 8. For the last time she had a look at the house where ... 9. Where ... isn’t known to a single
person. 10. That is where ... 11. I should like to find such a place where … 12. No plant can grow where ... 13.
The day when ... was one of the happiest in my life. 14. I can’t work when ... 15. Nobody knows when ... 16.
When ... is not settled yet. 17. The thing to decide is when ... 18. I felt tired when ... 19. I am interested to
know when … 20. When ... interests me greatly. 21. The hour when… has not been changed. 22. The most
important thing for us is when ... 23. Don’t you remember when ... 24. I shall never forget the moment when…

75. State what kind of clauses are introduced by as.

1. As she was descending the dark kitchen steps she heard Amy’ voice ... (Bennett). 2. As Gabriel never ate
sweets, the celery had been left for him. (Joyce). 3. I’ll do as I like. 4. It is not so hot today as it was yesterday.
5. Women should think in moderation, as they should do all things in moderation. (Wilde). 6. Try as he might
to reconstruct his changing ideas, Denny seemed fated to demolish them. (Cronin). 7. As she said those words
she suddenly let fall her brush. (Mansfield). 8. She was at the station after all, standing just as he had
imagined, apart from the others ... (Mansfield). 9. Gerald, come near to me. Quite close to me, as you used to
do when you were a little boy ... (Wilde). 10. I went through the long drawing- room, as he had directed ... (Du
Maurier). 11. But this writing- table, beautiful as it was, was no pretty toy ... (Du Maurier).

76. A. Complete the sentences supplying the principal clause in each of them.
1. Young as she is ...
2. As they were going along the road …
3. As a lot of people have a liking for this health resort …
4. As the wind was wrong and the waves were rather high …
5. As you usually do…
6. Early as it was …
B. Supply adverbial clauses of time, manner, cause, comparison, concession, or an attributive clause
introduced by as.
1. ... the passengers began to wave their hands greeting their friends.
2. He held the oars …
3. ... the sailing-boat was moving rather slowly.
4. He likes swimming almost as much …
5. ... he could not move the boat against the current.
6. To steer a canoe you must-have such an oar …

77. Complete the following sentences so that they should contain a subordinate clause introduced by
that (so that)
a) Subject clause
It is necessary that . . .;
It is of great importance that…:
b) Object clause
I’ve read that . . .;
Everybody knows that…
c) Attributive relative clause:
Where is the puppy that . . .;
Of all the pictures I like the one that
d) Appositive attributive clause:
He expressed his hope that…
I don’t quite like the idea that …
e) Adverbial clause of purpose:
She did it that . . .;
Let them know about it that
f) Adverbial clause of degree
It was oppressively hot that …

78. Comment on the use of so that and so... that. Define the kind of clauses. Translate.
1. “Was I breathing so loudly that you could hear me?” (Bennett). 2. It may be that I am too bound to him
already who, robbing me, yet left me richer, so that in the mire of my life I found the pearl of price. 3. At first I
was so rattled and taken aback that I was ready to think she has been led away in some extraordinary fashion.
4. A long inscription in bad Latin ... followed the course of this staircase, so that the climber read it word by
word as he mounted step by step ... (Moore). 5. That bloody concrete barrack I live in now — it’s so clean and
streamlined that I wouldn’t be at all surprised if it took to flight. 6. ... and boats are drawing near and passing
away, so that the sunny river ... is dotted and decked with yellow, and blue, and orange ... (Jerome). 7. I
wondered if it would be possible to hide ..., so that Frith ... would say “Madam must have gone out”. (Du
Maurier) 8. At last it [the argument] grew so heated that the cook ... was called from the kitchen to be
interpreter. (Lessing).

79. Complete the following sentences.

1. The more you ask him about it, the less …
2. The longer you wait, the slower …
3. The more rain falls, the better …
4. The more he thought, the more …
5. The harder one works, the better …
6. The fewer questions you ask, the better …
7. The longer one lives, the more …
8. The taller the basket-ball player is, the easier …
9. The tougher the meat is, the longer …
10. The brighter the sun shines, the better …
11. The nearer you come to the sea, the fresher …
12. The talk will be the more unpleasant, the longer …

80. Complete the following sentences supplying adverbial clauses of:

a) place 1. Their cottage stands where ... 2. Fetch it from where ... 3. I’d like to speak with you wherever …
b) time 1. We have not met since ... 2. I’ll do it while ... 3. Write to me as soon as ... 4. Don’t linger after ... 5.
He will let you know when … 6. You can have a rest as long as ... 7. They went on talking until ... 8. The
moment ... they rushed downstairs.
c) cause 1. I can’t give my consent because ... 2. Since ... I’ll not speak about it. 3. As ... it is difficult to find
him at home. 4. He is very suspicious for fear that … 5. Seeing that ... he left their house.
d) purpose 1. We occupied the seat in the first row in order that ... 2. Put on your warm coat lest ... 3. We
climbed up the hill so that
e) condition 1. If ... we shall see him to-morrow. 2. They will certainly be there in time provided ... 3. Should
you ... tell him about his sister’s illness. 4. What will you write to him supposing ... 5. You won’t have the
book unless ... 6. I promise you to do it on condition …
f) concession 1. Tired as ... he went on working. 2. Though ... the patient felt better. 3. Whoever ... you must
see him again.
h) comparison 1. He felt better than .... 2. He looked tired as if ... 3. It was not so hot as ... 4. The young girl
looked as beautiful as ... 5. She remembered every corner in the garden as though

81. Convert the following simple sentences in complex ones by introducing adverbial clauses (of time,
manner, cause, condition, purpose, concession).
1. In the 8th century the Anglo-Saxons suffered much because of the frequent raids of the Danish tribes. 2.
In spite of the strong resistance, the Danes seized the North Western part of the country. 3. During the reign
of the Wessex king Alfred the fight of the Anglo-Saxons against the Danes was the hardest. 4. Alfred gathered
his troops of free yeomen and knights to fight with the Danes. 5. Alfred stopped the advance of the Danes by
paying them tribute. 6. He also built a fleet of 100 ships in order to be able to fight with the enemy on the
sea.

ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

82. Analyse the following sentences.
1. Rather more than hall-way across from Denmark to England is a broad shoal known as the Dogger Bank,
whose north-western margin has the appearance of a submerged escarpment sinking to deeper waters than
those which lie south of the bank. 2. The southern end of the range in Derbyshire consists of a number of hills
and dales so thinly covered with grass and small wild plants, that the bare limestone rock may often be seen.
(Wide World Reader). 3 In consideration of the day and hour of my birth, it was declared by the nurse, and by
some sage women in the neighbourhood who had taken a lively interest in me several months before there was
any possibility of our becoming personally acquainted, first, that I was destined to be unlucky in life; and
secondly, that I was privileged to see ghosts and spirits; both these gifts inevitably attaching, as they believed,
to all unlucky infants of either gender, born towards the small hours on a Friday night. (Dickens). 4 I have
come to the conclusion that the real reason for the author who exceeds the common span of man is that
intelligent people after the age of thirty read nothing at all. (Maugham).

THE COMPOUND - COMPLEX SENTENCE

83. Analyse the following sentences.
1. The place where the Roman wall ended, near the north bank of the Tyne, is called Walls-end, and from that
spot much of the best coal which is sold in London takes its name. (Wide World Read ).
2. The slope of the sea-bed, which is the true, though submerged, edge of the Continent, follows the coast of
Norway seaward from the North Cape, then, crossing the mouth of the North Sea, it passes outside the
Shetland Islands and the Hebrides to a point some distance westward of Ireland, where it makes an inward
bend. (Mackinder).
3. At Stoneleigh the Avon enters a wide and beautiful park and is joined by the River Sowe coming past
Coventry only three miles to the north, but there is not a sign in this lovely wooded estate that a great
industrial city lies so close.
4. A few miles farther downstream one can see Guy’s Cliff on which a house stands high above the gently
flowing Avon, its foundations being hewn out of the solid rock, and there are innumerable excavations around
the courtyard which undoubtedly served as out-houses in days gone by.
5. The Avon at Warwick is a broad and placid stream, but it would not be so if it were not for weirs which at
regular intervals frequently broaden the stream out into a much wider river than it would otherwise be.
6. The weirs were built so that they should produce a head of water to operate the many mills, but the Avon
was also navigable to points above Stratford, until the building of the Great Western Railway put it out of
business as a means of communication.
7. It is a fact that Warwick Castle has never been a ruin, like so many of old castles, but has continually been a
place of residence, therefore it is just here that one can visualize something of what England in the Middle
Ages must have been like.
8. The oldest part of the castle is Caesar’s Tower, which was built a few years after the Norman Conquest,
while other parts have been added at various times, but always in exactly the right style, so that the castle has
always retained its original character. (Geographical Magazine).

SEQUENCE OF TENSES
84. Comment on the use of tenses in the subordinate clauses.
1. Mary wired back that she would arrive on the following day. (Cronin). 2. All that day she did as she had told
Parker she would. (Bates). 3. “I wanted to know,” I said, trembling, “if you would buy a jacket.” (Dickens). 4.
Maxim rang up the next morning to say he would be back about seven. (Du Maurier). 5. “Don’t forget the old
lady is nearly blind,” said Beatrice, “...I telephoned to the nurse that we were coming so everything will be
right.” (Du Maurier). 6. He did not know what he was talking about. (Du Maurier). 7. And I added that I hoped
she understood that it had nothing to do with me; she said that she was sure of that, but that she would speak to
Tom about it when he came back (Jerome). 8. “At last, Sophie. I thought you were never coming.” (Huxley).
9. He could see nothing below surface at all; and ... he wondered what would happen if his father didn’t come
up again. 10. I rose and said to Alice that I was going. (Braine). 11. “I knew it would happen one day,” said
Maxim. (Du Maurier)

85. Turn the verbs in italics into the Past making all the other necessary changes.
1. She can’t remember what I told her. 2. Tom believes that you are right. 3. You have said that she knows you.
4. The children hope that Santa Claus will bring them many toys. 5. Jane regrets that she can’t give us more
details about this accident. 6. I wonder what she is going to tell us this time. 7. Fred thinks that all his friends
‘viii come to his birthday party. 8. I don’t recall what they have said. 9. We can’t anticipate what he will do
now. 10. I remember that I saw him somewhere.
86. Select the correct form of the verbs given in brackets:
1. Harris thought he (would buy; will buy) a new house soon. 2. Our friends’ asked us why the train (has not
arrived; had not arrived) yet. 3. Fred admits that he still (has; had) little experience in this field now. 4.She had
to promise him that she (will help; would help) them. 5. The engineer claimed that he (agrees; agreed) with the
others. 6. John didn’t remember what he (told; had told) me the day before. 7. I didn’t know that she (must;
had to) leave at 5 o’clock. 8. We guess father (hasn’t heard; hadn’t heard) this news yet. 9. Did Jane tell you
that she (is going; was going) to move to a new house? l0. We were sure that they (will come ; would come)
by the evening train. 11. The pupils already knew that the teacher (has corrected; had corrected) their papers.
12. I promised her that I (will lend; would lend) her the book after I (finished; had finished) it. 13. I am sure
that Thomas (will come; would come) here when he (feels; will feel) better. 14. I wish I (know; knew) what
the boys (are doing; were doing) there at the moment. 15. When I (leave; will leave) school next year, I (will
learn; will have learnt) here for seven years. 16. When (did you see; have you seen) him last? 17. This time
yesterday you (told were telling) me how busy you (are; were) and what your plans for the future (are; were).
18. I explained that she (will be playing; would be playing) the piano at that time.

87. Use the appropriate form of the verb.

1. He told me that in all his years he never ___ so much blossom (saw, had seen). (Moore). 2. I replied that I
— very well, and that I — she — the same (am, was; hope, hoped; is, was). (Dickens). 3. In the morning Miss
Murdstone ... told me I — going to school (am, was). (Dickens). 4. Miss Murdstone was good enough to say
on the way that she — I —, before I — to a bad end (hopes, hoped; will repent, would repent; come, came).
(Dickens). 5. I wondered what I — with my day (shall do, should do). (Du Maurier). 6. “I wrote and said I
—,“ replied Mary (am coming, was coming). (Cronin). 7. “Joe told me you — to the Legation. I thought it
____easier to talk here” (have been, had been; will be, would be). (Greene). 8. I answered that I — he —
never again (think, thought; will smile, would smile). (Jerome). 9. I thought I — you (know, knew). (Jerome).
10. It unnerved him to think that she — at the supper- table, looking up at him while he — with her critical
eyes (will be, would be; speaks, spoke). (Joyce).

88. Supply the correct tense (Present; Past Tense; Present Perfect; Past Perfect; Future)
A. 1. Arnold (to be) _________________ born in a village and he (to spend) ______________ his childhood
there. He (to move) ______________ to Leeds when he (to be)____________ fifteen years old and he (to live)
___________there since his sister (to get) ___________ married. 2. At present, he (to work) ___________in
an office but he (to use) _____________ to work at a bank before. 3. Next year he (to go) ____________ to
London to study at the University, but only after he (to finish) ______________ writing the novel he (to work)
_________________ at now. 4. I (to write) _____________ to him a long letter several days ago and (to ask)
________________ him how many chapters he already (to write)____________. 5. Arnold’s daughter hopes
that her father (to finish) _______________ his book by the end of August. 6. I (to see) ____________her
yesterday while she (to cross) _____________ the street. 7. When I (to talk) __________ to her, she (to tell)
________________ me that she (to be) ______________ very tired because she (to type) _____________ all
the morning.
B. 1. As soon as she (to see) ______________us, he (to stop) ____________singing. 2. The tailor (to promise)
____________ me then that my suit (to be) _____________ ready in a week’s time, 3. Why didn’t you explain
to them when you (to be) ______________ able to give them the money back? 4. I wondered where he (to
study) _______________ and how many years before he (to take) ______________ his degree. 5. Before
paper (to be) _______________ invented, people (to write) ______________ their thoughts upon various
other materials. 6. History (to be) ____________ engraved on stone monuments and our knowledge of what
ancient people (to do) ______________, (to be) ________________ chiefly taken from the stone tables and
buildings which they (to erect) _______________.

90. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate verb in the correct tease:
1. The Chinese are said to be so clever that they ... gunpowder long before it ... known in Europe. 2. Galileo
Galilei was persecuted because he ... that the earth ... around the sun, 3. As soon as she ... the letter, the will
read it to us, too. 4. I asked the old man who ... on the bench if he ... hungry. 5. When Christopher Columbus ...
America, he thought that the country which ... discovered India, and he accordingly ... it the name of the West
Indies. 6. 1 will not go to bed until father ... home from the factory. 7. Last year you played tennis much better
than your brother ... now. 8. It’s high time you … these questions. 9. I don’t know precisely whether I ... on
this trip next week. 10. Tom was promised that everything ... ready in due time. 11. When I ... young, I ...
fishing every Sunday. 12. I’ll let them know that we ... a new car soon. 13. Did you know that Mary ... two
sons? 14. Your sister spoke English as if she ... in England for several years. 15. This is the dress which
Mary ... last week and which she ... still now. 16. I wish my brother ... here now to help me. 17. I promised the
little child that I … a new toy the next day. 18. When I ... to the bookshop two days ago, I ... a book which my
sister .., now. 19. I would rather you ... them my secret. 20, When I ... the window, I saw that my daughter ...
with the doll, while my son ... after a cat. 21. I am sure our friend ... this text after she ... the new words. 22.
That morning Jane ... to school only after she ... a big glass of milk. 23. 1 no sooner ... his face than I ... his
name, too. 24. We ... anything about her since she ... to London. 25. Only then she ... that I … right! 26. This
time tomorrow, we … TV while you ... for your exam. 27. Last week I ... three ice creams, but this week I ...
only one. 28. When Bob ... little, he ... with his toys for hours. 29. You already ... all the exercises? 30.
Nothing annoyed me so much as the discovery that my best friend ... to me.

INDIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT STATEMENTS
91. Convert into indirect speech.
1. “Nobody will ever know, on this line,” we said, “what you are, or where you’re going ... “Well, I don’t
know, gents,” replied the noble fellow, “but I suppose some train’s got to go to Kingston. (Jerome). 2. “The
map may be all right enough,” said one of the party, “if you know whereabouts in it we are now.” (Jerome). 3.
“We met your niece on the road,” said Ashurst... (Galsworthy). 4. “... I don’t hunt,” I confessed, “I learned to
ride, as a child, but I don’t remember much about it.” (Du Maurier). 5. “You know Mr. Davidson very little if
you think the fear of personal danger can stop him in the performance of his duty,” said his wife. (Maugham).
6. I said, “I’ve ordered dinner for all of you.” (Greene). 7. “When I met you first you had a certain expression
on your face,” he said slowly, “and you have it still (Du Maurier). 8. “Mrs. de Winter says we shan’t know
her,” said Frank. (Du Maurier).

92. Report the following statements that you heard at 7 a.m. this morning. Do you need to change the
tense?
1. Women live longer than men."
I heard that...
2. "I'm hungry."
Claire said that...
3. "Our galaxy contains several thousand million stars."
An astronomer announced that...
4. "The 2012 Olympics will be organised in Africa."
A sports expert said that...
5. "This coffee is too hot."
Jonathan complained that ...
93. Insert the verbs to say or to tell in the appropriate form.
1. Harris — them they could follow him if they liked ... They — it was very kind of him ... (Jerome). 2. When
Megan brought his tea he — “What’s the gipsy bogle, Megan?” (Galsworthy). 3. Gretta thinks it very funny
because she — the word reminds her of Christy Minstrels.” (Joyce). 4. “— me what she’s trying to—,” he
— ... “Cyril only wanted to — you, father dear, that his father is still very fond of meringues.” (Mansfield). 5.
“I ... I’d rather hear what you were going— first,” said Constantia. (Mansfield). 6. Johnny — her of the grand
tea they had had. And while he was also — her about the quarrel Mr. Sulky came tripping down the stairs.
(Coppard). 7. “Go and — him, you go and — him.” (Bates). 8. Of course, I — myself, he might have been
detained for some reason at the American Legation ... (Greene). 9. “You know all I can — you about Pyle
(Greene). 10. Vigot—wearily, ... “He’ll have a terrible lot — to me.” (Greene). 11. He—, “But that’s just what
I— him, but he always pretends not to understand French.” (Greene). 12. “As a friend,” Vigot —‘ “is there
nothing you could — me in confidence?” (Greene).

94. Complete the following sentences.

1. I hoped (that) …
2. He reminded me (that) the programme …
3. They declared (that) she …
4. They informed us (that) the time-table …
5. She replied (that) …
6. They supposed (that) …
7. He imagined (that) …
8. Everybody thought (that) …

INDIRECT QUESTIONS
95. Convert into indirect speech.
1. He ... said: “Can you tell us if there’s a farm near here where we could stay the night? I’ve got lame.”
(Galsworthy); 2. Ashurst said idly: “Where were you standing when you saw the gipsy bogle, Jim?”
(Galsworthy). 3. “Good morning,” she called. “Is Mr. David son better this morning?” (Maugham). 4. “Don’t
you think we ought to make Mr. Horn turn her out of here?” asked Mrs. Davidson. (Maugham). 5. “Does
anybody ever come here?” Davy asked. him. Aldridge). 6. “Did you find something to drink?” he asked Davy.
7. “Tell me, Lily,” he said in a friendly tone, “do you still go to school?” (Joyce). 8. “Why have you a piece of
pencil in your ear?” he asked. (Lawrence). 9. I said to Vigot, “What hours are you interested in?” (Greene). 10.
“How old is your father?” Miss Hei asked with gluttony. (Greene). 11. “What is Giles going to wear to-night?”
I asked, “or is it a dead secret?” (Du Maurier). 12. “How long will it take me to paint my face?” asked Giles.
(Du Maurier). 13. “What’s the time?” I said carelessly ... (Du Maurier). 14. “What are you standing there for?”
he said, his voice harsh and queer. “Didn’t you hear what I said? (Du Maurier).

96. Complete the following sentences.

1. She asked if …
2. She was interested to know how …
3. She wondered when …
4. She wanted to know where …
5. She asked in wonder what …
6. She wanted to find out by whom …
7. They asked me why …
8. She inquired what kind of …
9. She would like to know on what condition …

97. Convert the following into indirect speech; use different introductory verbs.
Model: Do you ever work in the garden?
She asked me if I ever worked in the garden.
1. What sort of flowers do you like?
2. Why have these flowers opened so soon?
3. Where will you plant those lovely poppies?
4. Have you ever seen a cherry orchard in blossom?
5. Do you water the flowers in the morning or in the evening?
6. Are tulips shade-loving flowers?
7. Who has broken the boughs of the lime-tree?
8. When do you usually sow peas?
9. Must these black currant bushes be transplanted this year?

98. Complete the following sentences supplying object clauses by arranging the given words in the
proper order.
1. She, asked, dinner, I, me, if, had, my, had.
2. …. I, had, where, had, lunch.
3. … got up, o’clock, I, at, usually, what.
4. … fish, I, eat, why, not, did.
5. … exhibition, we, to go, intended, when, to, the.
6. … was, what, such kind of, price, shirt, the, of.
7. … on, night, people, had been, previous, party, the, present, how many, the, at.
8. … I that, it, how long, him, to reach, would, country place, take.
9. … health-resort, them, that, ever, to, whether, had been, they, to.
10. … my, bought, I, where, had, dictionary.

INDIRECT ORDERS AND REQUESTS

99. Convert into indirect speech.
I. “Ask Miss Thompson when it would be convenient for me to see her,” he said. (Maugham). 2. “Sit up,” he
told Davy, “if you want to see how to approach.” Aldridge). 3. “Bring me the two green, bags from the floor,”
he said, “and keep your head covered against the sun...” 4. “And don’t throw any stones in the water,” his
father said ... “It frightens everything in sight. Even the sharks (Aldridge 5. “And don’t worry about me,” he
ordered the boy. (Aldridge). 6. “Come along, Pyle,” I said. “Leave them to changer.” 7. “I’ll come down when
I am ready,” I called. “Go on down ... Don’t wait for me. Tell Maxim he can’t come in.” (Du Mau rier). 8. “Go
and change,” he said, “it does not matter what you put on. Find an ordinary evening frock, anything will do.
Go now before anybody comes.” (Du Maurier). 9. “Don’t let the others see you like that,” I said. “Go to your
bedroom and do something to your face.” 10. ... “Sit down for a few minutes and you’ll be all right,” she said,
“wait, I’ll give you a glass of water.” (Du Maurier).
 MIXED EXERCISES ON INDIRECT SPEECH
100. Convert into direct speech.
1. He said he was very fond of travelling. 2. He said he was looking forward to visiting the place where the
great Scottish poet Robert Burns had spent his early life. 3. He declared he would never forget the lovely and
romantic scenes of Scotland he had seen during his visit to Britain. 4. He assured me he had been dreaming to
visit all these spots of interest since he read Walter Scott’s novels for the first time. He informed me that it was
possible for everyone to get acquaint with all the loveliest spots of those parts. 16. He warned me against my
coming, as he would be developing his films at that time. 7. She declared that mountaineering was her
favourite kind of sport. 8. He tried to persuade me that long walks would do me a world of good. 9. He said he
was surprised I had not been training since morning. 10. She asked me what kind of sport I went in for. 11. She
was interested to know if we should take part in the running race. 12. They wondered which of the teams had a
better chance of success. 13. 1 asked the t to tell me if he thought I could take part in the match. 15. I inquired
of him if a stroke in cricket required great strength of the player. 16. The boy was eager to know if I had ever
seen a parachutist jump from an aeroplane. 17. He asked me to tell him who was playing tennis on the court.
18. My brother wanted to find out who had lost his tennis balls.19. He asked me when I had last been to a
football match. 20. He wondered whether the goal had been scored before the final whistle was given. 21. I
asked her if she liked the new opera she had heard the day before.22. I wondered when she had been at the
concert last. 23. Everybody wondered if the young man would agree to act the leading part in the play. 24. The
young actor inquired eagerly whether we liked his acting. 25. My sister always asks me not to economize by
taking cheap tickets in the last row. 26. She begged me not to be late for the concert. 27. My friend advised me
to read “King Lear” in the original before going to see the performance of the tragedy. 28. At the theatre I was
obliged to tell my neighbours not to talk during the performance. 29. I persuaded thy friend to let her daughter
go to the concert as she was very fond of music. 30. A friend of mine suggested that we should take season
tickets to the State Opera House. 31. The father forbade his son to go to the cinema because lie had not
prepared his lessons for the next day. 32. The young man asked his parents not to worry about him saying that
he might return home rather late as he had been invited to a house-warming party that night. 33. He asked me
to speak more distinctly. 34. All the listeners urged the actor to recite another poem saying that they had never
heard poetry recited so well.

A. Convert into indirect speech.

On entering the old lady’s room he said, I hope I haven’t interrupted your work!”
— “Of course not. Sit down, please. Have a cup of tea?”
— “Thanks, I’ve had my tea.”
She said, “I haven’t seen you for ages. How is your wife?”
— “She is all right now!” he answered. “Don’t you want to come and see our baby? My wife says she is a
darling.”
— “Don’t you think so?”
— “Of course, I do. But I think I’ll love her more when she grows up,” he added.— The old lady smiled,
“That’s a tender father!”
B. Find in an English text
four sentences with an object clause expressing 1) indirect statements; 2) in direct questions introduced by a)
the conjunction if or whether, b) a conjunctive pronoun or adverb; 3) Indirect commands or requests a) in the
affirmative form, b) in the negative form.

101. Match the sentences with appropriate reporting verbs from the list. Then write the reported
sentences.
admit, boast, forbid, inquire, invite, order, suggest, threaten
1. We'll close credit lines if you don't reduce carbon dioxide emission.
2. OK, you're right, some poisonous chemicals did escape into the atmosphere.
3. Why don't you drop in tonight?
4. Stand up immediately!
5. I'm the best student in this school!
6. You can't use your dictionaries during the test.
7 Shall we have a cup of tea?
8. Is the bus service running according to the timetable today?

102. Use the following verbs to report the two dialogues.

a) admit, advise, promise, warn
Tom: I don't think you should play the game today, John.
John: You're right. I'm still a little bit ill, but I promise I won't overdo it.
Tom: Be careful, if you run around too much in this weather you may get another attack of flu.
b) accuse, beg, complain, deny, explain, refuse
Daughter: Mum, please, will you buy me this CD? I've always wanted it.
Mother: Sarah, you know I can't afford it. Why do you always ask me to buy you expensive things?
Daughter: That's not true. You just never buy me things that I want only those that you like!

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