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New method to calculate power distribution losses in an environment of high

unregistered loads

Conference Paper · May 1999

DOI: 10.1109/TDC.1999.756121 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 A New Method to Calculate Power Distribution Losses in an Environment of High
Unregistered Loads
Mentor Poveda, Member IEEE
Power Consultant
Abstract: The paper presents a new method to break down,
by subsystem and cause, power distribution losses in eltxXri-
cal systems where the share of nontechnical losses is impor-
tant. In this type of system the traditional method has given
rise to inaccuracies due to high unregistered load. The new
method is based on the nature of the losses: resistive losses
obtained from the squared ratio between hourly demand and
maximum demand, in each subsystem; transformer core loss-
es not related to the demand variations at the substation and at
the primary dkribution feeders; and nontechnical losses with
a demand profile similar to that of the load since they involve
unregistered loads. The method uses load profiles registered
in today’s generalized electronics meters. The paper demon-
strates the differences in calculated losses obtained by the new
method compared to the use of the traditional loss factor.
Keywords: losses, power distribution.
I. INTRODUCTION
In various electric power utilities of Latin America, a high
percentage of the energy entering the system is aimed at cov-
ering losses, since it is not rare to have losses accounting for
between 20 and zs~. of supplied energy. Naturally, this per-
centage cannot correspond to technical losses, that is, losses
stemming from the operation of network components. Rather
most losses come from theft, irregularities in the metering
systems for billing purposes, and errors in billing information
processing. In other words, these losses involve an unregis-
tered load and are called nontechnical losses or black losses.
The determining presence of the latter component of losses
makes traditional loss calculation methods obtain estimates
that are far removed from the reality of the situation. Beeause
of this, the present paper is proposing a new methodology to
break down losses into their components in dkribution sys-
tems which is where the majority of these losses can be found.
Additionally, demonstration of the differences are provided.
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The competitive environment of today’s electric power
industry requires a better knowledge of costs; the method pre-
sented herein enables a better estimate of losses. Since losses
involve an operating cost for transmission and distribution
systems [1], it is necessary to calculate them more realistical-
ly and accurately.
II. BASES OF ESTIMATES
If energy measured in the substation at the beginning of
the primary feeder is referred to as “supplied energy” (EJ
and, likewise, the sum of billed energy, energy for street light-
ing, and consumption of the power utility’s own facilities is
referred to as “registered energy” (EJ , then “total losses”
(E-I-J is the difference between “supplied energy” and ‘regist-
ered energy”. These losses include the set of technical loss-
es and nontechnical losses, whose dimension will be the ini-
tial information for differentiating losses in the feeder.
E,L =E~– ER (1)
The digital registers that are available at present provide
the demand profile in addition to the supplied energy at the
metering point. The demand profile appears as a matrix with
the following column-vectors: date (d), time (t), demand for
active power (Dp[kW]), and demand for reactive power
(DQ[kvar]). The demand interval can normally be selected at
the operator’s will, but the most commonly used interval is 15
minutes. The register matrix is shown in (2). The register
period can be one complete year, with column vectors of
35,040 elements in all. Nevertheless, it is considered that a
minimum register of 672 data be used in one complete sample
week of each season of the year.
2/15/98 00:00 2,345 1,225
2./15/98 00:15 2,360 1,325 .
Register =
.... .... .... ....
[ 2/21/98 23:45 2,450 1,345 1“
=dt
[
DpDQ
1 (2)
The sum of the elements of vector DP multiplied by the
time of the demand interval used is the energy of the entire
calculated from the brands of meters actually existing in the
system.
&ntechnical losses. As mentioned above, nontechnical loss-
es correspond to the nonregistered load, that is, the load that,
for one reason or another, is not billed. From the viewpoint of
loss calculation, the demand profile of this loss component
should have a shape similar to the load demand profiles, that
is, it can be obtained through a constant ratio with the load
demand. The load demand profile is obtained by subtracting
all the components of the technical losses from the demand
profile registered at the beginning of the primary feeder.
III. ESTIMATE METHODOLOGY
Whh each one of the procedures described in the previous
section, the demand profiles of each component of the techni-
cal losses is obtained, that is, the value of demand by compo-
nent for each interval of the period being studied.
In each interval of the curve registered for supply in the
feeder, the demand of resistive losses in the feeder line and in
the distribution transformer winding, the demand of losses in
the core of the distribution transformers, and the losses in the
energy meters are subtracted from the value of demand at the
beginning of the primary feeder. Likewise, the loss demands
for the secondary networks and for the service drops are sub-
tracted taking into account that these values take as a base the
demand profile registered at the terminals of the secondaxy
voltage of the distribution transformers and typified for the
sample group of primary feeder secondaries.
Since all technical losses have ~en subtracted from the
demand register at the start of the feeder, the result obtained is
the demand profile for the real load. Nevertheless, this load
inclludes“registered load” and “nonregistered load”. The for-
mer corresponds to the definition made in the previous section
for “registered energy” whereas the latter is equivalent to non-
technical losses.
In the matrix obtained from the register at the start of the
primary feeder and defined in (2), you add the column vectors
correspondhg to each loss component and the column of
demand of the real load (DJ as presented in (8), which can be
handled on a spreadsheet to conduct all the calculations
implicit in the equations needed to obtain D~.
[
d t Dp DRL DCL D~L D~dL DmL
‘L] (8)
In order to close the estimate, it is necessary to recall that
the differentiation between nontechnical losses and “regis-
tered load” is made considering that both components have
the same nature and therefore have the same demand profile,
that is, the same load factor.
The energy corresponding to nontechnical losses (Em) is
perfectly defined after calculating the energy corresponding to
“technical losses” (Ew), which is obtained, as can be recalled,
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from the sum of the demands of each column vector multi-
plied by the demand interval time, that is, applying (2) to each
component. Em is obtained from (9).
‘Em =Es –ER –ErL
(9)
In addition, the load factor for the load demand profile
represented by the column vector DL is obtained from the cor-
responding energy and its peak demand. The load factor of
this curve is the same for the “registered load” as for the “non-
registered load”. That is, if the energy of nontechnical losses
and its load factor are known, then peak demand is defined.
With the description of the last step, the calculation of all
components of losses, both in demand and energy, is com-
plete.
lV. APPLICA~ON OF THE METHODOLOGY
In Latin America and the Caribbean, losses in electric
power systems are very high. In 1991, the World Bank and
the Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE) published
a detailed study of the situation of the electric power sector in
the region[3] and determined that the regional average power
losses in 1988 amounted to 17%, with some countries record-
ing losses of over 30%. Although this situation has now
improved in some countries of the region, in others the
panorama described in the above-mentioned study has
remained unchanged.
On the basis of the above, samples of some primary feed-
ers from various countries were taken in order to test the
methodology presented in tlis paper. The primaries that were
selected were not typical cases; they were actually chosen to
apply the method to various shapes of load curves and from
different consumption sectors in order to observe the differ-
ences that the method that was developed produces compared
to the equation normally used to estimate the loss factor.
Equation (10) reproduces the usual expression as presented by
[2] on page 38, to determine the loss factor (FN) in function
of the load factor (F~J.
FM = A(FD ) + (1 – A)(FD)2 (lo)
Where the constant A adopts values between 0.2 and 0.3 for
some load cycles.
On the other hand, the samples included correspond to
countries where there is virtually no seasonality in the load
because they are located at a geographical latitude where the
climate is the same throughout the year; because of this, it is
enough to analyze one characteristic week to extrapolate the
conclusions for yearly results.
In order to give an idea of the demand profile in each sam-
ple and at the same time present the demand profiles of the
loss components, three different ways were chosen to show
these profiles.
period considered in the register, as in (3). This will occur
only if dealing with demands, that is, integrated average
power in each interval, since these come from the integration
of instantaneous power capacities, that is, from the same ener-
gyv].
.kWlz = ~$1 Dpi x (demand - interval) (3)
The methodology being proposed is supported by the
nature of each loss component and in its ratio with respect to
demand in the corresponding register interval. As the losses
in the maximum demand interval are calculated with models
for load flows or through the modeling of the primary distri-
bution feeder; on the basis of this value, the magnitude of each
component is calculated for the rest of the demand intervals of
the entire period under consideration. That is, the demand
proiile of each loss component is calculated and then on the
basis of that estimate, by means of integration, the energy of
each component is calculated.
The technical losses in the distribution system of the elec-
tric power utility include resistive losses of the primary feed-
ers, the distribution transformer losses (resistive losses in the
windings and core losses), resistive losses in secondary net-
works, resistive losses in service drops, and the losses in kwh
meters.
&istive losses. The resistive losses are calculated on the
basis of the expression IZR. In each subsystem, the resistive
losses are calculated for the peak load demand by the usual
methods and on this basis resistive losses are obtained in a
given interval through the squared ratio between demand in
this interval and peak demand, as indicated below. The pro-
cedure that is described can be applied to all resistive losses,
that is, in transmission and dMribution system lines, for resis-
tive losses of substation and dMribution transformers, for the
secondary lines, and for service drop conductors.
In the case of resistive losses of the distribution transform-
ers, the same demand profile registered at the beginning of the
primary feeder is considered to be a good estimate.
The resistive loss demand (DW,) at any load demand (DH) is
calculat@ by (4).
2 ‘Pi 2 (4)
‘R.L_i = li R ‘(
&vcos@i ] R
The ratio between the peak loss and the loss at any load
demand will be calculated by (5).
‘Pmax )2 ~
D lW–max
.—‘max2R . ‘fiVcos@mm . (5)
Ii2R ‘Pi 2 demand instead of the maximum diversified demand.
‘RL–i
‘&vcos@i) R
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From this it can be deduced that the loss at demand i can be
calculated using equation (6).
COS @maX)2 DR~_maX
‘Pi (6)
‘RL-i =(
‘Pmax Cos‘i
Equation (6) is applied for each one of the load demands
and the demand profile of the resistive losses is obtained. The
procedure turns out to be correct because demand is a step
function in the interval; therefore, the ratio takes place during
the complete interval and yields as a result the loss demand,
which is another step function.
When you have demands of resistive losses, what is
expressed in (3) is obtained, that is, the sum of demands mul-
tiplied by the demand interval time is the energy of the resis-
tive loss in the register period.
~~ Since core losses (DCJ depend on
the magnetic flux density in the core, which in turn depends
on the voltage feeding the transformer, it can be considered
independent from demand variation, that is, it remains con-
stant during the period of analysis.
‘CL =N#f(D) (7)
Once the power of the loss in the core of the transformers
is calculated, one has the demand profile corresponding to that
loss, which will be completely flat during the entire register
period.
Secondarv network losses. By sampling the secondary net-
works of the feeder, it is possible to calculate resistive losses
in the group of secondaries (DsJ belonging to this primary.
Calculation of losses for the secondaries of the sampling is
made on the basis of the demand profile registered in the low-
voltage terminals of the distribution transformers which feed
them for at least one representative week of each season of the
year. Afterwards, a typical curve of each season is obtained
and the general procedure for resistive losses described above
is applied to it, taking as a basis the losses at peak demand
obtained from the modeling of the secondary networks of the
sample.
~ The service drops are grouped in the
most usual sizes and the most frequently used lengths are con-
sidered to define the power of the resistive losses at peak
demand of the corresponding client. On the basis of the power
of losses at peak demand, the general procedure to determine
losses in the service drops is used with the demand profile reg-
istered in the terminals of the nearest distribution transformer
to the corresponding load but considering individual peak
Meter losses. Energy meters have a 10SS(Dti) that is essen-
tially due to the excitation of the voltage coils, that is, it can
be considered that it does not depend on the load. It can be
a. 22.9 kVprimary feeder The results of the analysis of the 10SScomponents, as a per-
centage of energy supplied to the feeder, is summarized in
Thk refers to a feeder providing service to a light-industry Table 2.
zone. It has a peak demand of 8.79 MW and a supplied ener-
gy c)f 715.2 MWh. The load factor of the demand profile of
supply is 48.470. Demand profiles for the principal compo-
nents of losses are shown in Fig. 1.
46% I
45%

Theresults of the analysis of the loss components, as a per- 44”/0

centage of energy supplied to the feeder, is summarized in ~: 43”h

~ 42%
Table 1. ~ 41%
: 40%
39%
K

I
3e%
Table 1
37% !

LOSS COMPONENTS FOR 22.9 kV FEEDER $? gg$. x$ %?.: $$$

0 -@J @-J* mmo

Losses (Yo)
Non technical losses
Co~onent Demand Enerpy
Total 6.1 5.5
F Resistive Feeder lines and Fig. 2. Loss factor as a function of nontechnical losses
distr. transf windings 0.9 0.5

E
Distr. transf cores and 0.3 0.5 Table 2
nEt ers LOSS COMPONENTli FOR 13.2 kV FEEDER - No. 1
Secondaries and service 1.8 1.4 Losses (Yo)
drops
Co~onent Dermnd Ener~y
Nontechnical 3.1 3.0
Total 8.8 8.2
Resistive: Feeder lines and

13ykeeping technical losses unchanged, the loss factor cor-

responding to a share of nontechnical losses is calculated to be
between O%and 10% of supplied energy. The loss factor fluc-
tuates as presented in Fig. 2.

b. 13.2 kVprimary feeder No. 1 c. 13.2 kVprimary feeder No. 2

This is a feeder that serves a residential sector. It has a The 13.2 kV feeder selected as an example is serving a
pealc demand of 9.12 MW and a supplied energy of 872.1 commercial and residential load. It has a peak demand of 10.7
MWh. The load factor of demand profile of supply is 56.9?Z0. MW and a supplied energy of 1,238.8 MWh. The load factor
The composition of the main losses produces the demand pro- of the demand profile of supply is 70.170. The demand profile
file of Fig. 3.

300,0
1
250,0

200.0
~“
: 150,0
(’i
E
~ 100,0

50,0

0,0

the (h)

I — -- Core&meters —Nantechnlcal ---- Resist:FAer&transf I

Fig. 1. Demand profiles of the loss components

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 600 T

500

300

200

100

time (h)

❑ Core&meters W Nontechnical Q ReaiaCFeeder.Stransf

Fig. 3. Composition of the main losses for the 13.2 kV feeder No. 1

registered at the beginning of the feeder with the participation d. Loss factor and constant A variation
of the loss components appears in Fig. 5.
The results of the analysis of the loss components, as a In the above samples, the loss factor and A constant of
percentage of energy supplied to the feeder, is summarized in equation (10) adopt the values shown in Tables 4 and 5,
Table 3. respectively.
Table 1
Table 3 LOSS FACTOR
LOSS COMPONENTS FOR 13.2 kVFEEDER - No. 2
Nontechnical losses
Losses (Y.)
Feeder 0% 5% 10%
Component Demand Energy 22.9 kV 40.3% 44.5% 45.4%
Total 16.2 14.2 13.2 kV - No. 1 52.1% 53.1’%0 53.5%
Resistive: Feeder lines and 13.2 kV - No. 2 58.3% 61.3% 62.9%
distr. transf windings 7.3 5.6
Distr. transf cores and inters 1.4 1.9 Table 5
Secondaries and service 2.4 1.7 A CONSTANT
drops Nontechnical losses
Nontechnical 5.2 5.0 Feeder Ovo I 5’%. I 10’70
22.9 kV 0.561 0.619 0.632
13,2 kV - No. 1 I 0.584 I 0.594 0.599
13.2 kV - No. 2 0.489 0.515 0.528

12000,0

10000,0

8000,0

z
- 6000,0
2
E
~ 4000,0

time (h)

❑ Registered load ■ COre&melers R Nontechnical ❑ ResistFeeder&Oansf

Fig. 4. Loss components in the demand profile of the 13.2 kV feeder No. 2

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 V, CONCLUSIONS VI. REFERENCES

The method described in the present paper shows the inse- [1] H. Lee Willis, Power Distribution Planning:
curity that the loss factor estimate introduces in the determi- Reference Book, Marcel Dekker, U.S.A., 1997.
[2] Westinghouse, Distribution Systems: Electric Utility
nation of the energy corresponding to power loss calculated at
Engineering Reference Book, Westinghouse Electric
peak demand owing to the particular characteristics of total Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A., 1965.
loss components. [3] World Bank and Latin American Energy
Resistive losses, as a squared function of demand, empha- Organization, Evolution, Situation, and Prospects of
size load peaks. Constant losses in the core tend to flatten out the Electric Power Sector in the Countries of Latin
the loss curve. And the nontechnical losses, with a demand America and the Caribbean, World Bank and
proiile that is similar to the load curve, introduce another addi- OLADE, 1991 (ISBN 9978-70-012-9).
tional variation. It is clear that, depending on which compo-
Mentor E. Poveda (M’ 1981) was
nent is the most important, loss the demand profile will have
born in Quito, Ecuador, on June 26,
a different shape and, because of this, the loss factor should be 1945. He graduated as an electrical
different. engineer from the Ecuadorian
The estimate that is usually made by adopting a value for National Polytechnic School on 1972
the A constant of equation (10) produces erratic results con- and obtained hk Master of Science
firmed in Tables 4 and 5, and should be replaced by the esti- from Purdue University, USA. Part-
mate of energy of losses based on demand profiles registered time EE Professor at Ecuadorian
National Polytechnic School and
for tAe electric power system.
International Power Consultant with
Finally, knowledge of the demand profiles of each loss the Latin American Energy
component makes it possible to better understand individual Organization (OLADE) and World
participation in both demand and energy and grant due impor- Bank. HIS special fields of interest are power dhibution sys-
tance to each circumstance that is analyzed. tems and rotating machines simulation.

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