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CONTENTS
4.1 Relationship between Packaging and Product Physiology ........................................... 74
4.1.1 Gas Technology......................................................................................................... 75
4.1.1.1 Oxygen (O2).................................................................................................. 75
4.1.1.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ................................................................................ 76
4.1.1.3 Nitrogen (N2) ............................................................................................... 77
4.1.1.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) .............................................................................. 77
4.1.1.5 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) ................................................................................... 77
4.1.2 Fruit and Vegetable Physiology and Deterioration Processes ........................... 77
4.1.3 Resources for Information on Appropriate Target-Modified Atmospheres .... 80
4.1.4 Respiration Rate Quantification.............................................................................. 80
4.2 Polymer Engineering ........................................................................................................... 81
4.2.1 Polymers..................................................................................................................... 81
4.2.2 Films and Structures................................................................................................. 82
4.2.3 Perforations ................................................................................................................ 83
4.2.4 Gas Flushing .............................................................................................................. 84
4.3 Converting Technology....................................................................................................... 84
4.3.1 Packaging Format ..................................................................................................... 84
4.3.2 Flexible versus Rigid Packaging ............................................................................. 85
4.3.3 Packaging Equipment .............................................................................................. 87
4.3.4 Additives .................................................................................................................... 88
4.3.4.1 Antifog .......................................................................................................... 88
4.3.4.2 Slip and Antiblock....................................................................................... 89
4.3.4.3 Antimicrobial Films..................................................................................... 89
4.4 Applications.......................................................................................................................... 90
4.4.1 Microwave and Steam-In......................................................................................... 90
4.4.2 Varietal Blends and Novel Produce Combinations ............................................. 90
4.4.3 Ready Meals .............................................................................................................. 91
4.5 Future Research Directions ................................................................................................ 91
References...................................................................................................................................... 91
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is one of the key technologies associated with the
shelf life extension of fresh produce. This chapter will discuss the technology, materials,
and applications of MAP. Discussions will include the symbiotic relationship between the
Produce physiology
Converting/filling
Polymer engineering technology
Marketing
FIGURE 4.1
Overlapping Sciences Impacting Fresh
Produce MAP.
FIGURE 4.2
Effect of oxygen levels on fruit or vegetable respir-
ation rate. (Adapted from Zagory, D., Physiology and
microbiology of fresh produce in modified atmos-
phere packages. Society of Manufacturing Engineers 0
0 2 7 13 19
Symposium, Fundamentals of Modified Atmosphere
Packaging, December 4–5, Monterey, CA, 1996, 3.) Oxygen level
CO2 production (mL/kg h)
FIGURE 4.3
Effect of carbon dioxide levels on fruit or vegetable
respiration rate. (Adapted from Zagory, D., Physiology
and microbiology of fresh produce in modified atmos-
phere packages. Society of Manufacturing Engineers 0
0 4 10 16
Symposium, Fundamentals of Modified Atmosphere
Packaging, December 4–5, Monterey, CA, 1996, 3.) Carbon dioxide level
TABLE 4.1
Physiological Effects of Reduced O2 and Elevated CO2
on Fruits and Vegetables
General Effects of
Source: Kader, A.A., D. Zagory, and E.L. Kerbel. 1988. CRC Crit. Rev.
Food Sci. Nutr. 28(1):1–30.
Notes: , Decrease or inhibit; 0, no effects; þ, stimulate or increase.
where
OTR is the film O2 permeability (oxygen transmission rate) per mil
RR is the respiration rate (O2 consumption rate in mL=kg h)
t is the film thickness (mil)
W the product weight (kg)
A the film surface area (cm2)
O2 pkg is the desired O2 level in the package (kPa O2 target atmosphere)
OTR in this example is calculated on a per mil basis. Therefore, when a 2 mil thickness film is
used, the OTR on a per mil basis must double to achieve the equivalent package OTR.
In order to achieve the target modified atmosphere, the packaging films must be
permeable to gases. Specifically they must have the required gas transmission properties
to achieve the targeted OTR. The movement of gases across films depends on several
physical factors that are related through Fick’s law as follows:
A DCgas
Jgas ¼
R
where
Jgas is the total flux of gas (cm3=s)
A is the surface area of the film (cm2)
DCgas is the concentration gradient across the film
R is the resistance of the film to gas diffusion (s=cm)
The gas flow across a film increases with increasing surface area and with increasing concen-
tration gradient across the film. The gas flow across the film decreases with increasing film
resistance to gas diffusion. Gases diffuse through polymeric films at different rates. Carbon
dioxide diffuses between two to five times faster than oxygen. The ratio, within a polymer,
film or structure of CO2 transmission rate (CO2TR) to OTR is termed the beta value. Polymeric
films therefore have a beta value of 2–5:1, with an average of 3:1. The beta value of a modified
atmosphere package will have a direct bearing on the final modified atmosphere achieved
within the package. For example, in polymer films, it is possible to achieve a low, 2 kPa, O2
level in combination with a mid-level 7 kPa, CO2. The impact of the beta value is dependent on
the specific ideal modified atmosphere for each individual product.
that polymer. The design of a packaging structure entails matching the specific polymer
properties to the requirements of the MAP application. For the physiological portion of
fresh-cut modified atmosphere applications, a polymers gas transmission rate, specifically,
OTR, and CO2TR are key attributes. Table 4.2 lists many of the common polymers used in
produce MAP.
1
2
3
OTR = 1
t1 t2 t
+ + 3
OTR1 OTR2 OTR3
where
FIGURE 4.4 t is the thickness of the individual layer
Calculating the OTR. OTR is the oxygen transmission rate of the individual layer at 1 mil
4.2.3 Perforations
The increase in demand for higher respiring fresh produce, outside the traditional leafy
greens market, has necessitated a significant increase in MAP gas transmission rates.
A method for achieving high OTR packaging structures that is not limited by the upper
end of polymer gas transmission rates, and stiffness constraints is microperforation tech-
nology. This technology employs the science of placing microholes in the packaging
structure. With microperforation technology, the gas transmission rate of the modified
atmosphere package is governed by the configuration of holes and their individual geo-
metry and size. The hole size and configuration can vary with the specific perforation
method but all microperforations are not visible to the naked eye and range from 40 to
200 mm in diameter. It is essential to have a complete understanding of the package
geometry so that holes are not blocked or obstructed in any way. This is critical to
the success and control of gas transmissions. Microperforations also have transmission
rate limitations, however for microperforation technology the limitations are at the
lower end of the range. Typical OTR for microperforated packaging are from 250 cc=100
in2=mil=atm=day and above. Gas transmission rates of microperforated structures are
determined by the gas diffusion properties through the combined effect of the individual
microholes, their corresponding placement, and in certain cases the OTR of the perforated
structure. As the targeted OTR requirements are lower, the number of holes decreases.
Since microperforated structures cannot have less than one hole, the gas transmission rate
through a single hole dictates the lower transmission rate level. Modified atmosphere
microperforation packaging with only one hole can be problematic. With two or more
holes, there is less risk from hole blockage as well as there is more uniform gas flow
throughout the package. In order to avoid only one microperforated hole, alterations to the
other key OTR control parameters, such as product weight, or package dimension, should
be considered.
The diffusion rates of various gases through microperforations are very similar. In effect,
the diffusion rates of CO2 and O2 are virtually the same, a beta value of 1. Therefore for a
combination with automatic filling equipment. The result of these various converting
requirements is the development of a wide variety of packaging formats. There is no
right or wrong format. Rather it is important to choose the format with optimum suitability
based on all of the outlined requirements. Packaging formats can range from the very
basic monolayer preformed side weld bag to the very complex multilayer coextruded
reverse print lamination and thermoformed multilayer tray with peelable lidding struc-
ture. Table 4.3 lists some of the more common packaging formats. It is important to note
that this is not an all-inclusive list as there are many variations to these common formats,
which optimize specific desired properties to the specific produce packaged.
Filling tube
Forming shoulder
Guide pulley
Longitudinal
sealing jaw
Cutoff knife
Cross-sealing jaws
FIGURE 4.5
Examples of a vertical filing line.
Out feed
In feed
FIGURE 4.6
Examples of a horizontal filing line.
Lap Fin
seal seal
FIGURE 4.7
Examples of VFFS seal configurations.
used is a critical step in the package design since the seal type can impact polymer
selection, graphics, and material usage. The most significant difference between the two
types is that the fin seal configuration seals only the inside of the package whereas the lap
seals the inside to the outside of the package. Therefore when a lap seal configuration is
used the polymers on both the inside and outside of the package must be sealable.
4.3.4 Additives
Additive technology can have a very significant impact on MAP design. There are a
number of different additives that are frequently incorporated into MAP applications.
Each has its own distinctive purpose and function. These can include slip and antiblock,
antifog, UV inhibitors, antimicrobials, pigments, as well as absorbents.
4.3.4.1 Antifog
As Gorny and Brandenburg (2003) discuss antifog technology is often incorporated into
produce packaging to prevent water condensation on the inside of the package, which
would obscure a potential purchaser’s view of the product. The functionality of antifog
technologies is accomplished by coating the interior surface of the flexible packaging
material with compounds that reduce water surface tension or reduce the ability of the
water to adhere to the packaging material and thus cause the condensed water to run off
the interior surface of the package. There are two categories of antifog technology: applied
coatings and sealant layer incorporation with each yielding distinct advantages and
disadvantages. Applied coatings are applied to the sealing surface of the finished package
4.4 Applications
As the fresh produce market has matured beyond the initial category of leafy green
packaging, the technology of MAP has responded. New and novel types of vegetables,
fruit, unique combinations of different types of fresh produce, ready meals, microwave,
and steam-in microwave applications are all examples of new applications and markets. As
with all new developments, each new application challenges the science and technology of
MAP and adds its own demands and requirements.
21CFR § 177.1350
21CFR § 177.1390
21CFR § 177.1395
21CFR § 177.1520
References
Brody, A.L. and K.S. Marsh (Eds.), 1997. The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, 2nd ed.
Wiley, New York.
Brown, W. 1922. On the germination and growth of fungi at various temperatures and in various
concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Ann. Bot. 36:257–283.
Burg, S.P. 2004. Postharvest Physiology and Hypobaric Storage of Fresh Produce. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK.