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(Only the specialized tissues in the lungs can function in respiration. Most of it isn’t
specialized. Just the tips.)
have to be able to exchange air from your lungs and the atmosphere.
I. Background
A. Function
B. Processes
1. Pulmonary ventilation
2. External respiration
a. Gas exchange between blood and chambers of lungs (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) (from the air)
a. Gases must be transported between lungs and tissue cells of the body
4. Internal respiration
a. Gas exchanges between blood and tissue cells (from the body)
1. Nose
2. Nasal cavity
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Trachea
6. Bronchi
7. Lungs
a. Alveoli
B. Respiratory zone
a. Respiratory bronchioles
b. Alveolar ducts
c. Alveoli
C. Conducting zone
1. Functions
c. Filters air
3. Nasal cavity
4. Vestibule
b. Glands
c. Hair follicles
b. Respiratory mucous
6. Respiratory mucous
i. Antibacterial enzyme
7. Paranasal sinuses
B. Pharynx
3. Three regions
a. Nasopharynx
b. Oropharynx –
c. Laryngopharynx-
4. Nasopharynx
b. During swallowing uvula closes off nasopharynx to prevent from entering the
nasal cavity
d. Lymphatic tissue
5. Oropharynx
a. Continuous with the oral cavity
i. Fauces
c. Lymphatic tissue
i. Palatine tonsil
6. Laryngopharynx
c. Posterior to epiglottis
d. Extend to larynx
C. Larynx
1. Functions
a. Provide an open airway
c. Voice production
2. Anatomy
iv. Epiglottis
3. Epiglottis
4. Glottis
a. Laryngeal opening
3. Structure
ii. Submucosa
iii. Adventia
b. Mucosa
c. Submucosa
E. Bronchial tree
a. Three on right
b. Two on left
6. Terms
a. Bronchiole
i. Smallest bronchiole
ii. Less than 0.5 mm (respiration only occurs when the bronchioles are
microscopic…terminal bronchioles, alveoli…)
c. Respiratory tree
i. Absent in bronchioles
i. Pseudostratified columnar
ii. Columnar
iii. Cuboidal
1. Components
b. Alveolar ducts
i. Smooth muscle
iii. Alveoli
c. Alveolar sacs
i. Groups of alveoli
d. Alveoli
e. Features of alveoli
c. Basal lamina
g. Type II
1. Lungs
a. Paired organs (3 lobes on right, 2 lobes on left- to make room for the heart)
b. Occupies the entire thoracic cavity except the mediastinum, great vessels,
esophagus, and a limited number of other organs (e.g., thymus)
a. Root
b. Apex
i. Superior tips
c. Base
d. Hilus
i. Indentation through which blood vessels enter and leave
a. Right is larger
a. Bronchopulmonary segments
iv. Each segment is serviced by its own artery and vein and receives
from an unique bronchus
b. Lobule
5. Blood supply
a. Two circulations
b. Pulmonary delivers oxygen poor blood from heart and returns oxygen rich
blood to heart (see pulmonary circulation in Circulatory System Lecture)
c. Bronchial arteries provide systemic blood to lung tissue
b. Layers
i. Parietal pleura
i. Lines thoracic wall (chest wall) and superior diaphragm (when we want
to breathe, we change the dimensions of our ribcage. we move the ribs which move the
parietal membrane which moves the visceral membrane which moves the lungs)
ii. Surface tension prevents separation from wall of thorax (like a drop of
water between two plates of glass)
A. Background
a. Inspiration
b. Expiration
B. Respiratory pressures
1. Described relative to atmospheric pressure
2. Atmospheric pressure
5. Transpulmonary pressure
C. Pulmonary ventilation
1. Volume changes lead to pressure changes
a. V1P1 = V2P2
2. Inspiration(inhalation)—active process
b. Inspiratory muscles
i. Diaphragm
3. Quiet inhalation
a. Diaphragm constricts
b. External intercostals lift the rib cage and pull the sternum forward
6. Forced expiration
b. Other muscles may also depress rib cage and decrease thoracic volume
1. Airway resistance
a. Friction
e. Pathological constriction—asthma
a. Surface tension
iii. Liquid molecules are drawn tightly together to reduce contact with
dissimilar gas molecules
3. Lung compliance
c. Factors
E. Respiratory volumes
a. Tidal
b. Inspiratory reserve
c. Expiratory reserve
d. Residual volumes
i. 500 ml is normal
i. 2100 – 3200 ml
i. 1000 – 1200 ml
i. 1200 ml
F. Respiratory capacities
1. Types
a. Inspiratory capacity
c. Vital capacity
2. Inspiratory capacity
a. Total amount of air that flows into or out of the respiratory tract in 1 minute
2. Henry’s law
a. Each gas in a mixture will dissolve into (and from) a liquid in proportion to its
partial pressure
a. Difference reflects
iii. Mixing of atmospheric air and alveolar gases with each breathe
c. Functional aspects
3. Partial pressure gradients and gas solubility
What is important: we are taking in air from the atmosphere that is high in oxygen
and low in carbon dioxide and it is mixing with the air in our lungs. When we
exhale, it is a mixture of those two gases. (Don’t worry about the actual numbers).
Oxygen rich (from highest to lowest): atmosphere, exhaled, lung, tissues (lowest)
a. Oxygen has a steep partial pressure gradient
5. Surface area
i. 140 m2
6. Ventilation-perfusion coupling
a. For gas exchange to be efficient, perfusion of pulmonary capillaries must match
alveolar conditions
i. Bronchioles dilate
i. Bronchioles constrict
ii. Terminal arterioles dilate
D. Internal respiration
i. PCO2 in blood is 40 mm HG
1. Bound to hemoglobin
2. Dissolved in plasma
2. Terms
b. Addition of next two oxygen molecules further enhances the addition of the
fourth oxygen to hemoglobin
C. Factors affecting the rate at which hemoglobin reversibly binds or releases oxygen
a. PO2
b. Temperature
c. Blood pH
d. PCO2
e. [BPG]
ii. Permits adequate delivery of oxygen even when PO2 is lower (e.g., high
altitudes)
f. Unloading occurs on the steep part of the curve (i.e., below 40 mm Hg)
g. Large amount s of oxygen remain in reserve at any given point in the venous
reserve
ii. Shifts dissociation curve to the right (i.e., oxygen more readily
dissociated at higher temperature)
4. Bohr effect
1. Vasodilator
i. Offsets effect of NO
a. Anemic hypoxia
i. Metabolic poisons
i. CO poisoning is an example
1. Dissolved in plasma
a. Minimum amount
i. 7 – 10%
a. Carbaminohemoglobin
i. 60 – 70%
b. CO2 can diffuse into RBC where it is enzymatically converted to carbonic acid
(H2CO3)
i. Carbonic anhydrase
ii. Rapid
iii. Unstable
4. Haldane effect—when PO2 and hemoglobin saturation is low, greater amounts of CO2
can be carried
1. Two areas
2. DRG
i. Inspiratory phase: 2 s
(in exercise, carbon dioxide goes up, so H+ ions go up so PH goes down making it acidic,
so the medulla sends a signal sooner…instead of every 5 seconds, every…4 seconds)
3. VRG
c. Forced expiration
1. Pneumotaxic center
a. Inhibition of medulla
1. Depth is determined by how many respiratory muscle motor neurons are activated the
respiratory center
2. Rate is determined by how quickly the inspiratory center is turned on and off
3. Stretch and irritant receptors generally inhibit the respiratory centers in the medulla
a. Vagus nerve
i. Promotes expiration
i. Activates sympathetic NS
ii. Modulates depth and rate of breathing
b. Cortical controls
ii. Ultimately when CO2 levels become too high, medullar respiratory
center reactivate breathing
5. Chemical factors
a. Central chemoreceptors
i. Medulla
b. Peripheral chemoreceptors
i. 40 ± 3 mm Hg
c. CO2 leaves blood and enters CSF where it is converted to carbonic acid and
hydrogen ions
ii. pH drops—hypercapnia
3. Influence of PO2
4. Changes in pH