Schlumberger - WEC - Well Evaluation Conference (Eng) PDF

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W E L L E VA L U AT I O N
CONFERENCE
Contents
Foreword
Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Venezuela
Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Appendix
Units and abbreviations, Index
CARACAS, DECEMBER 1997


W ell Evaluation Conferences have been held regularly in the major oil-producing countries of the world for 25 years.
The last one to be held in Venezuela was in 1980, during the rapid accumulation of reserves following nationalization,
and soon after the introduction of computerized service units at the wellsite. Since 1980 many things have changed, both in the
needs of the oil industry and the techniques available to meet those needs. Once again in Venezuela, we are at the beginning of
a new era in exploration and production, and in the application of new value-adding technologies.
The goal of this new book is to show how technology has solved some of the exploration and development problems which
are particularly relevant to Venezuela. Our theme is “Optimizing well production and reservoir understanding from well data.”
The range of topics is wider than before and reflects the current focus on the integration of different services, both in application
and organization.
Within this theme we present examples of well planning and efficiency, evaluating new wells and the reservoirs around them,
and evaluating old wells and increasing their production. Many techniques are considered in terms of their efficiency, quality of
information, and economics. We have included a concise description of the geology of Venezuela and an overview of the typical
Venezuelan hydrocarbon reservoirs.
This information has been produced in three formats—a Spanish-language book, an English-language book, and on CD-ROM
in both languages. Essentially all the examples are from Venezuela, for which we must thank PDVSA, its affiliates, and the other
companies who gave permission to publish their data. We also thank the authors and contributors for their time and efforts.
We dedicate this book to the many professionals who have contributed to the successful exploitation of hydrocarbons in
Venezuela, and to the many others now arriving to pursue the challenge.
J. Yearwood A. Nicoletti
Vice-President and General Manager, Vice-President GeoQuest
Latin America and the Caribbean, Dowell Latin America
A. Campo
Vice-President and General Manager
South America, Mexico and the Caribbean,
Wireline & Testing
J. Qualtrough C. Paolini
Manager, Latin America Vice-President, Latin America,
Anadrill Integrated Project Management
Schlumberger Oilfield Services

The preparation of this book

has been coordinated by:
J.M.Singer
with the assistance of:

P.Laurent and J-C. Bernys
and the authors and contributors
mentioned in each chapter,
and the support of:

R.Gutierrez (PDVSA), O.Suárez (Maraven),
D.Flores (Corpoven), L.Escandón (Lagoven),
L.Escoffery, J-L.Roche, D.Gawick, J.Cuesta
and C.Torres.


Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
General geology
The history of oil exploration
in Venezuela
Petroleum basins
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.0
100,000 m 200,000 m 300,000 m 400,000 m 500,000 m 600,000 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000
– 1,300,000 m La Vela
offshore
Gulf of Venezuela La Vela

Cumarebo
Caribbean Sea
Coro
El Mamón
1.43
Fig
er Tiguale
v
– 1,200,000 m
Ri
W.Mara Las Palmas FALCON

re
Mara
Sibucara er
sa
Hombre Pintado
v
Gu a
Ri
Media
La Paz Maracaibo Tocu y o
La Mene de Maurda
Concepción Ambrosio
Cabimas San Felipe D.F. Caracas
Boscán
Tía Juana LARA Maracay
Lagunillas Valencia r
e
YARACUY Riv
CARABOBO
y
Los Teques Tu
Bachaquero MIRANDA
– 1,100,000 m Urdaneta
Mene Grande ARAGUA
Alturitas Lama Barquisimeto
Lago Ceuta San Juan Yucal - Placer
Lamar de los Morros
centro Tomoraro
ZULIA Trujillo
San Carlos Jobal
Motatán Roblecito Valle
COJEDES Tucupido
El Rosario er Lake Punzón
Río de Oro R iv Maracaibo TRUJILLO
o
b Dakoa Copa Macoya

Ca
tat u
m 48
– 1,000,000 m 1. Guavinita Saban
PORTUGUESA ig
Las Mercedes Ruiz Ipire
Guanare F
fig
Palacio Belén
Los Manueles Bella Vista
1.
36
Fig
Las Cruces
fig
1.45
Tarra
1.
48
40
Mérida Barinas 1.
Fig
Silván MACHETE
MERIDA at
– 900,000 m GUARICO
Silvestre
aR
1.48
Sinco
BARINAS
i
v
r Apure River
ve
er
Ri G uá
e
Fig
TACHIRA ur rico R ive
A r
p
San Fernando
San Cristóbal de Apure
La Alquitrana
APURE
– 800,000 m
La Victoria
Ri Arauca R i ver
Guafita auca ver
Ar
BOLIVAR
Legend
Oil field State Boundaries
– 700,000 m
Gas field Cross Section
Meta River
Condensate field State Capitol
Oil + Condensate field River
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 km
0 20 40 60 80 miles COLOMBIA
– 600,000 m
100,000 m 200,000 m 300,000 m 400,000 m 500,000 m 600,000 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000
Location map of oil fields in Venezuela.
1 1
00 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000 m 1,000,000 m 1,100,000 m 1,200,000 m 1,300,000 m 1,400,000 m
1,300,000 m –
Tobago
Caribbean Sea Dragón
Margarita Island Patao

Mejillones
La Asunción Río Caribe
N. ESPARTA 1,200,000 m –
Coche
Cubagua
SUCRE Trinidad
D.F.
Fig
Jua Gulf of Paria
Caracas Cumaná San
n
R
Maracay
1.5
iv
r er
5
e
Riv Posa
BO
y
Los Teques Tu MONAGAS

MIRANDA Barcelona Quiriquire 1,100,000 m –
Pe
ARAGUA Manresa
Quiamare
de
Orocual
Loran
rn
Jusepín
al
es
San Juan Yucal - Placer Maturin Tajali
ANZOATEGUI Pirital
de los Morros La Ceiba El Furrial
Carito ive r
Tacat
R
a ip a
Jobal Greater Anaco Greater Oficina Santa BárbaraG u n
Roblecito Valle re iv
Tig R e
r
Tucupido area area
Punzón
Greater Temblador
48 Dakoa Copa Macoya
area Temblador DELTA
1. Guavinita Saban Un 1,000,000 m –
Las Mercedes ar Bombal
Ruiz e
Fig Ipire Riv Jobo Uracoa Tucupita
Palacio Belén e r
Bella Vista Pilón
Barso Morichal
Fig
Bitor Area
Cerro
1.45
Negro
48
1. ORINOCO BELT
Fig River
MACHETE Fig 1.50 HAMACA co
Fig
o
1.50 Ori n
Z
ua
t PAO 900,000 m –
GUARICO er AMACURO
aR
1.48
Ciudad Ri
i
v
Apure River
Caroni
er
ZUATA er Bolívar
G uá
Aro iv
Fig
rico R ive
R
r Reclamation
BOLIVAR
Zone
San Fernando
de Apure
Greater Anaco area Santa Rosa Greater Oficina area
La Florida
El Roble
C Casca Carisito Onado
u Maulpa
a
aR
r
ver Aguasay Casma

i
San Joaquín
BOLIVAR Cantaura Acema Acema - Casma
San Roque Mata
Santa Ana Mapiri
El Toco
Kaki Naroo Oscurote
Boca Nipa Oritupano
Guere
Guara Leona
Chimire
Budare Elotes Oficina Dación Lobo Adas

Trico
Oveja Melones
00 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000 m
1 2
Figure 1.1 the chapter, and also a time chart with the
main geological ages indicated and a
Guajira Aruba
72˚
Peninsula
68˚ 64˚ 60˚ geopolitical map with all Venezuelan cities
Paraguaná Bonaire N
Peninsula Caribbean Sea Grenada
and places cited in the text (Fig. 1.0). Also,
Gulf
of Coro
Venezuela
11˚ nge
La Tortuga Porlamar
Paria
Tobago 11˚ we include a section called the “History of
bia
Maracaibo uis Ra ange La Costa Range CumanáAraya C. de La Costa
e
L R
Sanaragu
a Trinidad Oil Exploration in Venezuela” for those who
ng
lom
Caracas Barcelona Cariaco Carúpano
Valencia
Ra
B Los Teques
Lake Barquisimeto Interior Range may be interested in the history and growth
rijá
Co
A ce
Maracaibo es Interior Range Maturín
ipa
(Central Branch) (Eastern Branch) uan
Pe
tla a
d Trujillo R. G igre
An
O
T
of Venezuela’s most important industry. At
nt n
n Guanare Rio Tucupita
ela
Ri
ic
o
zu
Ri
Po
o G sa
ne Mérida Barinas
rtu
e Ciudad Bolívar the end of the chapter, a list of references
gu
ua
V
ric
Rio co
o
Apu rino
re San Rio O
7˚
S. Cristóbal
Fernando 7˚
consulted for the compilation of figures and
Rio Arauca
text is provided. We also include references
250 to > 5000 m
Reclamation Zone
Guyana
Rio Meta
an
a to other papers and books that should be
Mountain Puerto
u ay if
Belts Ayacucho G as s useful to those who wish to study the
M
Foothill
geology of Venezuelan petroleum basins in
100- 250 m Regions
Sea
Level
0-100 m Plains and
Coastal Plains
more detail.
3˚ 3˚
Colombia Brazil
Physiographic provinces
0 100 200 km There are five main physiographic
50 150 Brazil
72˚ 68˚ 64˚ 60˚ provinces in Venezuela (Fig. 1.1):
1. Mountain ranges
The Venezuelan physio- a.Venezuelan Andes system
Introduction
graphic provinces are: b. Caribbean mountain system (Perijá
The purpose of this chapter on the
1) The mountain belts: Range, San Luis and Baragua Ranges, La
Petroleum Geology and Basins of Venezuela
Venezuelan Andes and the Costa Mountain Range)
is to give the reader a general overview of
Caribbean Mountain System 2. Foothill regions
the geology of the country. Our knowledge
(Perijá, San Luis; Baragua 3. Coastal plains
has been greatly enhanced by the oil
and La Costa Range); 2) the 4. Mainland plains
industry and mining activities that have been
foothills; 3) the coastal plains; 5. Guayana Province.
ongoing for almost a century. Without
4) the plains between the Rocks of a wide age range (Precambrian
entering into a detailed analysis of the
Orinoco River and the moun- through Neogene) are found in the
numerous and unsolved problems with the
tain belts; 5) and the mountain ranges of La Costa and the Andes.
geology, we have integrated the information
Guayana Province or Massif Their formation history is closely associated
presented in many papers and books written
(after NB-18-ll map; MMH, with the evolution of the northern margin of
on Venezuelan geology. We have tried to
1976). the South American plate from the Eocene to
attribute the original contributions of all
the present. The foothill regions (9430 km2)
authors, and have also presented summa-
are covered by Neogene molassic sediments
tions based upon our own experience. We
whose main physiographic features are
have avoided specialized and detailed points
terraces formed during glaciation/deglacia-
of view concerning stratigraphy, sedi-
tion processes.
mentology and geotectonic evolution,
instead choosing to simplify the geology
because of our diverse readership and
limited writing space. For non-specialized
readers, we include a Glossary at the end of
1 3
GENERAL GEOLOGY PRECAMBRIAN
Figure 1.2 Precambrian terranes

The Venezuelan Precambrian terranes
N 78˚
Cenozoic Orogenic
Caribbean Sea
62˚
outcrop in the main mountain ranges of the
Belt
0 300 km Caribbean Frontal country and in the Guayana Province.
Thrust
us Santa Because of the tectonic history of the north-
hm Marta
Ist Upper Caracas
am
a
Paleozoic Valencia Trinidad
ern South American plate, both allochtho-
n o
Pa Orogenic pin n
Belt Lower Paleozoic Es rabe nous and autochthonous Precambrian rocks
Mérida Orogenic G
8˚
San Belt Ciudad
Bolívar
are found. Figure 1.2 shows the distribution
Cristóbal Apure Fault
Pacific Ocean
ult of these terranes; those located north of the

Fa
Reclamation
Venezuela Imataca Pastora
ira Province Province
tam Orinoco River were overridden by Paleozoic-
Zone
Al
ge
ange
Paleozoic and Cenozoic Cuchivero

rn Ran
Bogotá Basins as a Precambrian Province Roraima age crustal fragments that were accreted, or
ern R
Basement Guayana Shield Province

Cuchivero
added, to the South American plate.
Weste
Province
East
4˚
Colombia Brazil The autochthonous terranes are located
in the Guayana Province, and also form part
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt Imataca Province
of the basement of the Paleozoic to Cenozoic
Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Pastora Province sedimentary basins south of the Apure Fault.
Early Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Cuchivero Province There are four provinces of Precambrian
Paleozoic and Cenozoic Basins
rocks in the Guayana Province: Imataca,
Roraima Province
of the Precambrian Basement Pastora, Cuchivero and Roraima (Fig. 1.2).
Eastern Basin of the Precambrian Basement, Boundaries of the
Imataca Province Possible Extension Cordilleran Systems It has not been possible to discriminate
Overthrusting different provinces (with respect to age) in
Northern South America´s the basement of the oil basins to the north of
distribution of allochthonous The coastal plains (117,220 km2) are Guayana Province; this is because there are
terranes in which concentrated in four broad regions: 1) north few wells that have reached the basement in
Precambrian rocks are of Falcón State (Fig.1.0), 2) Barcelona these basins and the available descriptive
present. These terranes coastline (Anzoátegui State), 3) Orinoco information is scarce.
were sequentially sutured to River delta (Delta Amacuro State), and 4) The accretion of allochthonous terranes
the South American north of Sucre State. The mainland plains on the South America plate began during the
continent during the (260,000 km2), with an extensive drainage Early Paleozoic (Caledonian Orogeny: 570 to
Ordovician-Silurian and later network, encompass the land between the 385 Ma); part of these rocks outcrop near
during Late Mesozoic northern mountain ranges and the Guayana Mérida and San Cristóbal in western
through Recent. Province; they are the result of the Venezuela. Later, during the Hercinian
sedimentary filling of the Eastern and Orogeny (385 to 245 Ma), occurred the
Barinas-Apure Basins. suturation, or welding of the allochthonous
In the south is the Guayana Province blocks. These included Precambrian rocks,
(also called “Guayana Massif,” “Guayana among which only the granitic rocks of the
Shield,” or “Guayana Cratón” in the Sierra Nevada in the Santa Marta Massif
geological literature) with 425,000 km2 of (Colombia) have been dated (Fig. 1.2). The
Precambrian-age terranes, with some last collision began during the Cretaceous;
Pleistocene plains built by the Orinoco River this allochthon includes rocks of
and some of its tributaries. Precambrian age near the city of Caracas
(Federal District) and south of Valencia
(Carabobo State).
1 4
Figure 1.3 Distribution

Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of
78˚ 62˚
N
allochthonous terranes that were welded to
0 100 200 300 km Caribbean Sea the Lower Paleozoic autochthons during
Cenozoic
Orogenic Belt Caribbean Ordovician–Silurian time. Those rocks
Frontal Thrust
Panamá Santa accreted during the Lower Paleozoic are
Isthmus Upper Marta
Paleozoic Caracas now considered part of the basement from
Orogenic no
El Baúl pi en lt the point of view of later Caribbean tectonic
Belt Es rab Fau
Early Paleozoic G a
8˚ ir 8˚
Orogenic Belt
ta
m history. They include that part of the
Al
Pacific Ocean
Caparo
ult Venezuela
re Fa orogenic belt north of the Apure Fault, the
Apu
nge
Lower Reclamation actual Andes and Maracaibo Basin.

nge
rn Ra
Paleozoic Zone
Bogotá
In the Andes, rocks of the Lower
a
Basin
rn R
Weste
Colombia Guayana Shield Paleozoic allochthonous terranes include

e
East
4˚ 4˚
78˚ 62˚
Brazil granitic and shelf/slope sedimentary rocks
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt Lower Paleozoic Basin (Ordovician–Silurian). Ordovician metase-
Upper Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Guayana Shield dimentary rocks are found in the subsurface
Lower Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Boundaries of the basement of the Maracaibo Basin and in the
Cordilleran Systems
Overthrusting
Andes. Devonian-age allochthonous terranes,
Northern South America´s welded to South America during the Late
distribution of allochthonous Paleozoic terranes Paleozoic, outcrop in the Perijá Mountains.
terranes in which Paleozoic The rocks of Paleozoic age in Venezuela Part of the accretionary history of the
rocks are present. These are found in several regions, geologically Upper Paleozoic onto the Lower Paleozoic
terranes were sequentially grouped as allochthonous or autochthonous includes granitic rocks, formed as a result of
sutured during the terranes of South America. The auto- subduction below the northern border of
Ordovician and Silurian, then chthonous terranes are found in the South America. These include rocks of the El
during the Carboniferous and subsurface of the Barinas-Apure and Eastern Baúl region (Permian age) and those found
finally during Late Mesozoic Basins (Fig. 1.21), south of the Apure Fault in the subsurface of Eastern, Barinas-Apure
through Recent. (Fig. 1.3). These rocks are typical “red beds” and Maracaibo Basins (Carboniferous age).
from Gondwana (South America and Africa The accreted belt included sedimentary
before its rupture) and Laurentia (North sequences of Carboniferous and Permian
America and Greenland before its rupture); ages; these rocks now outcrop in the Perijá
they are preserved only in the deep and Andes Mountains.
structural depressions of these Venezuelan The last of these allochthonous terranes
basins. The allochthonous terranes are is the Caribbean Mountain System that
distinguished by the age in which they were extends from Guajira Peninsula (Western
tectonically accreted to the north of the North Venezuela) to Paria Peninsula (Eastern
South American plate; there are those North Venezuela), including the subsurface
accreted during the Early Paleozoic, others basement of the Gulf of Venezuela and the
during the Late Paleozoic and the latest La Costa Mountain Range. In this terrane
during the Mesozoic. Paleozoic rocks of Devonian to Permian
ages are found.
1 5
GENERAL GEOLOGY PA L E O Z O I C A N D M E S O Z O I C
Figure 1.4 In Venezuela, the Pangean continent

(the supercontinent comprising America,
Age Perijá and Guajira Andes Guárico and Cojedes La Costa Range Europe and Africa) rifting produced several
Seco Cojoro/COCINAS main structural features that later influenced
La Quinta
Conglomerates
El Totumo Pueblo Nuevo the evolution of the Venezuelan sedimentary
Jurassic Macoita La Quinta Las Brisas (Zenda)
Ipire
Macuro basins. Inside continental Venezuela, the
La Gé
Tinacoa Volcanics Proto-Caribe opening induced the
? ?
development of northeast-oriented exten-
Guacamayas
? sion valleys or grabens (Fig. 1.5). Among
Triassic
these valleys are the Apure-Mantecal,
Espino, Andes-Perijá and Maracaibo grabens.
Correlation chart of the most It has been postulated that the Jurassic rocks
important Triassic-Jurassic Mesozoic terranes in the deepest parts of the Interior Mountain
units in Venezuela. Range of Eastern Venezuela were involved
Triassic-Jurassic
in this deformation, as deduced by the trend
The Triassic is not present in Venezuela
of the main grabens, such as Apure-Mantecal
or, at least, no evidence of its presence has
and Espino. However, this theory has not yet
been found and documented. The oldest
been proven.
part of the Jurassic system (208 to 181 Ma) is
All these grabens were filled during
represented by Volcánicas de la Ge (Perijá)
the Jurassic by red bed (continental)
and Volcánicas de Guacamayas (El Baúl),
sediments, diverse volcanics, and occasional
which predated the red bed sedimentation
shallow-marine clastics and limestones.
of the La Quinta Formation and the whole
Their preserved sequences outcrop in many
expansion process related to the Gulf of
places: the Guajira and Paraguaná Peninsulas
Mexico or Proto-Caribe opening. They are
(Cojoro and Cocinas Groups; Pueblo Nuevo
the lateral equivalents of the Volcánicas de
Formation), and the widespread La Quinta
El Totumo (Perijá) (Fig. 1.4),
Formation of Western Venezuela. They also
occur in the subsurface of Eastern Venezuela
Figure 1.5 Basin (Ipire Formation).
73˚ Guajira 63˚ N

12˚ Paraguaná Caribbean Sea 12˚
Coro
1 Maracaibo Trinidad
El Pilar Fault
3
Ur
Caracas ica 4
á
2 3 Fa
rij
Espino ul
Pe
t Maturín
Graben
Andes
3
8˚ 8˚
Santander
Massif Apure-Mantecal
Graben 0 100 200 300 km
73˚
Colombia 63˚
Distribution of Jurassic rocks: 1) in Perijá Range; 2) as part of the economic

basement of Maracaibo Basin; 3) in the Andes; 4) in Barinas-Apure and Eastern
Venezuela Basins (Apure-Mantecal and Espino Graben). It is believed that they are
involved in deep thrusting within Eastern Venezuela´s Interior Range (after Bartok,
1993; Passalacqua et. al., 1995; and Lugo and Mann, 1995).
1 6
Figure 1.6 Cretaceous

Early Cretaceous. The major sedi-
N mentary facies distribution and stratigraphy
(?)
S of Early Cretaceous rocks (146 to 95 Ma) are
Chimana U
C shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7.
El Cantil
COGOLLO R
E
In Western Venezuela, the sedimentation
Barranquín
Peñas Altas was initially controlled by the Jurassic graben-
Machiques TEMBLADOR
fault systems. This is evidenced by the
Through
Aguardiente
Canoa variable thicknesses of Rio Negro Formation
Río Negro clastics, which range from more than 2 km
rou te
gh
Th riban
Guayana near the south of Machiques Trough, to only

U
Shield a few meters thick in some places of the

0 200 km
North-Andean flank. Later the subsidence
Exposed Igneous and Metamorphic Shelf Environment stabilised and there was an extensive
Basement (Guayana Shield). Carbonates transgression of an open sea over the Western
Continental-Fluvial Environment Hemipelagic/Pelagic
Sandy Clastics Limestones and Shales Venezuelan shelf causing the carbonate
Coastal and Transitional Environment Sediment Supply sedimentation of the Cogollo Group. The
Sandy-Shale Clastics Direction
lateral clastic equivalent of these carbonates
Distribution of dominant sedimentary facies during the Neocomian-Albian (Early in the Cratón or Guayana Province margins is
Cretaceous) north of the Guayana Shield. Representative stratigraphical units of this the Aguardiente Formation. In Central Vene-
facies association are indicated. zuela, there are some remains of an older
Figure 1.7
Perijá and Eastern

Age Lake Maracaibo
Andes and Barinas-Apure Northern Guárico
Interior Range
La Grita (Capacho) Querecual(*)
(Cutacual, "Valle Grande")
Albian Maraca C Chimana S
Aguardiente ?
O "Punceres"
G (Exotic "Guácharo"
Lisure O Guáimaros Blocks) El Cantil U
?
Piché Apón L Tibú Apón "El Mapurite"
Aptian Machiques L García
Tibú O Río Negro Taguarumo C
"Basal Clastics"
Picuda
?
R
Barremian Barranquín
Río Negro
Morro Blanco
?
Macaira Limestone Venados E
? "Río Solo"
Neocomian ?
?
Carbonate Reservoir Sand / Seal Pairs Source Rock
Sand / Sandstone Reservoir Seal The Querecual Formation

(*) extends to the Late
Cretaceous
Correlation chart of the most important Early Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Informal units are within quotation marks.
See Yoris, 1985, 1988, 1992, on Sucre Group.
1 7
GENERAL GEOLOGY MESOZOIC
(also Early Cretaceous) carbonate shelf, The thickness of both El Cantil and Chimana
which is discontinuous along the Formations is several times the thickness of
deformation (mountain) front to the north of their lateral equivalent in Western Venezuela,
Guárico State (Macaira Limestone). the Cogollo Group.
Figure 1.8 Late Cretaceous. The distribution of

paleoenvironments and stratigraphic units
N
? during the Late Cretaceous is shown in Figs.
1.8 and 1.9. Figure 1.10 condenses the
correlation chart for these units for all of
Maracaibo
Socuy Caracas Venezuela.
La Luna Mucaria Barcelona
Navay GUAYUTA Maturín A diachronic and extensive marine
Capacho Infante
TEMBLADOR
invasion began at the end of the Albian,
án
Escandalosa
ac
moving from east to west and invading the

ay
Gu
south of Venezuela, which had been

emerged and undergoing erosion since Late
Guayana Shield
Jurassic and possibly Paleozoic times. This
0 200 km
marine invasion coincides with the
worldwide transgressive pulse of the Late
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement Shelf Carbonates
(Guayana Craton) Cretaceous, recorded in America and Europe
Continental-Fluvial
Bathyal (Pelagic) and Shelf Shaly through the sedimentation of organic-rich
Limestone, Chert and Siliceous
Sandy Clastics Mudstone limestones, shales and cherts; these rocks are
Coastal and Transitional Sandy Bathyal and Abyssal Hemipelagic/ recognized in Venezuela as the Querecual-
and Shaly Clastics Pelagic Shales and Limestones
San Antonio (Guayuta Group), Mucaria,
Navay and La Luna Formations. The
Dominant sedimentary facies
In Eastern Venezuela, the sedimentary maximum transgression and lack of oxygen
distribution during the
history resembles that of a passive “Atlantic” is believed to have occurred between the
Cenomanian-Campanian
type margin. These rocks belong to the Sucre Turonian and the Campanian (72 to 91 Ma).
(Late Cretaceous) at the
Group, which at the base are sandy clastics The La Luna, Navay and Querecual
northern edge of the
and some shelf limestones of the Barranquín Formations are the source rocks for the oil
Guayana Shield North. Typical
Formation (whose thickness is more uniform basins of Venezuela, and were deposited
units of these sets of facies
than its Western Venezuela equivalent). Later, during the late Albian to the Turonian (95 to
are indicated.
extensive and well defined carbonate-clastic 88 Ma). The La Luna Formation ranges
shelf sedimentation was developed (El Cantil between 50 and 300 m thick in Western
and Chimana Formations). The main Venezuela, while the Navay Formation is
difference with the Early Cretaceous of close to 600 m thick in the South-Andean
Western Venezuela is that in the Interior Flank and thickens to the northeast.
Range of Eastern Venezuela, the lower In Western Venezuela, the lateral facies
contact with older sequences is unknown variations of these source rocks consist of
and the thicknesses of the Early Cretaceous pelagic and phosphatic limestones, dark
units are greater. For example, the shales and shelly limestones that grade to
Barranquín Formation is more than 1 km sandy clastics and glauconitic facies in the
thick everywhere, with massive, carbonate southeastern flank of the Andes in Tachira
shelf sedimentation in its middle part (Morro State. In North-Central Venezuela, these
Blanco Member of Barremian age–114 to 118 facies occur in the Mucaria Formation and
Ma) in the northernmost outcrops. Guayuta Group .
1 8
Figure 1.9 The Guayuta Group is thickest in North-

Eastern Venezuela, being more than 1 km thick
on e in its type area (Anzoátegui State). In the
ati c
rm van
fo Ad Marine Sediments (Undifferentiated)
De nt ? Eastern Basin, this unit changes laterally to the
o N
Fr ?
south, losing its source rock character by giving
Mito Juan
way to sedimentation from shallower
Colón
?
San Juan
environments, from shelf to coastline and even
?
Cujisal continental, which are defined in the
? ?
Positive areas that include subsurface as the Canoa and Tigre Formations
Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks
Río de Oro
(Temblador Group).
Burgüita
Guayana The Late Cretaceous in Venezuela ends in
? Shield the Maastrichtian, with units that are regressive
Igneous-Metamorphic relative to the deeper environments of the
Basement source rock.
Sandy Clastics Clay-Silt Clasts Sedimentary Supply In Perijá and the Maracaibo Basin,
Direction
the La Luna Formation grades vertically to
Positive Areas Shallow Marine Postulated
Carbonates Depocenter Axis glauconitic limestones (Socuy Member), and
Thrust Front dark shales with thin sandstones defined as
the Colon and Mito Juan Formations. In
Sedimentary facies distribution during the Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) at the
the North-Andean Flank, the glauconitic-
northern edge of the Guayana Shield. Typical units of these sets of facies are
phosphatic Tres Esquinas Member is present,
indicated. Notice that the axis of the Western Venezuela depocenter is subparallel
which is the possible diachronic equivalent of
to the deformation front, as a consequence of the plate collision between Nazca
the Socuy Member, underlying the dark shales
and South American plates.
of the Colón Formation.
In the South-Andean Flank, the upper
contact with the source rock is gradational to
erosive with the basal sandstones of Burgüita
Formation.
Figure 1.10
Perijá and North-Andean South-Andean North of Southern Flank Eastern

Age Lake Maracaibo Flank Flank Guárico Eastern Basin Interior Range
Mito Juan Mito Juan Guárico Infante Vidoño
Maastrichtian San Juan
Colón Colón Burgüita G G
Tres Esquinas U Tigre
Campanian Socuy San Antonio U
Quevedo A
(Mucaria, San Antonio
Navay
Y "Río Chávez" , Querecual,

A
Santonian U "Querecual of the North " )
La Luna TEMBLADOR
T Y
La Morita GROUP
Coniacian La Luna A
? U
"Exotic Blocks "
Guayacán / Caliza "O" ? Querecual
Guayacán Canoa T
Turonian
A
(Regional hiatus Capacho Escandalosa
Cenomanian at the base?) ?
? Seboruco
Reservoir (Carbonate) Sand / Seal Pairs Source Rock
Reservoir (Sandy) Seal
Correlation chart of the most important Late Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Guárico and Vidoño Formations
continue through the Paleocene; Canoa and Querecual Formations start by the end of Late Albian.
1 9
GENERAL GEOLOGY CENOZOIC
Figure 1.11
V
N Lesser Antilles
Caribbean Plate Arc
V
Early Paleocene *
La Victoria es
Middle Paleocene * Guárico at
bon
Car
Early Eocene*
Trujillo Matatere
Maracaibo Morán Barcelona
P
Guasare/Marcelina agü
e y Roblecito
Maracaibo-
Cl arin Trujillo
Paují
V Sta. Marta deep Humocaro
Fore Peñas Blancas
Sh
Central
EL
Shallow Block Gobernador
a
llo
American Arc
Ba
as e
Clastics
w
s
Cl
tic
úl
SM
V
a
Misoa
st
South American
Li
ic
-B
ne
Block
am
Colombia
Andean Block Orocué/Mirador
Collision
Range of
Western
en
V B Shallow
t
Clastics Guayana Shield
Farallón
Plate (*) Deformation Front Position 0 50 km
Orocue/Mirador = Barco-Los Cuervos-Mirador-Carbonera Fms. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)
Guárico = Garrapata-Guárico Fms. Event (Paleocene) Gobernador = Gobernador-Masparrito Fms. Event (Eocene)
Trujillo = Trujillo Fm. Event (Paleocene-Eocene) Humocaro = Humocaro-Quebrada Arriba Fms. Event (Eocene)
Misoa = Misoa-Caús-Paují Fms. Event (Eocene) La Victoria = La Victoria-Santa Rita-Jarillal Fms. Event (Eocene)
= Direction of sediment supply = Exposed areas
= Thrust front
ESE migration of the
Caribbean deformation front In North-Central Venezuela, the lateral These fronts generated successively younger
and associated episutural equivalents of the Mucaria Formation grade depocenters to the east of the actual Perijá
sedimentation during vertically to the hemipelagic and turbidite Mountain range.
Paleocene-Eocene times. sequences of the lower Guarico Formation. Figure 1.11 summarizes the sedi-
The Andean-South American To the east, the bathyal sandstones of the San mentation and gradual evolution of the
boundary was located at Juan Formation overlie the black cherts and deformation front as the Caribbean plate
the present position of the sandstones of the San Antonio Formation. passed north of the South American plate
Santa Marta-Bucaramanga Then, in turn, the San Juan Formation grades during the Paleocene-Eocene. For simplicity,
(SM-B) and Bocono vertically to the dark shales of the Vidoño several formations are summarized by one
(B) fault systems. Formation (late Maastrichtian–60 to 65 Ma). name only (e.g., “Misoa” refers to the
sedimentation of lateral equivalents and/or
Cenozoic terrains closely related units, such as the Misoa, Caús
and Paují Formations). Each “event” carries
Paleogene
the most distinctive formation or group name.
Paleocene-Eocene of Western Venezuela.
To the northeast of the South American
During late Cretaceous (Fig. 1.9) to early
plate, the oblique collision of the Lesser
Paleocene, Western Venezuela was affected
Antilles arc generated a series of sheets, or
by the collision between the Nazca Plate
nappes, trending towards the south and
(Pacific Ocean) and Western Colombia. There
southeast. These control the turbidite
is evidence that the sedimentation of the
sedimentation of formations such as Trujillo
Orocué Group (and probably Guasare and
and Morán.
Marcelina Formations) was controlled by the
deformation fronts of this collision (Fig. 1.11).
1 10
Figure 1.12 On the other hand, during the

Paleocene, to the north and west of
N Maracaibo Basin, the Guasare Formation
Volcanic
Caribbean
Arc
Late Eocene was deposited in shallower environments
Plate
further away from the deformation fronts,
and afterwards the Marcelina Formation in
coastal-marsh environments.
During the Eocene, a complex sedi-
200 Km
mentary setting existed in the Maracaibo
Oca Basin. Distinct deltaic/estuarine, coastal/fluvial
Fault System
and marine systems developed, depending on
Frontal Thrust
Maximum their geographic position with respect to the
Subsidence Area ?
different deformation fronts, such as in Perijá
South American Plate or later on in Lara to the east. Formations such
Advance of Allochthonous Terranes
as Barco-Los Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera
? (deposited between the Paleocene and Middle
Eocene–65-40 Ma) represent two similar
Shallow Clastic Sediments Foredeep Sediments Thrust Front sedimentary pulses of fluvial-deltaic origin in
the western part of Maracaibo Basin. In the
Positive Areas Pull-Apart Basin
central part of the basin, the Guasare, Trujillo,
Misoa, Caús and Paují Formations were more
Generation of pull-apart basins at the boundary between the Caribbean and South
marine lateral equivalents of the Barco-Los
American plates; the maximum subsidence areas were located north of Falcón State
Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera, with a
at this time (Late Eocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
relative, gradual deepening of environments
to the northeast. In the Barbacoas region, east
Figure 1.13
of Trujillo State, the average depth of the
Lesser
Eocene sea was shallow enough to deposit
V N
ic
Antilles Atlantic the transitional and coastal-marine sediments

an
olc
V Ocean of Gobernador-Masparrito and Humocaro-

eV
Caribbean Plate
Ar
tiv
Quebrada Arriba Formations. Meanwhile, in

Ac
Extinct Volcanic Arc

X Oceanic
Sedi
me
XPampatar-Punta Carnero ? ntat
io n Falcón State just north of the south-verging
(U n 0 50 Km
d iff
Caribbean Deformation ere
n ti deformation fronts, the La Victoria-Santa Rita
Limit Vid ate
o d)
?
ño-
Car and Jarillal Formations were deposited. This
Peñas Blancas ata
s
? Foredeep Barcelona sedimentation was associated with exten-
Caratas Tinajitas
e
Roblecito ? sional basin subsidence related to along-strike

op
?
Sl
Maturín
Clastic Shelf
faulting (i.e., a “pull- apart” basin) (Fig. 1.12).
?
Positive Area ?
? Paleocene - Eocene of North - Central
South American Plate Paleocene-Eocene Venezuela. Part of the accretion due to the
Lesser Antilles is probably represented by the
Shallow Sandy Clastics Lime-Clay Clastics Predominate over the sediments of the Guárico Formation, plus the
Sandy Clastics (Slope Environment)
limestone and other older units in the
Turbidites Positive Areas
olistostromes. During the Paleogene and
Limestones Direction of Sediment Supply
Neogene, this fold and thrust belt migrated to
Thrust Front the south and east of the nothern margin of
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the northern flank of the
Eastern Basin during the Paleocene-Eocene.
1 11
Figure 1.14
Western Venezuela: Perijá, Lake Western Venezuela:

Trujillo, Lara and South-Andean North-Central Eastern Venezuela
Age Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank Flank and Barinas-Apure
Falcón
Venezuela
Carbonera Paují Carbonera Mene Grande Cerro Misión La Pascua/ Los Jabillos
Paují Pagüey Roblecito ?
?
E Caús La Victoria Peñas
Masparrito ?
o Blancas Tinajitas
(Mirador/La Sierra) (Misoa/Mirador)
c (Misoa/Qda. Arriba/Gobernador) Jarillal
?
e
n ?
Santa Rita
e Caratas
V ? ?
a
Los Cuervos
H M l
Marcelina Los Cuervos
P u l ?
O O T o
a m e
l R R r o r
e O O u c a H Vidoño
C C j Guárico
o a o
c U Guasare Barco U i n n
r
E Barco E l
e o d
n l o ?
e ? o (?) Garrapata
Maastricht Colón/Mito Juan

Colon/mito Juan Colón San Juan
Reservoir (Carbonate) Seal
Reservoir (Sandy) Eroded Interval
Sand/Seal Pairs Eroded/Unconformable
Correlation chart for the the South American plate. Those rocks It is possible that the influence of the
Paleocene-Eocene of originally sedimented in the trough just in oblique collision of the Caribbean plate on
Venezuela. The Colón front of the belt (the foredeep) were later Eastern Venezuela began in the Middle
Formation extends into the uplifted, eroded and re-sedimented into Eocene—the first evidence may be in the
Campanian; the Carbonera, the trough. sandy-glauconitic and foraminiferal-rich
Paují, La Pascua, Roblecito While the Caribbean plate moved to the carbonates deposited on the foredeep
and Los Jabillos Formations east between the South American and North margins located north of Venezuela (Peñas
extend into the Oligocene. American plates, the influence of the fold Blancas and Punta Carnero Formations and
The Guárico Formation may and thrust belts also moved, but to the Tinajitas Member of Caratas Formation). On
reach down to the top of the south, producing the new foredeep of the Margarita Island, the sandy and carbonate-
Maastrichtian wherever the Roblecito Formation, with a probable age rich turbidites of the Pampatar (sandy rich)
Garrapata Formation is between the Late Eocene and Oligocene (?) and Punta Carnero (carbonate rich)
absent. (39-23 Ma). South of the new foredeep, the Formations represent a separate sedimen-
lithosphere bent due to the new load, tation from the Guárico and Roblecito, both
causing the influx of the clastics that in time and space, and are probably related
produced the La Pascua Formation. to accretion near Barbados.
Figure 1.13 summarizes conceptually
Paleocene-Eocene of Eastern Venezuela. the relationship between stratigraphic units
During the Paleocene and Early Eocene, the and deformation fronts. Figure 1.14 sum-
sedimentation was not influenced by the marizes the Paleocene-Eocene stratigraphic
Caribbean deformation fronts. The Vidoño nomenclature, emphasizing the potential
(hemipelagic marls, siltstones and clays) and character of each unit as a seal or reservoir.
Caratas (sandstones) Formations accumu-
lated on a passive continental margin slope.
1 12
Figure 1.15 Oligocene of Western and North-Central

Venezuela. Since the Oligocene, the
Positive
N sedimentary accumulation in Maracaibo
Area ?
? San Luis / Patiecitos Basin was preserved mainly on its flanks. To
the west are the sandy clastics of the
da
a Sala Carbonera and Ceibote Formations (El
a/Agu Guacharaca
Pecay
Castillo
Casupal
Fausto Group), to the south and east are the
El Paraíso Positive Area fine clastics of the León Formation (Fig.
Churuguara
1.15), and to the center is the Icotea
? Roblec
ito
Formation (assigned by several authors to
Positive El Baúl
Carbonera Area the Oligocene). The Icotea is only found in
? Arc La Pascua structurally controlled depressions, and its
? characteristic lithology consists of siltstones
?
León Guafita and claystones, with minor proportions of
Co ? ? Guayana
lo ? sandstones.
m rea Shield
bi eA The Falcón Basin reached its maximum
a sitiv
0 50 km Po Igneous-Metamorphic development and deepening during the
Basement
Shallow Sandy
Oligocene. The sedimentation in the Falcón
Limestones Depocenter Axis
Clastics region resulted from a different tectonic
Sandy and Pelitic Positive Areas Extensional Basin setting than that of the Maracaibo Basin,
Clastics of Shallow and
Deep Environmen(Turbidites) Barinas-Apure and Eastern Basins. Figure
Direction of
Pelitic Clastics of Sediment Supply 1.16 shows the extensional basins associated
Shallow Marine with major strike-slip faulting, especially in
Environment Thrust Front
the north of Falcón State. These gradually
Sedimentary regional framework in Western Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcón, Barinas- evolved to the east, while the Caribbean
Apure Basins and Guárico Sub-Basin) during the Oligocene. The main depocenters plate moved in the same direction.
are located in Táchira (León Formation), Falcón (Pecaya and Agua Salada Formations) In the north of central Venezuela, the
and Guárico (Roblecito Formation). trough containing the Roblecito Formation
migrated to the east and southeast, favoring
Figure 1.16
the advance of La Pascua sandstones to the
Figure 1.18
south. These were followed and overlaid by
Caribbean Plate Oligocene-Miocene N
clastics from the foredeep.
Main
Depocenter La Vela Cove
La Pascua-Roblecito
Oligocene of Eastern Venezuela. During
Urumaco (Central-North)
Trough the latest Eocene and Oligocene, the
Basin"Foreland" Capiricual-Carapita sedimentation in the Interior Mountain
Oca Fault Incipient (Eastern)
System Range is represented by the Los Jabillos
(diverse sandy clastics), Areo (fine marine
Frontal Thrust Advance
and glauconitic clastics) and part of the
South American Plate 200 km
Naricual (shallow marine and coastal-fluvial
Positive Areas Extensional pelitic and sandy clastics) Formations.
Shallow Clastic
Trough
Sediments Plate Movement
Vectors Thrust Front
Maximum development of the Falcón State pull-apart and generation of extensive positive
areas in Maracaibo Basin and northern Falcón. Toward the south and east, the foreland
basin evolved, developing "troughs" like those of the La Pascua-Roblecito Formations (Late
Eocene-Oligocene) and Carapita-Capiricual (Early-Middle Miocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
1 13
Figure 1.17 sediment source for the Naricual Formation

and its equivalents (e.g., Quebradón
v Formation) is shown—on the north side is a
Caribbean Plate N
rc
dA
v fold-and-thrust belt source, and on the south
an
Extinct Island Arc
Isl
X Limit of the side is a Cratón Interior source. Something
ve
X X cti Caribbean Deformation
similar occurs with the La Pascua and
A
?
Naricual/Quebradón Roblecito Formation equivalents, called the
Slope
Merecure Formation in the subsurface of the
Roblecito ? Areo(?)
Areo(?) southern flank of the Maturín Basin.
Los Jabillos Following the diachronism principle, it is
La Pascua Barcelona
Clastic Shelf/Transitional assigned a younger age (Miocene), similar to
? Environment/Deltas
?
the surface Merecure Group.
Merecure/"Naricual"
Chaguaramas
Figure 1.18 summarizes the Oligocene
Oligocene ? stratigraphic nomenclature, characterizing the
South American Plate Merecure 0 50 km units as potential seals or reservoirs.
Shallow Sandy Clastics Positive Areas

Neogene and Quaternary
Silt-clay Clastics Predominate over Direction of Sediment
the Sand Fraction (Slope Environment) Supply In Venezuela, the Neogene is
Thrust Front characterized by important mountain-
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the north flank of the Eastern building episodes, which are a direct
Basin of Venezuela during the Oligocene. There is a strong difference between the consequence of the Caribbean and South
Naricual in the subsurface and as defined in its type region: the "Merecure Formation" American plate interactions. Figures 1.15 and
name has been used for subsurface equivalents of the Merecure Group formations 1.16 show in a general way the beginning of
(Los Jabillos, Areo and Naricual Formations) that crop out in the Interior Range. the Andean uplift, and the structures
generated by the eastern movement of the
Figure 1.17 summarizes conceptually Caribbean plate between the North
the relationship between the stratigraphic American and South American plates during
units and deformation fronts. The double the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene.
Figure 1.18
Western Venezuela Western Venezuela, Trujillo, North-Central

Western Venezuela
Age Perijá Lara, South-Andean Flank
Falcón Basin Venezuela
Eastern Venezuela
Lake Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank and Barinas-Apure
O Palmar/Parángula
PALMAR/PARANGULA Naricual Naricual
Palmar G M
l Ceibote ? (Churuguara/Castillo/Pecaya/ ? E
i u San Luis/Agua Salada) Quebradón R
g E
León a Areo C
o U
c f
Guardulio R
Icotea
e i El Paraíso E
Carbonera
n Carbonera Roblecito
t Los Jabillos
e ?
? a La Pascua Caratas/
Late Eoc. Paují/Mene Grande Arauca Pagüey(?) ? Roblecito ?
Eroded/Unconformable Contact Sand/Seal Pairs Eroded Interval
Sandy Reservoir Seal
Correlation chart of the most important Late Eocene through Oligocene units of Venezuela. Paují, Mene Grande and Pagüey Formations
extend into Middle Eocene; El Fausto Group and Churuguara, Castillo, Pecaya, San Luis, Agua Salada and Quebradón Formations extend
into the Miocene.
1 14
During this time, extensional (Falcón Basin) Basins). Figure 1.22 summarizes the
and foreland basins were created. In Neogene and Pleistocene stratigraphic units,
Western Venezuela, the Barinas-Apure showing their potentiality as source rocks,
foreland basin was influenced by the seals or reservoirs.
formation of the Colombian and Venezuelan In Western Venezuela, the Andean uplift
Andes. The Eastern Venezuela basins produced significant thicknesses of molasse
resulted from the oblique collision between sediments (Guayabo Group, and La Villa, La
the Caribbean plate and the northwestern Puerta and El Milagro Formations—Fig. 1.22).
margin of the South American plate. In the In places, both the North-Andean and South-
Pliocene (Figs. 1.19 and 1.20), the uplifting Andean flanks have molasse sediments that
of Northern Venezuela produced the reach more than 5 km thick (15,000 ft). In the
present-day distribution of petroleum basins Perijá Mountain range, the El Fausto Group is
(Fig. 1.21) and generated the La Costa and the molasse-equivalent unit, and is related to
Venezuelan Andes mountain ranges the mountains of the deformation front on
(dividing the Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure the west side of Maracaibo Basin.
Figure 1.19
N ? Caribbean Plate
cc
?
Ar
Agua Salada
ism os
Urumaco
Urumaco
Pr a d
Caujarao
Caujarao
an
Socorro El Pilar Fault
rrb
Socorro
Isl
Coro
BBaa
Oca Fault Capadare
e
ng
Lake La Costa Range Quiriquire

Quiriquire
Ra
Maracaibo Las
Las Piedras
Piedras
rriijjá
Capiricual
Capiricual Carapita
Carapita
PPee
La Rosa Quebradón Quiamare

Quiamare
La La
Pica
Pica
Lagunillas La
Lagunillas La Puerta
Puerta El Quiamare
Quiamare
GUAYABO Ba Oficina-Freites
Mérida
Mérida úl
Ar Merecure Merecure
c ??
ss Chaguaramas
nnde YYu
uccaa
Co AA Rííoo Guayana Shield
a -a-
R
Co
lo ugl ul
m nagrá
lo
ar
áP Guayana Shield
bi
m
P
a
bi
a
Igneous-Metamorphic
00 100 200
200km
km Basement
Basement
50
50 150
150
Continental Environment Conglomerates Fluvial and Coastal Environment Sandy Clastics

Continental Environment Conglomerates Fluvial and Coastal Environment Sandy Clastics
and SandyClastics
and Sandy Clastics
Deltaic-Fluvial Environment, Sand Shallow Environment Carbonates

and Pelitic Clastics
Deltaic-Fluvial Environment, Sand Shallow Environment Carbonates
and pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine and Foredeep Environment, Positive Zones
Pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine and Foredeep Environment, Positive Zones Thrust Front
Sediments Supply
Pelitic Clastics
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation in all Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcón, Barinas-Apure and Eastern basins) during the
Miocene-Pliocene. The largest accumulations of continental sediments occur on the flanks of the Andes and La Costa Range. The most
important reservoirs of Venezuela were deposited during this epoch: La Rosa, Lagunillas, Isnotú (Guayabo Group), Carapita, Oficina,
Chaguaramas and Merecure Formations.
1 15
Figure 1.20 and is fault-controlled. The La Rosa

Formation is believed to be Early to Middle
Miocene age (20 to 15 Ma).
Pliocene/Recent N
The Lagunillas Formation overlays
Caribbean Plate North
of Ven the La Rosa and consists of transitional
ezuela
Deep shallow, coastal, and continental sediments
Curaza
o Prom that reach more than 1000 m (3280 ft) thick
inence
Oca Fault
in the center of Maracaibo Basin.
San Sebastián
It is a very important reservoir in the eastern
Maximum
Subsidence Areas Fault coast fields, where it has been divided into
five members, all of which have oil
potential. It is equivalent in age (Middle to
Truang
Falcón
R
jill e
Maracaibo Basin
Late Miocene—15 to 6 Ma) to the La Puerta
o
Basin Boconó South-American

Fault
s Plate Formation and part of Guayabo and El
de
An 200 km Fausto Groups.
Positive Areas Thrust Front In the Barinas-Apure Basin, the
Shallow Clastic
Sediments Plate Movement Parangula and Río Yuca Formations
Vectors
(continental sediments) are the distal
Northern Venezuela regional equivalents of the Guayabo Group.
The La Rosa and Lagunillas Formations
filling of the foreland basins In the Falcón region, open sea
predate the distal environments of the Perijá
and uplifting due to the environments can be found, ranging from
and Andes molasses. The La Rosa Formation,
deformation of extensive deep-marine turbidites (e.g., Pecaya Forma-
with its basal sandstones (Santa Bárbara
areas associated with the tion) to shallow clastics (e.g., Cerro Pelado
Member), is of major petroleum importance.
Bocono, San Sebastián and Formation) and carbonates (e.g., San Luis
Its characteristic “middle shale” interval has
Oca fault systems. Formation). The final filling of the Falcón
lateral sandy variations that are important res-
Extensional basins persist Basin during the Pliocene was with the
ervoirs in the eastern coast of Lake.
north of Falcón State (after conglomeratic-marine clastics of La Vela
Maracaibo. Its thickness varies from 70 to
Macellari, 1995.) Formation and the continental Coro
1100 m (230 to 3600 ft) because the unit was
Conglomerate (Pliocene-Pleistocene).
deposited over an irregular erosional surface
In North-Central Venezuela, the main
environments of deposition are fluvial and
Figure 1.21 continental, resulting in the upper Que-
bradon and Quiamare Formations. They
72˚ 68˚ 64˚ 60˚
N increase in thickness considerably to the east
Caribbean Sea Margarita
Coro Basin and south.
11˚ 11˚
Falcón Porlamar
e
ang
Maracaibo Basin Caracas Trinidad

Cumaná La Costa Range
La Costa Range
já R
Maracaibo Barcelona At
O lan
Basin Maturín
Trujillo
Peri
Guárico Eastern
s Basin Maturín ce tic
de
E.
An
Sub-basin Sub-basin an
B.L
n
ela Barinas
o Belt
Co
zu
ne Orinoc
Ve
lo
Ciudad Bolívar
Reclamation
San
m
S. Cristóbal Barinas-Apure er
Riv an
a
bi
7˚ Fernando 7˚
Zone
Basin
co ay if
Guyana
no
a
0 100 200 km Ori Gu ass

50 150
M
72˚ 68˚ 64˚ 60˚
Venezuelan petroliferous basins on the basis of its Sedimentary Provinces (after

Pérez de Mejía et. al., 1980). E. B. L. = El Baúl Lineament, Eastern and Barinas-
Apure basins limit.
1 16
Figure 1.22
Age Perijá and Andes Barinas-Apure Falcón Guárico Maturín Interior

Lake Maracaibo Sub-Basin (N) Sub-Basin (S) Range
Pleistocene El Milagro Terrazas Guanapa Mesa
San Gregorio/Coro Las Piedras/
Las Piedras Quiriquire
Pliocene
LA PUERTA (*) Río Yuca
? ?
Late Betijoque G LA PUERTA/Codore/

La Pica Quiamare
La Villa, U La Vela/Urumaco/
Miocene
Los Ranchos, A Caujarao
Lagunillas Y
Isnotú A Socorro Freites Uchirito/
Middle Parángula
Cerro Pelado
Miocene B Capiricual
Carapita
EL FAUSTO/ O AGUA SALADA
Castillo/Agua Clara Chaguaramas Oficina
La Rosa
Early Palmar Pedregoso/San Luis Carapita
Miocene ? Merecure
Guacharaca
Reservoir (Carbonate) Sand/Seal Pairs Source Rock

Figure 1.23
Reservoir (Sandy) Seal (*) Group
Correlation chart of the To the south of the Guárico Mountain To the northeast, the Maturín Sub-Basin
most important units in the front, in the Guárico and Maturín Sub-Basins is filled with shallower facies, such as the
Venezuelan Neogene. (N) (including the eastern Interior Mountain Uchirito and Quiamare Formations in its
and (S) indicate northern Range), transitional deltaic to shallow- northern flank. The Quiamare Formation
and southern flanks of the marine environments are represented by the represents a great variety of environments:
Maturín Sub-Basin. Merecure and Oficina Formations (Guárico lagoon, fluvial channels and alluvial fans,
The El Fausto Group, and western Anzoátegui States). They are reaching several kilometers in thickness in
and the Palmar, Guaharaca, both of great importance as petroleum Eastern Anzoátegui. On the southern flank,
Chaguaramas and Merecure reservoirs. These units change gradationally the Freites Formation shales overlie the
Formations extend into to the east to deeper-water environments Oficina Formation. These shales are
Late Oligocene. represented by the Capiricual and Carapita eventually overlain by the deltaic La Pica
Formations. The Carapita Formation is a Formation and the molassic Morichito, Las
distinctive turbidite unit and is also of great Piedras and Quiriquire Formations (Pliocene
petroleum importance. age). The sedimentary cycle ends with the
To the south, in the Oficina fields and Mesa Formation of Pleistocene age.
the Orinoco Belt, are found the diachronical
younger equivalents of the Neogene cycle.
The basal unit, usually discordant over the
Temblador Group, is the sandy Merecure
Formation, and overlying it is the deltaic
Oficina Formation. The Miocene equivalents
of these units in the Guárico Sub-
Basin–Orinoco Belt have been named the
Chaguaramas Formation.
1 17
THE HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN VENEZUELA
The beginning until 1883, when the first well which

Before the 1800s, only brief references produced oil, Eureka-1, was completed.
were made to Venezuelan hydrocarbons in Eureka-1 had a production of 1.5 bbl (194
the literature. The first mention of hydro- liters) per day (Méndez, 1978). Previously
carbons was made by Fernandez de Oviedo Salvador-1, the first well drilled in Venezuela,
in 1535, where he wrote of oil seepages off had been abandoned as dry by this company
the western shore of Cubagua Island. In 1540, after reaching a final depth of 53 m. These
he referred to the presence of bitumen on the wells were drilled with a percussion rig, the
Gulf of Venezuela shores (Martínez, 1976). first oil drilling rig in the country.
Nothing more is found in the literature until
the early 1800s. 1901 to 1920
Well locations were chosen by surface
geology and direct hydrocarbon observation
Figure 1.23
during the first decades of this century.
Bababui-1, a 188-m (617-ft) deep well,
O.P.E.P. Foundation
Great Depression
End of concessions
discovered the Guanaco oil field in 1913.
Nationalization
700
concessions
World War II
World War I
Massive
Mene Grande, near Lake Maracaibo’s eastern

600
shoreline, was the first giant find in
500
Venezuela (Fig. 1.25). The discovery well
was Zumaque-1, a 135-m (443-ft) well,
Crew - month
400 drilled after a recommendation by geologist

Ralph Arnold. Arnold and a team of about 50
300 Surface geology
colleagues systematically explored more than
Seismic (2-D + 3-D)
50 million hectares assigned to General
200 Gravimetry (+magnetometry
from 1936) Asphalt (later Caribbean Petroleum) all over
100 Venezuela. Of these, 512,000 hectares were
selected for exploitation. Totumo, discovered
0 in 1913, was the first producer from the
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year basement, and La Rosa Field, found by the
well Santa Bárbara-1 drilled in 1917, was the
Exploratory activity in
1800 to 1900 first of a giant later recognized as the Bolívar
Venezuela. Surface methods.
In 1814, Alexander von Humboldt Coastal Field (BCF). BCF covers an extensive
(Source: Martínez, 1976 and
reported asphalt deposits along Venezuela’s land and offshore region on the eastern coast
1994; M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
northern shoreline (Martínez, 1976). of Lake Maracaibo. The maximum depth
J. Méndez Z., 1976 and R.
Geologist Herman Karsten (1851) published reached by an exploratory well by 1917 was
Varela, 1987, in Méndez Z.,
a description of oil seepage sites located 1,400 m (4,600 ft).
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
between Betijoque and Escuque, towns in
Trujillo State, southeast of Lake Maracaibo 1921 to 1940
(Urbani, 1991). From 1920 onward, surface exploration
Oil seeps along La Alquitrana Creek in activity increased (Fig. 1.23). Efforts were
Táchira State lured local investors into apply- concentrated on Zulia and Falcón States in
ing for an exploitation concession under the western Venezuela, and northern Anzoátegui
name of “Cien Minas de Asfalto.” It was and Monagas States in Eastern Venezuela.
granted to them in 1878 (Martínez, 1976).
Compañía Minera Petrolia del Táchira
exploited this concession by “open mining”
1 18
Pioneering gravimetric surveys started in 1924 Surface geology continued to render

and contributed to the identification of benefits in Monagas: Santa Ana, the first field
regional highs, mainly of igneous- of the Greater Anaco Area, was found in
metamorphic basement close to the surface. 1936; and El Roble and San Joaquín were
As a result of the surface exploration effort found in 1939. Subsurface geology methods,
and subsequent exploratory drilling during using regional knowledge, data from core
the 1920s, several important discoveries and ditch samples obtained during drilling,
occurred: La Paz in 1923, and La Concepción and electrical well logging as of 1929, gave
in 1925, in Zulia State; Quiriquire in 1928, in very significant results. Some of the
Monagas State (a giant oilfield in a Pliocene discoveries include Orocual Field (Monagas)
alluvial fan), and Pedernales (Delta Amacuro) in 1933, and the Eocene Misoa Formation oil
in 1933, in an anticline produced by mud sands of the LL-370 Area (Lagunillas, BCF,
diapirism. Other relevant discoveries during Lake Maracaibo) discovered in 1938. The
this period were the Bachaquero area (now maximum exploratory drilling depth reached
within BCF, Zulia) in 1930, and Cumarebo by 1940 was 3,400 m (11,150 ft) (Fig. 1.24).
Field (Falcón State) in 1931.
1941 to 1950
Figure 1.24
The exploratory activity during this
300 decade was affected by World War II and the
Massive End of
Great Depression
7 post-war world, with large oil needs

concessions concessions
World War II
prompting an increase in exploratory drilling

World War I
Number of exploratory wells
Maximum depths reached

(Fig. 1.24). Surface exploration, however,
200 5
Nationalization
diminished, since most of the field personnel
went to war. It was not until the end of
per year
Evaluation of 4
km
the Orinoco WWII that surface activities showed a strong
Belt
3
upward rebound, reaching levels never
100
2
before seen in Venezuela (Fig. 1.23). With an
increase in exploratory drilling after the war,
1
reserves and production doubled during the
0
decade (Fig. 1.26), and 63 fields were found.
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
This compares to the 41 fields found from
Year
1880 to 1940. The three most relevant
Exploration drilling in Venezuela. (Source: Martínez, 1976 and 1994;
discoveries were the Las Mercedes Field
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; Méndez Z., 1976 and Varela, 1987, Méndez Z.,
(Guárico State) in 1941, commercial oil in
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
the Cretaceous of La Paz Field (Zulia State)
The year 1933 heralded the beginning of in 1944, and the giant accumulation of extra-
the use of seismic as a surface tool for heavy crude in Boscán (also in Zulia State),
exploration (Fig. 1.23), and results were in 1946.
quickly seen. Large discoveries occurred in
Eastern Venezuela: in 1936, Temblador, the
first field discovered in southern Monagas; in
1937, the first field of the Greater Oficina
Area was discovered in Anzoátegui State; and
Jusepín Field was found in northern Monagas
in 1938.
1 19
Figure 1.25 1951 to 1960

The oil from the Middle East, less
300
La Paz and Mara (K)

expensive and of good quality, affected the
Incorporation of
La Paz and Mara
Los Barrosos–2
Jobo–Morichal
La Concepción
Loran, cocuina
Las Mercedes
Mene Grande
Lama, Centro
Sur del Lago

Cerro Negro
Bachaquero
C.C. Bolívar
La Canoa–1
(Basement)
Pedernales
Río Caribe
Quiriquire
intensity of Venezuelan exploration, and
Urdaneta
El Furrial
Orocual,
Jusepín
Boscán
Guafita
Oficina
Lamar,
Onado
La Paz
Patao
Millions of cubic meters per year
1.500 surface activity was reduced by more than
half (Fig. 1.23). However, drilling activity
Millions of barrels
200
maintained a high level during the decade.
1.000 New concessions granted in 1956 and 1957
kept the interest in Venezuelan oil high
throughout the rest of this decade.
100
Discoveries continued in the Greater Oficina
.500
Note: From 1914 to 1954 Area and, to a lesser extent, in Guárico.
a total of 3.0 billion cubic
meters were incorporated into the During 1957 and 1958, the Lake Maracaibo
reserves through revisions, new
discoveries and extensions. region yielded large Tertiary finds in its
0 0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
central and central-eastern areas, including
Year Ceuta, Centro, Lama, Lamar and Lago Fields.
Reserves from exploratory The first Venezuelan continental platform
drilling in Venezuela. Exploratory drilling added more fields to find was Posa-112A, an offshore field in the
(Increments and revisions not the Greater Areas of Oficina, Anaco and Las Gulf of Paria. The maximum exploratory
included). (Sources: Martínez, Mercedes. The new Hydrocarbons Law of drilling depth reached during this period
A.R., 1976, 1987 and 1994; 1943 provided for the duration of all existing was 5,348 m (17,541 ft).
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; concessions to be extended 40 more years, a
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984). positive move for the oil industry, although 1961 to 1976
the state’s share in exploitation benefits was The “no more concessions” policy
increased by way of taxes. In addition, adopted by the Venezuelan State greatly
abundant new concessions were granted affected the operating strategies of the
during 1944 and 1945, which also had a concession holders during this pre-
significant positive effect on exploration. nationalization period. A drastic reduction in
From 1945 on, exploratory evaluation surface exploration activities is shown in Fig.
intensified and all technology on hand was 1.23. By 1968, exploratory drilling reached
applied. Gravimetry and seismic surveys the lowest level of activity since 1940.
were carried out in areas offshore of Lake Exploratory wells were restricted to already
Maracaibo, and aerial magnetics and other identified areas, with their objectives being
advanced techniques under development new reservoirs above, below or near known
were tested in Venezuela. These tech- oil reservoirs. This type of exploration
nologies contributed to a significant increase yielded discoveries such as the deep
in the regional knowledge of the Venezuelan Cretaceous in Central Lake and Urdaneta
sedimentary basins. Exploration drilling rigs Fields. Frontier drilling and surface
reached depths of approximately 5,200 m exploration activities by the concessionaires
(17,000 ft), as can be seen in Fig. 1.24. ceased completely.
1 20
The Corporación Venezolana del CVP and the Ministerio de Minas e

Petróleo (CVP), the Venezuelan State oil Hidrocarburos started evaluating the Orinoco
company, was founded in 1960 and started Belt by seismic surveys and drilling. By then,
operations the following year. This company about 60 wells had been drilled by the
became the leader in exploration on land concessionaires in the so-called Tar Belt, and
and offshore Venezuela. It acquired 80,000 most of them had been abandoned without
km of seismic and drilled nearly 200 testing. The La Canoa 1, a 1,176-m (3857-ft)
exploratory wells during this period deep exploratory well, tested 6 m3 (40 bbl)
(Velarde, 1991). CVP started exploration of per day of 7˚API gravity before being
the La Vela area, offshore Falcón State, in abandoned (Martínez, 1987). This well,
1972, and the evaluation of southern Lake located in southern Anzoátegui, is
Maracaibo in 1971 by means of service considered to be the discovery well of the
contracts. After a bidding process, service Faja del Orinoco.
contracts were signed the same year.
1976 (nationalization)
Figure 1.26
to the present
By 1978, state-owned Petróleos de
Cumulative production and reserves
70
Venezuela, S.A., a holding in charge of the
10
60 nationalized oil industry, assigned the Orinoco
Massive
concessions Belt to its existing operating affiliates:
at year end (Bm3)
End of concessions 50
O.P.E.P. Foundation Corpoven, Lagoven, Maraven and Meneven.
40
BSTB
They each proceeded to evaluate their
5
30 assigned portion. The campaign was finished
20 five years later (Fig. 1.24) after 669 wells were
drilled, and 15,000 km of Vibroseis seismic
10
Reserves
lines and 54,000 km2 of aerial magnetics were
0 Production 0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
acquired (Martínez, 1987).
Year Since the nationalization, surface explor-
Production and reserves in ation is based almost exclusively on geo-
Venezuela. (Sources: A significant discovery during the physics, remote sensing and geochemistry. It
Martínez, A.R., 1994; period, besides findings in the above- steadily increased until the 1980s (Fig. 1.23),
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; mentioned La Vela and southern Lake areas, when it reached its maximum level for the
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984). was Onado Field (1971) in Monagas State. last 15 years. This activity was directed
The exploratory drilling record was 5,813 m toward frontier and traditional areas. 3-D
(19,067 ft) in 1976. seismic has been used since the 1980s as an
additional tool for both exploration and
reservoir description.
1 21
Figure 1.27 What now?

The future points to more discoveries in
0.50 the above frontier areas, as well as
exploration and re-exploration in traditional
Total number of exploratory wells

0.48
areas near existing facilities. New, high-risk
Number of discoveries
0.46
objectives will become the standard of day-
to-day exploration activities; exploration for
0.44 bypassed hydrocarbons already has high
priority. Modern drilling technology will
0.42
allow deeper and more precise subsurface
evaluation. Improved knowledge of
0.40
Venezuelan basins, supported by new
0.38
geological and geochemical criteria, and
new seismic acquisition and processing
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year technologies, will open new frontiers and
Cumulative exploratory substantiate re-exploration. Modern
success since 1950, showing Exploratory objectives have become petrophysical well logging technologies,
an almost 47% success rate deeper and more remote, as the most some of which are described in other
with no downward trend significant recent finds show (Fig. 1.25). chapters of this book, already permit
(from M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; These include Patao and other giant gas measuring and interpreting a large variety of
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984). fields offshore north of Paria Peninsula (1979 rock and fluid properties. Their proper use
to 1982); Río Caribe condensate accumu- will further enable us to accurately assess
lation also in the same region (1981); Morro the subsurface. Venezuela still has a wealth
heavy oil in the Gulf of Paria (1980), and of hydrocarbons to be discovered. Figure
Loran and Cocuina, gas accumulations east 1.27 displays graphically the exploratory
of Delta Amacuro (1983) (Fig. 1.0). Northern success during the last 45 years, showing an
Monagas and Anzoátegui, both in Eastern almost 47% success rate with no downward
Venezuela, contain the largest discoveries trend, and Fig. 1.26 shows nearly 1 billion
since 1986 along the El Furrial Trend: barrels of oil added during the period. This
Tertiary and Cretaceous reservoirs that are is the result of integrating all technologies,
more than 4,000 m deep. Western from exploration through enhanced oil
Venezuela’s Guafita and Victoria findings recovery. Venezuelan oil provinces have not
near the Colombian border are also quite yet disclosed all their secrets; only by using
significant. An exploratory drilling depth modern exploration technologies will they
record of 6,640 m (21,780 ft) was set in 1993. be revealed.
1 22

Figures 1.28 and 1.29 Figure 1.30
,
Form.
Thick.
Source
Reser.
y
Source Rock
log
Seal
Formation
Age
ho Lithological Description
Lithology
(ft)
Thickness
Lit
Reservoir
Member
Graphic
(m)
Lithological Description
Los Ranchos
Miocene
1300-1500
Seal
Age
Sandstones and gray shales

with lesser amounts of
siltstones and conglomerates.
Bachaquero
,,
500-900
Variegated claystones, red to
Lagunillas
Cuiba
Shales, claystone, weakly consolidated purple, sandstones and
300-900 sandstones, and some interstratified
Oligocene-Miocene
lignites.
lignites.

EL FAUSTO
Claystones with some
150-200
Macoa
siltstones and sandstones.
na
gu
La
er
w
Tertiary
Lo
Marine shales with iron-rich concretions;
1100-1200
Upper
La Rosa
Peroc
variable amounts of interstratified Claystones and variegated
dle
250
Mid sandstones. siltstones. Thin sandstones

Sta. and lignites (scarce).
Bárbara
50- Siltstones, hard shales/mudstones and
Icotea sandstones.
180
Early-Middle Eocene Eoc.
335-
520
,
*
"B Sand"
Coarse-grained sandstone to
conglomerate.
Shaly intervals.
Mirador
160-400
Misoa

Intercalation of sandstones, siltstones
1000-1600
and some limestone layers in the lower

part.
Los Cuervos
295-330
Paleocene
"C Sand"
Carbonaceous sandstones,
siltstones and shales.
Productive interval.
,
Porosity 7.1–20%.
Barco
150-
are Average permeability 149 md.
278
120- Fossiliferous limestones and calcareous
as
Gu 445 sandstones. Carbonaceous shales and
Juan
²600 106-300
Colón/
Dark and massive microfossiliferous siltstones.

900
shales, with some thin sandstones and **

LunaMito
Socuy limestone layers.

Fetid calcareous limestones and shales, Sandy shales; the sand and
100-300
elliptical concretions. *** silt content increase to the top.

La
Crystalline limestones with Ostrea Sp.,

La Luna
100 - 300
Cretaceous
Maraca 120 with shale and marl intercalations. Dense, laminated limestone,
dark gray to black,
carbonaceous to butiminous,
Lisure
Glauconitic sandstones and sandy calcareous shales.

limestones, with sandy laminated mud
55-180
Maraca
70-120
intercalations, and some shelly limestone Thick beds of sandy

layers. limestone.
Cretaceous
100-130
Calcareous sandstones,
Lisure
glauconitic, sandy and

COGOLLO
coquinoid limestones with

Fossiliferous massive limestones, some shales.
Piché
nodular, marly and often calcareous

500-600m
Apón
shales.
Apón
250-650
Hard bluish-gray limestone

Guáim. and few intervals of sandy
and calcareous shales.
Tibú
Río White coarse-grained sandstones. **** <100 Sandstones and conglomerates.

Negro <180
*C b ** C t t b *** C ló Mit J **** Rí N
Lake Maracaibo composite stratigraphic column (from Parnaud et al., Composite stratigraphic column of the Maracaibo
1995, González de Juana et al., 1980, and Roger et al., 1989). Basin to North Andes flank (after González de
Juana et al., 1980).
1 23
PETROLEUM BASINS MARACAIBO
Figure 1.30
W E
Perijá Urdañeta Lama Lagunillas Trujillo
Range Icotea High Range
Bachaquero Fault
0
L
Los a Vill Post-Miocene
Ran a Paují
1
cho
s
Two way time ( sec)
La Puerta
El Fau Miocene Lagunillas "B" "B"
sto
2 La Rosa Misoa Misoa
"C" "C"
Paleocene Eocene
3
illo
1.8 Km
Cretaceous Truj
4 Basement
ic
ss
ra
10 km
5
Ju
6
Shaly (Seal) Carbonate Sand/Seal Pairs
Sandy / Conglomeratic Source Rock
Maracaibo Basin The main clastic reservoirs are the Río

East-West Maracaibo The Maracaibo Basin (Fig. 1.21) is the Negro and Aguardiente Formations (Creta-
Basin section (after most important petroliferous basin of Vene- ceous), Orocué Group (Paleocene), Mirador-
Parnaud et al., 1995). zuela. The main source rock is the La Luna Misoa (Eocene), Lagunillas and La Rosa
Formation (Figs. 1.28 and 1.29) of Late Creta- Formations (Miocene) (see the stratigraphic
ceous age; its facies extend along all of columns in Figs. 1.28—Perijá/Lake Maracaibo
Western Venezuela and Colombia. There are —and 1.29—North-Andean Flank). The
some other source rocks of secondary import- outstanding carbonate reservoirs belong to the
ance in the Cogollo (Machiques Member of the Cogollo Group (Early Cretaceous). The most
Apón Formation) and Orocué (Los Cuervos important regional seals are the Colón (Late
Formation) Groups. The oil was generated, Cretaceous) and Paují (Eocene) Formations.
migrated and accumulated in several phases,
the Andean uplift being the most important Note: The sequence of system (La Luna For-
one. These points will be elaborated later. events in the petroleum mation) is buried during
events system is as Late Cretaceous, and
follows: the sedimentary partially unloaded bet-
record is indicated in the ween the Late Paleocene
row named "Formations;" and Early Eocene; burial
Figure 1.31 in this case there is sed- continues during the rest
iment preservation bet- of the Eocene. Strati-
ween the Early Creta- graphic and structural
200 150 60 50 40 20 (Ma)
ceous and the Late Pa- traps are formed bet-
100 70 30 10 0
leocene, followed by a 5 ween the Late Creta-
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological time to 6 Ma hiatus; then ceous, Paleocene and
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale Petroleum
there are sediments Late Eocene. The gener-
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events
preserved between the ation, migration and
Early Eocene and the Eo- accumulation from the
Formations cene-Oligocene limit. source rock for this sys-
Source rock The source rock is gen- tem takes place during
Seal
erated at the end of the Late Eocene, and the
Early and part of the Late preservation of the traps
Reservoir Cretaceous. The seal is takes place since the
Burial deposited at the end of Oligocene. So the critical
Trap formation the Late Cretaceous and moment, or the time
Generation,migration, Eocene times. Reservoir when there is the max-
accumulation rocks are deposited imum probability for oil
Preservation during the Late Creta- entrapment and pre-
Critical moment
ceous and Eocene. The servation, is the Eocene-
source rock in this Oligocene limit.
"Phase 1" petroleum system, Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 24
Figure 1.32 Locally, the Machiques Member (Apón

Formation) is a good seal, as well as the
Oca Fault Gulf of Venezuela N thick interstratified shale intervals of the
Falcón reservoirs toward the center of Lake
a
Maracaibo, such as Misoa, Lagunillas and La
bi
Basin
e
m
ng
Rosa (Fig. 1.30—Lake Maracaibo EW
lo
Tru
Ra
Co section). Other good seals include the shaly
ji
rijá
llo
León Formation and some thick intervals of
Pe
Ra
ng
the molasse (Guayabo and El Fausto Groups;
e
Andes and Perijá, respectively).
8
The main oil fields are located on the
Eastern Coast of Lake Maracaibo and the
Oil Field, Eocene Reservoir
main production comes from Tertiary
s
Lake de reservoirs; for example, Cabimas, Tía Juana,
La Luna Source Rock Matured or Over- An
Matured during the Phase 1 (38 My) Maracaibo
e lan Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Mene Grande and
La Luna System Limit (Phase 1) zu
e0
n km 50 Motatán. On the west coast there are fields
Maracaibo Basin Limit Ve
with production from the Cretaceous and
Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation source rock, even Tertiary; for example, Urdaneta (Lake
Phase 1 (38 Ma) (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). Maracaibo) and several fields of the Perijá
foothills, such as La Concepción, Mara, La
Paz, Boscán and Alturitas. In the central part
Figure 1.33 of the lake, fields are located along the fault
systems of Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.30), including
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) the Lago, Centro, Lama and Lamar Fields.
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geologic time
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale
The oil gravity is quite diverse. In
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events general, the lighter types occur in the deep
Formations
Cretaceous reservoirs, becoming heavier as
Source rock
Seal
depths get shallower. In the upper Tertiary
Reservoir reservoirs of the lake’s Eastern Coast, some
Burial
Trap formation
of the oils have gravities less than 13°API.
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation Petroleum Systems
Critical moment
Figures 1.31 and 1.32 represent the
northeast Lake Maracaibo petroleum system
"Phase 2" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
generated by the La Luna Formation source
rocks. Oil generation occurs in the northeast
part of the basin, with migration and
accumulation in the southwest during the
Late Eocene. The main traps occur along the
Icotea high, containing Cretaceous and
Eocene reservoirs. The highest probabilities
of accumulation, or critical moment, is
found close to the Oligocene-Eocene
boundary (Fig. 1.31).
1 25
PETROLEUM BASINS MARACAIBO
Figures 1.34 and 1.35
Gulf of Venezuela N N Gulf of Venezuela

Falcón
bia
bia
Basin
e
e
om
ng
ng
lom
Tru
Tru
Ra
Ra
Col
Co
jillo
ijá
j
rijá
illo
r
Pe
Pe
R
Ra
ult
ang
ng
a Fa
e
e
Ma
ult
Oil rce
Icote
lin
a Fa
window aF
orm Lake
Or
Icote
oc ati s
ué on Maracaibo de
Lake Gr
ou An
pL an
Maracaibo im u el
it
nez
Gas Ve
window
Condensate or Gas
Producing Field
Sa
Oil Field
Petroleum System Limit of the
nt ssif
M
Oil Field/ Orocué Group
an
a
Condensate/Gas Matured or Over-Matured Orocué
de
Group Limit at the Present Time
r
Petroleum System
Sa
La Luna, Phase 2 Oil Seeps of Continental or

nt ssif
M
Mixed Origin
an
a
0 50 0 50
Fault
de
km
Faults
km
r
Matured and Over-Matured

Source Rock Area (Fm. La Luna)
during Phase 2 (Present Time)
Defined petroleum system at the Maracaibo Basin, Orocué
Group source rock, at the present time (after Talukdar and
Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation
Marcano, 1994).
source rock, at the present time (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Another system results from the The third system is related to the
Cretaceous source rock (mainly La Luna Orocué Group, southwest Lake Maracaibo.
Formation), but in this case it is widespread This generation seems to be responsible for
across the hydrographic basin of Lake the oil fields to the northeast of Santander
Maracaibo (Fig. 1.33), reaching over-maturity Massif, close to the Colombia-Venezuela
conditions in some areas. Generation, border. Generation, migration and accu-
migration and accumulation occurred during mulation occurred at the climax of Andean
the Andean uplift, filling reservoirs uplifting (Pliocene), which produced the
throughout almost the entire sedimentary complete separation of Maracaibo and
column. The critical moment is considered Barinas-Apure oil basins.
to be the present. This system is the most
important for the Tertiary hydrocarbon
accumulation, especially in the structures
of the following areas or fields: Western
region and Eastern Coast of Maracaibo
Lake, Urdaneta and Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.34).
1 26
Figure 1.36
NW SE
Perijá Maracaibo Basin
Range Mérida Andes
Lama-Icotea North-Andean South-Andean
Perijá Structure Flank Flank
Fault Boconó Fault
Urdaneta Lama-Icotea Barinas-Apure
Macoa Alturitas Fault System Fault Basin
4 km
20 km
Neogene Late Cretaceous Jurassic
Paleogene Early Cretaceous Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
NW-SE structural cross section through the Maracaibo Basin, from the Mérida Andes to the Perijá Range.
Figure 1.37 This large structural system reactivated

old structures, and also involved the
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) igneous-metamorphic basement (Fig. 1.36).
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological The critical moment is at the present, and
Tr J K Tertiary Q time scale
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events the main reservoir is the Paleogene clastic
Formations sequence (Fig. 1.37).
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 3" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Mirador
Mirador Formation
Formation
Los
Los Cuervos
Cuervos Formation
Formation
Middle Eocene (Bartoniense) unconformity between the Mirador and Los Cuervos
Formations (Rubio de San Antonio Road, Táchira State). Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
1 27
PETROLEUM BASINS BARINAS-APURE BASIN
, ,
Reserv.
Source
Series
Thick.
Form./Mbr.
Stage
Lithological
Form.
Graphic
(m)
Thickness
Reservoir
Lithology
Seal
Age
Lithology Description
Source
(m)
,
,
,
,
Lithological Description
Age
Seal
Pliocene
la Coarse-grained conglomerates, fine-
550 -
gu
GUAYABO/Parángula/Río Yuca
,,
1400
Mio-
rán grained sandstones, siltstones and
Pa variegated claystones.
Pagüey/Guafita/León
Miocene-Pliocene
2000-3000 Conglomerates, sandstones and claystones Ferriferous sandstones, carbonaceous,

in diverse proportions. dark gray (often calcareous) fossiliferous
Generally, these molassic sediments are siltstones and shales.
attributed principally to alluvial fan
,

environments that flanked the Andean
Range.
Middle Eocene-Oligocene
Guanarito
Sandstone proportion increases in the
330-450
middle part of the formation; the unit is
called "Guaranito Member".
León/Guafita/
Pelitic and minor sandy sequence.

Carbonera
335-520
Dissappears toward the Barinas Basin due

Tertiary
to erosion prior to the sedimentation of the
,
,

,

Eocene-Oligocene
Parángula Formation.
Early Eocene
Sandstones with a slight shaly/silty interval
, Pagüey
to Middle
Ferriferous sandstones, carbonaceous,

160-400
Mirador
near the top. Time equivalents in the Barinas

Basin are: (sandy/calcareous) Gobernador, dark gray (often calcareous) fossiliferous
(shaly) Pagüey and (sandy) El Cobre siltstones and shales.
Formations.
295-
Carbonaceous siltstone and few sandstones.

330
Los Cuervos

,
50-300
Sandy clastics. Masparrito Dark gray to bluish orbitoidal limestones.
Paleocene
OROCUE
The Orocúe Group includes Barco Formation Gobernador Fine to coarse-grained, pale gray to brown,
150-278
(lower) and Los Cuervos Formation (upper), sandstones sometimes calcareous. Shales
with regional thickness varying from 0 to and siltstones also included.
Barco
838 m in the South-Andean flank. Barco

Formation is mainly sandstone while Los
Cuervos Formation is finer grained and
Burgüita
carbonaceous.
350-420
Micaceous, sometimes glauconitic and
Maastricht.
Campanian
Burgüita
Sandier sequence as compared with the

350-420
calcareous sandstone. Lower middle is

underlying Navay Formation. Basal sand- regionally shalier.
stones suggest erosive contact; variable

,

,
proportions of shale, limestone and
sandstone.
,,
Cretaceous
Quevedo
Siliceous mudstones, quartzitic sandstones
180-210
Siliceous mudstone, quartzose sandstones
Quevedo
and cherty limestone. Abundant phosphatic

180 - 210
Coniacian-Santonian
beds with fish remains. They constitute the ? and cherty limestone.
Navay
shallow shelf equivalents of the deeper and

farther La Luna Formation environments.
Navay
EscandalosaLa Morita
150-180
Cretaceous

Shales and dark limestones.
Late
Dark shales and siltstones varying laterally

La Morita
to sandstones, siltstones and limestones.

150 - 180
150-427
It´s deepest facies is considered a good Bioclastic and sandy limestones, permea-
source rock. ble massive sandstones and black shales.
Calcareous sandstones and sandy

150-500
te
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, often glau- rdien limestones.
conitic; calcareous ± glauconitic sandstones. Agua
Productive interval
Cenomanian-Turonian
"O" White coarse-grained sandstones;

Río Negro <300 conglomerates.
Escandalosa
"P" Very permeable massive sandstones.

150 - 427
"R" Often calcareous, massive sandstones, with

some shale and siltstone intercalations. Composite stratigraphic column for the northern part of
"S" Dark gray shales.
Barinas-Apure Basin (after Parnaud et al., 1995).
300-
Alb.
Sandstones ± calcareous.
500
*Aguardiente
Composite stratigraphic column of the South Andean flank, Barinas-Apure
Basin (after González de Juana et al., 1980, and Kiser, 1989).
1 28
Figure 1.40
NW SE
0
RíoYuca
Two way time (sec)

Pagüey Navay
Gobernador Parángula
1
Guardulio Guafita
3.5 km
2 Aguardiente
Escandalosa Paleozoic
0
3 0 10 km
Shale (Seal) Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic Source Rock
Sand / Seal Pairs
NW-SE cross section of the Barinas-Apure Basin The main clastic reservoirs are the
Barinas-Apure Basin (after The Barinas-Apure Basin (Fig. 1.21) is following formations: Escandalosa and
Parnaud et al., 1995). located to the SSE of the Andean Mountain Burgüita (Cretaceous), Orocué Group
Range. The main source rock is the Navay (Paleocene), Mirador-Guafita (Arauca
Formation (Figs. 1.38 and 1.39), of Late Member) (Eocene-Oligocene) (Figs. 1.38 and
Cretaceous age and a lateral facies 1.39). The most relevant carbonate reservoirs
equivalent of La Luna Formation. Secondary are the limestones with secondary porosity
source rocks have been found in the Orocué in the Guayacán Member (Limestone),
Group (Los Cuervos Formation), but only in Escandalosa Formation. Regional-scale seals
the deepest depocenters, associated with the are the shale intervals of Burgüita (Late
great molassic thicknesses caused by the Cretaceous), Pagüey (Eocene) and Guafita
Andean uplift. (Guardulio Member) Formations (Fig. 1.40).
Figure 1.41
Note: Compound names are given to the petroleum
systems, referring to the source rock and the main
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma)
Mesozoic Cenozoic
reservoir names (for example: La Luna-Burgüita). If
Geological time
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale the system is well known by the correlation between
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events the hydrocarbon in the reservoir and the source rock,
? Formations
it is annotated with (!). If the system is hypothetical,
Source rock
? Seal with only geochemical evidence about the
? Reservoir hydrocarbon’s origin, it is annotated with (.). Finally,
? Burial
Trap formation
if the petroleum system is totally speculative, with
Generation, migration
accumulation
only geological or geophysical evidence, it is
Preservation annotated with (?).
Critical moment
Events chart for the La Luna-Burgüita (!) petroleum system of the Barinas-Apure
Basin, during the Caribbean terrane’s emplacement over the Mérida High.
1 29
PETROLEUM BASINS BARINAS-APURE BASIN
The main oil fields are to the south of Petroleum systems

Barinas city, the most important being the Two events account for the generation,
San Silvestre, Sinco, La Victoria and Guafita. migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons
La Victoria and Guafita are close to the (Figs. 1.41 and 1.42). The first event is related
Colombia-Venezuela border. to the La Luna-Burgüita system caused by
petroleum generation in Maracaibo Basin
Figure 1.42 and its migration to the SSE. In this case there
are two seals, both of them of Cretaceous
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) age. The upper seal is the “basal” shale of
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological time
Q scale
Burgüita Formation, and the lower seal is the
Tr J K Tertiary Petroleum
L E M L E S Paleo. Eocene Oligo. Miocene PP system events shale of La Morita Member (Navay
Formations Formation). The main reservoirs belong to
Source rock
Seal
Cretaceous formations such as Aguardiente,
Reservoir Escandalosa (Limestone or Guayacán
Burial
Member) and Burgüita (basal sandstones).
Trap formation
accumulation
The second event is related to the
Preservation depocenter of the South-Andean flank, with
Critical moment
a present-time critical moment. The source
rock is still of Cretaceous age and the
Events chart for the Navay-Gobernador (!) petroleum system, in the Barinas-Apure
reservoir includes Eocene-age formations
Basin north of the Mérida Arc, during the Andean uplift.
such as Gobernador and Pagüey. The
Oil gravities between 22 and 28°API Guardulio Member (Guafita Formation) is
have been reported in Barinas oil fields. In the most important regional seal. In this
Guafita and La Victoria oil fields (Apure), second event, it is possible that remigration
oil gravities between 30 and 36° API have of the oil trapped during the Eocene pulse of
been found. La Luna-Burgüita system occurred.
La Luna Formation. Picture of an outcrop in the Cuite River (Apure State). Courtesy
of Franklin Yoris.
1 30
Figure 1.43
Dabajuro Platform Urumaco Trough
Socorro Caujarao ENE

WSW Lines Displacement A'
Lines Displacement Coro
A o
co Urumac Codo
Uruma o C auja
re Codore
La Puerta Socorr Socorro rao
Eoce La Puerta
Creta Paleoce ne ? Cerro P Location
ceous ne elado
La Quinta Eocene Agua ?
? Und C
iffere lara ? Igneous-Metamorphic Map aG
ulf Coro
ntiat Basement zuel A'
ed B Vene Dabajuro
0 40 km asem
ent A Venezuela
NE-SW geological/structural
Falcón Basin The oil fields of Falcón Basin are, from
cross section through
The Falcón Basin (see Fig. 1.21) is west to east: Mene Grande de Mauroa,
the Falcón Basin (after
located to the east of Maracaibo Basin, and Media, Hombre Pintado, Las Palmas,
Macellari, 1995).
is separated by the Trujillo Range. The Tiguaje, Mamón, La Vela and Cumarebo.
source rock has been identified as the shales
of the Agua Clara Formation (Fig. 1.43); Petroleum Systems
however, shales of source rock potential Figure 1.44 shows the Falcón Basin
have also been identified in the deltaic- petroleum system. Because of the regional
marine sediments of Guacharaca and Agua geothermal gradient increase, the main
Salada Formations. source rock (Oligocene) generated
The main clastic reservoirs include the hydrocarbons long before the structural
following formations: Agua Clara (La Vela configuration of the entrapment mechanism
Cove and Western Falcón), Socorro was established during the Oligocene-
(Cumarebo Oil Field) and La Puerta Group Miocene transition. The reservoirs are
(Western Falcón) (Fig. 1.43). concentrated in Oligo-Miocene stratigraphic
units, with their structural configuration
Figure 1.44 being formed between the Late Miocene and
Pliocene. This time lag between the
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) generation of hydrocarbons and trap
Mesozoic Cenozoic
Geological time formation led to the loss of large quantities
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events of hydrocarbons.
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Agua Clara petroleum system (!), in the Falcón Basin.
1 31
PETROLEUM BASINS FALCON AND EASTERN BASINS
Figure 1.45
N Caucagua-El Tinaco
Belt
Coastal
Range Belt Villa de Cura
Caribbean Belt Espino
Deformation Belt Graben Orinoco
River
San Sebastián La Victoria Guárico Altamira
Fault Fault Fault Fault
Thrusting
Los Roques Front
Island Tar
Bonaire Basin Belt
0 20 40 km
Late-Recent Miocene Jurassic Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Accretionary Crust
Middle Paleocene-Miocene Early Paleozoic Precambrian-Paleozoic Continental Crust
Cretaceous Ocean Crust
Events chart for the Agua Eastern Basin Guárico Sub-Basin

Clara petroleum system (!) The Eastern Venezuelan Basin (Fig. This subdivision includes Guárico and
in the Falcón Basin (after 1.21) is the second in importance. It is part of the oil fields in northern Anzoátegui
Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). limited by the La Costa Mountain Range to state. The sub-basin’s northern flank is
the north, by the Orinoco River to the south, influenced by the deformation front in
by the Orinoco Delta platform to the east which the Guárico Fault system is located
and by the El Baúl Lineament to the west. It (Fig. 1.45). This deformation front overrides
has been operationally subdivided in two and overloads Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,
sub-basins, the Guárico and Maturín. producing a complex tectonic setting (Fig.
1.46). To the south, the structure is less
Figure 1.46 complicated—there are structural (exten-
sional) depressions that preserved Jurassic
NW SE and Paleozoic rocks (Fig. 1.47) and regional
1100 1080 1060 1040 1020 1000 980 960 940 920
0 pinching-out of the Cretaceous-Tertiary
Allochthonous sequences to the south (Fig. 1.48). The main
Cretaceous-Eocene
traps are combination structural-stratigraphic
5000
traps, especially in fields far from the
Oligocene-Basal
deformation front.
Early Eocene- Middle
10000
15000 0 1 2km
NW-SE cross section on the basis of seismic interpretation and with well control in
the Guarumen mountain front (after Figueroa and Hernandez, 1990). Cretaceous-
Eocene-Oligocene rocks override the autochthonous basal (Early) Oligocene,
indicating a Miocene-Pliocene age for the last deformation.
1 32
Figure 1.47 This may be why the main hydrocarbon in

the fields near the Mountain Front is gas
SW NE rather than oil. Nevertheless, generation of
DP = 170m NZZ-88X hydrocarbons has been postulated close to
400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220
the Late Miocene faults in the Central Guárico
(Proj. 2.8 Km to SE) region. The rocks contain marine organic
0.0
matter and appear to have migrated only a
short distance. This suggests that the
1.0 Temblador Group (Fig. 1.49) is an important
Cretaceous
Base source rock for the oil in the Guárico State
Jurassic
Basalts fields. Paraffinic hydrocarbons may have
2.0
been generated from source rocks in
Early
Cambrian
reservoir formations such as the Roblecito
Valle La Pascua N P.F.: 14730'
3.0
and Oficina.
An
G
uá
The main oil fields are, from west to
zo
r
CORPOVEN ico
át
eg
Basement
ui
50 Km P-C
NZZ-88X
east: Palacio, La Mercedes, Yucal-El Placer,
P-
6
MARAVEN 0 1 2 km
Tucupido, El Jobal, Socorro and Macoya;
Seismic line in the NE-SW direction, Yucal-El Placer is a gas field. To the south of
through the Jurassic Graben to the Guárico State, the Cretaceous and Tertiary
The main source rock (Guayuta and
south of the Guárico Sub-Basin (modi- units gradually pinch-out (Fig. 1.48), creating
Temblador Groups) is currently presumed
fied from Daal et al., 1989). This section stratigraphic traps and asphalt seals in what
to have been overridden by the Guárico
shows how the Paleozoic sediments has been named the Orinoco Belt (Fig. 1.50).
North Deformation Front (Fig. 1.48). Hydro-
were preserved (Cambrian as well as
carbon generation is related to advance of
Jurassic with basalt) in the deep parts
the nappe, rapidly bringing the source rock
of the Espinto Graben. The final well
to the gas window due to tectonic
depth projected over the seismic line
overloading since at least the Late Eocene.
was 14,730 ft (4.490 m).
Figure 1.48
Las Mercedes
Field
Palacio Mucaria,Garrapata, VILLA DE CURA Structural cross sections from a point near the
S Field Guárico and others
N southern limit of the Guatopo National Park
Orinoco River Macapra River
(Altagracia de Orituco, Guárico State) to the
0 m
Recent Chaguaramas Orinoco River, approximately 160 km south
Roblecito
1000 La P 1000 of the intersection of the cross section with the
Carrizal ascu
a
Temblador Macapra River, and along the section from wells
2000
0 50 100
Infante G-D-6 to CAMAZ-1, south of Camatagua.
km Ba Quartzose
sem sandstone 3000 These cross sections show the depth to the
en
t
(autochthon) Cretaceous top, below the thrusting
A B
G-D-6 GRICO-6 GXB-1 CAMAZ-1 front that includes igneous-metamorphic rocks
Chaguaramas N.M (Villa de Cura Group) and Cretaceous-Tertiary
....
sedimentary rocks such as Mucaria, Garrapata,
.... Roblecito
La P 500
ascu Guárico, Roblecito, Peñas Blancas, Naricual,
a
....
...
1000 Quebradón, Quiamare and Chaguaramas Forma-
m
- --. .---
. .. 2000 tions (the last six concentrated in the thrusting
0 10 20 30 40 50 Cr
km eta front, in the so-called "Chacual Complex" (after
ce
ou
s González de Juana et al., 1980).
1 33
PETROLEUM BASINS GUARICO SUB-BASIN

,

,
Figure 1.49 The reservoirs are Neogene, and migration
probably occurred not only from north to
south, but from northeast to southeast.
Reservoir
Formation
Source
Graphic
Lithological Description The origin for the naphthenic-paraffinic oil
Rock
Group
Seal
Lithology
types is considered to be a Cretaceous

,
, ,
source rock, with tens of kilometers
Oficina
Coarse-grained sandstone.
migration, traveling along the Tertiary basal
5800'
Granular conglomerate. discordance (Neogene-Cretaceous and
Lignite, leaves.
5836' Neogene-Basement). The Orinoco Belt
Occasional shales. extends to the east, delimiting the south
?
,
,
Dolomitic limestones.
border for the whole Eastern Basin. Its
5900'
stratigraphy is shown in the geologic section
5925' of Fig. 1.50.
The most important shale seals are found
in the same units as the reservoirs, e.g.
Tigre
6000' ?

Roblecito, Chaguaramas and Oficina Forma-
Shales with Lingula. tions. The traps are combinations of structural
(extensional faults) and stratigraphic
TEMBLADOR
Ferrolithic levels.
Dolomitic limestones. (channels) traps.
6100' Exogyra.
,
,
,
6117' Whitish and speckled Petroleum Systems
mudstones interval.
The Guárico Sub-Basin is complex in its
petroleum system. Four such systems are
6200'
recognized: 1) Querecual-Oficina (!) (Fig.
Speckled siltstones.
1.51), 2) Temblador-La Pascua (!) (Fig. 1.52),
Pebble conglomerates. 3) Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) (Fig. 1.53), and
Whitish siltstones. 4) Oficina (!) (Fig. 1.54). The source rock of
Canoa
6300' Speckled mudstones and

sandstones interval.
the Querecual-Oficina system is the
Querecual Formation, which occurs as blocks
Pebble conglomerates.
and extremely faulted outcrops along the
whole Guárico Mountain Front. After
6400'
deposition (Late Cretaceous), it was first
Whitish weathered residual
rock. overburdened and then involved in the
6421'
Granite. Caribbean tectonics during the Eocene and
Basement
Oligocene. Reservoir sedimentation (Oficina
and Merecure Formations) occurs during the
Late Oligocene and Miocene, and trap forma-
tion occurs during the structural formation of
Lithological profile of the Tigre No. 1 well, Guárico State (after
the Eastern Basin during the Eocene. The
González de Juana et al., 1980).
generation, migration and accumulation of
hydrocarbons have occurred continuously
since the beginning of the Oligocene, from
the deepest part of the thrusting front, to the
southern distal pinch-out of the Eastern Basin.
1 34
Figure 1.50
Aproximately 570 km
West East
Machete-Zuata Hamaca-Cerro Negro
Western Province Eastern Province
Chaguaramas Las Piedras
? Freites
Aprox. 6000'
Roblecito Oficina
La Pascua Oficina
+ +
K + + +
K +
PK
+ + + + +
PK PK
PK
+ Metamorphic Basement
+ (Precambrian (?) )
Altamira Carrizal Hato Viejo
Sandy Reservoir Shaly Seals Paleozoic Basement (Sedimentary)
Sand-Seal Pairs Carbonate Reservoir Precambrian Basement (Igneous-Metamorphic)
Schematic structural configuration of the Orinoco Belt (after Audemard et al., 1985).
Figure 1.51
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma)

Petroleum
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Querecual-Oficina oil system (!), in the Oficina area, Guárico
Sub-Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
In the Oficina Formation, the Miocene

extensional fault systems are the main
trapping mechanisms for the Guárico and
Maturín (southern flank) Sub-Basins.
Specifically the Querecual-Oficina System
refers only to the area of the Oficina (near the
Guárico-Anzoátegui southern border) in the
Guárico Sub-Basin, located to the south of
El Cantil Formation (Guácharo Member). Areal
Guárico and Anzoátegui states. Its critical
view of the “Las Puertas del Guarapiche,”
moment is present-time.
Monagas State. Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
1 35
PETROLEUM BASINS GUARICO SUB-BASIN
Figure 1.52 The Temblador-La Pascua System covers

the central area of Guárico State. The main
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) reservoirs are the Temblador Group proper
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological time and the Roblecito and La Pascua Formations.
Petroleum The burial of the source rock occurred from
Formations the Eocene, with hydrocarbon generation
Source rock since the Oligocene. This produced a big
Seal
loss of hydrocarbons, because the structural
Reservoir
Burial traps did not form until the end of Miocene.
Trap formation The probable critical moment is around the
? accumulation Miocene-Pliocene limit.
Preservation
Critical moment The Querecual-Chaguaramas System is
a consequence of the previously discussed
Events chart for the Temblador Group-La Pascua (!) petroleum system in central
system. The traps, which are essentially
Guárico (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
stratigraphic and asphaltic seals, occur along
the southern border of the Eastern Basin,
Figure 1.53
creating the Orinoco Belt. The Querecual-
Chaguaramas System is applicable to the
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma)
whole of the Orinoco Belt, including the
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale southern border of the Maturín Sub-Basin,
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events where the reservoir rocks are the lateral
Formations
equivalents of the Chaguaramas Formation
Source rock
Seal in Guárico Sub-Basin. The critical moment is
Reservoir believed to be present-time.
Burial
In the Oficina System, hydrocarbons are
Trap formation
?
accumulation
believed to have been generated from
Preservation Miocene source rocks (coals, carbonaceous
Critical moment
siltstones) in the Oficina Formation proper.
Events chart for the Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) petroleum system, The sandstones of the same formation are
Orinoco River Belt (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). the reservoirs, but some of the oil may have
escaped to the underlying Merecure
Figure 1.54 Formation, with extensional-faulting traps
formed during Late Miocene. The source
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) rock overburden can be related to the thick
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological time Pliocene (molasse) sequences, associated
Tr J K Tertiary Qscale
Petroleum with the uplifting of the Interior Mountain
Formations
Range and the resulting lithospheric flexure
Source rock that generates extensional faulting. The
Seal
critical moment is present-time.
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
? Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Oficina (!) petroleum system, Oficina area, Guárico Sub-Basin
(after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 36
Figure 1.55
NW SE
Araya Interior Range Maturín
Sub-Basin Sub-Basin
Turimiquire Orinoco
Margarita - Los Testigos El Pilar Pirital
Block River
Platform Fault Morichito
Margarita
Island Basin
Maturín
Caribbean
Plate South American Vertical and horizontal scale
Plate 10
km
0 20
km
Pleistocene Cretaceous Oceanic Crust Dextral

Transcurrent
Late Oligocene - Pliocene Jurassic Accretionary Crust Component
Paleocene - Early Oligocene Early Paleozoic Continental Crust
Conceptual NW-SE geological cross section from Margarita-Los Testigos shelf to the Orinoco River. The north flank of the Maturín Sub-
Basin is associated with the thrusting fronts of large cortical blocks, emplaced to the south due to the collision between the Caribbean and
South American plates.
Figure 1.56 Maturín Sub-Basin

The Maturín Sub-Basin (Fig. 1.55) is the
Foredeep Basin N
S Pirital High main Eastern Basin petroliferous unit. The
Basin (Piggy-Back)
structural deformation and pinch-out of
Pleistocene Mesa (Continental) p Quiriquire (Continental)
Lit
stratigraphic units to the south define two
U
l
or er Continenta
p
al Co Mo
Las Piedras (Litoral) nti rich
Ca
ta l
Pliocene ap ne
o ito operational domains: north and south of the
r
nta
pap it a l
La Pica (Marine) Cha oral)
L it
Late apit
a" ( 0 Pirital Thrust (Figs. 1.55 and 1.56).
Car
Miocene per Deep water
"Up Undifferentiated Cretaceous Allochthon The stratigraphy of the eastern Interior
shales and turbidites
Middle
Miocene "Middle Carapita "
Pir
2 Range is representative of sedimentation on
ital km
Paleogene SANTA ANITA and
M ERE
CUR
Fau
lt the northern flank of the main Maturín Sub-
to Late EG
rou
Cretaceous TEMBLADOR ps "Lower Ca
rapita "
Basin (Fig. 1.57). A thick and complex
Late Jurassic
Deep water sedimentary sequence ranges from the
shales and turbidites
Paleozoic ? Lower Cretaceous to Pleistocene. On the
southern flank, a simpler stratigraphy occurs,
Shallow Water Crystalline Basement La Quinta
Sandstones and
similar to that of the Guárico Sub-Basin in
Formation
Limestones the subsurface. The Temblador Group (Fig.
Structural cross section showing the tectono-stratigraphic units in the Maturín Sub- 1.49) represents the Cretaceous, and the
Basin’s northern flank. The figure also illustrates the complex tectonic and overlying Tertiary is mainly Oligocene-
sedimentary units that constitute the vertical and lateral equivalents of the Carapita Pleistocene, with alternating fluvial-deltaic
Formation in the subsurface; coeval foredeep environment sediments were and shallow marine environments eventually
deposited in the south, while north of the Pirital High, a piggy-back basin was overlain by continental sediments (Fig. 1.50).
developed, with shallow and continental environments (after Roure et al., 1994). The
Santa Anita Group includes the formations San Juan, Vidoño and Caratas.
1 37
,,
PETROLEUM BASINS M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Figures 1.57 and 1.58 The main source rock in the Interior
Range is the Guayuta Group, especially the
gy Querecual Formation. Its thickness is double
Reserv.
Source
Lithostratigraphic
lo
Formation
Seal
Series Ma Units ho Lithological Description
S Lit
Member
N
Electric Lithological
Pleistocene
Plio- Late
Mesa ?
Las Piedras,
Sandstones and claystones.
T = 275 m. Log Description
that of its Western Venezuela lateral
cene Early Quiriquire,etc.
? Conglomerates, sandstones
equivalent (La Luna Formation) and it has
Midd. Late
Quiamare and often calcareous shale/
10 ?
claystones.
T = 3000-4600 m. Las Piedras
Neogene
Uchirito ?
similar characteristics as source rock. The
Miocene
Calcareous conglomerates. La Pica

Black calcareous shales, inter- 5458'
,
5500'
bedded turbiditic sandstones;
lateral transition of the Cretaceous from the
Early
Carapita
conglomerates at the top. 5800'
20 M
T = 1000-2000 m. 5635'
Sandstones interbedded with northern flank of the sub-basin to the
Late Early Late
?
Oligocene
Naricual
calcareous siltstones and coals.
30
Areo
T = 2000 m.
Shales, siltstones, and glauco-
southern Temblador Group is not known in
nitic sandstones. T = 300m
40 ?
?
Los Jabillos
Thick sandstones interbedded the subsurface because of the considerable
1 with dark shales; the Tinajitas 6000'
thickness of the Neogene sequence. Never-
Middle
Caratas
Eocene
Member is calcareous and

Paleogene
glauconitic. Sandstones
T = 700-200 m. with regular
50 shale
interbedding
theless, it is believed that the Cretaceous
Early
(sandy
a
V
Dark shales increasing its turbiditic source rock is still of good quality in the
Late
sandy contents to the south. facies).

Paleocene
i ? T = 700-200 m.
?
Greater Oficina Area, which generated part of
t
? ?
60 d
6500'
Early
o
ñ 6595'
the oil present in these fields.
i
o
?
Sandstones and shales.
Chapapotal
San Juan
p
70 ? T = 0-650 m.
Shales with
The main source rock for the North
thin sandy
,
San Antonio
beds, probably Monagas region was probably Cretaceous
a
M
Siliceous limestones, sand-
turbiditic.
Late
80
stones and black cherts. (Guayuta Group), although the possibility of
r
T = 250-500 m. 7000'
younger source rocks is not discarded.
Cretaceous
a 7190'
90 ? Pelagic black limestones.
Querecual M T= 650-750 m. Younger source rocks would need organic
C
. .
Limestones, sandstones and
shales, the glauconitic content
100 ?
Chim
8
. .
ana . .
. .
is high in some places. matter of continental affinity (e.g., the
Guácharo . . T= 270-535 m.
7500'
. . Bioclastic limestones and argilla-
Naricual Formation is coaly/carbonaceous).
El Cantil
(Upper.)
Guácharo(Low.)
ceous limestones; the sandy Sandstones
? 7
contents increase to the top. with many
110 García
?
T = 700-1000 m.
Sandstones. T = 157 m.
shale
interbeddings
The most important reservoirs are of
Early
6 Shales and limestones. (sandy

Barranquín 53 4 .
2 .
.
. ? T = 186 m.
Sandstones, limestones and
turbiditic
facies).
Tertiary age; in North Monagas fields they
120 ? carbonaceous siltstones.
1 = Mbr. Tinajitas T = 1400-2400 m. consist of Carapita, Naricual, Los Jabillos and
2 = Capas Río Solo
3 = Venados Carbonate reservoir
8000'
4 = Morro Blanco
5 = Picuda 8075'
Caratas Formations (Fig. 1.57). Late Creta-
6 = Taguarumo Seal rock Mainly shales
with some thin
130 7= Mapurite
8 = Punceres Sandy reservoir sandy beds ceous sandstones (San Juan Formation) are
(probably
Transgressive
advance
Sand/seal pairs turbiditic). also good reservoirs, and the youngest Mio-
M General source rock
Regressive
progradation
T = Thickness 8500' Pliocene reservoirs belong to La Pica and the
molassic Las Piedras-Quiriquire Formations
Integrated stratigraphic column (time scale) for Electrical log from Well Q-297, in
(Fig. 1.56). Structural traps, such as those in
the Interior Range (Maturín Sub-Basin northern Cahipo block of the Quiriquire
El Furrial Field (Fig. 1.58) are of prime impor-
flank) (after Yoris, 1992). Field, State of Monagas. This is
tance for hydrocarbon accumulations.
typical of the Chapapotal
Major regional seals for the Cretaceous-
Member of the Carapita
Tertiary sequence in the northern flank of the
Formation (after González de
sub-basin are the Vidoño, Areo and Carapita
Juana et al., 1980). The turbidite
Formations (Fig. 1.57). The Areo and Carapita
regime of the sand-seal pairs of
also have lenticular reservoirs, such as the
the Carapita Formation is the
turbiditic lobes of the Carapita Formation
same throughout all the region
(Chapapotal Member; see Fig. 1.59).
(approximately 80 km to the
To the south of the sub-basin, in the
west of the Quiriquire oil field),
Oficina fields of Anzoátegui and Monagas
and in the El Furrial Field, 40 km
states, the main reservoirs are Merecure and
to the southeast (after Yoris,
Oficina Formations. Regional shale seals
1989, 1982).
belong to the same units, and the overlying
Freites Formation is also an important
regional seal.
1 38
Figure 1.59 From west to east the main oil fields in

the north of Monagas state are: Oficina Major
El Furrial
S N Area, Quiamare, Jusepín, El Furrial, Orocual,
1400 1500
Boquerón, Quiriquire and Pedernales.
2
In the south the sub-basin also includes
the Orinoco Belt. It has Neogene reservoirs
and Cretaceous source rock, with distal
3
Carapita
migration occurring along and across the
Seconds
Cretaceous-Neogene and Basement-Neogene

Mere
cure discordances.
4
Creta
ceous Oil gravities are quite varied. In El
Furrial and nearby fields medium-type oils
5 are common; Quiamare-La Ceiba produced
oils with average 41°API; in the Oficina
1 km fields, light, medium and heavy oils are
found; and in the Orinoco Belt the oil is
Structural interpretation from El Furrial Field (after Pernaud et al., 1995). In this section,
always heavy. In general, heavy oils are
the trap is made of a structural high associated with the development of a thrust with
found at the basin margins with the
vergence to the south.
youngest and shallowest reservoirs; this is
Figure 1.60 the case for the Orinoco Belt in the southern
flank and the Quiriquire, Manresa and
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma)
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological
Guanoco fields in the northern flank. The
Q time scale
TR J K Tertiary
Petroleum last two fields contain extra-heavy oils.
Formations
Source rock Petroleum Systems
Seal
The main petroleum systems of Maturín
Reservoir
Burial
Sub-Basin are: 1) Guayuta-Oficina (!) (Fig.
Trap formation 1.60), and 2) Guayuta-Carapita (!) (Fig. 1.61).
accumulation
Preservation The first one is related to the oil fields of the
Critical moment southern flank, and includes the Late
Cretaceous Querecual and San Antonio
Events chart for Guayuta-Oficina (!) petroleum system, Maturín Sub-Basin.
Formations (Guayuta Group) as the main
The kitchen is located below the Pirital Block (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
source rocks, overloaded (stratigraphically
Figure 1.61
and tectonically) until the present day. The
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma)
main reservoirs include Oligo-Miocene units
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological time such as Merecure, Oficina and Freites
Petroleum Formations. The principal seals are the
Formations Oficina and Freites Formations, and trap
Source rock
formation began during the Oligocene defor-
Seal
Reservoir
mation and continues to the present.
Burial The generation, migration and accumulation
Trap formation
Generation migration of hydrocarbons is reaching the critical
accumulation
Preservation moment at the present. Generation began in
Critical moment
the Late Paleocene when the Caribbean
Events chart for the Guayuta-Carapita (!) petroleum system for the Maturín nappes overthrusted the South American
Sub-Basin. The kitchen is located both in the autochthonous and in the Furrial plate, far to the west and northwest of their
(allochthonous) blocks (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). actual position.
1 39
PETROLEUM BASINS M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Figure 1.62 The second system, the Guayuta-

Carapita (!), is related to the northern flank of
Caribbean Sea the Maturín Sub-Basin. It is characterized by
El Pilar Fault
heterogeneous reservoirs and seals, with a
younger hydrocarbon generation than the
N
Guayuta-Oficina system. The generation-
San
Fran migration and the trap formation are Late
cisco
Fault
Inmature Oligocene to Present, with critical moment at
Mature
the present time. Important seals are Vidoño,
Pi
rit
al Areo and Carapita Formations, with minor
Th Very mature
ru seal capacity in the molassic units such as
sti Maturín
ng
Morichito, Las Piedras and Quiriquire
ront Formations. San Juan, Caratas, Los Jabillos,
ion F
rmat
Defo Merecure (subsurface “Naricual”), Carapita,
La Pica, Las Piedras and Quiriquire Forma-
tions are important reservoirs.
The kitchen for the Maturín Sub-Basin
source rock is summarized in Fig. 1.62,
showing that the source rock is in a gas
window below the deformation front, and its
maturity zone (oil window) is actually
feeding the sub-basin’s southern flank.
Orinoco River 0 20
km
Ciudad Bolívar
Hydrocarbons kitchen for the Interior Range and Maturín

Sub-Basin (after Parnaud et al., 1995).
AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
This chapter † was written by F.Yoris and M.Ostos (E.I.G.LITOS C.A.)
with the collaboration of the personnel of LITOS C.A. and of L.Zamora.

†
The History of Exploration of Venezuela was written by L.Zamora.
1 40
The following definitions are either quoted directly or Half-graben: “A depressed block bounded on one side by
paraphrased from Bates and Jackson (1987), and are a listric fault.” This name is used for some of the relic
presented here as a reference for the chapters in this book portions of Western Venezuela Jurassic grabens in which
that discuss geological concepts. If the reader wants more the La Quinta Formation outcrops in the Andes.
information about these terms, the mentioned reference or Hemipelagic sediments: Typical sediments of the
specialized books are recommended. continental margin and abyssal plain. More than 25% of
Allochthonous: “Formed or produced elsewhere than in its the fraction coarser than 5 microns must be either
present place.” Here, this term is used to designate terrigenous, volcanogenic, and/or neritic.
portions of Earth’s crust, separated from their original Laurasia: The Northern Hemisphere equivalent of
basement and tectonically transported long distances, and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, and from which
being finally emplaced as “allochthonous terranes.” the Northern Hemisphere continents were derived.
Asthenosphere: see Lithosphere. Laurentia: “A name that is widely and confusingly used for
Authochthonous: “Formed or produced in the place where granites and orogenies of Precambrian age in the
now found.” Here, this term is used for the Earth’s crustal Canadian Shield.”
portions that are rooted on their original basement. Limestone: A sedimentary rock made up of more than 50%
Bathyal: “Pertaining to the ocean environment or depth calcium carbonate (calcite); also a carbonate sedimentary
zone between 200 and 2000 meters.” rock containing more than 95% calcite and less than 5%
Chert: “Microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary dolomite.
rock consisting dominantly of quartz crystals less than 30 Lithosphere: The solid portion of the Earth, including the
microns in diameter. It may contain amorphous silica or crust and part of the upper mantle. Its rigid behavior
impurities such as calcite, iron oxide, and the remains of contrasts with the underlying asthenosphere, which is
siliceous and other organisms.” capable of “flow” via convection cells while maintaining
Clastic sediments: Sediments formed by particles derived its solid constitution.
from the erosion/weathering of preexisting rocks or other Molasse: “An extensive, post-orogenic sedimentary
sediments, being transported by wind or water. The clastic formation resulting from the wearing down of elevated
fractions are: clay ( < 1/256 mm diameter), silt (1/256 to mountain ranges,” during or immediately after orogeny. It
1/16 mm), sand (1/16 to 2 mm) and gravel ( > 2 mm). is usually very thick.
Rocks dominated by silt and clay fractions are shales and Nappe: “A sheetlike, allochthonous rock unit, which has
(siliceous) mudstones, by sand are sandstones, and by moved on a predominantly horizontal surface.” The
gravel are conglomerates. mechanism of transport is usually thrust faulting.
Conglomerate: see Clastic sediments. Neritic sediments: Those sediments deposited in a marine
Diachronism: “The transgression, across time planes or environment between low tide level and the shelf break.
biozones, by a rock unit whose age differs from place to Olistolite: see Olistostrome.
place.” Olistostrome: Stratigraphic intervals made up of chaotic,
Economic basement: In the oil industry, the oldest rocks lithologically diverse blocks (Olistolites, sometimes up to
in a given place that do not contain hydrocarbons (ex: several kilometers long), accumulated by sliding and
sedimentary Jurassic rocks in the Venezuelan oil basins, or slumping of unconsolidated sediment.
igneous and metamorphic rocks with no porosity and Orogenesis: “Literally, the process of formation of
permeability). mountains.” In modern usage, orogenic mountain chains
Gondwana: The Late Paleozoic continent of the Southern are considered the collision boundaries between tectonic
Hemisphere. The term originates from the Gondwana plates.
System of India, which is Carboniferous to Jurassic age Pangea: A supercontinent that existed 200 to 300 million
and includes glacially derived and coal sediments. years ago and included most of the existing continental
Graben: Elongated portion of the Earth’s crust, relatively crust. From this supercontinent the present continents
depressed in comparison with surrounding areas and were derived by fragmentation and displacement via
bounded by faults on its long sides. plate tectonics.
1 41
GLOSSARY
Pelagic sediments: Marine sediments formed mainly from Tectonic plate: A rigid portion of the Earth’s lithosphere with
open ocean-suspended particles. These particles can be seismic activity along its borders. Over geologic time, it has
either nektonic or planktonic. The term pelagic also refers been postulated that the Earth’s tectonic plates moved over
to the water of the ocean as an environment. the asthenosphere via convection cell mechanisms.
Pull-apart basin: An extensional basin formed between Terrain: “A tract or region of the Earth’s surface considered
two strike-slip faults. as a physical feature, an ecological environment, or some
Regression: “A retreat or contraction of the sea from land planned activity of man.” Here, the usage is physical
areas,” with a potential increase in subaerially exposed (geological).
areas. A regressive sedimentary sequence is identified Terrane: “A fault-bounded body of rock of regional extent.
when its sediments’ paleodepth steadily decreases as they A terrane is generally considered to be a discrete
decrease in age. allochthonous fragment of oceanic or continental material
Sandstone: see Clastic sediments. added to a craton at an active margin by accretion.”
Shale: see Clastic sediments. Thrust front: Regions of the lithosphere associated with
Siltstone: see Clastic sediments. nappe emplacement; normally they form mountain ranges
Subsidence: “The downward settling of the Earth’s surface near collisional plate limits. Ex: in Venezuela, the Interior
with little or no horizontal motion.” In a sedimentary basin, Mountain Range (Serranía del Interior) is considered a
an increase in subsidence results in a higher capacity to thrust front associated with the nappe emplacement
receive sediment. If the basin is trough-shaped, the basin caused by the collision between the Caribbean and South
axis reflects the deepest subsidence points. American Plates. Thrust fronts are also associated with
“fold and thrust belts”.
Transgression: “The spread or extension of
the sea over land areas.” A transgressive
sedimentary sequence is that in which the
Eonotheme Eratheme System and Sub-system Series
Numeric
Age
paleodepth of its sediments steadily
(Eon) (Era) (Period and Sub-period) (Epoch) (Ma) increase as they decrease in age.
Holocene
Quaternary Pleistocene
1.64 Trough: An elongated crustal depression,
Pilocene
Cenozoic Neogene 23.3 usually associated with a subduction-type
Miocene
Tertiary
Paleogene
Oligocene, Eocene,
Paleocene
65 plate boundary or transformal limit (ex:
Cretaceous Upper (Late)
Lower (Early) 145.8
Marianas Trough, in the Pacific Ocean).
Upper (Late)
Jurassic Medium (Middle) 208
Troughs (also: foredeeps) can be found
Mesozoic
Fanerozoic
Lower (Early)
Upper (Late) parallel to the trend of “fold and thrust
Triassic Medium (Middle) 245
Lower (Early) belts” due to the lithospheric plate flexure
Upper (Late)
Permian 290
Lower (Early) produced by its weight.
Carboniferous 362.5 Turbidite: Sediment body deposited from
Upper (Late)
Devonian Medium (Middle)
Lower (Early)
408.5 turbidity currents.
Paleozoic
Silurian Turbidity currents: Density currents
439
Ordovician
Upper (Late)
Medium (Middle)
caused by different amounts of matter in
Lower (Early)
510 suspension. They commonly occur along
Cambrian
570 the continental slopes and delta fronts,
Precambrian
ic
zo
where the discharge of sediments can be

o
er
ot
very high.
Pr
2500
Archaic Vergence: The direction of movement of
lithospheric masses involved in thrusting;
Main units of the Chronostratigraphic (Geochronological) Global Standard Scale: also “the direction of overturning or of
Ages are in millions of years (Ma) corresponding to those of Harland et al (1990) inclination of a fold.”
Salvador (1994 : 86) modified.
1 42
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Macellari, C.E. (1995) Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics of the
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Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin, Venezuela and Colombia. En :
Geológico Venezolano. Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogos (Caracas);
Tankard, A.; Súarez, R. y Welsink, H.J.: Petroleum Basins of South America :
Memoria 1: 156-200.
AAPG Mem. 62: 757-780.
Canache, M.; Pilloud, A.; Truskowski, I.; Crux, J.; Gamarra, S. (1994) Revisión
Martínez, A.R. (1976) Cronología del Petróleo Venezolano. Colección Ciencia
Estratigráfica de la Sección Cretácica del Río Maraca, Sierra de Perijá,
y Petróleo 1, Ediciones Foninves, Caracas: 349 p.
Venezuela. Resumen. V Simposio de Cuencas Subandinas, Memorias;
Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela, 1994: 240-241. Martínez, A. R. (1987) The Orinoco Oil Belt, Venezuela. Journal of Petroleum
Geology, 10 (2): 125-134.
Casas, J.; Moreno, J. y Yoris, F.G. (1995) Análisis tectono-sedimentario de la
Formación Pampatar (Eoceno Medio), Isla de Margarita (Venezuela). Asoc. Martínez, A. R. (1994) Cronología del Petróleo Venezolano. Ediciones del
Paleont. Arg. (Buenos Aires), Publ. Espec. 3: Paleogeno de América del Sur: CEPET, Caracas, 1995; Vol. 2: 462 p.
27-33.
Méndez, J. O. (1978) La Petrólea del Táchira - Cronología Ilustrada. SVIP,
Castro, M., Mederos, A. (1985) Litoestratigrafía de la Cuenca de Carúpano. Revista Zumaque, (32): 13-29.
En: Espejo, A.; Ríos, J.H. y Bellizzia, N.P. de (Edrs.): VI Congreso Geológico
Méndez, J.; Marcano, F.; Valera, R.; González,C.; Kiser, D.; Martínez, A.;
Venezolano. Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogos (Caracas); Memoria 1: 201-
Osuna, S.; Russomano, F; Jam,P.; Jiménez, C.; Pérez de Mejía, D.; Gaete,
225.
C.P. de; Boesi, T.; White, C. (1989) Exploración. En: Barberii, E.E.(Editor
Daal, A. ; González, A. ; Hernández, V. ; Uzcátegui, M. ; Rodríguez, H. ; Pizón, Técnico) La Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos. Ediciones del CEPET,
J. Y Choppin, H. (1989) Evolución geológica de la región occidental de la Caracas: 1-157.
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Ministerio de Energía y Minas (1985 - 1995) Petróleo y otros Datos
Venezolana de Geólogos (Caracas); Memoria 2: 389-402.
Estadísticos (P.O.D.E) Publicación Anual de la Dirección General Sectorial de
Hidrocarburos - Dirección de Economía de Hidrocarburos, Caracas.
1 43
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Economía Petrolera, Caracas. en Venezuela, SVIP, Congr. Ven. Petr. I, Caracas, 1963. (*) Personal Técnico
de las compañías: Shell de Venezuela, Creole Pet. Corp., Mene Grande Oil
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Motiscka, P. (1985) Volcanismo Mesozoico en el subsuelo de la Faja
Stainforth, R.M. (1971) La Formación Carapita de Venezuela Oriental, IV
Petrolífera del Orinoco, Estado Guárico, Venezuela. VI Congreso Geológico
Congreso Geológico Venezolano (Caracas); Bol. Geol.; Pub. Esp. 5; (1): 433-
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Stifano, M.P. (1993) Estratigrafía de la Formación Carapita en su sección tipo
Muñoz, N.G. (1973) Geología sedimentaria del Flysch Eoceno de la Isla de
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Margarita, Venezuela . Geos (Caracas) 20: 5-64.
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Navarro, E.; Ostos, M. y Yoris, F.G. (1988) Revisión y redefinición de unidades
Talukdar, S. y Marcano, F. (1994) Petroleum Systems of the Maracaibo Basin,
litoestratigráficas y síntesis de un modelo tectónico para la evolución de la
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Velarde, H. (1991) Cinco Relatos de Exploración en la Venezuela Petrolera
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Unidad Litoestratigráfica del Terciario en el Subsuelo de la Cuenca Barinas -
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Yoris, F.G. (1988) Localidades tipo y secciones de referencia para los miem-
Passalacqua, H. y Roure, F. (1995a) Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western
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Carapita, utilizando los métodos del promedio móvil y series de Fourier. VII
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Passalacqua, H. ; Fernández, F. ; Gou, Y. y Roure, F. (1995) Crustal
y Lander, R. (1996) Detailed Lithostratigraphy and Age Determinations of La
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Tankard, A.; Suárez, R. y Welsink, H.J.: Petroleum Basins of South America.
Bull.; 80 (8): 1346.
AAPG Mem. 62: 667-680.
Yoris, F.G. ; Ostos, M. ; Boujana, M. ; Contreras, O. y Lander, R.(1996) Mirador
Pérez de Mejía, D. ;Kiser, G.D. ;Maximowitsch, B. y Young, G. (1980)
Formation in SW Táchira State, Venezuela : Potential Reservoir for the
Geología de Venezuela. En : Felder, B. (Coord.), Brie, A. ;Gartner, J. ; Hepp, V.
Paleogene Sequence. AAPG Bull. 80 (8): 1346.
; Hrabie, M ; Kervella, M. ; Mons., F. ; Mowat, G. ; Neville, N. ; Plomb, J. ;
Sadras, W. ; Tejada, A. ; Trassard, J. ; Vidal, J. Y Zinat, D. : Evaluación de Yoris, F.G. (1992) Análisis de secuencias clásticas por métodos petrográficos
Formaciones en Venezuela. Schlumberger Surenco S.A. ;1ra. Ed. : 287 p. y estadísticos. Tesis Doctoral en Ciencias Geológicas. Fac. Ing.; Dept.
Geología (UCV): 1045 p.
Rivero, F. (1956) Léxico Estratigráfico de Venezuela. Bol. Geol. (Caracas) ;
Pub. Esp. 1 : 728 p. Yoris, F.G. (1992) Localidades tipo para los miembros de la Formación
Chimana en la Serranía del Interior, Venezuela nororiental. Geos (Caracas);
Roger, J.V. (Coord.); Arteaga, N. (Coord. ) Cabrera,J.; Valera, G.; Jam., P.;
(30): 295-324.
Castillo, M.; Boesi, T. y Sancevic, Z.A. (1989) Exploración. Sección II :
Ingeniería de Yacimientos y Geología de Producción. En: Barberii, E.E.(Editor Young, G. ; Bellizzia, A. ; Renz, H.H. ; Johnson, F. ; Robie, R. y Más Vall, J.
Técnico) La Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos. Ediciones del CEPET, (1956) Geología de las cuencas sedimentarias de Venezuela y de sus campos
Caracas, Tomo 1: 2-167 a 2-261. petrolíferos. Bol. Geol. (Caracas) ; Pub. Esp. 2 : 140 p.
Roure, F. ; Carnevali, J.O. ; Gou, Y. y Subieta, T. (1994) Geometry and kine-
matics of the North Monagas thrust belt (Venezuela). Marine and Petroleum
Geology 11 (3) :347-362.
Salvador, A. (1994) International Stratigraphic Guide. I.U.G.S. y GSA (Boulder)
; 2da Ed. : 214 p.
1 44
Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela
Introduction
Tía Juana (onshore)
Lagunillas
Tía Juana (offshore)
Ceuta
Mara Oeste
Silvestre
Oveja
Santa Rosa
Carito
El Furrial
Pedernales
Cerro Negro
HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Introduction Geographical location

During the last eight decades Venezuela A total of 360 oil fields have been
has been outstanding worldwide as one of identified in Venezuela, representing more
the most important countries for its than 17,300 hydrocarbon reservoirs in an
significant oil reserves, production potential area of 23.41´106 acres (13% of the national
and variety of crudes. In this chapter, territory surface), of which 52% is found in
Venezuelan hydrocarbon accumulations are the eastern province and the remaining in
described from the exploitation point of the western province (Fig 1.0 from Geology
view, first in a broad basin-to-basin over- chapter and Table 2.1).
view, and then in a discussion of 12 specific
reservoirs that are typical of Venezuelan oil General description
fields. Their geographical and geological Before describing the different hydro-
locations are defined, petrophysical and carbon accumulations, it is important to
thermodynamic properties are indicated, mention that Venezuela produces all of the
reserves and extracted fluids are quantified, crude oil types currently existing in the
and their particular reservoir drive mecha- world. Specific API gravity classification is
nisms are characterized. as follows:
Bitumen (B) up to 8.2
Extra-heavy crudes (XH) up to 9.9
Heavy crudes (H) from 10.0 to 21.9
Medium crudes (M) from 22.0 to 29.9
Table 2.1 Light crudes (L)

and condensates (C) from 30.0 up
Western Province Area Primary oil fields
Maracaibo Western Coast La Paz, Boscán, Concepción, Mara, Los Claros,

Urdaneta, Los Manueles, Tarra
Center Lake Lama, Lamar, Centro
Eastern Coast* Tía Juana, Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Ceuta, Western Province
Motatán, Barua, Ambrosio
Falcón Western Tiguaje, Hombre Pintado, Media, El Mene 1) Maracaibo Basin

Eastern La Vela, La Ensenada, Cumarebo
The main hydrocarbon accumulations
Barinas-Apure Barinas Silvestre, Silvan, Sinco, Páez-Mingo
Apure Guafita, La Victoria are found in the Eocene and Pliocene sand-
Eastern Province Area Primary oil fields stones of deltaic origin. In general, the
Maturín** Anaco Santa Rosa, San Joaquín, El Roble, Santa Ana lightest crudes and condensates lie in the
Oficina Melones, Oficina Central, Yopales, Oveja,
Oritupano, Dación, Ostra, Mata oldest and deepest formations (Cretaceous,
North Monagas El Furrial, Santa. Bárbara, Jusepín, Carito, Basement, Paleocene, Eocene).
Pedernales, Quiriquire
South Monagas Jobo, Morichal, El Salto, Pilón
Orinoco Belt Cerro Negro, Hamaca, Zuata, Machete
Guárico** Las Mercedes Belén, Guavinita, Palacio
*Also called Bolívar District Coast or Bolívar Coastal Field (BCF)

** Sub-basin
Geographical location of the main oil fields in Venezuela.
2 1
Figure 2.1 a) Eastern Coast b) Center Lake

Onshore oil fields are the Cabimas, Tía In the Center Lake area the most
Juana, Lagunillas and Bachaquero, which important oil fields are Lama, Lamar and
Formation
Offshore Area produce heavy crudes from the Miocene-age Centro. Production comes primarily from the
AGE
Member Reservoir
Lagunillas and La Rosa Formations that Eocene (“B” and “C” sandstones) and par-
overlie the Eocene unconformity (Fig. 2.1). tially from the Miocene La Rosa Formation,
BA–SUP–10
Upper
BA–SUP–57 These reservoirs extend offshore along the Santa Barbara Member. Crudes are mainly
BA–2
Medium lake coast, but at greater depth, which light. Light oil is also produced from the
BA–MED–38
affects fluid properties and results in heavy Paleocene Guasare Formation limestones.
Bachaquero
BA–12 to medium crudes. The Cogollo Group, including the Maraca,

The Misoa Formation sandstones Lisure and Apón Formations, as well as the
Lagunillas
BA–INF–59
constitute the main Eocene hydrocarbon La Luna Formation and the Socuy Member,
Lower
BA–16 reservoirs. Crudes are medium to light, all of Cretaceous age, are fractured
MIOCENE
varying with depth. The “B” sandstone sandstones and light oil producers. Some
Laguna
A–3
Laguna
package, divided into nine members, mainly Lama Field characteristics, shown in the
A–10 produces medium crude and partially light Table 2.2, describe the Center Lake oil
Bárb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
Bárb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
LL–3–4–5 crude from the B-7 to B-5 sandstones. The accumulations in general terms.
LL–7–11
LL–12 “C” sandstone package has a light crude
LL–34
accumulation and the C-7 to C-4 members c) Western coast
LR–11
are the main producers. The area’s most important fields are
La Rosa
Gas and condensates from the Creta- Boscán, Mara-La Paz and Urdaneta north-
SB–14–71 ceous have been discovered in the Ambrosio ward and Tara-Manueles southward. In
Sta.
Sta.
SB–05
Field, close to Cabimas, north of the Lake. general, oil from Basement and Cretaceous
EOCENE
The prevailing production mechanisms limestones is light, and heavy to medium
Stratigraphic nomenclature of are solution gas, water drive, and compac- from the Tertiary (Eocene, Misoa Formation
Miocene reservoirs—Bolívar tion, as well as gas and/or water injection for to the north, Mirador Formation to the
District Coast (Source: Roger, pressure maintenance in the reservoirs. south). There are some exceptions, such as
J. V. et al., 1989). Later in this chapter, the Tía Juana, heavy crudes from the Eocene Boscán and
Lower Lagunillas-07, B-6-X.03, and Ceuta Urdaneta Fields and 16°API Cretaceous Mara
Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 are described as Field (see Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir des-
examples of Eastern Coast reservoir . cription later in this chapter). The La Paz
Field produces light oil from the Basement
and Cretaceous; however, nearby the La
Table 2.2 Concepción Field is a light oil and gas
Formation Gravity Depth OOIP Recovery Drive** producer from the Tertiary. To the south,
Member* °API M ft MMSTB Factor (%)
medium to light oil accumulations are found
Sta. Barbara (a) 29–32 7–11 750 30 1,2
in the Tertiary, and the Cretaceous lime-
Misoa (b) 29–34 7.1–13.5 7600 40 1,2,4
stones contain gas and condensates. The
Guasare (c) 35–38 10–17.5 10 17 2,3
light to medium oil from the Cretaceous lime-
S/L/C (d) 32–42 12.4–20 720 21.5 1,2,3
stones are in the center zone, which includes
*(a) Miocene, (b) Eocene, (c) Paleocene, (d) Cretaceous Socuy/La Luna/Cogollo
** 1. Water, 2. Solution gas, 3. Gas cap, 4. Expansion Alpuf, San Jose and Machiques Fields.
Characteristics of the oil-producing sands in the Lama Field, located in Center Lake.
2 2
Figure 2.2 2) Falcón Basin Silvan, Maporal and Palmita Fields are in the
In the Falcón Basin the hydro- northern area. Water is the prevailing
Formation
carbon accumulations occur in reservoir drive mechanism.
AGE Sand Member
depth range Oligomiocene rocks. In general the
AQ–A6 oil from the Falcón Western fields b) Apure
LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE
A7–10 (Tiguaje, El Mene, Hombre Light crudes come from Guafita
B Azul
C Pintado) and some from Eastern (Oligocene Carbonera Formation, Members
D
F fields (Mene de Acosta, Cumarebo) “A” and “B”) and La Victoria Fields
Oficina H Moreno comes from sandstones. From the (Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation). The
TERTIARY
1000–5000 feet I–J

K–L
Naranja Ensenada y La Vela areas, produc- reservoirs’ main drive mechanisms are water
M–N Verde tion comes from carbonates. and fluid expansion.
U–P Amarillo
R Crudes are light with low sulfur
S Colorado
and metal content. Eastern Province
T
OLIGO-
Merecure 1) Maturín sub-basin

CENE
U
250–1500 feet 3) Barinas–Apure Basin
The most important hydrocarbon
a) Barinas
CRETA- Temblador accumulations occur in Tertiary formations
CEOUS Heavy to medium crudes are pro-
800–2000 feet
mainly from the Oligocene (Merecure
duced from the Eocene Gobe-
Stratigraphic column Oficina Formation— Formation) and the Miocene (Oficina and
rnador Formation (Members “A”
Greater Oficina Area (Source: Roger, J. V. Merecure Formations), (Fig. 2.2). More than
and “B”) and medium crude from
et al., 1989). 10,000 proven reservoirs have been
the Cretaceous Escandalosa Forma-
classified, most of them being small, with
tion (Member “P”). The Páez-Mingo, Hato
variable rock and fluid characteristics and all
and Sinco Fields are located in the southern
with known natural production mechanisms.
area; Silvestre (see reservoir P1/2 [0017] later
in this chapter) is in the center area, and
a) Greater Oficina Area
South Anaco thrust fault reservoirs
Figure 2.3a mainly contain saturated and unsaturated
oils, as well as some dry gas and condensate
40,000
30 Percentage of each region total types.
The produced crudes are light (Zapata,
34.823 34.819
Nardo, Chimire, Kaki, Sato, La Ceibita, Zulos,
30,000 Budare), medium (Oficina Central, Limón,
Yopales, Nipa, Mata, Oscurote, Aguasay) and
48 67
heavy (Melones, Migas, Oveja, Dación,
MMSTB
20,000 Ostra). As an example, see J-3 (OM-100)

16.370
Oveja reservoir later in this chapter.
Sandstone thicknesses vary from 3 to 100 ft
10,000
10.956 22 and the depths of the productive intervals
9.716
8.430
15 are between 4000 and 14,000 ft. Porosity
6.340 47 6.654
12 varies from 10 to 35% and permeability from
4.665 4.676 13
30 4 3.765
2.087 1 9
3 108
22
4
1.979 7 50 to 1000 md, and sometimes several
0
C L M H XH C L M H XH C L M H XH darcies. Most of these reservoirs have a gas
Venezuela Western Eastern cap and some contain only gas.
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by region and type of crude.
2 3
Figure 2.3b b) Greater Anaco Area

The main fields in this area are Santa
Venezuela Rosa (see RG-14-COEF reservoir descrip-
25% tion), Joaquín, Santa Ana and El Toco. They
29%
Western
50% 65% are located north of the Anaco thrust fault.
Eastern 10%
21%
Oil and condensate reservoirs prevail, even
Orinoco Belt
though some dry gas reservoirs are present.
5% 0.2% The average depth is around 7000 ft, and
Western
average net oil sand (NOS) and net
condensate sand (NCS) are each 18 ft thick.
Maracaibo Porosity, permeability and water saturation
Barinas-Apure
95% 99.8% are approximately 17%, 160 md and 15%,
respectively. Average oil gravity is 39°API
5%
4% Eastern and condensate is 51°API. In the Greater
Anaco
2%
13% Oficina and Anaco areas secondary recovery
11%
San Tomé* 6% 27% (gas and/or water), steam and air injection,
9%
N.Monagas**
70%
8%
and gas recycling projects have been
S.Monagas
1% Guárico
44% implemented.
Orinoco Belt
* Mainly Oficina
Oil ** Includes other Associated and c) North Monagas Area
minor fields solution gas The main light oil fields are Jusepín,
Remaining oil and gas reserves (1996) by region and geographical area. Santa Bárbara, Mulata/Carito, El Furrial;
medium to heavy crude fields are Orocual
Figure 2.3c
and Manresa (Las Piedras Formation); and
Western near the Amacuro Delta medium to heavy
2% 1%
crudes are from Pedernales (La Pica Forma-
12% tion). Also described later in this chapter are
the so-called “Naricual Sands” from Carito
Central and El Furrial Fields. The main differ-
ence between these two is a huge gas cap in
98% Maracaibo 88% 99%
Barinas-Apure
Carito Central.
C⁄L M H ⁄ XH
Eastern
2% 1% 3% 2% 3%
10%
13%
55% 41% 35% 37%
23% 74%
1%
C L M
2% 5%
1% Anaco
11%
San Tomé
N.Monagas
49%
37% S.Monagas
Guárico
95% Orinoco Belt
H XH
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by type of crude and geographical area.
2 4
Table 2.3 Injection projects d) South Monagas Area

Water Gas Gas & Water Steam Total The main oil fields in this area are Pilón,
Projects Jobo, Morichal, El Salto, Temblador, Uracoa,
Total (Active) 83 (54) 119 (83) 13 (12) 2 (0) 217 (149)
Bombal and Tucupita. Heavy and extra-
Injected Volume
MMBWPD 920 — 543 — 1463 heavy crudes come from the Miocene
MMscf/D — 970 317 — 1287
Oficina Formation. The thickest Member is
Oil Production (Primary & Secondary)
MMBOPD 483 974 179 — 1636 Morichal, overlain by Yabo, Jobo and Pilón
MMSTB 6972 3867 7138 323 18,300*
Members. Reservoirs are shallow (±1200 ft),
*38% cumulative oil production (1914–1996) and oil viscosity is high (1200 cp, but can
reach up to 15,000 cp or more). Average
Secondary recovery projects in Venezuela, 1996).
porosity, permeability and water saturation
are 30%, 2500 md and 27%, respectively.
Figure 2.4
e) Orinoco Belt
30 Percentage of each region total Western
20000 Eastern
The 8.9 million acres in the Orinoco
24%
18000 Belt area have been divided into four sectors
17,782 17,481
from east to west: Cerro Negro (see Bitor
MMSTB
14000 14,903
13,903 76%
10000
12,187 Area reservoir description), Hamaca, Zuata
36 36 40
8013 and Machete. For the next decade, 600
6000 37
2 1 5 4174 2879 3578
MBOPD of enhanced crude (synthetic) are
2000 1 22
25
792 217 575 36 25 31 3 383
expected from five major projects. Also, an
0 383
C L M H XH C L M H XH C L M H XH additional production of 400 MBOPD is
Venezuela Western Eastern expected, which would be used to prepare
Cumulative oil production (1914–1996) by region and type of crude. and export Orimulsión® (70% extra-heavy oil
with 29% water and 1% surfactant).
2) Guárico sub-basin
The producing zones of the Guárico
sub-basin consist of the Cretaceous Tigre
Formation and the Tertiary La Pascua,
Figure 2.5a
Roblecito and Chaguaramos Formations.
Commercial production is located in the
30 Percentage of each region total Western
400
Eastern
Greater Las Mercedes area where 20
389 388
42% 58%
hydrocarbon accumulations are distributed
between seven fields. Southward crudes
300 have low gravity and high viscosity; to the
281 35 285
north condensate, associated gas and dry gas
are found; and in the center transitional-
MMSTB
35
200 207 gravity crudes are present. In the early stages
182
176
44 of production, water was the main reservoir
drive, which later on was replaced by a
25 28
100 105 103 solution gas drive.
45
27 22 22
35
28 35
3 22
2 1 6 4 7
0
C L M H XH C L M H XH C L M H XH
Venezuela Western Eastern
Annual oil production (1996) by region and type of crude.
2 5
Figure 2.5b 97% of the total proven remaining dry

gas reserves (13,600 Bscf) are found in the
5%
eastern part of the country and the other 3%
Venezuela
occur within Occident.
Western
37% 58% Eastern 58% 42% Production until 12/31/96
Orinoco Belt During the last eight decades until
December 1996, Venezuela has produced
8%
Western 0.6% 48,600 MMSTB of oil (Fig. 2.4), 64,600 Bscf
of associated and solution gas, and 585 Bcf
of dry gas from almost 40,000 wells. During
Maracaibo
1996, production capacity was 3.4 MMBOPD
Barinas-Apure
92% 99.4%
(see distribution by region, area and type of
crudes in Figs. 2.5a and 2.5b) from 14,900
Eastern 5% 1% active wells. Another 15,000 wells can be
1% 6%
11% 8% reactivated when needed.
Anaco
41%
Venezuelan hydrocarbon exploitation
17% San Tomé
N.Monagas
48% was the result of natural depletion (natural
S.Monagas flow, artificial gas lift, mechanical and elec-
57% Guárico
Orinoco Belt 5% trical pumping); enhanced recovery (cyclic
Oil Associated and steam injection, in-situ combustion, poly-
solution gas
mers injection, and others); and, during the
Annual oil and gas production
Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96 last 50 years, by secondary recovery to main-
(1996) by region and
By the end of 1996 total hydrocarbon tain reservoir pressure and displace addi-
geographical area.
reserves in Venezuela, including proven, tional oil (gas and/or water injection, steam
probable and possible, are more than drive injection). Table 2.3 shows the secon-
200,000 million barrels of oil and 242,000 Bcf dary recovery efforts in Venezuela (data from
of gas, of which 30,000 Bcf are associated the Ministry of Energy and Mines, 1996).
gas. Worldwide, Venezuela ranks sixth
among countries with major remaining
proven crude reserves, seventh with
remaining gas reserves and sixth as an
annual oil producer.
Estimated proven oil and gas reserves as
of December 31, 1996 are indicated in the
table on this page and shown by area and
type of crudes in Figs. 2.3a, 2.3b and 2.3c.
Oil Gas*
MMSTB Bscf
Original in place 838,680 291,629
Recovery factor (%) 14.5 66.6
Remaining reserves 72,666** 129,610
* Includes associated and solution gas, as well as 23,070

Bscf injected gas.
** Includes 2263 MMSTB of bitumen from the Orinoco Belt
(Bitor Area).
2 6
Figure 2.6
Geographical location of typical reservoirs.
West Mara
5
Maracaibo Altagracia
Cabimas
B-6-X.03 1 Tía Juana
3
2 Lagunillas
LL-07
Bachaquero
Lake
Maracaibo
4 Cumana
Barinas
Ceuta Barcelona
Silvestre
6
El Carito El Furrial 11
0 40 km 9 10 Maturín Pedernales
0 50 km Santa Rosa
8
Tucupita
Oveja oco
Typical hydrocarbon 7 Bitor Area Orin
12
reservoirs
0 50 km
A total of 12 reservoirs are Ciudad Bolívar
identified in Fig. 2.6 and the following
table, and are considered typical of the
Ref. Field Reservoirs
area in which they are located. Each of
1 Tía Juana Lagunillas Formation
these reservoirs is described below from the
2 Lagunillas Lower Lagunillas-07
production, geological, petrophysical and
3 Tía Juana B-6-X-.03
reservoir engineering points of view.
4 Ceuta Eocene “C”/VLG-3676
5 West Mara Cretaceous DM-115
6 Silvestre P1/2 (0017)
7 Oveja J-3 (OM-100)
8 Santa Rosa RG-14-COEF
9 Carito Central “Naricual Sands”
10 El Furrial “Naricual Sands”
11 Pedernales P2 Sands
12 Cerro Negro Morichal Member
2 7
RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION FIELD: TIA JUANA (ONSHORE)
Figure 2.7 Introduction Geology

The Tía Juana Field (onshore) is located
a) Structure
northeast of Lake Maracaibo between
The Tía Juana Field structure is a
the towns of Cabimas and Lagunillas
monocline oriented northwest–southeast
(Fig. 2.7). It is divided into Principal Tía
and gently dipping an average of 4 to 6° to
N
Juana and East Tía Juana Fields on which
the southwest. The intersecting faults are
18 thermal projects (17 cyclic steam injection
normal, with variable directions and
Maracaibo and one steam drive injection) have been
Boscán Cabimas
displacements (between 20 and 250 ft). The
Tia Juana parceled out. The field has a heavy oil
Los Lagunillas main fault has a preferential northwest-
Claros Bachaquero
accumulation (original oil in place [OOIP] of
Machango southeast trend (Fig. 2.8).
Mene more than 11,000 MMSTB) extending over
Grande
an area of more than 39,000 acres. There b) Stratigraphy
have been 2700 wells drilled, 1800 of which The post-Eocene stratigraphic sequence
Location map of the Tía are still active. (Fig. 2.9) in the Tía Juana Field consists,
Juana Field. from bottom to top, of the La Rosa
Formation of Miocene age, which
unconformably overlies the Misoa Formation
of Eocene age; the Miocene Lagunillas
Formation, which is subdivided into four
Figure 2.8 members: Lower Lagunillas, Ojeda (the most
shaly), Laguna and Bachaquero, with Lower
Lagunillas being the most important
250'
N
producer; and the La Puerta Formation of
'
Mio-Pliocene age. The contacts between
250 U D
U
D these three main formations are con-
U D
U D
U U
750' U D
L D
U D
D
formable. The La Rosa Formation (70 ft
D D U U U
D D
thick) consists of greenish-gray laminated
75
U
0'
U D
U D
D U
U D D 1250' U
shales interbedded with thin sandstone
U D D
layers. The Lagunillas Formation (1260 ft
125
0' U D 75
0'
thick) is a sequence of shales, clays and
D U
D U
sandstones with occasional lignite layers.
D U
DU
The La Puerta Formation is a sequence of
1750 D U
' D U
D U D U white and gray clays, claystones and gray
D U
sandstones.
Lake D U
Maracaibo
2250 12
' U 50
D '
D U 1750
'
Structural contour
D
Fault
U Lower Lagunillas Top
Structural map of the Tía Juana reservoir.
2 8
Figure 2.9 c) Depositional environment The cutoffs used for porosity, water
The Lower Lagunillas Member in the saturation and shaliness are 20%, 50% and
Formation (AGE)
Tía Juana Field consists of paralic, non- 50%, respectively.
ILD
Member
GR Depth ILM marine sediments showing eventual marine
0 (gAPI) 120 (ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000
transgressions. Toward the northwest, the Fluid properties
lower section consists of alluvial fan and The oil formation volume factor (FVF)
fluvial deposits. Conglomeratic sandstones is 1.05 RB/STB and the initial gas-oil ratio
are very common, as well as claystone (GOR) is 90 scf/STB at a 725 psia bubble
2300
conglomerates with a sandy matrix and point pressure and 113°F. These values are
some intervals of claystones and averages and vary according to the
heterolites. Near the top of the section it is producing sandstone depth. Oil gravity
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
less sandy, with the paralic deposits being fluctuates between 9.2 and 14°API (12°API
more common, consisting of medium- to average) and the temperature between 100
Lower Lagunillas
2400
fine-grained sandstones. and 125°F. The original pressure was
between 400 and 1000 psia, oil viscosity at
Petrophysical properties 100°F and atmospheric pressure between
The formation is a sequence of shales 1500 and 70,000 cp.
2500 and high-porosity (approximately 36%), un-
consolidated sandstones (Fig. 2.9). Perme- Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96
abilities are between 2 and 6 darcies and Reserves calculations were made
irreducible water saturation is approx- based on a 39,429-acre area, 130-ft average
imately 10%. The primary clays are sandstone thickness, 36% porosity, 68% oil
2600
kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite, whose saturation, and an oil FVF of 1.05 RB/STB.
volumes may reach 10 to 20%. The typical The official results are OOIP=11,114
interpretation parameters for the Waxman- MMSTB, recovery factor=25%, and
La Rosa
Smits equation are: a=1, m*=1.6, n*=2.0, and remaining reserves=1002 MMSTB.
rg=2.6 g/cm3. Water salinity is between
Typical log of the Lower
2500 and 3500 ppm equivalent NaCl. Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
Lagunillas in Tía Juana Field.
a) Production, injection and pressure history
Figure 2.10
The Tía Juana Field was discovered in
1928. Since then and until 1959, the “cold”
4000
Wells-month average production was about 75 MBOPD,
Wells-month
3000
with accumulations of 418 MMSTB coming
2000
from approximately 900 wells. From 1957
1000
until 1962, thermal recovery tests were
0 completed, such as Cyclic Steam Injection
GOR (scf/STB)
GOR
B, S & W (%)
80
B, S &W (CSI), In Situ Combustion (dry and wet)
60
400
40
and Thermal Sandwich. In 1964, a CSI
20 project was started on a large scale, which
0 0 increased the production to 110 MBOPD.
Qo
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
Np 1500
M-6
Thermal CSI SDI
150 recovery Generalization 1000
shut-in due
pilot to market
tests 500
CSI+
Large scale Additives
CSI test Nationalization
0 0
'52 '56 '60 '64 '68 '72 '76 '80 '84 '88 '92 '96
Year
Production history of the Tía Juana reservoir.
2 9
Figure 2.11 A total of 18 thermal projects have been

completed (Fig. 2.11). These are: 7 CSI in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 N Principal Tía Juana, including the so-called
Principal Tía Juana East Tía Juana Peripheral Areas along the field boundaries,
R and 11 in East Tía Juana, including the M-6
SDI project. A total of 34.1 MM tons of steam
A
were injected into 2266 wells, recovering
APTJN
(Project A-3) B 1775 MMSTB of oil, 1039 MMSTB of which
Proj. B/C-3
are additional to what would have been
C
Proj. C-2/3 4 Proj. C-5 ext.
APTJEN produced by natural depletion. An average of
Proj. C-3/4 Proj. C-5 (C-7)
D approximately 4675 tons of steam has been
Proj. D-2/E-2
Project D-6
injected per cycle.
Proj. D/E-3 E
Proj. E-8
b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms
F
Proj. F-7
The main production mechanisms that
Proj. G-2/3
G activate the Lagunillas Formation reservoirs in
APTJC
Tía Juana Field are solution gas drive and
Proj. Proj. H
H-6 H-7 compaction. Compaction is especially
Proj. G-2/3 ext.
J outstanding in the unconsolidated sandstones
Project APTJEE
J-7 of Tía Juana and other Bolívar District Coast
K
fields. Compaction is a consequence of fluid
Project M-6
L
pressure reduction in the reservoir during
(inj. alt.)
production, which at the same time increases
Project M-6 M the over-layer pressure. This causes these
(inj. cont.)
Lake layers to “sink” into the reservoir, which is
N
Maracaibo
reflected as subsidence on the ground surface
APTJES
O (Fig. 2.12). Average subsidence until 1996
was approximately 15 ft. However,
Thermal projects in the Tía Juana Field.
compaction is an effective way to maintain
the reservoir pressure and, therefore, to
Figure 2.12 Then, starting in 1969, the CSI was
increase total oil recovery. Around 70% of the
generalized for the whole Tía Juana
production can be allocated to compaction.
N Graphic scale Field until a 230 MBOPD peak was
0 5 10 km
reached. The production then declined
400 cm
to 60 BOPD in 1986. The M-6 Steam
400
20
Drive Injection (SDI) project was
initiated in 1978. Low production
Tía Juana
500 between 1987 and 1991 is a con-
400
Lagunillas 0
sequence of partially shut-in wells due
to adverse marketing conditions. The
Lake field is presently producing approxi-
Maracaibo
400 mately 80 MBOPD with 18% B, S & W
Bachaquero
50
and a GOR of 220 scf/STB (Fig. 2.10).
Subsidence in the Bolívar

District Coast.
2 10
RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS–07 FIELD: LAGUNILLAS (LAKE)

The Lower Lagunillas-07 (LL-07)
a) Structure
reservoir is located on Lake Maracaibo’s
The isopach-structural map built on top
eastern coast (offshore), in front of the
of the LL-A sandstone (Fig. 2.14) indicates a
town of Lagunillas and north of
monocline with 3° to 3.5° dip south-
Tía Juana N Bachaquero (Fig. 2.13). Its production life
westward. The LL-07 reservoir extends to the
started in 1926 and to date about 960 wells
northwest (not shown on the map) at the
Lagunillas
that are approximately 4200 ft deep have
Laguna Member lease. To the southwest, the
been completed. The reservoir covers an
reservoir is limited by a normal fault dipping
LL-07 estimated area of 31,000 acres and its OOIP
to the north, and is northwest-southeast-
is 3830 MMSTB of heavy crude. Since 1984,
oriented. Also to the south is an oil-water
Lake water from the Lagunillas Tank Yard has
Maracaibo contact that was originally found at
been injected into the reservoir to maintain
Bachaquero approximately 5000 ft subsea. To the
its pressure, increase oil recovery and
southwest and central-eastern areas there
eliminate the drainage of water effluents into
Location map of the are several extension faults with 30- to 50-ft
Lake Maracaibo.
LL-07 reservoir. displacements intersecting the reservoir, but
they have a relatively small impact on its
Figure 2.14
trapping mechanism.
Structural b) Stratigraphy
N
Isopach The LL-07 reservoir consists of the
Reservoir limit
Laguna and Lower Lagunillas Members of
0'
'
700
60
650'
–3 D
Fault
–34
20
0' U the Lagunillas Formation, and the La Rosa
00' Well
and Santa Bárbara Members of the La Rosa
Di
ke
U 2000 Meters Formation, both of Miocene age (Fig. 2.15).

550'
D
S. 55000 The reservoir conformably underlies the
D Bachaquero Member, also from the
U
–36
00
Lagunillas Formation, and uniformly overlies
U '
50
LL–07 the post-Eocene formations. The most

0'
D
D
–3
70
U 80
0' important member is the Lower Lagunillas,
0'
D
U
which contains 89% of OOIP. This member
–40 has been divided into three layers: LL-A, LL-
00
' 0'
50 UD B and LL-C. The Laguna Member is
S. 60000
U D 650'
–4
20 subdivided into four lenses, from LaA to
0'
450' LaD, and the La Rosa Formation into two
lenses, the LRA and LRB.
35
0
–4
'
U D
40
0'
40
–48
0'
00'
D
U U –46
00'
D
550' U D
S. 65000
–5
00
700' –52 0'
00 D
' 650'
U
–5400'
350'
500'
E. 30000 E. 35000 E. 40000
Isopach-structural map of the LL-07 reservoir, on top of LL-A.
2 11
RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS–07 FIELD: LAGUMILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.15 c) Depositional environment

The Laguna and Lower Lagunillas
Formation (AGE)
GR Members of reservoir LL-07 consist mainly of
0 (gAPI) 100
fluvial-deltaic deposits with some coastal
Member
CALI ILD RHOB
Depth marine sediments, while the La Rosa
(ft)
0.8 (in.) 18 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.9 (g / cm3) 8.9
Formation is predominantly marine. In
general, the Laguna Member represents a
LaA less extensive progradation than that of
the Lower Lagunillas, since fewer and
3500
thinner sandstones are present. Its fluvial
Laguna
LaB
deposition apparently did not extend as far
westward and southwestward as the Lower
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
LaC Lagunillas Member.

3600
LaD
Petrophysical properties
LLA Data from 800 wells, of which only 31
have porosity logs, were used to determine
3700
Lower Lagunillas
LL-07 reservoir petrophysical properties; a

LLB few cores were also taken. A 12-ohm-m
resistivity was considered the cutoff to
3800
estimate NOS thickness. The range of
LLC
sandstone thickness, porosity and oil satura-
tion for each of the Lower Lagunillas Member
layers are as follows:
Bárb. Rosa
Sta. La.
LRA
La Rosa
3900
LL-A LL-B LL-C
LRB
Thickness (ft) 20–51 26–54 17–43
Porosity (%) 18.6–29.1 22.4–29.7 27.1–33.1

Typical log in the LL-07 reservoir.
Oil Saturation (%) 84.6–85.9 76.2–85.0 30.2–67.2
Figure 2.16
The Laguna Member and La Rosa
400 Formation sandstones do not have as attrac-
Qo (MBOPD) B,S&W (%) GOR (scf/STB) Producers
tive petrophysical properties or good lateral

200
continuity as the Lower Lagunillas Member.
0
A 1500-md average permeability was
determined from a permeability-thickness
2000
ratio varying between 25 and 275 darcies/ft,
1000
and was validated by core analysis.
0
80
40
40
20
0
'56 '60 '64 '68 '72 '76 '80 '84 '88 '92 '96
Year
Production history of the LL-07 reservoir.
2 12
RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS–07 FIELD: LAGUNILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.17 Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96

500
Water injection rate per day, Qiw
150 a) Production, injection and pressure history
Cumulative water injected, Wi The LL-07 reservoir production life
400 120
started in May 1926, and by December 1996
Wi (MMSTB) has produced 1512 MMSTB of 18°API heavy
Qiw (MBPD)
300 90
oil, 179 MMSTB of water and 863 Bscf of
gas. A total of 960 wells have been
200 60
completed. 284 of these wells are, on
mechanical pumps, producing 34,250 BOPD
100 30
(average December 1996) with a 850 scf/STB
GOR and 47% B, S & W. Until 1979 the
0 0
'84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 annual decline rate was 7.2%, when more
Year wells were completed in the reservoir,
Injection history of the LL-07 reservoir. increasing its production until 1984. In
February 1984 a water effluents injection
Fluid properties
project was initiated on the southern flank.
Data from pressure-volume-temperature
The production continues to decline but at
(PVT) analyses (samples taken at 3700 ft
an annual rate of 1.8%. Since 1991, the
subsea and 140°F) were used to determine
production was maintained constant above
the LL-07 reservoir fluid properties, as
30,000 BOPD (Fig. 2.16). Water effluents
shown below:
coming from the Lagunillas Tank Yard were
Original pressure 1785 psia injected, mainly in the LL-A, LL-B and LL-C
Bubble point pressure, Pb 1785 psia lenses through 10 injector wells at a rate of
Oil FVF @ Pb 1.145 RB/STB 90 to 110 MBWPD, totaling 446 MMbbl of
GOR @ Pb 213 scf/STB water (Fig. 2.17). It was observed that the
Oil viscosity @ Pb 21 cp injected water in the LL-C which was already
Oil gravity 18 °API flooded, invaded the LL-B through vertical
communication.
The original bubble point pressure
Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96
declined from 1785 psia at a rate of 0.67
The following average data were used
psia/MMSTB. The water injection started in
to calculate oil reserves: 68 ft sandstone
1984 when the pressure was 780 psia and
thickness, 31,639 acres of area, 30% porosity
the cumulative oil production was 1400
and 84% oil saturation. Results are shown in
MMSTB (Fig. 2.18). Pressure increased in the
the next table:
reservoir up to the actual 911 psia, indicating
that the secondary recovery was beneficial
OOIP 3828 MMSTB
(between 1000 and 1400 psia were observed
Recovery factor* 44.75%
in the non-drained areas, between 600 and
Remaining reserves 201 MMSTB
800 psia in the productive zone, and
*Including primary (39.29%) and secondary (5.46%)
between 900 and 1200 psia in the area close
to the injectors). Cumulative fluid
89% of OOIP comes from the Lower
replacement is 78%. Cyclic steam injection
Lagunillas Member (LL-A=40%, LL-B=35%,
has been successfully tested in six wells; this
LL-C=14%), an average of 10% from the
is another production technique that will
Laguna Member, and less than 1% from the
allow the recovery of substantial remaining
La Rosa Formation.
heavy oil reserves.
2 13
RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS–07 FIELD: LAGUMILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.18 b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms

The LL-07 reservoir’s prevailing
1800
production mechanism is rock compaction
1600 mostly in the central-eastern region. Water
1400 has also made a very important contribution
Pressure (psia)
Injection start to oil recovery and, so has, to a lesser extent,
1200
February 1984
solution gas drive. Finally, water effluents
1000
injection, which has been successful in
800 maintaining the pressure in the reservoir,
600
should be considered as another production
~
~ ~
~ mechanism.
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Cumulative oil production (MMSTB)
Pressure history of the LL-07 reservoir.
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03 FIELD: TIA JUANA (LAKE)

The B-6-X.03 reservoir is located
a) Structure
offshore of the eastern coast of Lake
The reservoir structure consists of two
Maracaibo in the North Eocene area of the
asymmetrical anticlines (Fig. 2.20). The first
Tía Juana Field (Fig. 2.19). It is characterized
one, in the Punta Benitez area of the
N by a medium OOIP of 2300 MMSTB, and by
Maracaibo
northern block, has a flank facing NNW with
Cabimas gas injection at the top of the reservoir
a 10 to 15° variable dip. The SSE flank has a
Lake combined with four water injection projects.
Maracaibo
Tía
Juana 2 to 4° gentle dip. The second structure is
Cumulative oil production since 1945 has
located in the southern block at the NNW
B–6X–X.03
been 456 MMSTB from 240 producers
reservoir limit of the Tía Juana sector. It
associated with 70 water injectors and two
extends toward the SSE as a monocline
Location map of the gas injectors.
gently dipping between 2 and 4°. The B-6-
B-6-X.03 reservoir.
X.03 is limited by normal faults that separate
it from the B-6-X.02, B-6-X.10 and B-6-X.29
reservoirs. Possible communication exists
between the Area Sur-03 and B-7-X.04/B-6-
X.10 reservoirs, as well as between the
reservoir in the furthest southern sector and
the B-6-X.85.
2 14
Figure 2.20 b) Stratigraphy

The B-6-X.03 reservoir is part of the
B-6-X.49
Misoa Formation “B” sandstones of Eocene
N age belonging to the Lake Maracaibo North
B-6-X.01
Eocene geological area (Fig. 2.21). It
conformably overlies and underlies the B-7-
B-6-X.29
NORTH-03 X and B-5-X members, respectively. The B-
6-X.03 reservoir is divided into three
–4
70
0
intervals called “A”, “B” and “C” from top to
–5
00
0 bottom. “A” has the poorest geological and
B-6-X.02 U D
DU NORTH-02
petrophysical characteristics, with an
00
0 average thickness of 15 ft. It is believed to
–5
have been eroded in several places. “B” and
0
–470
U
D B-6-X.93 “C” each have a 60-ft average thickness.
U D
Each sandstone body is massive and shows
NORTH-01 good vertical transmissibility.
D U
SOUTH-03
D U
50
0 c) Depositional environment
–5
The B-6-X.03 reservoir reflects six
prevailing environments of deposition:
SOUTH-01
crevasse fan, littoral, stream mouth bars, main
B-6-X.10 0
–550
channel, distributary channel and delta front.
0
–600 SOUTH-02 Petrophysical properties
A-01
The source of basic petrophysical data
is from 24 cores from 24 wells with almost
UD 1500 porosity and 1900 permeability
Structural
measurements. The correlation between
Area limit permeability and porosity is very poor for
B-6-X.85
D
Fault each of the available cores. Therefore, two
U
groups of correlations have been established
Anticline axis
according to the interpreted environment of
deposition, which affects the porous matrix.
Structural map of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.4
Area Datum Temp. Gravity Rsi Pb Bob Mob

ft subsea °F °API scf/STB psia RB/STB cp
B-6-X.03 5600 184 25.0 305 1720 1.201 3.80
North–01 5600 184 25.0 305 1720 1.201 3.80
North–02 5275 178 26.0 379 1816 1.238 2.15
North–03 5200 177 26.5 396 1838 1.246 2.10
South–01 5800 187 22.1 260 1646 1.179 5.30
South–02 5950 190 20.9 226 1602 1.162 7.10
South–03 5200 177 26.5 396 1838 1.246 2.10
Fluid property average values for the six regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 15
Figure 2.21 The resulting two equations were consid-

ered reliable tools for obtaining area
ILD distributions and permeability trends in all
1 (ohm-m) 1000
Formation
reservoir layers and sectors. Based on 55
Member
(AGE)
CALI SFLU NPHI
4 (in.) 14 1 (ohm-m) 1000 45 (p.u.) -15 drainage capillary pressure tests, a correla-
GR Depth RXO RHOB
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 1 (ohm-m) 1000 1.9 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.9
tion of the irreducible water saturation with
B5X 6800 permeability and porosity was elaborated.
The ranges of the petrophysical properties
are as follows:
Permeability 63 to 144 md
6900 Porosity 14 to 15.2%
Oil saturation 77.7 to 85.2%

Misoa (EOCENE)
B6X
Fluid properties
7000 Average fluid property values for the six
regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir are
shown in Table 2.4:
The reservoir’s formation water analysis
indicates 8000 ppm chlorine with 3000 ppm
7100
bicarbonates.

The B-6-X.03 reservoir’s estimated
B7X
7200 reserves, as well as those regions with water

injection, are shown in Table 2.5.
Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96

B-6-X.03 commercial production started
Typical log in the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
in 1947, and until 1952 it produced by
natural depletion. A flank water injection
pilot test was initiated south of the reservoir,
Table 2.5
but was suspended in 1978 due to high
B-6-X.03 North-01 North-02 South-01 South-02
heterogeneity and discontinuity of the
Area (acres) 16,663 1200 2030 1920 2240
sandstones. Gas injection at the top of the
Thickness (ft) 186 186 186 186 166
reservoir started in 1974. A strategy to
OOIP (MMSTB) 2528 164 277 247 257
implement four water injection pattern
Prim. recov. factor (%) 20.4 26.9 29.0 26.6 18.1
projects was established in the North-01
Sec. recov. factor (%) 9.8 20.8 12.7 14.5 13.2
area in 1980, South-01 area in 1983, North-
Remain. reserves (MMSTB) 308 13 17 7 58
02 area in 1984 and South-02 area in 1986.
By the end of 1996, the cumulative oil
The B-6-X.03 reservoir’s estimated reserves, as well as those regions with
water injection.
2 16
Figure 2.22 production was 457.3 MMSTB, of which 267

180
MMSTB came from the four water injection
120
Number of producers projects (60.3 MMSTB of water and 698.7
Bscf of gas). Average production during
60
December 1996 was 15,540 BOPD (7860
0
400 Cumulative oil production (MMSTB) BOPD correspond to water injection
200
projects) with a 3850 scf/STB GOR and
49.4% B, S & W (Fig. 2.22). By December
0
Oil production rate per calendar day (MSTB) 1996, 535.1 MMbbl of water and 337 Bcf of
Liquid production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
40 gas had been injected into the B-6-X.03
reservoir (Fig. 2.23), resulting in a 117%
0 cumulative replacement (gas 64% and water
4 GOR (Mscf/STB)
55%). General information on water
2
injection is shown in Table 2.6.
0 From January 1974 to date, 337 Bcf of
B, S & W (%)
gas have been injected in the North and
50
South blocks (14.6 Bcf in 1996).
0 The original pressure taken in 1944 at
'54 '56 '58 '60 '62 '64 '66 '68 '70 '72 '74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96
5300 ft subsea declined from 2500 psia to
Year 990 psia in 1973 (Fig. 2.24) when the
Production history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir. secondary recovery projects were initiated.
In 1996 the pressure was 1444 psia. During
the last eight years the reservoir pressure has
Figure 2.23
been maintained between 1404 to 1508 psia.
150
Water injection rate per calendar day (MSTB)
120
90
60
30
0
Gas injection rate per calendar day (MMscf)
100
75
50
25
0
Cumulative water injection (MMSTB)
Cumulative gas injection (Bscf)
400
200
0
'72 '74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96
Year
Injection history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 17

During the natural depletion period, the
2600
prevailing production mechanism was
2400
solution gas drive. To a lesser extent, gas
Pressure (psia)
2200 gravitational segregation and a water drive
2000 from a small aquifer located in the southern
1800 sector of the reservoir are also production
1600
mechanisms. The combined gas and water
injection projects have successfully
1400
maintained the reservoir pressure and
1200
should be considered as secondary
1000
1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995
production mechanisms.
Year
Pressure history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.6
Project Starting date Type Volume 1996 Average
MMbbl MBWPD
South block 6/73 (a) Flank 44.0 —
North–01 12/80 (b) Pattern (c) 137.3 —
South–01 1/83 Pattern (c) 147.5 16.0
North–02 11/84 Pattern (c) 135.9 29.4
South–02 5/86 Pattern (c) 70.4 10.6
Total 535.1 56.0
Water injection in the B-6-X.03 reservoir: a) suspended in 1978, b) suspended in July

1995 and c) 1:1L. modified.
RESERVOIR: EOCENE “C”/VLG-3676 FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.25
Introduction Geology
The Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir is
a) Structure
located southeast of Lake Maracaibo
At the Eocene level, the structure is an
(Block VII) and southwest of Ceuta Field
oriented east-west homocline with 3° to 7°
(Fig. 2.25), extending over one of its
gentle dip to the south (Fig. 2.26). Its most
subdivisions called “Area 2 Sur.” With a
important components are the north-south-
N proven oil area of 28,000 acres containing an
trending VLC-70 and VLG-3686 faults
Bachaquero OOIP of almost 2800 MMSTB of light oil, the
dipping to the east, being the reservoir’s
Area 2 Sur is considered one of the most
III
Mene western and eastern boundaries,
IV
Grande
attractive fields in Ceuta, confirmed by the
respectively. The northern limit is a
XI
high productivity of its completed wells and
VII Barua northeast-oriented normal fault. The
XII Motatán the potential reservoir development to the
southern limit has not been determined,
Ceuta: VLG-3676
south.
since this area is under consideration for
expanding the reservoir.
Location map of the Ceuta
Field.
2 18
Figure 2.26 to C-3, Lower: C-4 to C-7). The upper C

section thickness varies from 600 to 900 ft
Structural
and consists of interbedded sandstones and
N D
D
Fault shales, the C-3 interval being the cleanest.
–13900'U U
–14000'
Well The lower C section thickness varies from
D –141
00 00
U
–142
00' –14
1 700 to 800 ft and consists of clean and
0'
–1460 massive sandstones interbedded with thin
–14200'
–14300'
shale layers. The Misoa Formation
–14400' unconformably overlies the Paleocene
Guasare Formation limestones. Hydrocarbon
–14500'
accumulation is controlled by stratigraphic
–14600'
–14700' U
D and structural factors that have created
complex sandstone body continuities and
ault
–14800'
distributions, primarily in the C-2 and
6 86 f
–14900'
D U –15000' C-3 sands.
V L G- 3
–15100'
c) Depositional environment
–15200'
The basal section of the Eocene
–15300'
“C”/VLG-3676 reservoir was deposited by a
–15400'
ult
complex, fluvial-dominated delta prograding

VLC-0 7 0 f a
–15500'
–15600' into a brackish-water estuary. The
–15700'
development of numerous distributary
–15800'
channels enabled the deltaic system to
–15900'
–16000' advance rapidly. A subsequent marine
–16100' transgression caused the channels to retreat,
–16200'
where they were overlain by delta front
0' deposits such as mouth bars and prodelta
–1630 –16400'
shales. The geometry of these deposits
–16500'
–16600' varies from asymmetrical, elongate channel
' sandstones to long, laminated mouth bar
–16700 –16800'
deposits. The width of the channels is
–16900'
–17000' estimated is to be approximately 20 times
–17100' their thickness.
Structural map of the b) Stratigraphy
The Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir is a
VLG-3676 reservoir. The stratigraphic sequence from top to
continuous sequence of shales and shaly
bottom consists of the El Milagro and Onia
sandstones, some of them of considerable
Formations of Pleistocene-Pliocene age, then
thickness (Fig 2.27). The most productive
the La Puerta, Lagunillas (Lower Lagunillas,
facies have porosities varying from 11 to
Laguna and Bachaquero Members) and La
17%, the irreducible water saturation is
Rosa Formations of Miocene age. Miocene
around 20% and shale volume less than 15%.
rocks unconformably overlie the Eocene
Shales are mainly composed of kaolinite and
Misoa Formation, which is partially eroded
illite with some smectite.
at the “B” sands (Upper: B-1 to B-5, Lower:
B-6/7) level. Those sandstones conformably
overlie the “C” productive sands (Upper: C-1
2 19
Figure 2.27 Petrophysical evaluation was made

through a study of porosity (density/neu-
RXO tron) and resistivity logs, with the following
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 results for each productive sand:
GR IMPH NPHI
Formation 0 (gAPI) 120 Sand NOS Porosity Water
(AGE)
Sand
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 45 (p.u.) -15
(ft) (%) saturation (%)
CALI IDPH RHOB
Depth
C-1 12–47 11.5–14.3 28–43
(ft)
0.6 (in.) 16 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.9 (g / cm3) 2.9
C-2 62.5–95 12.0–14.4 19–35
C-3 26–67.5 12.0–13.5 25–35
C-4 0–10.5 11.3–16.7 39–48
C-1
16200 Water saturation calculations were
determined using the Waxman-Smits
equation with a = 1, m* = 1.9 to 2.0, n* =
1.85 to 2.0. Cutoffs for water saturation,
porosity and clay volume were 50%, 10%,
16400 and 50%, respectively.
A 70-md average (range 50 to 1000 md)
absolute permeability was obtained from
C-2
core analysis and validated by build-up
Misoa (EOCENE)
pressure restoration calculations. The upper

“C” and lower “C” sands salinity was
16600
estimated to be 8100 and 5900 ppm
equivalent NaCl, respectively. Starting in
1996, oil-based mud (OBM) is used
routinely, which limits log interpretation but
allows us to have a hole adjusted to the bit
C-3 16800
diameter.
Fluid properties
C-4 PVT analysis of a C-3 producer (samples
taken at 15,000 ft subsea and 309°F) yields
17000 the following characteristics:
Original pressure 10,000 psia

C-5
Bubble point pressure, pb 3442 psia
Oil FVF @ pb 1.791 RB/STB
GOR @ pb 1148 scf/STB

Typical log of the VLG-3676 reservoir.
Oil viscosity @ pb 0.253 cp
Oil gravity 36.8°API
2 20
Figure 2.28 OOIP 2780 MMSTB Figure 2.30

Recovery factor 17%
30
Wells-month
15
a) Production and pressure history

0 Since 1979, a total of 35 wells have been
Oil rate (MBOPD) GOR (Mscf/STB)
GOR
completed in the Eocene “C”/VLG-3676
B, S & W (%)
B, S & W 80
2
60 reservoir, of which 23 are producing an
1
40 average of 36.6 MBOPD. Cumulative oil
20
production is 36 MMSTB (Fig. 2.28). Until
0 0
Oil rate
1993, the exploitation plan consisted of
NP (MMSTB)
30 Np 30 multiple selective completions and then was
20 20 focused to non-selective single completions
10 10 with commingled production of C-1 to C-6
0 0
sands. The production distribution has been
'77 '79 '81 '83 '85 '87 '89 '91 '93 '95 '97 estimated as follows: 61%, 28%, 8% and 3%
Year
from C-3, C-2, C-5 and C-4 sands, respec-
Production history of the VLG-3676 reservoir. tively. The GOR has gradually increased up
to the 1000 scf/STB level, while water
production is practically insignificant.
Figure 2.29 At 15,000 ft subsea, the original pressure
was estimated at 9950 psia for all the
reservoir sandstones. To date (Fig. 2.29) the
10000 pressure in the northern sector of the
Several
reservoir is lower for individual sand, such
wells as: 5450 psia in C-3, the most productive
8000
Pressure (psia)
sand, 7005 psia in C-2, and approximately

9500 psia in C-4 and C-5. In the southern
6000 sectors with little or no production, the
pressure stays around 10,000 psia. With a
bubble point pressure of 3442 psi, the
4000
reservoir is still highly undersaturated.
~
~ ~
~
b) Reservoir’s drive mechanism
0
Expansion of the rocks and fluids is the
'86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98
Year
main production mechanism of the Eocene
Pressure history of C-3 unit “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir, based on produc-
in the VLG-3676 reservoir. Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96 tion behavior and fluid characteristics.
The last Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 hydro-
carbon reserves calculation, including all C-
1 to C-7 sands, was made in September
1996. The resulting 23% increase in OOIP
was caused by the drilling of a well south of
the Area 2 Sur. The results are as follows:
2 21
RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM–115 FIELD: WEST MARA

The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir of the
a) Structure
West Mara Field is located northeast of
The structural interpretation was based
Maracaibo approximately 8 miles west of the
on the analysis of a 1982 migrated 2-D
Mara Field (Fig. 2.30). Since 1951 it has
seismic survey integrated with the
produced a 15°API undersaturated heavy oil
N
stratigraphic correlation of wells drilled in the
West Mara
from the Cretaceous (datum: 5500 ft subsea).
Mara
area. A structure map was built on top of the
Production is mainly from the Apón
Socuy Member, which is part of the Colón
Formation in the lower section of the
Formation (Fig. 2.31). The main structural
La Paz Cogollo Group; however, all the wells are
configuration is a major reverse fault oriented
completed with the entire Cogollo Group
Bajo N45˚E on its west branch and S60˚E on its
Grande (1400 ft) open to production.
Boscán east branch. This reverse fault, with an
Lake average of 3500 ft vertical thrust in its center
Maracaibo
section, divides the area into a downthrown
block to the north (dip lower than 20˚) cut by
Location map of the West
reserve faults oriented N20˚W and N10˚E, as
Mara Field.
well as by normal faults with a N25˚W
direction. An upthrown block to the south
has normal faults oriented N30˚W with
Figure 2.31
vertical displacements between 50 and 1000
ft and dips between 75˚ and 80˚. Other minor
faults, perpendicular to the major reverse
0'
0'
0'
90
U D fault with 50 to 55˚ dips, divide the area into

0'
10
10
–8
90
–6
–8
D
–6
N
'
U
D
U seven structural blocks, dipping approxi-
00 D U
–8900
–7300
1
U
D
–4 mately 20˚ southward, two of which have
'
been under exploitation. It is assumed that

'
0'
D
10
'
0'
–2900 0' U
–6
0'
' there was no initial gas cap since gas-oil

–770
0
00 37
–930
D
1 D – U
–4 U
00
' contacts were not detected. Water-oil
0' 3
0'
10 –5 contacts were not found but estimated to be

90
–1 0'
–4
U
D 90
–6 between 6500 and 7500 ft subsea.
0'
70
0'
–890
–5
0'
0'
70
D D 30 0'
–5
U –7 D 50 U
00'
0' 0'
U –8 D
90 50 U
–41
–4 D U U –6
0'
D
0' 0'
70
0' 10 90
–5
–730 –8 –8
0'
Structural
50
0'
50
–4
D U D
–6
Fault
0'
90
U U
–4
U D Well
D
0 0.5 1.0 km
Structural map of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 22

The Cretaceous in the West Mara Field
HLLD CMRP has 3000 ft average thickness. This section
Group (AGE)
2 (ohm-m) 20000 0.3 (V/V) 0
Formation
HLLS NPHI lies unconformably on top of Paleozoic
GR
2 (ohm-m)
RXOZ
20000 0.3 (V/V)
RHOB
0 rocks and conformably underlies the
Depth
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 2 (ohm-m) 20000 2.1 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.7 Guasare Formation of Paleocene age. The
Maraca Cretaceous sequence, from bottom to top,
consists of the Rio Negro Formation (65 ft),
Cogollo Group (1400 ft), La Luna Formation
(340 ft) and Mito Juan/Colón (1200 ft)
4250 Formations. The hydrocarbon accumulations
are found in the Cogollo Group limestones
(Apón, Lisure and Maraca Formations) and
Lisure
in the La Luna Formation. The Cogollo

Group is characterized by mixed carbonates
and siliciclastics in its lower section and
4500 clean carbonates in its upper section. The La
Luna Formation consists of a mixture of
limestones interbedded with marine shales.
Cogollo (LOWER-MIDDLE CRETACEOUS)
It is also considered to be the main source

rock in the Maracaibo Basin.
4750
Deposition of the Río Negro Formation
reflects a fluvio-shoreline environment,
bars and lateral lagoons in the Apón
Formation, marine in the Maraca Formation
and low-energy euxinitic marine in the La
Luna Formation.
5000
Modern resistivity and porosity logs
(Fig. 2.32) were run in the Cretaceous
Apón
formations in various wells. This information

5250
was complemented by lithology logs with
the results shown in Table 2.7.
The Archie equation (a=1, m=1.5 to 2.2,
n=2) was used to calculate the hydrocarbon
saturation in the virgin zone. Selection crite-
ria were established for the NOS and the net
oil limestone (NOL) with cutoffs as follows:
5500
porosity less than 3%, water saturation
60% and Vsh 0%. Water salinity is between
30,000 and 40,000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Typical log of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 23
Tabla2.7 Matrix permeability between 1 and 3 md has

Formation NOL/NOS Porosity Water saturation been assumed. For OOIP calculations, the
(ft) (%) (%)
following parameters were assumed: average
La Luna 24/125 <3 10–25
porosity and oil saturation estimated at 11.0
Cogollo Group
Maraca 7/10 9–12 12–14 and 85%, respectively, area of 3020 acres and
Lisure 9/100 9–12 25–30
Apón 115/288 10–12 20–25 average thickness of 178 ft.
Río Negro 0/18 8–10 20–100
Fluid properties
Petrophysical properties in the West Mara Field.
Results from a PVT analysis of 15.7°API
oil gravity taken at 5500 ft subsea at 157°F
Figure 2.33
are shown in Fig. 2.33.
200 1.14
180 1.12 Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96

160 Since the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir
Oil volumetric factor

1.10
pb = 1117 psia
140
is fractured, heterogeneous and with a high
Solution gas
1.08
(scf ⁄ STB)
(RB ⁄ STB)
120
1.06
degree of uncertainty in the rock property
100
80
values, several reserves estimates have been
1.04
60 made. The last one, in 1995, indicates an
1.02
40 OOIP of 503 MMSTB and 47.7 MMSTB
1.00
20
of remaining reserves, for a recovery factor
0 0.98
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 of 15.0%.
Pressure (psia)
PVT fluid analysis of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir. Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96

Figure 2.34
The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir, from
3000 the West Mara Field, was discovered in 1951
GOR (scf/STB)
after drilling well DM-115. So far 14 wells

1500 have been drilled, of which five are still in
production and one has been abandoned
0 because of high water production during a
B, S & W (%) Np (MMSTB)
30 drill stem evaluation test.

20
10
0
Qo
Qo (MBOPD)
12 NP
20
9
6
10
3
0 0
'72 '74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98
Year
Production history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 24
Figure 2.35 The reservoir’s cumulative production is

27.8 MMSTB of oil, 3.9 MMSTB of water and
2800
7.2 Bscf of gas. Presently the reservoir is
2700 Several
wells producing by natural flow and submersible
2600
Pressure (psia)
electrical pumps at 6.6 MBOPD with
2500
15% B, S & W and 800 scf/STB GOR
2400
(Fig.2.34).
2300
The original pressure of 2588 psia (more
2200
than 1400 psia above the bubble point
2100
pressure) was calculated from early tests.
2000
The pressure has gradually declined and is
1900
0 5 10 15 20 now 2000 psia, indicating that the reservoir
Cumulative production (MMSTB)
is still undersaturated (Fig. 2.35).
Pressure history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
The reservoir’s pressure and production
behavior suggest that the main reservoir ener-
gy source is a water drive probably combined
with the fractured limestone compaction.
RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017) F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E

Reservoir P-1/2 (0017) from Silvestre
a) Structure
Field is located approximately 22 miles
Silvestre is structurally higher than the
southeast of the town of Barinas (Fig.
other Barinas Basin fields. The reservoir
2.36). The field covers an area of 482 acres
structure is a small dome with a very gentle
with an average sandstone thickness of 59 ft.
2° dip on the north flank and displays faults
Barinas Commercial production started in 1962, two
dipping to the east, west and south. The
years after its discovery. This is a highly
northeast-oriented fault dips southward with
Silvan Maporal
N
undersaturated reservoir and its original
Northern an approximate 50 ft throw. Another
Area
Estero pressure was 4120 psia versus a bubble point
Palmita northwest-oriented fault with similar
Central
pressure of 175 psia. The field is produced
Area Silvestre displacement dips eastward (Fig. 2.37). The
by electrical-submersible pumping. The oil
Hato Sinco P-1/2 (0017) reservoir limits are: to the north
Southern
characteristics are: 23.5°API medium oil,
Area
Paez-Mingo and east, a water-oil contact at 9450 ft
practically without gas (GOR 19 scf/STB) but
subsea; and to the south, west and east,
Location map of the with a large volume of water that represents
normal faults.
Silvestre Field. about 60% of the total fluid production.
2 25
RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017) F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E

The Escandalosa Formation of Early
Structural
Cretaceous age has been divided into four
–9500' N
Isopach members called, from bottom to top, “S,”
D
Fault
U “R,” “P,” and “O,” with “P” being the main
0'
Well 45 producer in the basin. This member consists
–9
.@
of two sandy sections interbedded with a
C.
O.
U D
W.
thin layer of shale (Fig. 2.38). In the P-1/2
O.
(0017) reservoir, this lenticular shaly layer
–9
40 has an irregular, thin development, so that
0'
both P-1 and P-2 sands form a single homo-
U
D geneous lens (as far as production behavior
is concerned). The top and bottom of the P-
25' 1/2 sand are well defined by a regional shaly
D
0 0'
U –93 100'
50'
layer of constant thickness, and there is no
125' 75'
vertical communication with the underlying
and overlying layers. The P-1/2 sand is
Isopach-structural map of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
medium to coarse-grained, crossed-stratified,
and contains residues of carbonaceous
Figure 2.38
plant material and occasional compacted
limolite intervals.
ILM NPHI DTCO
Formation
.45 -.15 160 40

2 (ohm-m) 2000
(AGE)
Sand
(V/V) (ms ⁄ ft )
GR ILD RHOB DTSM
Depth
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 2 (ohm-m) 2000
1.9 2.9 240 40 The P-1/2 sandstone deposition is
(g ⁄ cm3) (ms ⁄ ft)
interpreted as a fluvial-deltaic environment
La Morita
(CRET.)
with some littoral influence. Distributary

channels over stream mouth bars show
11650
littoral reworking. The axis of the best
reservoir rock development strikes south-
O
west to northeast through the area.

11700
Escandalosa (CRETACEOUS)
Discovery well core data and other

11750
porosity logs were used to determine P-1/2
P1
(0017) reservoir rock properties. Average

values are shown in the following table:
11800
From cores From logs

P2
Porosity (%) 18.7 20.1
11850 Water saturation (%) 39.0 34.0
Permeability (md) 556 90–753*

R1
*Timur equation
Other data: area: 482 acres; thickness: 59 ft
11900
R2
Type log of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir in the Silvestre Field.
2 26
RESERVOIR: P 1/2 (0017) F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E
Figure 2.39 Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96

Reserves were calculated using the
6000
Cumulative fluid (MSTB), Pressure (psia)

Wp volumetric method. OOIP was 36 MMSTB,
Np
5000
B, S & W remaining reserves 7.5 MMSTB and the
Pressure
recovery factor 29.8%.
4120
4000
3850 3800
3726
3600 Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
3354
3000
100 A total of 8.3 MMSTB of fluids has been
B, S & W (%)
2000
produced by mechanical and electrical-

50
1000 submersible pumping, including 3.2 MMSTB
10 of medium oil and 5.1 MMSTB of water
'62 '65 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 '95 '97
(61.5% of total fluids) (Fig. 2.39). The
Year average production for December 1996 is 50
BOPD with 200 scf/STB GOR and 86% B,
Production and pressure history of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
S & W.
The main interpretation issue is the The original reservoir pressure of 4120
water salinity. While logs (spontaneous psia was based on a static pressure
potential [SP], resistivity/porosity in the measurement taken in the discovery well in
water zone) tend to show salinity at 1957. During 1976, 1986 and 1988 static and
approximately 10,000 ppm (NaCl), the dynamic fluid levels were determined. After
samples vary but tend to show much lower producing for more than 25 years, the
salinity. Clay volumes are low and mainly reservoir pressure has always remained
consist of kaolinite. above 3350 psia.

Fluid properties
The reservoir characteristics and beha-
PVT analysis comes from a bottom
vior indicate that the prevailing production
sample taken in March 1958 (datum: 9383 ft
mechanism is a strong water drive.
subsea, temperature 290°F). The resulting
values were validated with Eastern
Venezuela crude correlations obtained from
a PVT statistical analysis and are as follows:
Original pressure, pi 4120 psia
GOR @ pb 19 scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pi 1.1133 RB/STB
Oil gravity 23.5 °API
2 27
RESERVOIR: J-3 (OM–100) FIELD: OVEJA
Figure 2.40 Introduction The reservoir limits (Fig. 2.41) are: to

The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, from the the north, a normal fault with approximately
Oveja Field, is located approximately 13 50 ft of displacement northeast-southwest-
miles southwest of San Tomé in the State of oriented and dipping to the south, with an
Anzoátegui (Fig. 2.40) and extends over oil-water contact at 3426 ft subsea; to the
0 10 km N
2300 acres. Commercial production was south, a normal fault with approximately 150
Guara
Central
initiated in June 1954. Starting in 1957, in ft of displacement east-west-oriented and
SanTomé
Oficina
Norte
order to maintain the declining pressure, dipping to the south; and to the east and
Oficina Guara Este
Central
Ganso
water was injected for three years and then west by rock and sandstone pinch-outs.
El Tigre
Ostra
gas from 1963 to the present. The reservoir
b) Stratigraphy
Oca has produced approximately 55 MMSTB of
Oleos The J-3 sand is located in the middle of
Oveja 20°API heavy oil, of which 37 MMSTB
the Oficina Formation (early to medium
Miga (more than 25% of the OOIP was due to gas
Yopales Sur
Miocene age) stratigraphically overlying the
injection, which maintained the reservoir
Location map of the Oveja Merecure Formation. The NOS maximum
pressure for more than 12 years.
Field. thickness of about 50 ft is reached in the
central part of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir
Geology
pinching out to the east and west.
a) Structure
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir structure
The deposition of the J-3 sandstones is
consists of a homocline oriented northwest-
interpreted to be fluvio-deltaic point bars.
southeast and dipping approximately 2° to
This interpretation is derived from SP curves
the northeast.
and knowledge of the Oficina Formation.
Petrophysical properties were estimated
by analyzing 13 complete sets of logs (Fig.
Figure 2.41
2.42). Porosity values were determined by
density and neutron log data corrected for
Structural
N shaliness. The resulting average values were
Pinch-out
U O .O
.W. Producer compatible with those obtained from core
C@
D –34
26'
Injector (gas) data from two wells:
(ES Injector (water)
T)
–3 D
40 Fault
0'
–3 –33 U
Average values Range
30 50'
0'
Porosity (%) 30.2 29.0–33.4
Water saturation (%) 10.9 4.8–17.0
Permeability (md) 2384 958–4267
Other reservoir data:

Shale resistivity (Rsh) 11.52 ohm-m
0'
O.G.O
.C -325 Shale porosity 18.6 %
.@ –3 Shale volume (Vsh) (%) 13.5 %
- 3 18 2
D U 1' ( 00 Water resistivity (Rw) 0.103 ohm-m
ES '
0' T)
10 U
–3 -319 U
D 1
D
Structural map of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
2 28
Figure 2.42 Fluid properties

Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) fluid properties
GR were derived from correlation with other
0 (gAPI) 150
similar reservoirs. Those parameters, as well
Formation (AGE)
SP SFLU NPHI
as others of importance, are shown below:
200 (MV) 0.0
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 60 (p.u.) 0.0
CALI ILO RHOB
Sand
Depth Datum 3300 ft subsea
(ft)
0.8 (in.) 18 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.65 (g/cm3) 2.65
Temperature 149 °F
Initial pressure 1482 psia
Bubble point pressure, Pb 1482 psia
GOR @ Pb 209 scf/STB

I2
Oil FVF @ Pb 1.127 RB/STB
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
4000 Gas FVF @ Pb 1667 RCF/scf

I3
Oil viscosity @ Pb 4.65 cp

I4
I5
I6
J1 4100
Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) covers an area
J2 of 2280 acres and has an average NOS
J3 thickness of 33.7 ft. Reserves were calculated
using the volumetric method with the
K
following results:
L0 4200
L1 OOIP 149.3 MMSTB
L2 Recovery factor* 37.5%
Remaining reserves 0.7 MMSTB

Figure 2.45
*Includes primary (12.6%) and secondary (24.2%)
mainly from gas injection.
Typical log of the Oveja Field.


Figure 2.43
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir was dis-
20 80 covered in 1952 but commercial production
GOR (Mscf ⁄ STB)
Gp (Bscf) 60 did not start until 1954. The cumulative pro-
duction to date has reached 55 MMSTB of
GOR
Gp
10 40
20 oil, 7 MMSTB of water and 74 Bscf of gas

0 0 (Fig. 2.43) through natural flow and
B, S & W (%)
70 Wp (MSTB) 6 mechanical pumping. By the end of 1996,
B, S & W
the average daily production was 370 BOPD

Wp
4
30
2 with 39% B, S & W and 11,000 scf/STB GOR.
0 0 The almost 25% recovery of the OOIP was
Qo (MBOPD)
Np (MMSTB) 60
due mainly to the large volume (more than
10
100 Bscf) of gas injected into this heavy
Np
Qo
40
5
20
crude reservoir (Fig. 2.44). Oil recovery by
0 0
natural depletion was less than 13%.
'54 '57 '60 '63 '66 '69 '72 '75 '78 '81 '84 '87 '90 '93 '96
Year
Production history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
2 29
Figure 2.44 project was implemented. This project was

interrupted three years later and the pressure
1700 140
Pressure Gas inj. Water inj. continued to drop. A gas injection project
1500 120 was started in December 1963 when the
100 reservoir pressure was 1215 psia and a
Pressure (psia)
1300
Gas inj. (Bscf)

solution gas cap developed. In 1975 the
1100 80
pressure was 1320 psia while the current one
60
Water inj. (MMSTB)

900
is about 1060 psia, 60 psia below the project
10
700 40 goal for pressure maintenance (Fig. 2.44).
5
500 20 b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms
300 0 0 Originally the reservoir was considered
'53 '57 '61 '65 '69 '73 '77 '81 '85 '89 '93 '97
saturated without initial gas cap. During the
Year
natural flow period, solution gas and water
Injection and pressure history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
were the main natural reservoir’s drive mech-
In 1954, the reservoir’s original pressure anisms. Gas injection after 1963 is considered
was 1482 psia, declining to 1380 psia by a secondary production mechanism because
November 1957, when a water injection of its efficiency.
RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF FIELD: SANTA ROSA
Figure 2.45
Introduction Geology
Reservoir RG-14-COEF, discovered in
a) Structure
1947, is located approximately 6 miles
The Greater Anaco Area is located on
north of Anaco, in the State of Anzoátegui
the upthrown block north of the Anaco
La Vieja (Fig. 2.45), and extends over approximately
0 10 km
La Ceiba
thrust fault, along which is a series of domes
26,000 acres. The reservoir is characterized
Santa with the hydrocarbon fields, San Joaquín,
Greater Rosa by a large gas condensate cap covering a
Anaco Area Santa Ana, El Toco, El Roble, San Roque and
El Roble light oil leg. Gas injection started in 1959
Anaco Santa Rosa.
after a sharp pressure drop in the reservoir.
San Joaquín The Santa Rosa dome is elongated in a
After cumulative injection of 2220 Bscf of
Santa Ana N N45°E direction. It is asymmetrical with a
El Toco Anaco thrust gas, the oil and condensate cumulative
fault
gentle 8° to 11° northwest flank and a steep
production is 118 MMSTB, which represents
southeast flank dipping 20° into the Anaco
Location map of a 61.2% recovery from the original volume
thrust fault. The dome is cut by two
the Santa Rosa Field. of liquids in place.
southeast-dipping faults that are parallel to
the axis of the Santa Rosa dome. The
reservoir RG-14-COEF covers the greater
portion of the Santa Rosa Field’s proven area
and consists of a structural-stratigraphic trap,
whose limits are shown on the isopach-
structural map (Fig. 2.46).
2 30

Reservoir RG-14 corresponds to the CO-
50’ 60’O 50’ 40’ E and CO-F sandstone subdivisions of the
40’ .W.O.C. @ -1
1500 60’
´(Es 70’ 80’ Colorado Member, which is the lowermost
....
70’ 60’
30’ 40’ 50’ t.)
10’ 20’
5’
.... O.C.O.C ....
. @ -10500´(Est
.... .) .... .... member of Oficina Formation of Early to
.... .... Middle Miocene age. The CO-EF sands are
.... –10000’ . ...
divided into four bodies: CO-E1, CO-E2, CO-
E3 and CO-F1, which are separated by
–9000’ shales that are locally discontinuous and
80’
90’
100’
coalescing. The NOS increases from
–8000’ southwest to northeast and reaches its
greatest thickness of 70 to 90 ft in the north-
0’
central sector.
00
00’0’
–8
700
–70
Structural
Isopach N Deposition of the CO-EF occurred in a
Fault
Oil producer
5’
deltaic environment with two distinguishing
Gas injector
units: a channel overlying mouth bar
Isopach-structural map of the RG-14-COEF reservoir. deposits and a splay overlying distal bar
deposits. The first type of sandstones is
Figure 2.47 found in the northeast section of the
reservoir where different lenses coalesce and
AT10
have greater sandstone thickness and initial
AT20
porosity. The second type of sandstones is
Formation (AGE)
GR AT30
0 150 AT60
found in the southwest section of the
( gAPI )
reservoir. There the lenses are separated by
SP AT90
Sand
Depth
–200 ( mV ) –100 (ft) 0.1 ( ohm-m ) 1000 shales and have a more heterogeneous
8450 nature than the channel, resulting in less
productive wells.
CO-
D
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
8500 Petrophysical properties were deter-
CO- mined from porosity, resistivity, gamma ray
E
logs (Fig. 2.47), and core analysis data.
Average rock properties for the gas
8550 condensate cap and the oil leg are as
CO- follows:
F1
Oil leg Gas con-
zone densate cap
8600
Thickness (ft) 56 40
CO-
F2 Area (acres) 3500 22,670
Porosity (%) 10 13.8

CO- Permeability (md) 150 300
F3
8650
Irred. water saturation (%) 20 15
Typical log of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.
2 31

Simulation was used to estimate reserves:
30 120 5000
Qo Np Pressure
Condensate Oil Gas
MMSTB MMSTB Bscf
25 100
4000
Original hydro-
Cumulative oil (MMSTB)

carbons in place 131.4 60.7 1345.6
Oil rate (MBOPD)
20 80 Recovery factor (%) 73.2 60.0 —
Pressure (psia)
3000
Remaining reserves 8.1 6.7 —
15 60
2000
10 40 Originally the CO-EF sands contained
approximately 100 bbl of condensate per
1000
5 20 MMscf of gas. The 14.8 MMSTB of remaining
fluids are mainly located in the northeastern,
0 0 0 eastern and southern sections of the
'54 '60 '66 '72 '78 '84 '90 '96
reservoir.
Year
Production and pressure
Other studies show an average porosity
history of the RG-14-COEF Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
of 15%, maximum porosity of 20% and
reservoir.
average permeability of 286 md. Producing a) Production, injection and pressure history
facies are clean with only small amounts of Production of reservoir RG-14-COEF
kaolinite. Water salinity is 14,500 ppm (NaCl). started in April 1950 from well RG-14, which
was completed in the gas-condensate cap.
Fluid properties Gas injection started in 1955 after some
Oil leg fluids were determined from pressure drop in the reservoir. Until
a PVT test taken at 7750 ft subsea and December 1996, 10 wells have been drilled
280°F in well RG-120, which yielded the into the oil leg and 10 into the condensate
following data: zone. The cumulative production of these
wells through natural flow and artificial gas
Original pressure 4445 psia
lift is 1177.6 MMSTB of oil and condensate,
1673 Bscf of gas and 9.6 MMSTB of water.
GOR @ pb 1476 scf/STB
The produced gas exceeds the original
gas in place by 327 Bscf, which indicates
that a great percentage of it is coming from
the injected gas (2220 Bscf through 13
Initial GOR 1881 scf/STB
injection wells).
After more than 40 years of gas
To determine the fluid properties in the injection, production has dropped sharply,
gas condensate cap a PVT analysis was while GOR water percentages have
performed by recombining the separator substantially increased (330 BOPD, 100,000
products (oil and gas) taken from well RG- scf/STB and 39% B, S & W). The reservoir
58. The recombined fluid showed a dew pressure has declined from 4445 psia to 2625
point pressure of 4675 psia at 274°F. The psia and is explained by leakage of some of
measured condensate gravity was 51.5°API the gas injected into the eastern flank of the
and the initial gas condensate GOR was dome which passed laterally to the western
13,200 scf/STB. flank and the CO-G sand. See Figs. 2.48 and
2.49 for a graphical display of the
production, pressure, and injection histories.
2 32

During the first four years, condensate
400
Qgi Gi Pressure was produced from the reservoir by natural
2500
350 5000 flow. The gas cap drive was apparently
Cumulative injection gas (MMscf)

300
limited, since a 100-psia pressure drop was
2000 4000 observed that led the operator to inject gas
Injection rate (MMscf/D)
250
into the RG-14-COEF reservoir. This
Pressure (psia)
200
1500 3000 secondary recovery project was very
profitable early in its production life, since to
150
1000 2000 date 61.2% of the original fluids (oil and
100 condensate) in place has been recovered.
500 1000
50
0 0 0
'54 '60 '66 '72 '78 '84 '90 '96
Year
Injection history of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.
RESERVOIR: “NARICUAL SANDS” FIELD: CARITO CENTRAL

The Carito Field is located 25 miles west
a) Structure
of Maturín, the Monagas State capital (Fig.
The “Naricual Formation” is a short
2.50). The field has been divided into three
anticline-type of structure, oriented from
areas: North Carito, West Carito and Center
WSW to ENE. The northern, eastern and
Carito. The latter, with almost 1900 MMSTB
southern reservoir limits are reverse faults
original fluids (oil and condensate) in place
North Carito
N
with displacements between 800 and 1000 ft,
West
of what has been locally called the “Naricual
Carito El Furrial detected from seismic interpretation. The
Formation,” has one of the basin’s largest
Maturín
western limit is a reverse fault identified by
hydrocarbon reserves. The 1400-ft thick
Central wells in the area. These faults and the
Santa
Carito sandstone is characterized by a huge gas
Bárbara 0 50 km structural configuration at the top of the
condensate cap and has a peculiarity in that
hydrocarbon accumulations are shown in
the dew pressure, as well as the bubble
Location map of the Carito Fig. 2.51.
point pressure in the oil leg, varies with
Field.
depth, resulting in quite substantial changes
in fluid properties and type of produced
crude.
2 33
Figure 2.51 c) Depositional environment

From electric logs and core analysis it
Structural was determined that the Lower Naricual
0'
D 1700
U
Fault
17200'
corresponds to braided stream channel
Producer 17000'
16800'16 U
deposits. At the bottom of the Middle
Injector U 600' D
D 16400' Naricual, nearshore deposits (coastal and
0'
sublittoral bars) are interpreted, and in its
1 6 00
middle and upper sections there are tide-
' 15000
U 00 '
1 50
D
influenced deposits (tidal channels and tidal
flats). In the Upper Naricual, the deposits are
14 0 0 0 ' D
U D U
D
interpreted to be coastal bars at the base,
U D U
0' grading up to more marine deposits in the
40
14
14 6 0 0 ' middle, and up to shallow shelf deposits at
1 4 8 0 0' 14 0 0 0 '
1 5 0 0 0'
U 1 5 2 0 0' the top.
D 14 2 0 0 '
15000' U 14 4 0 0 '
D
166
14
60
00' U 0'
The formation is a sequence of
14
N
15
U U
80
00
D
D 0' 0'
D
sandstones and shales interbedded with coal
layers, all of which are clearly seen on
Structural map of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
regular logs (Fig. 2.52). More difficult to
b) Stratigraphy observe are the sandstones containing tar,
The locally named “Naricual Forma- which are found at some levels in the
tion,” which is still under study, has been reservoir. The main producing facies have
divided into three sandstone bodies: Lower porosities between 11 and 15%. Perme-
Naricual (700 ft thickness), Middle Naricual abilities are from 40 to 1000 md and the
(400 ft thickness) and Upper Naricual (400 ft irreducible water saturations are low (10 to
thickness). All the Naricual section is com- 15%). They contain relatively small amounts
posed of sandy layers interbedded with of kaolinite and carbonate cement. However,
shales of variable thickness and extent. The facies with porosities of 7% and shale
Naricual underlies the Carapita Formation volumes up to 30% are also considered
shales of Oligo-Miocene age. The pressure productive. Typical log interpretation para-
behavior in these Naricual sandstone meters are m and n=1.8, and formation
packages is uniform and similar, indicating water salinity=13,000 ppm (NaCl). Perme-
some type of vertical communication. ability varies considerably with porosity and
clay content, and is not easy to determine
accurately. OBM is used routinely.
2 34

The results of 22 PVT analyses from the
CALI
LLD NPHI DTCO oil leg and five from the gas condensate cap,
Formation
.45 -.15 140 40
4 (in.) 14 as well as pressure measurements and initial
(AGE)
LLS (V/V) (ms ⁄ ft )
Sand
RHOB DTSM
GR Depth MSFL 1.9 2.9 240 40
production tests, show a fluid distribution
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft)
1 (ohm-m) 1000 (g ⁄cm3) (ms ⁄ ft) from top to bottom as: gas, condensate,
volatile, light and medium crude (Fig. 2.53).
This gradation leads to a variation of fluid
properties with depth, as can be observed in
Table 2.8. Other important data are indicated
below:
14200
"Upper Naricual"
Datum 14,400 ft subsea
Average temperature 280°F
Original pressure at datum 11,367 psia
Oil gravity 20–32°API
Gas condensate gravity 33.5–35.5°API

14400
There is an approximate 200-ft gas-to-

liquid transition zone where a critical fluid
"Naricual" (OLIGOCENE)
was observed in which gas and oil

viscosities and densities are similar. To
14600
maximize hydrocarbon recovery from this
kind of reservoir, pressure should be
maintained above the minimum dew point
(7000 psia in this case) to avoid condensate
"Middle Naricual"
oil loss by retrograde condensation (liquid

14800 makeup in the reservoir), as well as
asphaltene deposits in the rocks.

The “Naricual Formation” sands have a
huge gas condensate cap (m=1.2). The esti-
15000
mated fluids (oil and condensate) are as
follows:
"Lower Naricual"
Original fluids in place 1883 MMSTB
Recovery factor* 58.0%

15200
*Primary (28%) and secondary (30%)
Typical log of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
2 35
Table 2.8 The original fluids in place reserves

Zone Sat. P Oil FVF Init. GOR Oil visc. Cond. content include 713 MMSTB of condensate from the
psia RB/STB scf/STB cp STB/MMscf
gas cap. The original gas in place reserves
Upper gas cap 9220 2.047 1870 0.156 184
has been estimated at 2954 Bscf and the
Middle gas cap 8375 2.043 1844 0.156 228
original gas in solution in place in 1179 Bscf.
Lower gas cap 7445 2.038 1816 0.157 307
Gas/oil interph. 11,300 2.058 1932 0.155 307

Upper oil 5500 1.890 1531 0.169 32
Middle oil 4000 1.524 864 0.415 3 a) Production, injection and pressure history
Lower oil 3500 1.430 686 0.640 1 Since April 1988, when the “Naricual
Formation” started its production life, to
Fluid property variations of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
date, 21 wells have been drilled, 15 of which
were dual string completions. Cumulative
Figure 2.53 production is 258.7 MMSTB of oil (13.57% of
the OOIP), 362.7 Bscf of gas and practically
–12,000
no water. The December 1996 average
Upper gas cap zone
production was 103.4 MBOPD by natural
–13,000
Medium gas cap zone
flow with traces of water and 1880 scf/STB
Lower gas cap zone
GOR (Fig. 2.54). On December 24, 1996, a
Depth (ft ss)
–14,000 Gas-oil interphase @ 14,040 ft Transition zone @ 200 ft gas injection project was initiated. The
Upper crude zone discovery well’s original reservoir pressure
–15,000 Saturation was 11,367 psia calculated at a datum of
Medium crude zone pressure
14,040 ft subsea. Drill stem pressure tests
–16,000
taken from other wells and corrected at
Lower crude zone
O.W.O.C @16,585 ft
Original datum, using defined pressure gradients for
pressure
each fluid zone, indicated a 15.4
–17,000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 psia/MMSTB decline index. Actual pressure
Pressure (Mpsia)
is 7630 psia.
Fluids column of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
Figure 2.54 The prevailing reservoir production
140 300 mechanisms are rock-fluid expansion
Qo
120 Np 250 combined with a gas cap drive.
Np (MMSTB)
100
Qo (MBOPD)
200
80
150
60
100
40
20 50
0 0
Qg
Gp 500
400
Qg (MMscf/D)
400
Gp (Bscf)
300
300
200
200
100 100
0 0
'88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98
Year
Production history of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
2 36
RESERVOIR: “NARICUAL SANDS” FIELD: EL FURRIAL
Figure 2.55 Introduction faults approximately parallel to the structural

El Furrial Field is located in north axis; those of the northern flank with the
Monagas State, approximately 22 miles west downthrown side to the north and those of
of Maturín (Fig. 2.55). The locally named the southern flank with the downthrown side
“Naricual Formation,” containing 6900 to the south. A downthrown-side normal fault
MMSTB OOIP, is considered one of the system transversely cuts the structure (Fig.
North
N largest medium-gravity oil reserves in the 2.56).
Carito
West
Carito El Furrial area. The hydrocarbon column consists of an Northern and southern reservoir boun-
asphaltene type of crude, characterized by daries are determined by a bituminous layer
Maturín
Central the variation of API oil gravity, asphaltene (“tar mat”) present in all the structures, while
Carito
Santa
Bárbara
content and thermodynamic properties with the eastern and western limits consist of
0 50 km
depth. The reservoirs are volumetric-type and normal faults separating El Furrial Field from
Location map of highly undersaturated, without gas caps, and the adjacent El Corozo and Carito Fields,
El Furrial Field. have a bitumen layer that inhibits the aquifer respectively.
activity. To prevent pressure dropping down
b) Stratigraphy
to the critical point, where asphaltenes
The stratigraphic sequences of more
precipitate, water was injected into the
than 16,000 ft drilled within the El Furrial
reservoir. This will substantially increase the
Field include Upper Cretaceous to Recent.
total oil recovery.
All the section is primarily siliciclastic.
Most of the El Furrial oil accumulations
Geology
are considered to be found in sandstones
a) Structure that are locally called “Naricual Formation”
The structure at the top of the hydro- of Oligocene age. This assumption, as well
carbon accumulation is a symmetric anticline as the lithostratigraphic nomenclature of the
6 miles long by 5 miles wide with a N70°E area, is still under study. These sandstones
strike. The north flank dip varies between 18° are divided into three stratigraphic bodies
and 24° and the south flank between 16° and that are separated by laterally extensive
21°. These anticline flanks are cut by reverse shales (Fig. 2.57): Lower Naricual, with
approximately 400 ft sandstone thickness,
Figure 2.56 Middle Naricual also with 400 ft, and Upper
Naricual with an average of 700 ft. The
N
pressure behavior (Fig. 2.58) indicates there
El Corozo
U
D
is some communication between the three
0 '
700 bodies in spite of the extensive shales
-1
00' D separating them. The “Naricual Formation”
60
0'
U
-1 D
0
overlies a section of shales that are probably

60
-1 '
00
U
60
D
-1
U
pre-Oligocene, and underlies the Oligo-
'
00
D
60
U
-1
Miocene Carapita Formation shales. The

'
00
50
Carapita shales are the regional seal for the

-1
oldest hydrocarbon accumulations in the

Oligocene: Santa Bárbara; West, North, and
Center Carito; El Corozo and El Furrial
Structural reservoirs. It must be emphasized that this
Carito D
Fault
U description is unofficial and still under study.
Oil producer
Injector
Structural map of the “Naricual Sands” in El Furrial Field.
2 37
Figure 2.57 Petrophysical properties

Average petrophysical properties for
ILD NPHI each “Naricual Sands” are shown in Table 2.9.
Form. (AGE)
CALI
6 (in.) 16 2 (ohm-m) 2000 .45 (V/V) -.15
Pressure build-up tests and drill stem
GR ILM RHOB
Sand
Depth
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.9 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.9 tests characterized these “Naricual Sands”
as relatively homogeneous and of high
flow capacity.
15000
The Simandoux equation was used to
determine the water saturation (m and
n=1.89, a=0.81). Formation water salinity is
15100
approximately 18000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Porosity was calculated through an equation
where matrix and fluid densities were 2.65
"Upper Naricual"
"Naricual " (OLIGOCENE)
15200
and 0.89 g/cm3, respectively. Permeability
was considered to be a function of effective
porosity, water saturation and shaliness,
15300
which in the best zones is low (less
than 5%).
15400
Fluid properties
There is a linear relationship between
depth and temperature. The geothermal
"Middle Naricual"
15500
gradient in El Furrial Field is 1.43°F/100 ft
with 272°F at 13,000 ft subsea. There are
substantial variations in the chemical
characteristics of the fluids and the
“Naricual Formation”
hydrocarbon thermodynamic properties in
partial log in El Furrial c) Depositional environment
both horizontal and vertical directions,
Field. The Lower Naricual section was
which are related to API oil gravity, as
deposited in a nearshore environment
shown in Table 2.10.
formed by estuarine tidal channels,
Variations in the hydrocarbon
paleosurfaces, littoral bars and bays. The
thermodynamic properties have resulted in
Middle Naricual was deposited in a
the formation of a high-viscosity bituminous
sublittoral neritic environment with a
layer of variable thickness. This layer occurs
condensation surface at the base, and the
at the base of the structure and all across the
Upper Naricual in a coastal marine
field. Likewise, an approximate 350-ft
environment with coastal bars and bays,
thickness of medium crude to bitumen
estuarine channels, and paleosurfaces.
transition zone has been found. Three
different fluid sectors are shown in the next
Table 2.9
table (depths are in ft subsea):
Sand Porosity Permeability Water NOS
(%) (md) saturation (%) (ft)
Sector Top transition Top bitumen 16°API
“Lower Naricual” 14.8 268 8.3 290 zone layer crude level
“Middle Naricual” 15.1 370 7.7 162 North 15,400 15,800 15,700
“Upper Naricual” 15.3 509 7.2 220 South 14,650 14,900 14,800
East 15,250 15,400 15,300
Petrophysical properties of the “Naricual Sands”, El Furrial Field.
2 38

The “Naricual Sands” original oil in
12000
Upper Nar. place (OOIP) has been estimated by
Medium Nar.
Lower Nar.
reservoir simulation, considering the
Pressure (psia)
10000
hydrocarbon column above the 16°API oil
gravity level. Reserves are shown below:
8000
OOIP 6881 MMSTB

6000 Recovery factor* 46.65%

Qo 700
Np * Including primary (13.45%) and secondary (33.2%)
300 600
Qo (MBOPD)
Np (MMSTB)
500
200 400 Reservoir studies indicate the feasibility

300 of implementing a high-pressure (7000 psi)
100 200
miscible gas injection project at the top of
100
the formation. This project will start in 1998
0 0
'86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 and additional oil recovery of 333 MMSTB
Year (5% of the OOIP) is estimated.
Production and pressure history of the “Naricual Sands”, El Furrial Field.
Table 2.10
Chemical properties:
Since 1986, cumulative oil production
Oil gravity Asphaltene Sulfur Vanadium Iron
(˚API) (% weight) (% weight) (ppm) (ppm) has been 779 MMSTB and production of 370
29.6–< 8 0,6–36,0 0,69–2,41 6,4–562 2,2–1391,0 MBOPD is from 58 wells (Fig. 2.58). Water
injection started in 1992 at a 6 MBWPD rate
Thermodynamic properties: and now has reached 550 MBWPD. Water
Oil gravity pb GOR @ pb Bo @ pb Oil viscosity has been injected into 35 wells with a
(˚API) (psia) (scf/STB) (RB/STB) @ pb (cp)
cumulative injection of 420 MMbbl (Fig.
29,6–< 8 4860–1517 1436–245 1,915–1,249 0,2–63,2
2.59).
The original “Naricual Formation”
Chemical and thermodynamic properties of the “Naricual Sands”, El Furrial Field.
pressure was 11,020 psia at a datum of
13,000 ft subsea. The pressure gradient
Figure 2.59
varies from 0.30 psia/ft at the top to 0.325
600 psia/ft at the base of the medium crude
column. By the end of 1992, after producing
Cumulative injection (MMSTB)
Cumulative injection
and Injection rate (MBWPD)
550 MBWPD
500 Injection rate
plant
approximately 272 MMSTB of oil, the
400 pressure drop was 3039 psia (down to 7971
400 MBWPD
psia), indicating an 11.2 psia/MMSTB
300
plant pressure decline factor. From 1992 to date,
200 when the water injection started, this factor
was reduced to 2.7 psia/MMSTB, indicating
50 MBWPD
100 6 MBWPD
plant
plant that the pressure maintenance project is
0
highly beneficial (Fig. 2.58).
'92 '93 '94 '95 '96
Year
Injection history of the “Naricual Sands”, El Furrial Field.
2 39
b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms characteristics into consideration, the pre-

The El Furrial “Naricual Formation” vailing drive mechanism was rock and fluid
sands are highly undersaturated. The bitumi- expansion until 1992, during the natural
nous layer inhibits the water drive of any depletion period; later on, expansion was
underlying aquifer from being transmitted to assisted by a water injection secondary
the overlying hydrocarbon reservoir, whose recovery project, which maintained the
behavior is volumetric. Taking these pressure above the bubble point.
RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES FIELD: PEDERNALES
Figure 2.60 Introduction The field is SW-ENE-oriented and has been

The Pedernales Field is on the northern divided into four areas: SW and Central,
margin of the Orinoco delta in the from which has come most of the
Amacuro Delta Territory (Fig. 2.60). It cumulative oil production, and NE and ENE
lies beneath mangrove swamps and segments, which are in the development
N tide-influenced river channels. The P2 phase (Fig. 2.61). Originally it was believed
sands are the main producers of the La that the Pedernales anticline was the result
Guanoco
Pica Formation. The field was of mud diapirism, but recent 3-D seismic
Caripito Pedernales
discovered in 1933 but was shut-in for data indicate that the structure is also due to
long periods of time because of World faulting with deep thrusts. The reservoir dips
0 40 km
Maturín War II, remote access and contract approximately 45° to the northwest and
expirations with different operators. In trapping is mainly stratigraphic. P2 sands are
Location map of the
March 1993 an Operating Services laterally bounded by transgressive NW-SE-
Pedernales Field.
Agreement was signed to reactivate and trending faults. The upper limit has been
develop the Pedernales area. A total of 76 taken at approximately 3000 ft true vertical
MMSTB of heavy to medium oil has been depth (TVD) subsea and no oil-gas contact
estimated as proven reserves, as well as 377 has been detected. The base of the field is
MMSTB probable recoverable oil reserves. defined by oil-water contacts (in SW/Central
areas at approximately 7240 ft TVD subsea;
Geology in the NE area at +-7400 ft TVD, and +-7850
ft TVD subsea in the ENE area). The SW
a) Structure
reservoir limit is not stratigraphic but a
The Pedernales Field is located on the
proven area boundary.
northern flank of the Pedernales structure,
which is a large decapitated anticline.
2 40

The Pedernales reservoir sandstones are
a lower Pliocene member of the Mio-
N
Pliocene La Pica Formation (Fig. 2.62). The
EENE Pedernales sandstones were largely
Cotorra
Island 00
' deposited as lowstand wedges underlain by
' ENE 70 00
' '
00 60 00
90 50 the Amacuro highstand wedge and overlain
NE by a transgressive systems tract. The seal is
'
800
0 provided by the lower Cotorra shale
'
00
40' member.
00
Central 30 0'
0
20
The oil in Pedernales Field is contained
9000' SW
'
in Pliocene sandstones and siltstones
8000' 00
20 00'
7000' 00' 10 deposited within a delta top (paralic) to
Structural
'60 00'
50 Parcel limit shallow marine environments. The SW and
Fault
Well Central parts of the field are characterized by
delta top distributary channels and delta
Structural map of the P2 sands.
front mouth bars that are cut by incised
Figure 2.62
valley fills. The NE and ENE segments are
dominated by shoreface sands with intervals
ICM NPHI of mouth bar sands (Fig. 2.63).
Formation
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 60 (p.u.) 0.0

Member
(AGE)
GR IDL RHOB
Sand
Depth
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.65 (g / cm3) 2.65
Petrophysical studies of wireline logs
Top Perdernales and limited cores show the lithology in the
Pedernales to be predominantly sandstones,
Top P2
siltstones and shales. Clays are mainly illite
4900
with some kaolinite and smectite. The
sandstones are fine- to medium-grained and
5000 have good to moderate sorting with little or
no cementation. In the finer, shalier
sandstones, irreducible water can be high.
5100
La Pica (MIO-PLIOCENE)
There is good agreement between core

and porosity logs. Water salinity is
Pedernales
P2
5200
approximately 20,000 ppm (NaCl) and m
and n are less than 2.0. Permeability was
estimated using available log and core data
5300 and crossed-checked against test data. Cutoff
criteria to define net sand thickness were
60%, 13% and 50% for volume shale,
5400
porosity and water saturation, respectively.
5500
Top P5
P5
5600
Typical log in the Pedernales Field.
2
41 PARA COMPRAR AL DETAL O AL MAYOR, ESTE Y OTROS PRODUCTOS, FAVOR PREGUNTAR POR EL GÖAJIRO BLANCO, EN EL MERCADO LAS PLAYITAS.

The Pedernales sandstones contain
undersaturated oil of 17 to 23°API oil gravity
SW Central NE ENE
with 3% sulfur. Fluid data are limited and of
poor quality. Reservoir fluid properties were
Top Ped derived using an equation of state that con-
Upper sand siders the variation of properties with depth.
"sheet"
Results at a datum of 5500 ft TVD subsea are
Basin
fill shown below:
Range Most likely
Original pressure (psia) 2900–3400 3200

Base
Ped Bubble point pressure,
Pb (psia) 1833–3461 2671
Oil viscosity @ pb (cp) 10.3–18.2 13.3
Oil FVF @ pb (RB/STB) 1.13–1.24 1.19
GOR @ pb (scf/STB) 268–558 413
Am ac ur o Me mb e r Oil gravity (°API) 17–23 21.5
Data from the SW and ENE segments

Delta top ⁄ delta front depositional environment Shoreline ⁄ delta front depositional environment
(incised valley, channel and mouth bar sands) (shoreface and mouth bar sands) are quite similar.
SW-ENE stratigraphic
Ranges of these parameters are shown Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96
correlation in the
in the next table: Proven reserves have been calculated
Pedernales Field.
using two methods, the volumetric and
Net oil sand 128–254 ft
reservoir simulation methods, with similar
Porosity 16–30 %
results:
Water saturation 18–37 %
Permeability 100–1000 md OOIP 973 MMSTB
Recovery factor 14.2 %
Figure 2.64
18 3500 Probable recoverable reserves were

Oil rate (MSTB/D) and GOR (Mscf/STB)
Pressure
officially estimated to be 377 MMSTB
Reservoir average pressure (psia)
16 Field GOR
Monthly oil rate 3000
(33 Producers) considering a recovery factor of 12% and
14
(11 Prod.)
2500 1509 MMSTB probable OOIP.
12
10 2000
8 1500
(11 Producers)
6
(17 Producers) 1000
4 World
War II
500
2
0 0
'35 '40 '45 '50 '55 '60 '65 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 '95
Year
Production and pressure history of the P2 sands, Pedernales Field.
2 42
Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96 The third phase of production (1981 to 1985)
peaked at 1000 BOPD (17 wells were drilled)
with an additional 1 MMSTB. The final phase
The Pedernales Field has produced
started with an Operating Services Agree-
from the P2 sands 61.8 MMSTB of
ment signed in 1993. The production has
oil over a period of 61 years (1935 to 1996)
been between 15,000 and 20,000 BOPD from
in four separate phases. During the first
an additional 15 completed wells. A gas
phase (1935 to 1942) the field reached a
injection project was started in September
peak of 5000 BOPD and yielded a total
1995 in the southwest area. See Fig. 2.64 for
production of 9 MMSTB, followed by a four-
a graphical display of the P2 production and
year shut-in due to World War II. Production
pressure history.
during the second phase (1947 to 1965)
reached a peak of 12,000 BOPD (43 b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms
producers) and yielded a cumulative oil Rock and fluid expansion was the main
recovery of 57 MMSTB and 56 Bscf of gas, reservoir production mechanism until bub-
then was shut-in again for 16 years after ble point pressure was reached, and then
the expiration of the operator’s contract. solution gas became the prevailing drive.
RESERVOIR: MORICHAL MEMBER FIELD: CERRO NEGRO (BITOR AREA)

The Orinoco Belt is known to be the
a) Structure
largest heavy and extra-heavy oil accu-
The Bitor Area structure is monocline-
mulation in the world, with 1200 billion
like with a gentle north dip of approximately
barrels of OOIP extending over an area of
4° and is fractured by multiple east-west-
approximately 13.3 million acres. Cerro
N Temblador oriented faults, as well as some minor
El Salto Jobo
Pilón
Negro (Fig. 2.65) is one of four blocks within
northeast-southwest-oriented faults. These
the Orinoco Belt and is located on its eastern
Morichal minor faults cut the main faults at
segment, south of Monagas and Anzoátegui
Cerro Negro approximately 45° (Fig. 2.66). Most of these
states. Part of Cerro Negro is the Bitor Area,
Bitor Area faults are non-sealing, normal and of large
which covers a surface area of 45,000 acres
extent (more than 9 miles). Variable vertical
Orinoco River Puerto and has an original bitumen in place (OBIP)
Ordaz
displacements range from 50 to 200 ft. The
of more than 19.6 billion barrels. The oil
vertical displacements north of Bitor Area
Location map of the Bitor production is mostly used as raw material for
are larger than in the south. It is quite
Area. the Orimulsión® (70% crude, 29% water and
difficult to detect faults on the electrical logs
1% surfactant), which is considered to be an
because of the massiveness of the sand-
alternate source of energy of high com-
stones. The hydrocarbon accumulations are
mercial value on the international markets.
essentially controlled by stratigraphic traps
and neither regional oil-water contacts nor
gas-oil contacts can be found on the logs.
2 43
Figure 2.66 c) Depositional Environment

Producing zones are closely related to
the depositional environment and lithofacies
–2900'
interpretations (Fig. 2.67). Particularly,
–2800' "peak-to-peak" correlation of the Morichal
Member fluvial section cannot be performed
because there are no regional shaly intervals
–2600'
of enough lateral extent to help distinguish
individual sandstones. Instead, there are
massive sandstone packages with good
vertical development and horizontal
–2300' coalescence.
N
Morichal Member Top –2200' Petrophysical properties

The petrophysical evaluation of Mori-
chal, Yabo, and Jobo/Pilón Members is
–2200'
based on a study that included 70 wells with
Structural
–2100'
Parcel limit
appropriate porosity logs (density/neutron)
Fault and 206 wells with only resistivity curves
(laterolog) as well as two wells with core
Illustrated structural map of the Morichal Member. analysis. The results are as follows:
b) Stratigraphy Range Morichal

Member
The Bitor Area stratigraphic column
Net sand thickness (ft) 150–470 218
(Fig. 2.67) has an average thickness of 3000
Shale volume (Vsh) (%) 5–12 8
ft. The Oficina Formation sandstones of
Porosity (%) 28–35 31
early Miocene age, deposited on a pre-
Permeability (md) 4000–20,000 1000
Tertiary unconformity, were arbitrarily
Water saturation (%) 11–26 18
divided into 16 producing zones: Morichal
Member (from 0-16 to 0-11), Yabo Member
The cutoffs used to determine the petro-
(from 0-10 to 0-9), and Jobo/Pilón Member
physical characteristics and the net bitumen
(from 0-8 to 0-4). The remaining three zones
sand in wells with porosity logs are:
(F-3 to F-1) belong to the basal section of the
Sw=4.5%, Vsh=40%, Porosity=20% and
Freites Formation (Middle Miocene). The Las
Swi=7%. The petrophysical parameters are:
Piedras Formation (Late Miocene to Plio-
Rw=0.50 ohm-m, a=1.0, n=2.0 and m=1.7. It
cene) unconformably overlies the Freites
is important to observe that the low
Formation. The Mesa Formation (Pliocene),
resistivity values shown on the logs, at the
which overlies the Las Piedras Forma-tion,
bottoms and tops of the massive sandstones,
contains huge volumes of sweet water
are caused by normal granulometric changes
usable for industrial and domestic purposes.
in the lithofacies that may be associated with
an increase in clay content and not
necessarily by high water saturation. In
addition, 40 ft is considered to be the min-
imum thickness for a commercial sandstone.
2 44

In the following table, fluid property
averages from several wells are compared
Member
Form.
(AGE)
Gamma Ray Unit Environment
API
with a PVT analysis from well CO-04,
considered to be the most representative of
the reservoir.
MIOCENE)
(MIDDLE
Freites
F–1
Shallow marine
Deltaic margin Average PVT CO-04
F–2
Bubble point pressure* (psia) 1143 1040
F–3
Datum (ft subsea) 2500 2266
0–4
Pilón
Lower deltaic plane GBR @ pb (scf/STB) 72 79

0–5
to delta front
0–6 Bitumen FVF @ pb (RB/STB) 1.047 1.047
Deltaic deposits Bitumen viscosity @ pb (cp) 8200 5900

0–7ab
Temperature (°F) 131 126
Jobo
0–7c
Marine events Bitumen gravity (°API) 8.2 8.0
0–8
* Same as original pressure
Oficina (LOWER MIOCENE)
0–9 Coastal zone

Yabo
The analyzed metals content is: 3.8% sul-

0–10 Tidal deposists
(marine) fur, 80 ppm nickel, and 300 ppm vanadium.
0–11a
0–11b Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96

Table 2.11 shows the Bitor Area
0–12 bitumen reserves (MMSTB) representing
Lower deltaic plane
Fluvial deposits
only 1.6% of the Orinoco Belt.
Morichal
0–13
Deltaic deposits
0–14
a) Production history
0–15 The Morichal Member’s remaining
reserves represent about 96% of the Bitor
0–16 Landside
Valley fills Area. A major portion, now under
exploitation, includes a pilot test initiated
Igneous-metamorphic Basement (PRE-TERTIARY)
back in 1984 in the so-called Production
Stratigraphic column in the Bitor Area. Experimental Blocks. It is difficult to analyze
production behavior because of the large
Table 2.11 numbers of field tests and the unpredictable
Morichal Jobo Pilón Total production shutdowns that occurred
OBIP (MMSTB) 18,541 1055 21 19,617 between 1984 and 1996. The cumulative
Recovery factor (%) 12.2 9.0 9.0 12.0 bitumen production until December 1996
Remaining reserves (MMSTB) 2166 95 2 2263 was 96 MMSTB and, for that month, the
average production was 70 MBBPD with
Bitor Area estimated bitumen reserves as of 1996.
12% B, S and W and 160 scf/STB GBR.
2 45
Figure 2.68 Other field tests worth mentioning are the

cyclic steam injection, well spacings of 150,
400
Producers 300 and 400 m, and the use of different
200 types of diluent and well completions. See
Fig. 2.68 for a graphical display of the
0
Water cut, B, S & W (%) production history.
50
800
It is assumed that the Morichal Member
Gas-bitumen ratio, GBR (scf/STB) crude was initially gas-saturated at its
400 original pressure. This assumption implies a
possible gas-solution drive. Compaction, as
0
Bitumen production rate, Qb (BBPD) in the Bolívar District Coast, might have
50000
helped oil recovery. However, cumulative
25000
bitumen production is relatively small
0
'83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 compared to the OBIP and subsidence has
Year not yet been observed. Incidentally, there is
Production history of the Bitor Area. some water invasion but neither its source
nor its energy are yet well known. All these
By July 1996 a total of 349 wells had been
reservoir drive mechanisms must only be
drilled, including four horizontal wells
considered as “possible” until better infor-
where electrical submersible pumps were
mation on the Bitor Area, through special
successfully installed with added diluent at
studies of pressure/production behavior
the pump entry level. Also, a total of 23
analysis, is obtained.
horizontal reentries were performed, initially
completed with a progressive cavity pump.
AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS
This chapter was written by J-C. Bernys
with the collaboration of L.Zamora, S.Antúnez (MEM), F.Chiquito (PDVSA), A.Herrera

(BITOR), F.Rodríguez (Corpoven), O.Romero (Lagoven), O.Suárez (Maraven)
and with contributions from M.Milán (MEM), F.García (PDVSA), I.Benzaquén (BITOR),
P.Talarico and D.Flores (Corpoven), C.Camacho, L. Escandón and K.Larrauri (Lagoven),
M.Rampazzo, X.Verenzuela, J.C.Ustariz and M.Méndez (Maraven), and E.Cazier,
B.Cunningham and H.Torres (BP de Venezuela).
2 46
Roger, J.V, N. Arteaga, J. Cabrera, G. Valera, P. Jam, M. Castillo, T. Boesi, Z.A. G. Zambrano, A. Granado A. Rincón - SPE 18279 – 1988 - “A Compositional
Sancevic, Salazar, G. Rivero, F. Gómez, R. López – 1989- “Explotación Simulation Evaluation of the Santa Rosa Colorado EF Reservoir, Eastern
Sección II: Ingeniería de yacimientos y Geología de producción ) en la Venezuela”
Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos”. Efraim Barberii, Editor Técnico-
V. Villarroel - AAPG (Structural Traps VIII) – 1993 -“Santa Rosa Field –
Ediciones del Cepet, Caracas – 2 tomos.
Venezuela - Eastern Venezuela Basin”
J.C. Bernys – PDVSA – 1981 – “Aplicación de los procesos térmicos para la
Corpoven – Gerencia de explotación áreas norte de Monagas, 1994-
explotación de los crudos pesados en Venezuela”
“Memoria descriptiva – Proyecto de recuperación secundaria mediante la
Lagoven – Informe de progreso – 1996 “Proyecto de recuperación secun- inyección de gas en la formación Naricual del campo Mulata/El Carito”
daria – Yacimiento LL-07.
Lagoven/Corpoven - 1992 - “Estudio del campo El Furrial para la implantación
M.A. Shagroni, T. C. Boberg, J. A. González, L. E. Matheus – Exxon/Lagoven de un proyecto de recuperación secundaria mediante un proyecto de inyec-
“LL-7 Reservoir Engineering studies ” ción de agua en la formación Naricual”
Lagoven- Ing. de Petróleo – Dpto. de Producción – División de Occidente Lagoven/Corpoven - Informe de progreso - 1996 – “Proyecto de recuperación
1993- “Evaluación del comportamiento de inyección de aguas efluentes del secundaria yacimiento Naricual – Campo El Furrial”
yacimiento Lag. Inf. -07”
J. Herbas Pizarro – SPE 23685 – 1992 – “Reservoir engineering studies to
J.E. González- Lagoven — 1993 – “Estudio de Ingeniería – B-6-X.03” implement additional recovery projects in El Furrial Field”
Lagoven – Informe de progreso –1996 - “Yacimiento B-6-X.03 - Proyectos de M.Villalba, P. Pérez, C. Marcano – Corpoven – 1996 – “Memoria descriptiva –
inyección de agua – Norte-1, Norte-2, Sur-1, Sur-2 ” Proyecto perforación horizontal – Yacimiento RG-14 (COEF) Campo Santa
Rosa” British Petroleum – 1996 – “Pedernales Phase 2 – Reservoir Studies”
L. Rodríguez, J. Miranda - Corpoven – 1988 - “Simulación del compor-
tamiento de producción del yacimiento 0017 Arena P1/2 - Campo Silvestre” A. Santos, M. González – Geo Exploración, C. A. – 1996 – “Evaluación geológ-
ica área Bitor”
Simupet C.A.– 1994 “Estudio integrado de los campos Ostra, Oveja , Yopales
Sur-Yacimientos: OM -100, Arena-J-3, Campo Oveja - Informe preliminar ”
2 47
Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter overview
Risk analysis in well construction
The choice of drilling fluids to minimize
reservoir damage
Predicting wellbore stability
Geosteering
WELL PLANNING
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Optimizing well production and Horizontal wells have spurred much of

reservoir understanding from well data (the the recent focus on well planning. The
theme of this book) depends heavily on the placement of the well, stability of the
quality of the wells—quality in the sense of borehole, and effects of a very long reservoir
being fit for the purpose, which in this case section are some of the issues that require
is to give an expected rate of production more precise and integrated planning. The
and/or amount of data from the reservoir. next section shows how data from a pilot
These data must be acquired at a minimum hole were used to plan the drilling and
cost consistent with safe practices and completion of a horizontal well. In particular,
minimum impact on the environment. the pilot hole showed that if the well was
Quality undoubtedly depends on good drilled parallel to the minimum stress it could
planning. This chapter discusses some be completed openhole, thereby consid-
aspects of this planning, in particular the erably reducing the investment. The well was
need to look at the whole picture, and the successfully drilled and completed,
particular case of horizontal wells. producing at double the rate for a typical
Well construction is increasingly focused vertical well in the area.
on ensuring an optimum return on each well The final section discusses the technique
by taking into account the needs of the many of steering a horizontal well geologically
stakeholders—drillers, production engineers, rather than geometrically. This technique
geologists, geophysicists, and petrophysicists, depends on good planning, good wellsite
as well as investors and managers. A key software and coordination and on having
issue is how to reconcile these needs and, formation measurements as close as possible
when conflicts arise, how to judge one to the bit. An important part of planning is to
against another. One method is risk analysis. model the response of the measurements for
The first section describes the process of risk various possible scenarios so that if these
analysis and points out how geoscience occur while drilling, the correct decisions can
needs can be included along with the be made more easily. The examples show
traditional drilling needs. how wells can be steered successfully within
Drilling fluids can have a strong effect on sands as thin as 5 ft for more than a thousand
production rate and data acquisition. The feet of section.
problem of choosing the right fluid is a very
good example of how the requirements of
different groups need to be considered and
balanced against one another. The choice is
not always obvious; for example, using a
fluid that causes formation damage may or
may not be important, depending on the
completion and stimulation plans. This article
discusses the factors involved and shows
results from the sort of laboratory studies that
can help quantify these factors better.
3 1
R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
A change in general philosophy decisions have typically been made in the

concerning drilling or “well construction” has past by drilling engineers with cost
taken place in the past several years. Along information only. Next, one particular area of
with industry right-sizing, integrated services, well construction design—the wellbore
and increased global competitiveness has geometry—is described and used as the basis
come a way of thinking that keeps the “end for Example B. In this example, the “decision
in mind.” Historically, the drilling profession tree” employs information from various
has been segregated not only functionally disciplines and reveals the value of this
from geoscience, reservoir, and production information. The designs are based on more
counterparts, but, more importantly, in their than just cost data and result in designs with
goals and objectives. Drillers have been the “end in mind.” This technique allows the
primarily interested in well designs that melding of each discipline’s expertise into a
resulted in getting the well down quickly, more accurate decision-making process.
with problem-free operations and the lowest
possible cost. Geoscientists, on the other Well construction
hand, were interested in obtaining as much
Design hierarchy
information as possible, reducing damage to
In any operation, a hierarchy of
the reservoir, and having numerous testing
importance must be placed on all assets or
and completion options available to them.
resources so that the decision-making process
With the changes that have taken place
is consistent with critical items such as safety
in the last several years, both relating to
and technical integrity. Prioritizing these
economics and the work force, we must now
resources can best be described by a simple
concentrate on the big picture. Drillers must
statement that has been used for quite some
concentrate not only on drilling performance,
time in drilling organizations: “the PEOPLE,
but the effect their designs have on data
the RIG, the WELL.” Well design, operations,
acquisition, reservoir characteristics and
and the decision-making process must all
ultimate well performance and economics.
follow this hierarchy (Fig. 3.1).
Geoscientists, reservoir engineers, and
The safety of personnel is obviously the
production engineers must now concentrate
number one goal in any operation we
not only on optimum reservoir performance,
undertake. Personnel safety should always be
but operational risks and economic/
the number one concern in well design and
operational tradeoffs in well design. Clear
rig-site operations.
and concise goals and objectives for each
The drilling rig represents a resource that
project must be in place and all disciplines
has a fixed value and thus is considered
must work together to economically achieve
higher in priority than the well under
them. These goals and objectives must be
construction. Additionally, rig safety policies
focused to produce the optimum return on
are, for the most part, consistent with
each well or project undertaken. This requires
personnel safety. Any attempt to keep
an understanding of how each discipline’s
problems away from the surface, and thus the
problems and/or concerns affect the project’s
rig and the environment, aid in the ultimate
ultimate economics.
goal of personnel safety. Any risk of
This section starts by describing the
personnel safety while attempting to salvage
overall objectives of well construction, the
the physical equipment of the rig would be
priorities in well construction and the concept
counter to the hierarchy.
of risk/reward. Example A then introduces
“decision trees” and shows how design
3 2
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.1 Last in our hierarchy is the well under Operational risk assessment:
construction. No fixed value can be assigned “Reasonable assurance”
PEOPLE to the well and, therefore, it is placed under

the drilling rig in the hierarchy. Many safety
A well plan that provides a 99% chance
that all objectives will be accomplished is
hazards can be eliminated prior to reaching usually both an uneconomic and unrealistic
the surface (thereby keeping them away from plan. This is where engineering, risk
RIG
RIG the rig, the personnel and the environment) management, and operational experience
by forfeiting the wellbore. In many instances, play an invaluable role in well construction.
forfeiture of the wellbore allows salvaging the Options relating to mud systems, rig
drilling rig and ensures the safety of equipment, borehole geometry, completion
WELL
WELL personnel. and testing methods, cement design, extent of
The hierarchy of importance Therefore, the well must be designed evaluation, and others must be examined and
used in drilling design. both technically and operationally consistent a reasonable level of assurance obtained in
to the hierarchy described. Getting the well to the final design to meet the goals and
the depth objective, evaluating the wellbore, objectives of the well. In most cases,
and finally completing the wellbore then operational experience is the most valuable
become the secondary hierarchy. This resource for success in this endeavor.
grouping is fairly obvious. For example, Obviously, “reasonable assurance” can
being able to evaluate or complete a well is take on various definitions as we apply
of no consequence if the well cannot reach different goals, objectives, potential
the objective formation. Each of these economic returns, and well types. For
(reaching depth objective, evaluating, and instance, the goals and objectives for a
completing) must be planned for with $100,000 shallow development well are
“reasonable assurance.” somewhat different from those of a
$20,000,000 exploration well in the jungle.
Therefore, “reasonable assurance” will
Figure 3.2
undoubtedly take on a different meaning.
For instance, a more expensive and complex
Estimated well costs
drilling fluid is justified in the latter case due
Risked well costs $1,450,000
to the increased exposure versus that of a
5)
.1
(0
shallow development well. Although this

H
M $1,000,000
$1,037,500
(0.65) example is extreme, others fall within a wide
L
(0
$850,000 spectrum of possibilities.

.2
l
ua
0)
us
as
er
Well construction design: Using

in
tl
Se
risk/reward/economics
$1,000,000
Various preliminary designs that meet the
El
im
0)
.2
in
goals and objectives of the well, as well as

(0
at
e
$825,000
lin
$852,500 M
er
(0.65) health, safety, and environment (HSE) and

ed
c ce
Su technical requirements must be reviewed. All
(0
5) $775,000
.1
(0 . 6
5)
$1,200,750
$2,200,000 of the preliminary designs will have inherent
Fai
5)
l
advantages and disadvantages. Each design
.2
(0.3
(0
5)
H
M $1,750,000 must be evaluated on the basis of operational

$1,847,500
(0.60)
merit, risk/reward, and economics. Histori-
L
(0
.1
$1,650,000
5)
cally, operational merit has been used to

A typical decision tree analysis for eliminating a casing point. select the final design without much input
from other disciplines or extensive economics.
3 3
Figure 3.3 The possible outcomes (success and

failure) are identified and the appropriate
decision tree branches drawn. Next, an
20 in. @ 300 ft 20 in. @ 300 ft estimated cost is calculated for each possible
outcome (high, medium, and low). Notice
that successful elimination of the liner results
171⁄2 -in. hole
in a lower cost relative to the same cost
outcome (high, median, or low) of setting the
liner as usual (upper branch). This
133⁄8 -in. @ 4000 ft
95⁄8 -in. @ 4000 ft improvement is what the engineer is looking
for and is the result of reduced casing,
cementing, and time costs. Once these steps
121⁄4 -in. hole
are taken, the engineer assigns probabilities
for each of the possible outcomes and cost
scenarios. In this case, the engineer has
Lost circulation assigned a 65% probability of success for
zone eliminating the liner. Probabilities for high
95⁄8 -in. @ 8500 ft well cost, median well costs, and low well
costs have also been assigned. Notice that the
Reservoir probability for an above-average well cost is
more in the case of failure than in the case of
7-in. @ 10,500 ft 7-in. @ 10,500 ft success. This is normal as the risk/unknown
is greater in this case. (Note: this method
Two well construction options. For years, decision trees much like Example A
requires probability inputs that are somewhat
have been employed by drilling engineers to
arbitrary. This does not render the technique
aid in operational decision-making. Although
invalid, as a sensitivity analysis is typically
very simple in nature, this example provides
done and the results incorporated into the
the basics of decision tree analysis.
decision-making process.)
The top branch describes the decision to
Example A: Eliminating
set the liner across the lost circulation zone as
a casing point
normal operations dictate. Again, an
Figure 3.2 shows a common decision tree
estimated cost is calculated and probabilities
analysis. In this simple example, the option to
assigned to them. Notice that these values are
eliminate an intermediate liner is being evalu-
somewhat different than those assigned to the
ated. Typically, this liner is set to cover a lost
high, median, and low cases in the bottom
circulation zone above the target reservoir (Fig.
branch. This is because of uncertainty in
3.3). The engineer is evaluating the use of a
eliminating the casing string. When
new lost circulation material in conjunction
uncertainty exists, the probability for the
with improved drilling practices in attempts to
actual cost being higher than average should
eliminate the string. First, let’s examine the
be greater.
lower branch that relates to eliminating the
liner.
3 4
WELL PLANNING
The engineer now applies the probability • problem zones (lost circulation, pore
factors to each of the costs and arrives at a pressure, instability, etc.)
“risked cost” for eliminating the liner as well • requested completion (size of tubulars
as setting the liner as usual. If necessary, a and other equipment)
sensitivity analysis is done to more com- • equipment availability
pletely evaluate the data. Sensitivity analysis • geological and reservoir data (reservoir
is usually reserved for more complex trees structure and composition, targets, etc.).
where multiple options are present. In this The geometry of the borehole is always
case, setting the casing as usual has resulted designed from the bottom up. Consideration
in a lower “risked cost” as compared to is given to the number of strings needed to
attempting to eliminate the liner. reach the final objective within reasonable
In past years, designs with little regard to assurance. Depending on the type of well
the overall picture were sometimes selected and, in some cases, economics, a contingency
because of cost or operational advantages. In string may be allowed for in the preliminary
today’s environment, the reservoir and design. This particular portion of the design is
economics in general must play a crucial role usually done when all of the information
in final design selection. Decision trees, risk from the above designs are gathered, as all
analysis concepts, and input from the various influence the configuration of the borehole.
disciplines can be used to select the design Below is an example of how risk analysis can
that yields the maximum return on the be used to select wellbore geometry. In this
resource. example, the accuracy of assessing the
The challenge of well construction is position of a geological target is being
finding the optimum design for each evaluated in a horizontal well application.
operation, a design that within “reasonable The optimum wellbore geometry will be
assurance” accomplishes the goals and selected using drilling, geological, and
objectives, is economic, and ensures the directional expertise combined in a risk
safety of both rig and personnel. This analysis approach.
responsibility now must be shared by all
appropriate disciplines instead of by the Example B: Deciding to
drilling engineer alone. drill a pilot hole
Discussed below is one particular design Example A was one of an operational
—the wellbore geometry configuration. An decision that has typically been made by well
example decision tree shows how a particular construction (drilling) personnel solely on
design can benefit from the input of all the cost information. Example B, on the other
appropriate disciplines and the resulting hand, uses cost information in conjunction
economic analysis. with information provided by the geologist,
directional personnel, and others. The
Wellbore geometry additional input results in more accurate
Numerous factors influence the selection decision making.
of wellbore geometry. As a result, many In this example, the team is attempting to
options are usually evaluated to select the decide whether or not a vertical pilot hole
configuration that economically achieves the should be drilled prior to constructing a
stated goals of the well. Following is a partial lateral in a horizontal prospect (Fig. 3.4).
list of factors usually considered when
designing wellbore geometry.
3 5
Figure 3.4 The reservoir is 8 ft thick and requires a

significant amount of geologic knowledge to
enter the reservoir target. Historically, these
Construct the build
and lateral sections teams have used a pilot hole drilled through
without a pilot hole. the reservoir to identify geologic tops so that
the curve could be designed and built with a
high degree of accuracy. The information
obtained by drilling and the subsequent
Reservoir target
logging of the pilot hole has enabled the
construction of the lateral as desired with little
need for significant course correction.
From experience in the area and by using
measurements at the bit, the geologist
believes that the reservoir top could be picked
with “reasonable” certainty and the well cost
potentially reduced by eliminating the pilot
Construct a vertical Construct a pilot hole at hole. The alternative of constructing a pilot
pilot hole, log, then 45˚ , log, then plug back
plug back and construct and construct the lateral. hole at 45°, logging, and then correcting the
the lateral.
build rate is also being evaluated. Each of
Three possible options for drilling a horizontal well. these three alternatives have both monetary
and operational advantages and disadvantages
that need to be evaluated prior to selecting a
Figure 3.5
wellbore configuration (Fig. 3.5).
Estimated well costs The top branch has been dedicated to
$3,500,000 eliminating the pilot hole. The drilling engi-
0)
neer, with consultation from directional per-

.4
Risked costs
(0
H
M $3,000,000
$3,075,000 sonnel and offset data, feels that without a
ed (0.35)
eed
c ti o
nn pilot hole the need for a significant course
(0
r e 5) $2,500,000
.2
Cor ( 0 .7
5)
$2,888,000 No correction is 75%. Course correction is being

c or $2,500,000
r ec
tion defined as a probable plugback and redrill for
0)
nee
.2
(0.2
(0
ded
5)
a portion of the hole. Note that the probability
H
M $2,300,000
$2,295,000
(0.50)
for a higher-than-average cost is greater (40%
e
ol
L
th
(0
versus 20%) on the “correction needed”

.3
$2,150,000
lo
0)
pi
e
$3,100,000
at
branch than on the “no correction needed”

in
im
5)
.1
El
branch. This, as in the other examples shown,

(0
H
Drill 45˚ pilot hole M $2,850,000

$2,842,500
(0.65) is because of the uncertainty involved in un-
Dr
familiar activities. The middle branch relates to

L
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ill
$2,650,000
.
20
ve
)
r ti
penetrating the reservoir at a 45° angle,

ca
lp
ilo
logging, then constructing the final portion of

th
ol
the curve. The bottom branch represents

e
$3,300,000
constructing the vertical pilot hole, plugging
0
.1
(0
back, then building the curve (the conven-

H
M $3,000,000
$2,970,000
(0.60) tional plan). The probability in the bottom
L
(0
$2,800,000 branch for high cost (10%) is lower than that

.3
0)
of the other options because this method has

A decision tree analysis using input from geoscientists, directional personnel and
been used before, and the cost estimates have
others, as well as drilling engineers.
more basis.
3 6
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.6 constructing the remainder of the curve.

Again, the decision (as well as the cost esti-
Reservoir Geology mates) has been oversimplified for present-
Reservoir characterization Structure and targets
ation purposes. In this case, the pilot hole
might well be eliminated as there is little dif-
ference between its cost and the 45° pilot
Production WELL Completion hole. However simplified, it demonstrates the
Production rates and Subsurface equipment
flowstream data
CONSTRUCTION requirements need for decision evaluation with input from
all disciplines.
Geophysics Petrophysics
Conclusion
Seismic information
and interpretation
Formation properties In reality, net present value (NPV) is used
more often than cost data alone. Cash flow-
The boardroom of well
After the branches were constructed, the stream calculations are performed with
construction.
drilling engineer calculated the estimated cost reserves, expected revenue, cost estimates,
for each outcome and placed them in the tree taxes, and others to arrive at NPV for each
accordingly. Costs and risks associated with option. Once NPVs are assigned to the various
the following were included: options, they are risked with the probability
• geologic uncertainty for each case factors assigned. With this method, the option
• setting/sidetracking off openhole cement with the largest NPV is the optimum choice. In
plug(s) in case of course correction either case the important point is that modern
• rig time associated with each possible well construction design takes into account
outcome the goals of all disciplines (Fig. 3.6). The
• and others. decision tree is one method by which these
Once risked, the decision tree revealed different goals can be quantified and put
that the lowest “risked cost” is the case of together to arrive at a reasonable assurance
penetrating the reservoir at 45°, logging, then that they are met.
THE CHOICE OF DRILLING FLUIDS TO MINIMIZE RESERVOIR DAMAGE
Introduction to design and run a drilling fluid for a

The current nearly obsessive interest in production well such that it is possible to
minimizing formation damage from drilling demonstrate with production data that, at least
fluids is a direct result of the increased with respect to the effects of drilling fluid, the
exposure of producing formations to drilling well produces to its maximum potential.
fluids by horizontal drilling. This is as it should
be. Perforating or fracturing procedures in Laboratory studies
vertical wells that penetrate feet or meters Data that unequivocally demonstrate this
deep into a formation often render irrelevant are in short supply. Usually, the best we can
the effects of invading drilling fluid within a do is design a well simulation that helps
radius of inches in the wellbore, but the near- predict what the effects of various muds will
wellbore effects of fluid in openhole be, and apply that knowledge when drilling.
completions can be highly significant. The While not all of the mechanisms of formation
object of the mud engineer’s efforts should be damage are mud-related, the majority are,
3 7
Figure 3.7 4. The experimental conditions with

respect to pressure and temperature vary
1 kro krw
greatly between labs.
5. Post-test procedures also vary. Some
laboratories simulate completion cleanup
Kro, Krw
steps with backflow pressures, which
also vary; others do not.
6. The drilling fluids themselves will per-
form differently depending on whether
0
0 1 or not the test mud formulations includ-
Sw
(a) (b)
ed drilled solids (real or simulated).
Mud solids invasion Wettabililty change Given the range of possible mud
Filter cake plugging Fluid saturation change formulations (i.e., with the same name but
Formation fines migration (blocking)
Clay swelling Emulsion formation with and without drill solids), varying mud
Polymer adsorption ⁄ Water coning weights with different weighting agents,
precipitation Gas breakout
Scale formation Condensate banking along with the range of possible test
Wax formation (paraffin,
asphaltine)
conditions, laboratory data suggest that
Sludge formation relatively small changes in drilling parameters
Stress-induced permeability change
Perforation plugging or downhole conditions can radically affect
our efforts to choose the right fluid for a
A summary of the and their prevention must be a major design particular formation.
mechanisms of formation factor in most horizontal wells (Fig. 3.7). As a result, the choice of drilling fluids is
damage. The heavy type However, the tools we use to predict often made by simple intuition; i.e., what
indicates mud-induced formation damage from drilling fluids are seems to make sense for a formation. Our
damage mechanisms. flawed. Standardization of methodology intuition leads us to believe that:
between laboratories is nonexistent. When 1. Saturated, sized salt drilling fluids are
possible, cores from the actual formation in formation-friendly, because it makes
question are used; more often “standard” core sense to assume that salt particles that
material is used, e.g., Clashach and Birchover may enter a formation will also be
Sandstone. There are at least six variables in dissolved away when exposed to
the experimental procedures for testing unsaturated fluid.
return permeability that will affect the results: 2. Polymer fluids with calcium carbonate as
1. A major variable is the decision to a weighting/bridging agent might invade
compare permeabilities based on a given a formation, but should easily be
time period or on a given volume removed with acid.
throughput. The results may vary 3. Any fluid that contains bentonite should
enormously depending on this choice of be avoided, because it seems likely that
parameter. fine bentonite particles will invade a
2. Core lengths and diameters vary greatly. formation, hydrate and be difficult or
These decisions are largely based on a impossible to remove, thus impeding
decision on how much time should be hydrocarbon flow through the formation.
devoted to each experiment. 4. The use of barite should be avoided
3. Core preparations vary greatly. In some because barite particles cannot be
laboratories, the cores are cleaned with a removed from a formation by dissolution
methanol-toluene or similar solvent in acid or water.
system to remove asphaltenes prior to
testing. Other labs use the cores as is.
3 8
WELL PLANNING
Figures 3.8 & 3.9 drilling fluid on and in a formation: filter cake
formation, particle invasion (added solids
100
100 and drilled solids), filtrate invasion (water, oil,
Percent of initial permeability

polymer), and the reverse of these: filter
cake, particle and filtrate removal.
Tests were conducted recently at
50
50 Schlumberger Cambridge Research (SCR)
comparing formation damage, as measured
by permeability after static and dynamic filtra-
tion, with three different types of fluids. The
0
0 results were somewhat surprising. Static filtra-
Static Dynamic
Static Dynamic tion tests with 10.5 ppg fluids resulted in
Recovery in permeability for Recovery in permeability for 13 ppg fluids, similar (within experimental error) perme-
10.5 ppg fluids Clashhach Clashach Sandstone, 60 min filtration: ability recoveries from mixed-metal hydroxide
Sandstone, 60 min filtration, ■ MMH weighted with CaCO3, ■ Polymer (MMH ) weighted with barite, MMH weighted
■MMH weighted with weighted with CaCO3, ■ Saturated sized salt with calcium carbonate (CaCO3), polymer
CaCO3, ■ MMH weighted mud weighted with CaCO3 and sized salt.
Recent data suggest that our intuition is
with barite, ■ Polymer Only the results with potassium chloride (KCl)
wrong. Not only does our intuition fail to
weighted with CaCO3, polymer mud weighted with CaCO3 were
identify the most cost-effective solution to dril-
■Saturated sized salt, significantly lower. Dynamic filtration, on the
ling a formation without damage, data suggest
■KCl polymer weighted other hand, gave the best permeabilities with
that what we intuitively identify as the least
with CaCO3 MMH weighted with barite, and polymer
damaging, can be the most damaging fluid.
weighted with CaCO3, followed by the others
Why do observed data contradict what
(Fig. 3.8). The same fluids in the same
seems like common sense? It may be that the
formation, but weighted to 13 ppg, gave
simple model to which our intuition leads us
different results: the best return permeability
is wrong. Our intuitive model fails to take into
was observed with the polymer fluid,
account the true nature of the effects of a
followed by saturated, sized salt and MMH
Figures 3.10 & 3.11 weighted with CaCO3 (MMH with barite was
not tested) (see Fig. 3.9).
100
100 The same fluids at 10.5 ppg were tested
(a) (b) (c) (d) in the far less permeable Birchover sandstone
(Clashach permeability averaged 644 md and
average pore size was 26.6 microns;
50 50
Birchover averaged 12.5 md permeability and
average pore size was 2.64 microns). All gave
complete (100%) return permeabilities (Fig.
3.10). The effect of applying simulated
0 0
reservoir pressure to remove mudcake
Static Dynamic Different backflushing
decreased return permeability using the sized
Recovery in permeability for 10.5 Recovered permeability for Clashach Sand- salt system more than with either MMH or the
ppg fluids, Birchover Sandstone, stone, 300 psi differential, 240 min polymer fluid (Fig. 3.11). When cores were
60 min filtration: ■ MMH weighted a) when filter cake left in situ, b) with 2 psi backflushed at a variety of pressures, the
with CaCO3, ■ Polymer weighted backflush pressure c) with 6 psi backflush sized salt system showed less recovery than
with CaCO3, ■ Saturated sized salt pressure d) with 10 psi backflush pressure: the others, especially at the lower pressures,
■ MMH weighted with CaCO3, ■ Polymer again suggesting the resistance to cake
weighted with CaCO3, ■ Saturated sized salt removal with the sized salt system.
3 9
Figure 3.12 Photographs of the cores used in the

above experiments help us make adjustments
to our intuitive model of how drilling fluids
affect formation damage. It is true that the
invasion of solids along with filtrate is a major
mechanism of formation damage. As any
mud engineer knows, the quality and
quantity of mud solids determine the quality
of the filter cake and quantity of fluid loss in
time. In the same way, the nature and amount
of solids in the fluids determines what does
and does not invade the formation, both solid
and liquid. Again, mud engineers know that
the ideal filter cake material is a mixture of
different size particles, including the flat clay
A stable, effective, external filter cake (cake on top, formation underneath).
platelets that overlap each other to reduce the
Figure 3.13 permeability and porosity of the filter cake.
The MMH-bentonite complex contributes to
this feature by preventing invasion of the clay
particles. The result is a stable, effective
external filter cake (Fig. 3.12); i.e., a barrier
external to the formation that impedes
invasion of both solids and filtrate to the
formation. In some cases, the contrast with
the sized salt system is observable. The sized
salt system tends to form both external and
internal filter cakes because of the nature of
the bridging material that allows invasion by
salt crystals (Fig. 3.13). Often, the difference
is irrelevant because the salt may be easily
Partially internal and external filter cakes with sized salt mud. removed with undersaturated fluid. There is
reason to believe, however, that the polymer-
Figure 3.14
coated salt crystals are, in some cases, not so
easy to remove and persist in the formation,
impeding hydrocarbon flow (Fig. 3.14).
But do the solids that invade the
formation and stay there necessarily reduce
permeability significantly? Not at all.
The right size solids in relation to pore
throat size bridge the formation and result
in less permeability damage. In that case,
one would not want the salt or calcium
carbonate particles to be removed.
One would want them to continue their
Possible polymer-coated salt crystals within the formation.
3 10
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.15 The increased risk of stuck pipe and the

likelihood of exposing the formation for
longer periods of time to water based mud
(WBM) make the case for OBM a strong one.
Indeed, it is not uncommon for an operator to
have an intuitive preference for, for example,
salt saturated mud, when practicalities
encourage the use of OBM. It is not surprising
that the particle size distribution of the fluid,
an exceedingly difficult parameter to control,
and one which we are only recently starting to
measure with regularity and accuracy, is a
crucial factor in the results of return permea-
bility tests. One would expect, for example,
that return permeabilities would change when
VISPLEX filter cake in the
bridging function at least until the external the average particle size is greater than “ultra
process of being removed at
filter cake can be totally removed during a fine”, i.e. larger than 8-10 microns. It is worth
4 psi back pressure.
completion or production phase (Figs. 3.15 noting that API standard barite contains very
and 3.16). However, on one point everyone few particles smaller than that. The problem
seems to agree: ultra-fine, low-density solids is, of course, that if one tries to exclude fluids
are no good for either drilling fluid or with a high concentration of ultra-fines, then
formations. one of the most important economic
advantages of OBM gets lost, i.e. the reservoir
WBM versus OBM and drilling fluid can no longer be a used fluid
particle size distribution from previous holes.
For some operators and in some One typical approach demonstrates the
situations the choice of fluid can be a moot difficulty of conducting a controlled experi-
point. The difficulties and economics of ment in order to determine the most appro-
drilling high angle wells in deep, hot for- priate fluid for a particular situation. In this
mations may dictate the use of Oil Based Mud. approach the first five of the six afore-
mentioned variables are carefully defined and
Figure 3.16
maintained in the study: 1) Actual cores from
the formation may be used, 2) Suitable core
lengths and diameters can be chosen and
maintained, 3) Core preparations may include
a toluene wash and a KCl displacement, 4)
The temperatures and pressures of the
experiment are chosen to be consistent with
drilling conditions, 5) No completion sim-
ulation is planned. The sixth variable, i.e. mud
type, can be chosen both with respect to the
generic mud type used and the condition of
the mud, i.e., with respect to the size
distribution of the solids. Still, however, the
results of such work can be difficult to
Core surface after filter cake in Fig. 3.15 has parted.
3 11
interpret. For example, the data may favor the drill under-balanced and therefore remove the
invert oil based mud (IOBM) as it may seem source of energy that forces drilling fluids into
to cause the least reduction in return permea- the formation. However, other non-mud-relat-
bility. But because the particle size distribution ed factors cannot be ruled out either, such as
of the muds in a field situation is so difficult wax formation as a component of the crude.
to control, it is often suggested that this para-
meter, rather than mud type, may cause the An integrated approach
observed differences in permeability reduc- First, it must be realized that contact with
tion. Often the relative effect of overbalance any drilling fluid will cause some damage to
pressure is difficult to separate from the effects any formation. The question, then, is not how
of particle size distribution. So, the balance of to avoid formation damage, but how to avoid
the data, added to practical considerations, formation damage that will affect hydro-
often results in a decision to use OBM, while carbon production. The ultimate goal is to
attempts are made to monitor and control develop a tool for drilling fluid design that
particle size distribution as well as to minimize can account for this as well as pure drilling
overbalance. Furthermore, we are only in the problems; in other words, one that combines
early stages of investigating the impact of the skills and concerns of reservoir, petro-
completion fluids on permeability reduction. leum, drilling and fluids engineers.
So, it is far from clear what should be the Millions may have already been spent
answer to the crucial question: what is the trying to avoid formation damage that really
relationship between these data, especially doesn’t matter. As stated before, when a
the results of return permeability tests, and vertical well is fractured, the resulting induced
actual production results? fractures may extend thousands of feet into
The control of drilling solids quantity and the reservoir, rendering irrelevant solids and
quality in OBM is difficult. With WBM the filtrate invasion within feet of the well bore.
rheological and fluid loss properties give clear From a formation damage point of view, the
indications of the buildup of fine solids. This fluid loss, fine solids content and the nature of
is not so with OBMs, which are far more the weighting agent affected nothing. The
tolerant to solids from a purely drilling point difficulty with horizontal wells that are to be
of view. When a fluid performs well from a completed without cementing and perfor-
drilling point of view, it is difficult to justify ating, is that more of the producing formation
replacing it based on retort measurements of is exposed to the over-balanced drilling fluid
solids. Therefore, strict control of particle sizes and it is generally exposed for a longer time.
will require the availability of particle size So, the drilling fluid must be chosen so as to
analysis on a frequent and rapid turnaround minimize the formation damage at initial con-
basis, plus a policy of replacing fluids that fail tact, and reduce the time of contact through
to meet a particle size specification. Improved better drilling rates. This choice must include
solids control equipment and practices may decisions on whether various washes and
well help to keep mud particles in an accept- breakers, designed to remove filter cake, are
able size range. As mentioned previously, to likely to help or ultimately cause more
dispose of “contaminated” OBM on this basis damage. An alternative is simply to skip
is difficult in the absence of sufficient actual the washes and back-produce the drilling
well production data that demonstrate in the fluid through the completion equipment.
field what is observed in the lab. The use of a fluid such as MMH, which
The only alternative to this practice may be to
3 12
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.17
Polymer Sized Salt Formate

Mud types MMH OBM
WBM Brine (NaCl) Brine
Advantages Flexible Easy cake removal Easy cleanup Excellent hole Low fluid loss
Cheap NaCI compatible Good density range cleaning Filtrate compatible
with formation compatible with Avoids erosion of with most formation
fluids most formation soft formations fluids
fluids Minimal loss to Stable under
fractures reservoir conditions
Disadvantages Damage, Density restrictions Expensive Sensitive to Environmental

esp. from (10.4 - 12.1; 13.3 Difficult to yield contamination by restrictions
PHPA? with NaBr) polymers in brine many mud Possible damage due
Difficult Possible problem polymers to surfactants,
cleanup with polymer Questions especially in tight
because cleanup regarding formations
of polymers Difficult to yield bentonite in and gas reservoirs
polymers in brine reservoir fluid Non-conductive
Limited fluid loss nature limits data
control compared acquisition
to polymer muds
The advantages and

produces a wall cake that is more easily picture, including consideration of reservoir
disadvantages of various
removed than that from salt-saturated or type and quality, completion design, depth of
reservoir drilling fluids.
OBM, may be the best solution for some damage versus length of perforations (if any),
wells. But the question becomes still more and mechanism and efficiency of filter cake
complicated when the produced fluid must removal (in openhole completions), in addi-
also pass through production screens. Large tion to the usual parameters directly relevant
particles that had no effect on the formation to drilling. Figure 3.17 outlines the main
may bridge off screens. advantages and disadvantages of each of
various possible reservoir drilling fluids.
Conclusion To fully answer crucial questions related
The central question, then, is how can to formation damage caused by drilling fluid,
one predict when a particular fluid is likely to it is necessary to conduct tests with cores and
affect the permeability of a formation or the conditions as close as possible to actual reser-
performance of production screens enough to voir conditions, and to confirm the results
affect production? The answer will depend on with actual well production data from wells
many factors that are particular to a well. drilled with a variety of drilling fluid types
No one can responsibly suggest the use of a and qualities.
particular fluid without considering the whole
PREDICTING WELLBORE STABILITY
The B–Lower reservoir of the Misoa contact, originally at 9741 ft, is the limit of the
Formation is located in the north part of Block accumulation to the south. The structural dip
III in Lake Maracaibo. The structural map is quite uniform with a magnitude of 2 to 4°
(Fig. 3.18) shows that the top of the reservoir in the south/southeast direction.
is on the upthrown side of a fault system that The cumulative production of the
acts as a seal for the hydrocarbon B–Lower reservoir is 26 MMSTB and the re-
accumulation to the north. An oil-water maining reserves are estimated at 36 MMSTB.
3 13
Figure 3.18 The current production of approximately 7000

BOPD comes from seven active wells.
1116
The reservoir is characterized by sand
1110 1050
N 1091 bodies varying from 40 to 120 ft thick and
1184
994 separated by shaly sections 10 to 30 ft thick. It
1031
95
00
is divided into three flow units, the most
' 925
prospective being the top unit, B-6. Apart
OOWC –9741 988 from being structurally higher, B-6 exhibits a
96
00 1009 1008
' better sandstone development and better
Producer 970
continuity. Therefore, drilling the horizontal
0'
well VLC-1184 in the B-6 unit was considered
500 m
Scale
the best option to more efficiently drain the
remaining hydrocarbon and avoid early water
Structural map of B–Lower reservoir.
production due to water-coning.
Figure 3.19 A vertical pilot hole was first drilled to
acquire essential information and perform the
Moved hydrocarbon analyses required to plan the horizontal sec-
Water
Gas
tion. This pilot hole was located as far updip
Mudcake Oil (i.e., as far north) as possible, while seeking
Quartz
Washout
Water Bound water
to minimize the risk of crossing the fault. The
BS Permeability to Oil Moved hydrocarbon Montmorillonite horizontal distance needed to land the
6 16
Caliper Permeability to Water Gas Kaolinite
horizontal hole was obviously an additional
6 (in.) 16 Permeability to Gas Oil Illite
Depth Intrinsic Permeability Sw Fluid analysis Volumetric analysis criterion in the choice of this location.
(ft) 1000 (md) 0.1 100 (%) 0 0.5 (V / V) 0 1 (V / V) 0
Horizontal target selection

Extensive logging and coring were
performed in the 97⁄8-in. pilot hole to gather
information needed both to characterize the
B–Lower Formation and to evaluate wellbore
stability. The ELAN volumetric analysis obtain-
9600
ed from the openhole logs over the B-6
reservoir (Fig. 3.19) shows two sand bodies
separated by a 20-ft shale bed. The lower sand
is 51 ft thick with an effective porosity
between 18 and 20 p.u. and an oil saturation
ranging from 70% to 90%. The upper sand,
approximately 40 ft thick, is slightly cleaner
9650
and consequently the effective porosity is
larger by 1 to 2 p.u. This is in agreement with
the core analysis, which shows a generally
coarser-grained sandstone. The oil saturation
is similar and the permeability, being 500 md,
is marginally higher. The clay content,
however, increases significantly in the top 10
9700
ft and reduces the effective porosity. The core
The ELAN volumetric analysis over the B-6 reservoir shows two sand bodies analysis reveals a very fine-grained sandstone
separated by a shale bed. in this zone.
3 14
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.20 The upper sand was selected for placing

the horizontal section. Being structurally high-
LLHD er, it will delay the production of water. Crucial
GR LLHS Presure
(psia) information was provided by the pressure
0 (gAPI) 150 0.20 (ohm–m) 2000 2000 3000
Depth
(ft) measurements obtained with the MDT* Modu-
lar Formation Dynamics Tester. The pressure
points are aligned over the entire B-6 reservoir
9600 (Fig. 3.20) indicating that both sands are
B–6
hydraulically connected, most likely because

the shale bed separating the two sand bodies
is not continuous. Therefore, producing from
the upper sand will drain the bottom sand as
9700
well.
The thickness of this sand should pro-
vide a reasonably safe margin for navigating
the horizontal hole. To reduce the risk of
crossing the fault, the horizontal section
should be drilled from east to west, the well
9800
VLC-1050 providing an excellent control of
the fault in that direction (Fig. 3.18).
The MDT pressure points show a single gradient over the entire B-6 reservoir. Borehole stability analysis
Using the information collected in the
Figure 3.21
pilot hole, a wellbore stability analysis was
performed to ensure that the horizontal hole
Dev.1 Hole could be drilled within the targeted sandstone
azimuth
Caliper 1-3 0 (deg) 10 in the planned direction without formation
-20 (in.) 20 Azimuth
Caliper 2-4 Differential caliper Ovalization azimuth 0 1
Pad 1 failure, such as rock collapsing or fracturing.
azimuth
-20 (in.) 20 0 (in.) 10 0 (deg) 200 N After determining the direction of the mini-
Hole
Depth
Bit size Ovalization Pad 1 azimuth W E
deviation mum horizontal stress, which would be the
(ft) -20 (in.) 20.
20 Rupture zones 0 (deg) 400 S 0 (deg) 10
preferred hole direction for mechanical stabili-
ty, wellbore stability simulation was per-
9400 formed to estimate the mud weight required
to support the borehole wall.
9500 Determining the minimum

horizontal stress direction
The key data for determining the mini-
9600 mum horizontal stress direction were the two-
axis caliper log from the FMI* Fullbore For-
mation MicroImager, and the anisotropy log
9700 computed from DSI* Dipole Shear Sonic
Imager data.
The Break-out Orientation Log (BOL)
9800 computes the hole enlargement in the direc-
tion of the two FMI calipers. The difference
The Break-out Orientation Log is computed from both FMI calipers. between the enlargements, or the “differential
3 15
Figure 3.22 computed only when the ovalization is above

the threshold. In track 4, the distribution of
Fast shear ÆT break-outs is presented together with the
Slow shear ÆT
GR 350
borehole orientation. There are no break-outs
(ms / ft) 50
0 (gAPI) 150 DT-based anisotropy Processing window
in the B-6 reservoir; hence, the horizontal
CALI Time-based anisotropy stresses directions cannot be evaluated there.
Fast shear waveform
5 (in.) 20 0 (%) 50 However, the shale interval immediately
Hole azimuth Fast shear azimuth 0 2 4 8 16 < Slow shear waveform
Depth
(ft)
above exhibits some damage with break-outs
0 (deg) 360 0 (deg) 90 1100 (ms) 6600
distributed around an azimuth of 118°.
In an anisotropic medium, such as a rock
9500
exhibiting differences in horizontal stresses,
sonic shear waves split into two waves with
orthogonal polarizations. One component, the
fast shear, is oriented in the direction of maxi-
mum horizontal stress and travels faster than
the second component, the slow shear, which
9600
runs parallel to the minimum horizontal stress.
The anisotropy log computes the fast and
slow shear slownesses and the fast shear
polarization angle. It uses input from the DSI
run in Both Cross Dipole mode. This mode
consists of recording shear information at
9700 each orthogonal dipole receiver of the DSI
tool for each firing of the orthogonal dipole
sources (DSI box 4–33). This acquisition mode
provides two in-line and two cross-line com-
ponents. It is unlikely that any of these four
The DSI anisotropy log enlargement,” indicates borehole ovalization components are aligned with the fast or slow
computes the direction of in the direction of the caliper showing the shear waves. However, the 4-component data
the fast shear wave. greater enlargement. Break-outs are a form of contain all azimuthal information so that fast
enlargement caused by unequal horizontal shear azimuth, as well as slow and fast shear
stresses and are identified by abrupt slownesses, can be extracted using a compo-
ovalization. Their azimuth indicates the nent rotation technique (Alford, 1986). The
direction of the minimum horizontal stress. direction of the measured fast shear wave
The results of the BOL processing from provides the direction of the maximum hori-
well VLC-1184 in the interval 9820 to 9330 ft zontal stress. The DSI is run in combination
are displayed on Fig. 3.21. Track 1 shows with an inclinometry tool so the computed
actual and nominal values of the caliper pair. direction can be related to north.
Track 2 shows the differential enlargement Figure 3.22 presents the acoustic
with the yellow shading, which indicates anisotropy log obtained in well VLC-1184
values greater than the ovalization threshold. over the interval from 9460 to 9770 ft. Track 3
The flags on the right side highlight the displays both fast and slow shear slownesses
intervals with the most probable break-outs. and the percent of anisotropy computed by
In track 3, the azimuth of the FMI pad 1 is two methods. The two quantities, Dt-based
displayed together with the azimuth of the anisotropy and Time-based anisotropy, are
long axis of the borehole. This azimuth is derived from the difference of slowness and
difference of arrival time between the two
3 16
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.23 shear waveforms, respectively. The azimuth of technique i.e NNE. The AAA and SWA methods Figure 3.25
the fast shear (the azimuth of the maximum show NNW and do not agree with the previous
North
Depth (ft) horizontal stress) is shown in track 2. Track 4 methods.
9450.0
displays actual fast and slow shear waveforms The three-dimension core measurements
9498.0
9548.5
from receiver 7 together with the processing also showed a maximum stress oriented at 45˚
9599.0 window. At levels of higher anisotropy, the time from the vertical. The principal stresses are
West East
9649.5
difference between the waveforms can be seen. therefore not in an horizontal plane and the
9700.0
It is also convenient for trend analysis to two-dimension measurements such as AAA
display the fast shear azimuth on a crossplot and SWA have to be taken with caution.
scaled east-west and south-north on the
South
horizontal and vertical axis, respectively Borehole stability simulation and mud
The DSI anisotropy results
(Fig. 3.23). The color of the dots indicates weight prediction
can also be presented
depth range. The fast shear direction in well The borehole stability simulation is done
on a crossplot.
VLC-1184 is consistent over the entire interval, with the interactive workstation program
with an average azimuth of 15°. IMPACT. IMPACT analyzes and predicts well
The core recovered from the interval 9540 behavior by integrating information from logs,
to 9600 ft was oriented in order to perform stress well tests and core measurements. The compu-
orientation measurements that would validate tation is organized in individual modules that
the maximum stress direction derived from compute elastic moduli, rock strength and
wireline logs. Several methods were used, such stresses (Fig. 3.25). Once the mechanical
as Anelastic Strain Recovery (ASR), Shear Wave properties evaluation is done, the user chooses
Amplitude Anisotropy (SWAA) and Acoustic the application that corresponds to the problem
Anisotropy Analysis (AAA). to be analyzed: hydraulic fracturing design,
Figure 3.24 compares the wireline-derived wellbore stability evaluation, or sanding
horizontal maximum stress directions with the evaluation.
directions obtained from core measurements. The minimum inputs required by IMPACT
The direction obtained by both wireline are compressional and shear slowness logs, a
methods are in good agreement with the density log, and a volumetric analysis of the
direction returned by the ASR core-based formation such as ELAN.
The first module computes the dynamic
Figure 3.24 elastic moduli using one of the following
models: Single Component, Biot-Gasmann or
N In the AAA method anisotropic velocities are used as indica-
ASR DSI
Shear modulus. Statistical analysis tools are
SWAA BOL tions of in-situ stress orientations. Velocities are measured in
AAA
multiple directions perpendicular to the axis of the core, and in the available to relate log-derived elastic moduli
axial direction. It is a two-dimentional analysis, with an assump- with static moduli measured from cores.
tion that one of the principal stress is parallel to the core axis.
The SWAA method is based on finding the maximum absorb-
Dynamic elastic moduli in well VLC-1184 were
tion of shear waves propagated vertically through a specimen. calculated using the single component model.
Two shear wave sources are placed along the core axis and one of
In this model, elastic moduli are a function of
W E the sources is rotated in small angular increments. The amplitude
of the shear wave is measured for each increment and with contin- the formation bulk density and the
ued rotation the minimum shear wave amplitude is determined. compressional and shear velocities.
The direction of the core corresponding to the minimum amplitude
infers the direction of the maximum in-situ horizontal stress. The second module calculates static
ASR relies on monitoring time dependant strain relaxation of moduli and rock strength parameters from elas-
freshly-cut, oriented core. The strain recovery, due to the relaxation
of the sample detached from its parent rock mass (the core), is tic moduli and formation volumes. Various
S
measured and is related to the directions of magnitudes of the in- empirical correlations are available, and core
Comparison of wireline- and situ stresses, using elastic or viscoelastic relationships. ASR is a
completely three-dimensional measurement and does not require
measurements can be input to user-defined
core-derived horizontal
assumptions about the magnitudes or directions of any of the correlations. In well VLC-1184, UCS (Uncon-
maximum stress directions. principal stresses.
fined Compressive Strength) values computed
3 17
Figure 3.25 from a minifrac performed in the well VLC-988,

close to the planned horizontal well (Fig. 3.18).
Log measurements For wellbore stability applications, various
failure models are available from the failure
analysis module. For well VLC-1184, the Mohr-
Coulomb model was used to perform wellbore
Sonic waveform Bulk volume
analysis (STC) analysis (ELAN) stability simulations for the two extreme cases of
a horizontal hole parallel to the minimum
Dtc Dts rb Minerals, fluids
horizontal stress direction and parallel to the
volumes
maximum horizontal stress.
Impact Figure 3.26 displays the results of the
simulations for the horizontal holes (tracks 3
Static-dynamic Elastic moduli
correlations and 4) as well as the mechanical stability
analysis done for the vertical pilot hole (track
2). The safe mud weight window represents
Lab measurements Rock strength
on cores the range of mud weight that will safely
support the borehole wall. If the actual mud
weight is less than the minimum safe mud
Overburden, Stress computations weight, breakouts, or hole collapse, can occur.
pore pressure,
stress measurements If the mud weight is too high, it may fracture
sx sx sy the formation.
In the vertical hole, the actual mud weight
(red line) is well within the safe mud weight
Pressure steps, Fracturing Failure Failure window over the entire B-6 reservoir, and effec-
perforations models analysis criteria
tively the caliper log in track 1 does not show
any borehole failure. In the shale above,
however, the caliper indicates formation
collapse when the mud weight is outside the
safe window.
Hydro-fracturing Borehole stability: Sanding:
height growth critical mud weight critical drawdown When the hole is parallel to the minimum
and well deviation horizontal stress, the safe mud weight window
is quite large, especially in the sandstones. This
IMPACT program flowchart.
from several correlations were compared to window is actually larger than for the vertical
UCS obtained from laboratory measurements hole because the stress regime derived from
made on cores from nearby wells. The Brie mini-frac led to the model:
correlation (Brie, 1996) gave the best match
Ty > Tz > Tx
and was therefore selected.
In the next module, the vertical stress is where Tx, Ty, Tz are the minimum horizontal
evaluated from the integration of formation stress, maximum horizontal stress, and vertical
density or from a geostatic gradient, the pore stress, respectively.
pressure is calculated from a pore pressure When the horizontal hole is drilled per-
gradient, calibrated with MDT pressure points, pendicular to the minimum horizontal stress,
and the horizontal stresses are derived from the the safe mud weight window shrinks signifi-
vertical stress through a choice of models. cantly and the mechanical stability could
External information can be used; for instance, become marginal in the middle of the target
in the IMPACT run for well VLC-1184, the (upper) sandstone.
minimum horizontal stress was determined
3 18
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.26 Drilling of horizontal section

and production results.
Vertical hole Simulation for horizontal hole Moved
hydrocarbon
After setting a cement plug in the vertical
Water pilot hole, a 97⁄8-in. deviated hole was kicked off
Gas
Hole parallel to Hole perpendicular to at 9128 ft and drilled with a radius of curvature
minimum minimum Oil
horizontal stress horizontal stress Quartz
of 13° for 100 ft until the inclination reached
Mudcake Bound
water
77.5° at the depth of 9737 ft MD (measured
Actual mud weight
Montmor-
Washout 0 (lbm / gal) 20 illonite depth). At that depth the hole azimuth was
Caliper Stability Stability Stability Kaolinite
Depth
(in.) 313°, which corresponds to an optimal trajec-
(ft) 15 0 15 Instability Instability Instability Illite
tory both to avoid the fault and to minimize the
9500 stress on the borehole wall. A 7-in. casing was
set and the hole size was reduced to 61⁄8 in. The
final angle of 90° was reached in the target at a
depth of 9579 ft TVD.
9600
The horizontal section was drilled for 1237
ft with an azimuth ranging from within 311.5
and 315°. Operational problems occurred
9700 while running the completion and it was even-
tually decided to leave the horizontal section
open. The initial production of VLC-1184
reached 2000 BNP, and after seven months it
Wellbore stability simulation performed with
was 1700 BOPD with a water-cut of 0.5%.
the IMPACT program.
These good results show that, as predicted by
logs and cores, the borehole was stable
enough to be left as an open-hole completion.
GEOSTEERING
Introduction In addition to a sensitive and fast-acting

GeoSteering is the real-time steering of directional drilling capability, a GeoSteering
horizontal and high-angle wells using while- system has three key components. First is the
drilling formation evaluation data. It guides ability to obtain azimuthal formation infor-
wells to optimum geological destinations, mation from as close to the bit as possible.
rather than directionally steering wells to The further a measurement is behind the bit,
predetermined (possibly non-optimum) geo- the longer it will take to observe, for example,
metric locations. that the well has left the reservoir, and the
Directional drilling has evolved to the longer it will take to correct the trajectory. The
point where the geometric target can be hit azimuthal information indicates whether the
with high accuracy. Unfortunately, geologic well is going out of the top or the bottom of
maps based on surface seismic data and offset the reservoir. Second, in order to actually steer
well data are not this accurate. Uncertainties the well, the directional driller needs to have
in the determination of the depth and lateral a good idea of what changes in the downhole
position of the target are combined with the measurements mean in terms of formation
inability to predict subtle features such as geometry, and to have some idea of what to
small changes in formation dip, pinchouts and expect if he makes a course correction.
small displacement faults.
3 19
GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.27 This information is provided by pre-job plan- situations, pre-job modeling and geosteering
ning and modeling of the target and surround- are used to keep the well within the target, as
ing formations, and needs to be displayed on shown in the last example.
Sensor looking up. a wellsite screen along with the data recorded
Low GR sees mostly sand
while drilling. Since the exact geometry can- Roof and floor detection
not be predicted with the accuracy required, The principle of using the GST for roof
several different scenarios are prepared, and floor detection is shown in Fig. 3.27. Single
representing the response of the most likely point station readings are taken with the sensor
Sensor looking down.
High GR sees mostly shale
alternatives. Only in this way can the well be facing up or down. These readings can be
steered geologically rather than geometrically. plotted on a polar plot with zero at the center
Lastly, it is important to have a GeoSteering and the value increasing toward the perimeter.
Roof and floor detection a)
coordinator at the wellsite to coordinate In this case, when the GR sensor looks up the
by rotating the azimuthal
between the geologist, the logging-while- readings are high, indicating shale, while when
sensors to look up or
drilling (LWD) engineer, the directional driller it looks down it reads low, indicating
down. b) by comparing bit
and anyone else involved in the operation. sandstone. The largest dot shows the most
resistivity, which reads the
The first capability is provided by the recent reading. The azimuthal resistivity faces
average around the tool
GeoSteering Tool (GST), which provides an in the opposite direction and is used in the
near the bit, and button
azimuthal resistivity and gamma ray (GR) same way. Alternatively the azimuthal
resistivity which is further
measurement from as close as 2.5 ft from the resistivity can be compared with the bit
behind but can be pointed
bit (Chapter 4–5). In oil-based or very fresh resistivity, which is an azimuthal average
up or down.
mud, the only resistivity-based measurement nearer the bit. The difference between the two
that works is the bit resistivity, and that only indicates the trend.
qualitatively. This works because, unlike the Figure 3.28 shows the logs recorded
other electrodes, the bit is in contact with the while drilling a horizontal well in Eastern
formation so that current can pass between it Venezuela. The target was a 3 ft. thick interval
and any other part of the drillstring in contact with the highest resistivity (70 ohm-m) within
with the formation, such as a stabilizer. In such a sand about 12 ft. thick. The casing shoe was
muds it is necessary to use an induction-based set at 3872 ft with the well nearly horizontal.
measurement such as the ARC5* Array Near 4000 ft, while sliding with the button
Resistivity Compensated tool, even though the facing highside, the resistivity at the bit was
distance behind the bit is much greater. The found to be higher than the resistivity above
planning and modeling capability is provided the well. (76 ohm-m vs 60 ohm-m — see Fig.
by the PowerPlan package and INFORM 3.28. The tool face curve in the depth track
(Integrated Forward Modeling), and by the shows that it is facing up at this point).Given
GeoSteering screen at the wellsite. that the well had previously moved through a
In practice different variations are used long shale section, it was felt that this was a
for different situations. One case is strong enough indication that the well was
Geostopping, meaning the use of LWD data to moving in the right direction, and that drilling
set casing or coring points as close to the need not be inconvenienced by making a roof
target as possible. Clearly the closer the and floor test. The decision was made to
measurement is to the bit, the more exactly rotate and both ROP (rate of penetration) and
the casing point can be picked. In other resistivity increased. For the next 250 ft. the
situations the GST measurements are well dropped while the resistivity remained
sufficient to indicate whether the borehole is high. However, at 4250 ft. the bit resistivity
moving out of the current formation, and started to fall. Since this could have been
whether it is doing so by the roof or the floor. either the roof of the sand moving down or
An example is shown below. In yet other the floor being reached, it was decided to
3 20
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.28
400
400
Button Resistivity
Bit Resistivity
(ohm-m)
(ohm-m)
4
0 180 0 180 4
Depth
(deg)
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
GTF
(ft)
150
3445
(gAPI)
(ft ⁄ h)
ROP
TVD
(ft)
GR
3465
500
0
Geosteering logs in a horizontal well. When the tool is sliding, the tool face readings are smooth and indicate the direction of the sensors.
Resistivity is up, GR down when Tool face = 0˚ (GTF in center of depth track); resistivity is down, GR up when toolface = ±180˚ (GTF is at
either edge of depth track). Data gaps are caused by high ROP.
make an azimuthal check. The button 3.29) and show clearly that above the well the
resistivity in Fig. 3.28 is seen to fluctuate as the GR is low and the resistivity high, while
checks are made between 4250 ft and 4390 ft. below the well the opposite is true. The
The button resistivity is clearly greater than better sand is therefore above the well.
the bit resistivity when the button is highside Drilling continued sliding highside, with
e.g. at 4265 ft. This showed that the well was some increase in resistivity, but it soon
approaching the floor and needed to move became clear that the well had left the good
up. By 4330 ft. the well was being steered part of the sand. The well was sidetracked
upwards. Monitoring of the azimuthal and drilled down from 5000 ft., but with the
resistivity and GR continued. same result. It was concluded that the sand
By 4600 ft. MD, while sliding with the had pinched out.
bent sub turned lowside to reduce angle, the Overall the well was steered within an 8
bit resistivity started dropping and was lower ft. sand for more than 1000 ft., much of the
than the resistivity facing down. The GR has time in the high resistivity section. This was
increased while the lowside resistivity remains achieved by regular comparisons of the bit
high around 70 ohm-m. This, combined with resistivities with the azimuthal measurements
the drop in bit resistivity suggests that the well taken while sliding to control angle. Thus
has reached the roof of the sand. The even though the sand pinched out 600 ft.
reduction in angle was continued and short of the expected horizontal reach, the
resistivity remained high for another 330 ft. well produced 1400 bbl/day, 700 bbl/day
After 4950 ft. MD the sudden fall in more than planned.
resistivity induced another comparison of
both GR and resistivity above and below the
well. Several measurements taken around
4990 ft were plotted on a polar plot (Fig.
3 21
GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.29 GeoSteering with pre-job planning

The wellsite geologist or GeoSteering
On bottom BITRA (TN) (ohm-m) CRPM_N (RPM)
coordinator needs an initial well plan that is
12.31 239.00
based on all available data. He also needs a
BUTRA (TN) = 5.11 GRN = 16.00 way to recognize when the geology changes
BUTGTF (N) = 5.11 GRGTF (N) = 16.00
to a point where the initial well plan must be
modified to reach and stay within the targeted
pay zone. The procedure is described below
and illustrated with an example from a well in
the Arecuna Field.
First, logs from wells that bound the
planned well are plotted in map view and
vertical cross section with offset and true
vertical depth (TVD) referenced to the
planned well surface location. The vertical
section can be viewed from various azimuths.
Normally the azimuth of the planned well is
selected, but one might also want to see other
views, such as perpendicular to the geological
strike. Figure 3.30 shows the plan view for the
new well MFA 204 with the existing vertical
well MFA 128 and the horizontal wells MFA
188 and MFA 186.
A geological cross section with well-to-
BUTRA (TN) (square) GR_N (dot)
min max interval min max interval well correlations (using tools such as StratLog
0.0 30.00 3.00 0.0 100.0 10.0
or WellPix) is useful to decide which wells
Wellsite screen for azimuthal measurements near 4990 ft. The green GR points are best represent the expected geology and
clearly higher below the well, while the red resistivity points are higher above. Both which marker beds are continuous. At this
indicate a better sand above the well. stage, it should also be observed which
measurements best characterize the marker
Figure 3.30 beds in the offset wells in order to decide
which tools to run (i.e., if a gas/oil contact is
400 Plan View MFA 188
1’’ = 200' an important marker for well placement, then
0
MFA 204 density/neutron tools should be part of the
N LWD BHA in order to identify this marker).
400 3-D seismic cross sections taken along
the azimuth of the planned well are useful in
< North
800
MFA 186 determining the continuity of marker beds.
1200
An idea of expected structural dip can also be
seen from the seismic section and used in
MFA128
1600 creating initial models.
2000
2400
2400 2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 400 800

East >
Plan view of the proposed well (MFA 204) with nearby existing wells.
3 22
WELL PLANNING
INFORM Figure 3.31
Trejectory #2
Offset - logs Squared - logs Tool response
Trejectory #1
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
r
1600
1700
Cross section Layer column with Relative angle tables

Simulated logs
petrophysical properties
for different trajectories
Rps Rad Hres
2000 Real-time logs MB1: Delete, MB2: Pick, Mb3: Correlate
200 MD (ft) : 3998.03
20
E TVD (ft) : 3537.46
2 Rps (ohm-m) : 2000
0.2 Rad (ohm-m) : 2000
Rps Rad Hres (ohm-m) : ****

2000 Modeled logs Grc (API) : 102.38
200 D Trph (pu) : ****
20 A
Rhob (g ⁄ cm3) : ****
2 Shift (ft) : –2.60
0.2
Actual trajectory Hole depth (ft): 4113.0
Model under rig
Trajectory (TVD vs. MD) Planned trajectory Deepest sensor (ft): 4052.0 Offset profile (Rt)
3000
D
C B
3200
3400
3600
4100 3900 3700 3500 3300 3100 2900 2700 200 20 2 0.2
Map Well site geosteering screen
INFORM (Integrated Forward Modeling) is an The figure above breaks the INFORM process into
interactive workstation-based system that has been basic steps.
developed to support horizontal well operations during the 1. Geologic cross sections, seismics, isopach maps and log
pre-job planning and formation evaluation phases. At the data from nearby wells are examined along an azimuth
heart of the system is a comprehensive array of parallel to the planned wellbore trajectory.
Measurement While Drilling/Logging While Drilling 2. Wells logs representative of the expected geology are
(MWD/LWD) and wireline logging tool forward models corrected and squared into common layers of virgin
linked to an interactive graphical display. Primarily a tool formation properties.
for the petrophysicist, the system also provides tight 3. A cross section of the Geological model is formed within
integration with other oilfield disciplines. INFORM, represented by a series of one or more layer
During pre-job planning, geological information, columns of petrophysical properties.
including cross section data and marker positions, is used 4. A database of log responses to this Geologic model is
to assist in the construction of a petrophysical model of the created, based on the tools that will be run in the
prospect. This model is integrated with trajectory files from planned well (especially those tools used for geosteering
the Drilling Planning Center to predict MWD/LWD tool purposes), and using detailed knowledge of their
response. All these data are accessible from a database and response to different geometries. This is called a Relative
may be viewed and manipulated through interactive Angle Table or RANGDB.
graphical displays. 5. Planned well trajectories can be combined with the
database to simulate possible log responses in a
particular well before it is drilled. This simulation is also
known as Forward Modeling.
6. The RANGDB can be exported to the Anadrill
GeoSteering Screen to allow real-time investigation of
new geological scenarios as real-time data are compared
to the simulated logs.
3 23
GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.31 depth logs for various geological scenarios.

These logs, normally delivered in hard copy,
PSR (2,3) can be used by the wellsite geologist (or
ILD (1) GeoSteering coordinator) to aid in picking
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000
GR
correlations during execution of the job.
0 (gAPI) 150 Figure 3.31 shows one scenario where the
MFA186 MFA 204
2400 MFA 128 MFA188 MFA 128 MFA 188 MFA 186 structural dip is 1° as correlated from well MFA
1 2 3
2500
128 to MFA 188. The existing well data are
shown on the right. The image in the middle
2600
shows the GR interpolated between the two
2700
wells (the higher the GR, the darker the color).
2800 The planned well is shown in dark blue with
2900 the predicted GR along its trajectory. Other
True vertical depth (ft)
scenarios might assume a horizontal section

3000
followed by a section of increased dip, or
3100
horizontal formations with a fault crossing at
3200 some point along the planned trajectory.
3300 For many reasons the targeted pay zone
may not be exactly as expected. These may
3400
be geological, because of changes in
3500
thickness, dip or the presence of minor faults;
3600 or they may be more petrophysical, with
3700 changes in fluids or shale content. Therefore,
an additional pre-well planning phase is to
3800
predict what the logs will look like if the
Cross section with nearby well logs (right) in the vicinity of the well; an image of the
target has changed. This is particularly a
GR dipping at 1° between MFA 128 and MFA 188; and the GR predicted along the
problem with unorientated resistivity and GR
trajectory of MFA 204.
tools because we may recognize that we are
leaving the reservoir, but not be sure if we are
Pre-planning with INFORM
coming up into the roof or going down in to
The correlation wells chosen for modeling
the floor. Modeling can show what tool
are converted to layers of petrophysical prop-
response to expect for each scenario and aid
erties. In this case, GR and resistivity were con-
in making the appropriate correction to bring
sidered adequate for formation top identifica-
the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) back onto
tion. Computer models are created that repre-
the correct path. Even with the GST,
sent the response of these logs to many of the
the response of other measurements can
situations we expect to encounter. Currently,
help determine what action to take in
major 2-D geological features such as layering,
complex situations.
dip and faulting, can be modeled (see INFORM
box). During the pre-well planning phase,
these models are used to create measured
3 24
Figure 3.32 Figures 3.32 and 3.33 show two

scenarios. In Fig. 3.32, the formation dips
Cross section N37˚E - GR formation property
150 down half way along the horizontal section,
120 33.48
(gAPI)
90
41.76 and the well moves first into the shalier
GR
50.52
60 57.84
30
73.32
83.76
section at the top and then out into overlying
0 90.00
1000 95.52 shale. In Fig. 3.33, the formation dips up.
98.28
(ohm-m)
100 101.16
Phase
103.80
10 105.96
B A 109.44 The GeoSteering operation
1 116.40
123.23 The INFORM models are imported to the
1000
Trajectory
(ohm-m)
100 Modeled wellsite GeoSteering screen. During the

ATTN
GR
Modeled
10
Phase buildup phase of the well, the GeoSteering
1 Modeled
3350
Attn coordinator, working with the geologist,
matches events seen on the real-time logs
with the synthetic curves calculated by the
TVD (ft)
T-Sand model. The model is then updated, adjusting

U1-Sand formation top TVD’s and inclination.
Figure 3.34 shows a printout of the real-
time GeoSteering screen during the buildup
3750
–3000 –800 0 100 200 section. The display consists of five subpanels
Drift along the section (ft) GR labeled A, B, C, D, and E. The user makes
Model and predicted logs if the trajectory leaves the target correlations between modeled logs in Panel
by the roof of the U1 sandstone. D and measured logs in Panel E. Digital
values of the most recent correlation (in this
Figure 3.33 case correlation 9) are displayed in Panel A.
In Panel B there is a log called the offset
Cross section N37˚E - GR formation property
150 profile. The screen can be used to geosteer
120 33.48
with either GR, resistivity, density or porosity
(gAPZ)
41.76
90
GR
50.52
60 57.84
73.32
data. Note that these profile data are
30 83.76
0 90.00 displayed versus formation TVD projected to
1000 95.52 Figure 3.35
98.28 a vertical line that lies directly under the rig
(ohm-m)
100 101.16
Phase
103.80
105.96
(this is an important factor to consider when
10
B A 109.44
1 116.40 formation dip is significant). In Panel C, both
123.23
1000
the planned (blue dash line) and the actual
(ohm-m)
Trajectory
measured (solid black line) wellbore
ATTN
100 Modeled
GR
Modeled
10
Phase trajectories are shown. The measured
1 Modeled
Attn trajectory is updated in real time from the
3450
measurement while drilling (MWD) survey
measurements and is also extrapolated ahead
by 150 ft using the last two surveys.
TVD (ft)
The real-time logs are shown in Panel E

at the top of the display screen. These logs
can come from a variety of downhole tools,
depending on the mode selected by the
3750
–3000 –800 0 50 150 250 user. Panel D represents the modeled or
Drift along the section (ft) GR expected tool response when drilling
Model and predicted logs if the trajectory leaves the target through the lithology sequence, as defined
by the floor of the U1 sandstone. by the profile shown in Panel B, along the
3 25
GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.34 time logs (Panel E) and correlates them by

clicking on the same features present in the
2000 Real-time logs
Rps Rad Hres MB1: Delete, MB2: Pick, Mb3: Correlate modeled logs (Panel D). The vertical dashed
MD (ft) : 3998.03
200
E TVD (ft) : 3537.46
green lines show the picks made on these
20
2 Rps (ohm-m) : 2000 logs, and the horizontal dashed green lines
0.2 9 8 76 5 4 3 2 1 0 Rad (ohm-m) : 2000
Hres (ohm-m) : **** show the boundary or event in question in
Rps Rad
2000 Modeled logs Grc (API) : 102.38
200
the profile data. If a good match is found, the
D Trph (pu) : ****
20 A
Rhob (g ⁄ cm3) : **** GeoSteering coordinator or field geologist
2 Shift (ft) : –2.60
0.2 9 8 76 5 3 2 1 0 can identify exactly where the bit lies within
Actual trajectory Hole depth (ft): 4113.0
Model under rig the lithology sequence shown in the profile
Trajectory (TVD vs. MD) Planned trajectory Deepest sensor (ft): 4052.0 Offset profile (Rt)
3000
of Panel B.
Once an event has been selected on both
D
C B
3200 the model and real-time logs, the model logs
are recomputed so that the two events
T-sand
3400 correlate and line up at the same measured
depth. This is achieved automatically by either
3600 applying a TVD shift to the offset profile or by
4100 3900 3700 3500 3300 3100 2900 2700 200 20 2 0.2
introducing a dip in the model.
The GeoSteering screen at Correlations can be removed by simply
drilled trajectory (black curve in Panel C).
4113 ft during the buildup. clicking on them and the model logs revert
Note that both the modeled logs and real-
back to the state they were in before that
time logs are shown versus measured depth.
particular correlation was made. As a result, the
Also, note that the modeled logs are
GeoSteering screen user can investigate many
extrapolated 150 ft to provide the user with
scenarios in real time while drilling the well.
look-ahead-of-the-bit capabilities.
Each scenario calculates and displays a new set
To recompute the modeled logs, the
of modeled logs. For example, in this well,
GeoSteering screen user clicks on events (bed
correlation 9 in Fig. 3.34 matches a polarization
boundaries, horns, etc.) present on the real-
horn on the resistivity, predicted by the model
and later seen in the real-time logs. A
Figure 3.35
polarization horn is a non-linear effect with
Real-time logs Rps Rad Hres
2000 induction-type measurements created as the
200 MD (ft) : 5078.55
20 A TVD (ft) : 3567.18 tool crosses formations of large resistivity
Rps (ohm-m) : ****
2
2 1 0 Rad (ohm-m) : ****
contrast at a high angle. It is particularly strong
0.2
Modeled logs Rps Rad
2 Hres (ohm-m) : **** with 2-MHz tools. (Chapter 8–39)
2000 Grc (API) : ****
200 Trph (pu) : ****
The model shown in Fig. 3.34 was used
20 Rhob (g ⁄ cm3) : **** until the moment when the bit crossed an
2 Shift (ft) : –8.97
0.2 2 1 0 upper shale into the top of the target sand-
Trajectory (TVD vs. MD) stone U1 (see U1 top in Fig. 3.35). Casing was
3400
run and the planned trajectory modified to
the actual TVD at which the sandstone was
3500 T-sand
encountered. Correlations from the Geo-
3600
U1 Objective Steering screen also give a prediction of what
inclination to expect the target sandstone to
3700 maintain as the well continues.
7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 200 20 2 0.2
The GeoSteering screen at 6195 ft in the horizontal section.
3 26
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.36
2000
(ohm-m)
Phase
0.2
C B A
Depth
4650
4600
4550
4500
4450
4400
4350
4300
4250
4200
(ft)
150
(gAPI)
GR
0
Real-time log display of GR and phase resistivity in the horizontal section. Figure 3.35 shows continuation of the well
in a 61⁄8-in. hole running the SLIM1* and ARC5.
The GeoSteering screen has now switched to a
Figure 3.37
second model that better represents the U1
MFA 128 MFA 204 sandstone and can be used to try and maintain
Vertical Section View
3050 Section at 216.85˚ MFA186 the BHA within this sandstone.
Initially the well dropped low (difficult to
3100
build an angle in the soft sandstone) and at
3150
4400 ft (A) the resistivity began to fall. This is
3200
shown more clearly on the real-time log display
True vertical depth (ft)
3250 in Fig. 3.36. Soon after, at B, the resistivity

3300 started to increase again and so did the GR. The
3350
MFA188 question arose, are we at the bottom of the U1
3400
sandstone or is it just another shale stringer as
seen at the top of U1? The pre-job modeling
3450
gave the answer. The sharp rise at B,
3500 Original Plan
accompanied by the rise in GR, was much
3550
better explained by Fig. 3.33 than Fig. 3.32. The
3600 conclusion was that the well was crossing the
U1 Objective
3650 floor of the U1 sandstone and that the sharp rise
3700 in resistivity was due to a polarization horn. The
–3200 –2600 –2000 –1400 –800 –200
decision was made to come up sharply, so that
Section departure (ft)
by C the GR had dropped and resistivity
Comparison of the original (geometric) planned and actual (geosteered) trajectory.
returned to U1 consistent levels.
3 27
GEOSTEERING
At 5100 ft MD (-2200 ft drift), the whether the well was leaving the target by the
resistivity began to fall again, and at this point top or the bottom at 4400 ft, and it would
the well was climbing at 92° (Fig 3.35). The have been difficult to keep systematically
formation model (Fig. 3.35, correlation 2) within the sandstone.
showed the well approaching the thin shaly
streaks at the top of the U1 sandstone. No Conclusion
drilling parameters indicated any change. GeoSteering helps ensure that horizontal
However, the drop in resistivity and and highly deviated wells reach and stay
confidence in the model were sufficient to within their targets. Measurements close to the
convince the wellsite coordinators to drop the bit help decide the precise point at which to
well slightly to maintain it within the target stop drilling and set casing or start coring .
zone and avoid the thin shaly layers. Azimuthal measurements near the bit deter-
Figure 3.37 compares the trajectory of the mine if the well is leaving the target by the
original plan and the actual well. There is no roof or the floor. Pre-job modeling and the
doubt that a purely geometrically drilled well wellsite GeoSteering screen allow compar-
would have missed the objective entirely. In isons of actual vs. predicted measurements as
practice, some adjustments would probably a basis for steering the well. Not all effects are
have been made at the casing point. However, modeled, but GeoSteering offers more choices
without the pre-job modeling and planning, and instils more confidence in decision-
and with the uncertainties in formation tops making, thus minimizing the risk of drilling
and dips, it would have been difficult to know horizontal wells.
This chapter was written by D.Eubank, M.Silverstone, P.Laurent, and S.Low
with contributions from L.Gaetano (Corpoven), J.Fernandez (Lagoven), G.González

(Maraven) and G.Farruggio and with the permission of Maraven, Lagoven and Corpoven to
publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Fraser, L., Reid, P., Williamson, D., and Enriquez Jr, F., 1995, Mechanistic Terratec, 1996, Static and dynamic properties and in-situ stress direction, well
investigation of the formation damaging characteristics of mixed metal VLC-1184.
hydroxide drill-in fluids and comparison with polymer-base fluids, SPE 30501,
Alford, R.M., 1986, Shear data in the presence of azimuthal anisotropy.
Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25. Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1995, Horizontal Well Planning, Evaluation
and Execution.
González, G., Coll, C., Gamero, H., Meza, E., Simon, C., Cespedes, A, and de
mena, J., 1997, Pozo horizontal VLC-1184 Reto Tecnologico, SVIP 084, Prilliman, J. D., Allen, D. F., and Lehtonen, L. R., 1995, Horizontal well place-
Sociedad Venezolana de Ingenieros de Petroleo, XI Jornadas Technicas de ment and petrophysical evaluation using LWD, SPE Paper 30549, Society of
Petroleo en Maturin, Monagas, Feb 19-22. Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Esmersoy, C., Koster, K., Williams, M., Boyd, A., and Kane, M., 1994, Dipole
shear anisotropy logging, presented at the 64th Annual International meeting, Wu, P., Tabanou, J. R., and Bonner, S. D., 1996, Petrophysical interpretation
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Los Angeles, California, October 23-28. of a multispacing 2-MHz MWD resistivity tool in vertical and horizontal wells,
SPE Paper 36547, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical
Brie, A., and Bratton, T., 1996, IMPACT, a geomechanical wellbore evaluation
Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., October 6-9.
system, ISRM news journal, vol2 no. 1.
3 28
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter overview
Logging While Drilling
The PLATFORM EXPRESS
Pressure gauge performance
Wireline job planning
D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S I T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Most of the fundamental physical Section 2 describes the PLATFORM

quantities measured in boreholes, such as EXPRESS. This tool was designed specifically
resistivity and pressure, have remained the to set a new standard for recording the classic
same over the last few decades. What has triple-combo measurements (principally resis-
changed dramatically is the quality of the tivity, density and neutron). Sensors, elec-
data and the efficiency with which it is tronics, mechanics and software have all
acquired. This chapter focuses on recent been re-engineered specifically to improve
advances made in both these areas, and data quality and operational efficiency.
shows the effect they can have on Section 3 discusses the importance of
well evaluation. pressure gauge metrology for accurate
The oil industry has always put pressure transient analysis, especially in the
considerable effort into improving the use of derivatives to identify flow regimes. A
quality of the measurements in use. Quality variety of sensors are now available with the
includes not only the accuracy, repeatability Universal Pressure Platform, allowing the
and resolution of data, but also its reliability correct sensor to be chosen for the
and insensitivity to environmental factors conditions and accuracy required.
such as shock and temperature, and In the past, logging tools made one or
unwanted borehole or invasion effects. More two measurements and their response was
recently, there has been a focus on the hard-wired. Now, many measurements can
efficiency of data acquisition. The total cost be made during the same run, and their
of acquiring data includes not only the cost response can be controlled by software. This
of the measurement but also the cost of the complexity puts a premium on good job
drilling rig and other fixed assets that are planning, both of the individual tools and of
tied up while making the measurement. the overall job. The last section of the
Improvements in efficiency lead immedi- chapter discusses the issues involved and
ately to cost savings, and thus, in the long shows examples of job planning software.
term, to wider and better use of the data.
Section 1 introduces Logging While
Drilling (LWD). LWD tools can now make a
range of measurements that is almost as
wide as wireline tools, with the advantage
that they are available in real time and
before significant invasion or hole enlarge-
ment. LWD can bring a major improvement
in data quality and efficiency, especially in
highly deviated and horizontal wells. It also
provides some entirely new measurements.
4 1
LOGGING WHILE DRILLING
The fundamental advantage of using LWD We first review the features of the main
is to obtain formation measurements while LWD tools in use today. We then show the
drilling. Because information is available in applications of LWD as a wireline replace-
real time, decisions are made faster regarding ment, followed by the applications only avail-
casing or coring programs, completion able with LWD and the applications to
intervals, and subsequent wireline logging optimize drilling.
requirements. An additional benefit is that
better hole conditions usually prevail early in LWD features
the life of the drainhole, minimizing Table 4.1 is an overview of all present
environmental effects requiring corrections. LWD services, showing tool sizes and the
Furthermore, LWD provides important new most important features and applications.
data that have not been available from The basic physics of the principal
wireline services, such as azimuthal density, LWD measurements are further summa-
anisotropy, and information from near-bit rized below.
sensors needed for real-time decisions.
Table 4.1
Tool ADN CDN ARC5/IMPULSE CDR RAB ISONIC GST
Tool sizes 4.75" 6.75" 6.75" 8.0" 4.75" 6.75" 6.75" 8.25" 6.75" 8.25" 6.75" 8.25" 6.75" 8.25"
Sensor • Density: Crystal • Density: Crystal • 2 MHz EM Wave • 2 MHz EM Wave • Focused direct • Monopole • Direct current
Type • Neutron: Helium • Neutron: Helium • Gamma ray: • Gamma ray: current sonic source • Gamma ray:
• Caliper: Ultrasonic Crystal Crystal • Gamma ray: Crystal
Transducer Crystal
Basic • Azi. RHOBs: ROBB • TNPH • Attenuation • ATR • RBit • DT • Bit resistivity
Outputs ROBU ROBL ROBR • RHOB (average) resistivities: A10H A16H • PSR • RRing • ITT • Button resistivity
• Azi. DHROs, PEFs • RHOB (rotational) A22H A28H A34H • GR/SGR (U,P,Th) • RSB • GR
• Avg. RHOB, PEF • PEF • Phase shift • PCAL • RMB • Inclination
and DHRO • DCAL resistivities: P10H P16H • RDB • Toolface
• TNPH P22H P28H P34H • GR
• Ultrasonic caliper: • GR
VERD + HORD • PCAL
Basic • Bulk density • Bulk density • 5 x phase resistivity • Phase resistivity • Bit resistivity • DT compressional • Bit resistivity
Features • Neutron porosity • Neutron porosity • 5 x attenuation • Attenuation • 4 x laterolog type from downhole • Azi. resistivity
• Hole diameter resistivity resistivity resistivities waveform • Azi. gamma ray
• Gamma ray • Gamma ray • Azi. gamma ray • Real-time DT • Inclination at the bit
Extended • 4 x azi. density • Rotational- • Borehole-corrected • Borehole-corrected • 3 x azimuthal • Extended waveform • Geosteering
Features • Borehole-corrected corrected density resistivity resistivity • Azimuthal testing processing
neutron porosity • Differential caliper • Phase caliper • Phase caliper
• 2 x ultrasonic caliper
Main • Hydrocarbon • Hydrocarbon • Rt inversion • Rt inversion • Borehole imaging • Seismic correlation • Azimuthal station
Applications detection detection • Invasion profile • Rh & Rv inversion • Formation dip while drilling measurement
• Lithology • Lithology • Rh & Rv inversion • Real-time • Interval velocity
determination determination formation dip • DT-derived porosity
• Density imaging • Over-pressured

• Borehole volume zone detection
4 2

,,

,,

D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figures 4.1a and 4.1b The radioactive logging sources used

within the tool are wireline-retrievable,

,,

,,
(a) (b)
should the conditions necessitate their
Formation 1 recovery back to the surface. The ADN can
be run stand-alone or in real time.
Up Up CDR* Compensated Dual Resistivity Tool
Left Right Detectors Left Right
Down
The CDR sends a 2-MHz electro-
Down
magnetic wave from a transmitter T, and
Stabilizer
measures the phase shift and attenuation
Formation Formation 2 between a pair of receivers R (Fig. 4.2).
Borehole compensation is achieved by
As the drill collar rotates, the
sending signals sequentially from two trans-
ADN measurements are ADN* Azimuthal Density Neutron
mitters, one above and one below the
summed into four quadrants. The ADN provides a compensated neu-
receivers, and averaging the results. After
The up, left and right tron, a lithodensity, and an ultrasonic caliper
transformation, these measurements provide
quadrants may only be valid measurement. The measurements are sepa-
two Electromagnetic Propagation Resis-
with a stabilizer, as in (b). rated into four quadrants: up, left, down,
tivities with different depths of investigation
and right (Fig. 4.1). In deviated and
and vertical resolutions (Rps refers to
horizontal wells, the down quadrant of the
Resistivity Phase Shallow and Rad refers to
lithodensity provides an accurate measure-
Resistivity Attenuation Deep). In most
ment in conditions where the hole diameter
conditions the depths of investigation are
is larger than the tool diameter (i.e.,
shallower than a dual induction, but the ver-
collar+stabilizer). This occurs when the tool
tical resolutions are higher. A calibrated
is run slick, or an under-gauge stabilizer is
gamma ray (GR), either regular or
used (Fig. 4.1a). If a full-gauge stabilizer is
spectroscopy, is also available.
used, then all quadrant lithodensities will be
Figure 4.2 The resistivity data can be inverted
accurate and this can provide a way of
to determine R t and invasion profile, or
measuring formation heterogeneity (Fig.
Attenuation
resistivity
anisotropy.
Phase shift
resistivity T 4.1b).
The Ultrasonic measurement is made
with a sensor in-line with, and only a few ARC5* Array Resistivity Compensated,
R
R
inches away from, the lithodensity detectors. 5 depths of investigation
The hole diameter is obtained by summing The ARC5 makes 10 independent,
the standoff measured in opposite borehole-compensated, 2-MHz Electromag-
T quadrants. This provides two diameters netic Propagation Resistivity measurements
(vertical and horizontal) that give an with different depths of investigation using
Volume investigated by the
Compensated Dual Resistivity (CDR) indication of hole shape and condition. The an array of five transmitters and two
The CDR provides a Phase Neutron measurements are by their nature receivers (Fig. 4.3). The physics of the
Shift Resistivity and an relatively unfocused, and therefore the four measurements are the same as the CDR, with
Attenuation Resistivity with quadrants are usually summed and both phase shift and attenuation being
different depths of presented as a single curve. measured between the receivers for each
investigation and vertical transmitter firing. The two receivers are
resolutions. spaced 6 in. apart in the middle of the array.
The transmitters are located 10, 22, and 34
in. above, and 16 and 28 in. below the
midpoint between the two receivers.
4 3
Figure 4.3 RAB* Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool

The RAB makes up to five laterolog-
Antenna Array Resistivity Compensated (ARC5) type resistivity measurements by sending
spacing (in.) borehole compensation
T current into the formation and measuring the
34
potential at five different electrodes (Fig.
4.4). The Bit Resistivity, RBit, uses the lower
T
22 few inches of the RAB and everything below
as a measure electrode. The measure point is
T at the midpoint of this electrode and has a
10
R vertical resolution nearly equal to its length.
3 Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed
0 R asymmetrical symmetrical symmetrical symmetrical pseudo- The RAB also provides an accurate,
-3 BHC BHC BHC BHC BHC
high-resolution (approx. 2 in.), focused
T
-16 lateral resistivity measurement for formation
evaluation. This measurement, termed
-28
T RRing–Ring Resistivity, is made
by a 11⁄2-in. high, cylindrical electrode about
The ARC5 transmitter measurements are combined in five different ways 3 ft above the lower end of the RAB.
to determine borehole compensated resistivity with five different spacings. The investigation diameter of RRing is
approximately 22 in.
Figure 4.4 Borehole compensation is achieved by com- When run with its optional three button
bining, for example, the 16-in. transmitter electrodes, the RAB provides three more
Resistivity-at-the-Bit measurements with a suitable average of the high-resolution, focused, lateral resistivity
(RAB) tool
10-in. and 22-in. transmitter measurements. measurements for formation evaluation.
In this way five borehole-compensated recei- The buttons are longitudinally spaced along
ver-transmitter spacings are obtained with the RAB to provide staggered diameters of
Upper
transmitter
different depths of investigation, each one investigation of approximately 11, 15 and 19
with phase shift and attenuation resistivity. in. Furthermore, these measurements are
Azimuthal
electrodes
The GR measurement is made with acquired azimuthally as the RAB rotates,
a scintillation detector and photomulti- with about 68˚ angular resolution. An
plier tube. It provides a total GR output in azimuthal orientation system uses the
Ring electrode
API units. earth’s magnetic field as a reference to
The resistivity data can be inverted determine the angular position of the tool in
Azimuthal GR
to determine R t and invasion profile, or the wellbore as the drillstring rotates.
anisotropy. Azimuthally acquired button measurements
are displayed as fullbore images of the
Lower
transmitter formation resistivity.
Resistivity
at the Bit
The RAB is a laterolog-type

resistivity tool that provides
five separate resistivities and
a resistivity image.
4 4
Figure 4.5 GST* GeoSteering Tool

The GST* GeoSteering Tool is based on
a standard steerable downhole motor with
bent housing
NBS with,
adjustable
Surface-
azimuthal resist.,
PowerPak
Stabilizer the addition of a 4-ft long near–bit sub (NBS)
azimuthal GR, + Bit resistivity
PDM inclination bearings (Fig. 4.5). It includes a fixed bent housing
and RPM
between the bearing section and the surface-
adjustable bent housing.
The NBS is an assembly that provides
E-Mag Azimuthal resistivity
Geosteering tool bit resistivity, azimuthal resistivity, azimuthal
Azimuthal
gamma gay (GR) GR, inclination, tool face, and motor
The data are used to compute an information. Measurements are made at a
The GST provides bit
invasion profile, R t, and to quantify such distance of 2.5 to 8 ft from the bit face. The
resistivity, azimuthal resis-
sources of azimuthal variation as formation NBS uses wireless telemetry (E-mag) to
tivity, azimuthal GR and incli-
dip and large fractures. Formation dips can communicate with the Measurement While
nation within 6 ft of the bit in
be computed and transmitted to the surface Drilling (MWD) tool above the power
order to make geosteering
in real time. section so that no direct wiring through the
decisions in real time.
The GR measurement is focused, and motor or other drill string components is
may be acquired in four quadrants, needed.
referenced to down. Resistivity and GR from the GST are
oriented with respect to the GST tool face to
Figure 4.6 provide resistivity up/down data and GR
up/down data for geosteering purposes
RING ROBB (Chapter 3–19).
GR .2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.65
(g ⁄ cm3) 2.65
0 (gAPI) 200 RBM
.2 (ohm-m) 2000 TNPH
RBD 60 (p.u.) 0
LWD applications
Caliper .2 (ohm-m) 2000
PEB
6 (in.) 16 Depth RBS TLC* Tough Logging Conditions
(ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000 0 10
System Replacement
The most obvious use of LWD is as a
replacement of TLC* Tough Logging
Conditions System drillpipe-conveyed log-
4200
ging operations for more efficient wellsite
operations. Virtually all horizontal wells in
Venezuela requiring basic petrophysical and
geological data are currently being logged
4400
with LWD.
Figure 4.6 shows the standard LWD
suite RAB and ADN run in a horizontal well
in the Bare Field in Eastern Venezuela. The
4600
log shows the reservoir section where the
differences in resistivity mainly reflect
Standard petrophysical data from a horizontal well (MFB-444)

in the Bare Field through the reservoir zone.
4 5
Figures 4.7 and 4.8
P10H A10H
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 RHOB
GR LLD
P16H A16H 1.65 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.65
0 (gAPI) 200 .2 (ohm-m) 2000
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000
GR TNPH
P22H A22H
0 (gAPI) 200 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 60 (p.u.) 0
P28H A28H CALI LLS
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 6 (in.) 16 Depth .2 (ohm-m) 2000 DRHO
Depth P34H A34H (ft) -.75 (g ⁄ cm3) .25
(ft) .1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000
5600
4100
4200
5800
4300
4400
6000
Wireline data from a vertical well in Bloque 1, Lake Maracaibo.
4500
If similar data had been acquired with

wireline on TLC, an estimated 24 hours of
extra rig time would have been necessary.
During the same run electrical image data
were acquired (see Fig. 4.10). If this data
Resistivity data from varying shale content in the reservoir sand.
had also been acquired on wireline, an addi-
the ARC5 in the vertical The data are conventional Caliper,
tional TLC run would have been necessary.
well VLA-1230 in Bloque 1, ROBB, PEB and TNPH from the ADN, and
Lake Maracaibo. four resistivities (Shallow Button, Medium Example 1
Data quality is good. Button, Deep Button and Ring resistivity) Figure 4.7 shows an ARC5 log passing
from the RAB. There is a significant hydro- through a sand/shale interval from a vertical
carbon separation between ROBB and TNPH. well in Bloque 1 of Lake Maracaibo. In this
This feature is generally more pronounced area wireline-conveyed tools often do not
on LWD logs since the mud filtrate has had reach total depth because of formation
less time to invade the formation. The RAB instability, even though the wells are
resistivities show separations with the vertical. Figure 4.8 shows a typical wireline
shallow resistivities less than the deep, which log from the same area where the data are
in this case are interpreted as caused by strongly affected by washouts in the hole.
invasion. R t can eventually be modeled if the
resistivities were considered to be influenced
by nearby beds.
4 6
Figure 4.9 After several unsuccessful wireline attempts,

an ARC5 was run in real time on a trip after
P10H drilling. The ARC5 shows a well developed
.1 (ohm-m) 1000
P16H
sandstone reservoir between 17,480 ft and
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 17,560 ft which would otherwise have been
GR P22H
0 (API) 200 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 missed, since the cuttings had indicated
P28H shale. The mud was oil-based with a high-
.1 (ohm-m) 1000
Depth P34H salinity water. From the separation of the
(ft) .1 (ohm-m) 1000
phase shift resistivity curves it can be seen
that the water phase has invaded the
reservoir section.
Real-time recording was chosen so as to
evaluate the zone as quickly as possible, but
also to check the tool function close to its tem-
17500
perature limit (305˚F). A bottomhole tempera-
ture of 296˚F was recorded.
LWD-only applications
Azimuthal data
17600
Figure 4.10 is a log from the same well
as Fig. 4.6, here showing the importance of
having azimuthal data to determine petro-
physical and geological heterogeneities. The
full data set acquired while drilling includes
neutron porosity (TNPH), azimuthal
17700
densities and formation photoelectric factor
(PEF), vertical and horizontal borehole
diameter, laterolog-type resistivities with
four depths of investigation, borehole
imaging and formation dips.
On the unidirectional logs shown in
17800
Fig. 4.6, TNPH and ROBB data suggest a
vertical fracture zone at 4555 ft. On the RAB
images shown in Fig. 4.10 it can be seen
that the apparent fracture zone is in fact
only present at the bottom of the well.
Other features of azimuthal logs can also
Resistivity data from the Example 2 be seen in Fig. 4.10. At 4400 ft the borehole
ARC5 from the vertical well LWD has recently been used as the only crosses a thin shale that has a dip of 4˚ in the
SLE-3 in Sur del Lago in Lake means of logging vertical wells where direction WNW. At 4630 ft the Vertical and
Maracaibo. borehole stability problems exclude the use Horizontal Diameters default to 6.5 in., indi-
of conventional wireline logging. Figure 4.9 cating that the BHA is stationary, and that the
shows a vertical, deep and hot well in the bit was being rotated only by the mud motor.
Sur Del Lago region of Lake Maracaibo.
4 7
Figure 4.10
15
TNPH
(p.u.) ROBR 45
2.15
ROBU
⁄ cm 3
)
ROBL
g
ROBB
1.65 (
Depth
(ft)
4400 4450 4500 4550 4600

11
100
VERD
(gAPI)
(in.)
GR
HORD
6
TD: 4/283
Bottom of 4453 4454 4455 4456 4457 4458 4459

the borehole
4405 4410 4415 4420 4425
The log shows the azimuthal The ADN is oriented in line with the tool Pre-invasion Rt determination
data from a horizontal well in face, allowing the density detectors to be in In most cases, experience has shown
the Bare Field. continuous contact with the formation even that there is some degree of invasion even
when drilling with mud motors. Thus, the when acquiring LWD data during the
only density output available is the bottom drilling process. In Fig. 4.7 the separation of
quadrant, ROBB—the others are simply not the Phase Shift resistivities indicates a
present. Throughout most of the log the slightly invaded zone from 4500 to 4600 ft.
quadrants ROBL, ROBH and ROBU are However, the deeper-reading Attenuation
measuring densities considerably lower than Resistivities overlay each other and agree
ROBB, implying that these quadrants were with the 34-in. Phase Shift Resistivity,
affected by mud between the detectors and implying that they are all reading R t. Thus, in
the formation. This is because the ADN was spite of some invasion, R t can be read
run slick (without stabilizer) and the only directly from the curves without the need
point in direct contact with the formation for inversion.
was the bottom quadrant (ROBB).
4 8
Figure 4.11 Spherical Focused log (MSFL) recorded 34

hours after drilling. The changes in resistivity
Moved water
Moved oil clearly indicate the moved fluids. In the non-
MSFL permeable shale at the top, CDR and LLS
Washout .2 (ohm-m) 20
Wireline caliper Laterolog shallow agree. At the bottom MSFL > LLS > CDR
6 (in.) 16 .2 (ohm-m) 2000
(Attenuation and Phase Shift resistivity).
Wireline Gamma Ray Phase shift resistivity
0 (gAPI) 150 .2 (ohm-m) 2000 This is a clear indication of a water zone
CDR Gamma Ray Depth Attenuation resistivity
0 150 (ft)
where the fresh mud filtrate is displacing the
(gAPI) .2 (ohm-m) 2000
saltier formation water (Rmf > Rw). The LLS is
being affected by the much greater volume
of mud filtrate present at the time of wireline
logging. Above, from X620 to X780 ft the
profile is reversed, with MSFL < LLS < CDR.
This is clearly an oil zone, with the LLS
reading lower because oil has been displaced
by mud filtrate. Note that the same effect
could have been seen by running the CDR
X650 through the zone on a later wiper trip.
This would have allowed an immediate,
clear indication of moved oil without the
wireline logs.
Hole degradation
While apparent resistivities computed
from the attenuation and phase shift of the
CDR's 2-MHz electromagnetic wave are
borehole-compensated, and therefore insen-
X700
sitive to changes in hole diameter, the
relative phase between receivers and
transmitters is sensitive to borehole size
and mud conductivity. This sensitivity is used
to estimate an average borehole diameter
when a sufficient contrast between the
mud and formation conductivities exists.
Since the phase caliper can be obtained during
The log shows both Wireline In cases where the invasion is deeper, drilling or on subsequent bit trips, time-lapsed
and LWD data from a vertical an R t inversion can be made in playback. In overlays can provide information on hole
well in Lake Maracaibo. horizontal wells where factors other than just alteration while drilling the well.
The difference in resistivity invasion influence the resistivity measure- Figure 4.12 is a three-pass overlay of
values is caused by time- ments, modeling has to be used to deduce caliper measurements taken while drilling,
dependent invasion. the correct R t (Chapter 8–35). while conditioning the hole running in,
and conditioning pulling out. The drilling
Time-lapse logging fluid identification
and conditioning down passes indicate
Invasion can be turned to advantage
wellbore alteration with time. This includes
when logs are run at different times, hence at
both enlargements at X620 and X740 ft (A)
different stages of invasion. Fig. 4.11 shows a
and reductions in diameter from X600 to
CDR log recorded while drilling with a
X640 ft and X700 to X760 ft (B). In this
wireline shallow Laterolog (LLS) and Micro-
4 9
Successful geosteering depends on build-

,
Figure 4.12
ing a pre-job model and running a GST. The
Reaming Reaming out caliper
pre-job model computes the LWD logs that
0 3 6 (in.) 16 are expected along the planned trajectory of
(RPS)
Drilling rate Phase resistivity Reaming in caliper
the well. The model uses as input the local
100 (ft/hr) 0 2 (ohm-m) 200 6 (in.) 16 geology (e.g., cross sections, seismic sections,
,

Drilling
Gamma Ray 0 3 Attenuation resistivity Drilling phase caliper
isopach maps), petrophysical properties of the
(RPS)
0 (gAPI) 150 2 (ohm-m) 200 6 (in.) 16 beds in and near the well, and accurate
knowledge of LWD tool response. The input,
A B computations, and output are handled by the
program INFORM. A more detailed descrip-

tion is given in Chapter 3–23.
Later, while drilling, the predicted LWD
logs are compared to the real-time LWD data
X700
to confirm the validity of the geological
Reaming In model or to re-evaluate it in real time. The
INFORM model can be used with conven-
A B
tional LWD tools and/or the GST. The
advantage of the GST is that the near-bit
sensors allow immediate correction of the
trajectory when unpredicted changes occur.
X800 The GST can be used in connection with the
INFORM pre-job modeling or on its own, as
in the example below.
GeoSteering
Figure 4.13 on the following page shows
a well in the Budare Field in Eastern
X900 Venezuela where the GST was run on its own
Drilling solely to optimize drilling. As the GST
determined that the upper sandstone (Sand
1) was much thinner than anticipated, it was
decided to continue down to a lower target
example, the conductivity contrast between
The log shows the evolution (Sand 2) without plugging back and side-
the mud and formation allows us to measure
in hole diameter from subse- tracking. By having the inclination at the bit,
the hole diameter with an accuracy of 0.5 in.
quent runs measured by the it was possible to steer sharply down through
and 36 in. vertical resolution. The maximum
Phase Caliper. the dividing shale and avoid setting casing to
diameter that can be read by the phase
protect this zone. On encountering the lower
caliper is approximately 24 in.
reservoir, the GST allowed the drainage hole
Optimizing drilling to be drilled smoothly, without any doglegs.
The ultimate goal of drilling, and in parti- Doglegs could not only have impeded the
cular of extended-reach drilling, is to place completion of the well but also reduced the
the well in the optimal position in the reser- efficiency of the horizontal section.
voir. This can best be achieved by geo-
steering, or altering the trajectory of the well
according to the geological changes
encountered while drilling.
4 10
Figure 4.13 part shows RBIT and GR from the GST along
the horizontal displacement. The fluctua-
4330
TVD (ft) tions of the GR in the reservoir reflect
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,
varying shaliness in the sandstone.
C B A
4380 In summary, the GST avoided a side-
TM
Sand 1
track, minimized shale exposure in the devi-
ated section, and ensured a smooth trajectory
,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
4430
in the reservoir.
U1/4
Sand 2
4480
Conclusions
2850 2650 2450 2250 2050 1850 1650 1450 It can be observed from the examples
70
shown that LWD has moved from a cost-
140
Gamma ray (gAPI) oriented alternative to wireline logging, to a
60 Bit resistivity (ohm-m) 120
method of acquiring petrophysical data on
50 100 its own merits. This is seen in the increasing
40
GR number of vertical and slightly deviated
80
wells logged only with LWD.
30 60
LWD not only acquires conventional
20 40 petrophysical measurements under the opti-
10
Res. mal borehole conditions, but gives addi-
20
tional information such as azimuthal densi-
0 0
2850 2650 2450 2250 2050 1850 1650 1450 1250
ties, “pre-invasion” R t, anisotropy evaluation,
Horizontal displacement (ft) and allows more precise geosteering.
Apart from the obvious aim to acquire
The upper drawing shows
The upper part of Fig. 4.13 shows the the best petrophysical data in any borehole,
the trajectory, and the lower
trajectory penetrating the upper thin LWD has a major function in placing
graph shows the resistivity and
sandstone at A, dropping through the shale extended-reach wells in the optimum posi-
GR data from a well where the
(B) and then taking a smooth horizontal tion in the reservoir, thereby maximizing pro-
real-time data determined the
path through the reservoir (C). The lower duction and minimizing future interventions.
actual well placement.
THE PLATFORM EXPRESS
Introduction faster (3600 ft/hr), more reliable (three to four

Wireline logging has undergone many times), and have higher-quality answers than
improvements in the decades since the previously was possible.
Schlumberger brothers invented it in 1927. Efficiency is one of the major benefits,
However, the PLATFORM EXPRESS (PEX) and several factors contribute to this in-
technology that was introduced into creased efficiency. They include higher
Venezuela early in 1996 is one of the first to logging speeds, reduced rig-up/rig-down and
focus so strongly on efficiency and reliability before-and-after calibration times, and faster
as well as data quality. That becomes turn-around on wellsite processing. Figure
apparent when this new technology is 4.14 shows the average overall logging time
compared to the industry standard, the triple- as well as time saved using the PEX for
combo. PEX logging has proven to be much operations in Venezuela over the past year.
4 11
Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 shows the basic PEX as well

as the vertical resolutions for each measure-
PLATFORM EXPRESS (average times) ment. Higher vertical resolution, together with
9 Average PEX a new sensor design, combine to provide
8 logging time
measurements that are better matched in
7
6 resolution and measurement volume. This,
Hours
5
4 together with full environmental corrections
3
and depth matching, lead to improved quick-
2
1 look and advanced interpretations. The box
0
Eastern Venezuela
on page 4–18 is an example of the normal
Western Venezuela
wellsite quicklook presentation used in
Venezuela total Average savings Venezuela. It includes an explanation of the
per well mnemonics used in this and other PEX
PEX Logging Time averaged over a one-year period (seven hours), and average presentations, and a visual calibration of the
time saved using this technology (three hours). lithology column.
The example in the box, also highlights
Figure 4.15 the PEX triple-detector density’s ability to
read accurately in very washed-out holes. The
sandstones from 3170 ft to 3192 ft are washed
out up to 6 in. over gauge, and yet the den-
Highly integrated sity and PEX curves are reading correctly. The
HGNS GR
gamma ray 24 in. resistivity profile in track 3 indicates invasion
neutron sonde
and hydrocarbons. With the combination of
øN these measurements, we are confident that
24 in. we are correctly evaluating these sandstones.
Electronics
cartridge
Sensor descriptions
PEX sensors set new standards in form-
pb,Pe
16 in., ation evaluation accuracy. Either the AIT* Array
8 in., 2 in.
Induction Imager tool or the HALS* High-
Resolution Azimuthal Laterolog Sonde can be
High-resolution Rxo,hmc used for resistivity measurements, and both
HRMS 2 in.
mechanical
sonde have a vertical resolution of 12 in. under
optimal conditions. The AIT consists of eight
three-coil arrays that all have a single fre-
quency transmitter coil. In addition, each of
these arrays has a receiver coil and a secondary
High-resolution Array induction Rt bucking coil. The coils are spaced along the
azimuthal imager tool 12 in.
laterolog sonde in a folded array structure, resulting in a
sonde
short, compact sonde. The various signals are
combined to produce outputs at 1-ft, 2-ft, and
HALS AIT
4-ft vertical resolutions with a depth of
investigation into the formation fixed at 10 in.,
20 in., 30 in., 60 in., and 90 in. An Rm/SP sensor
PEX offers a choice of resistivity measurements: either laterolog provides an SP curve without adding an
(HALS, left) or induction (AIT, right). external sensor, and also provides a highly
accurate, continuous Rm measurement
4 12
Figure 4.16 that is invaluable for application in rough holes, as can be seen
borehole corrections. in Fig. 4.16. The high-resolution skid with
The MCFL* Micro- its associated sensors is shown in Fig. 4.17
Cylindrical Focused Log Note the integration of sensors TLD–BS
is an Rxo device mount- (Back Scatter Detector), SS (Short Spacing
ed on a single, fully arti- Detector), LS (Long Spacing Detector),
Flex
joint culated pad that presses MCFL–ML (MicroLog) in this pad. An
against the formation example of how the density performs in
and is integrated washed-out holes is shown in Fig. 4.18.
between the density This example comes from the Melones
detectors. It is designed Field in Eastern Venezuela and clearly high-
to measure the resist- lights the ability of the PEX to get very high-
ivity of a cylindrical quality data in a highly rugose and washed-
volume extending only out hole. The density measurement continues
a few inches into the to read good formation signal throughout the
formation, correspond- various washouts because of the unique
Flex ing to the invaded zone ability of the PEX flexibility and TLD pad
joint
and to a very similar articulation to follow the washout and read
volume of formation correctly. These good-quality outputs are
measured by the den- important in this hydrocarbon-bearing zone,
sity. A microlog-type of that has an R t of approximately 20 ohms and
Density skid logging in washed-out hole. The unique
measurement is also an effective porosity of approximately 32%.
design of this system allows the pad to freefloat and
taken from this pad. A single Highly Integrated Gamma Ray
follow very rugose hole shapes.
Sensors for TLD* Neutron Sonde (HGNS) provides gamma ray
Figure 4.17 Three-Detector Lithology Density measure- and neutron porosity measurements with a
ments are mounted on the same pad. Three vertical resolution of 24 in. from a 6-in. sam-
detectors are located 16 in., 8 in. and 2 in. pling rate. Alpha processing is used to achieve
from the source, measuring the scattered a 12-in. vertical resolution of the neutron log.
gamma rays in nine distinct energy windows. Both neutron outputs are fully corrected for
The counts in each of these windows are environmental effects, with the near and far
then inverted using a forward response count rates being dead-time corrected as well
model, yielding formation density, formation as depth- and resolution-matched. Corrections
PEF, mudcake density, mudcake thickness usually applied in the field are for hole size,
and mudcake PEF. The combination of the standoff, mudcake, borehole salinity, mud
three detectors allows for the reconstruction weight, pressure and temperature. Small
of a very robust 16-in. vertical resolution calibration sources are included internally so
density. The high-resolution density is that tools no longer require external
reconstructed from the backscatter and short- calibration sources as earlier tools did. The
spacing detectors using the low-resolution HGNS also incorporates the telemetry for the
measurement as a constraint to the proces- tool, as well as a Z-axis accelerometer to
sing, and has a vertical resolution of 6 in. The accurately measure downhole tool movement.
backscatter detector is used in characterizing This allows the data to be speed-corrected so
the very shallow zone properties such as that all PEX measurements can be depth-
rugosity, standoff and mudcake, as well as matched in real time, allowing more accurate
improving the statistics in very dense determination of bed boundaries and less
Integrated Density/ formations. Flex joints and the freefloating chance of misinterpretation and the possibility
Microresistivity pad. pad assembly greatly improve the pad of missing thin zones.
4 13
Figure 4.18 tations that provide a graphic and rapid means

of detecting problems. It is available at several
AIT-H 2'
levels and in two main forms:
10" 1. Flags: A composite of a number of condi-
HMIN HMNO
50 (ohm-m) 0
20" tions that indicate the status or quality of
AIT-H 30" PEFZ
HCAL BS
Resistivity
the downhole tool or measurement. If
60" 0 10
6 (in.) 16 Image
DSOZ
90" PXND
any one of the conditions that are incor-
RSOZ SP AHTD2
2 (in.) 0 –100 (mv) 0 RXOZ DPHZ porated in the flag are out of specifi-
AHTD1 RT NPOR VCL
Depth ECGR (in.) (p.u.) RWA cation, then the flag will be raised to alert
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 –90 90 0.2 (ohm-m) 200 0.5 (V/V) 0 0 200 0 (ohm-m) 1 the observer.
2. Curves: These can be hardware-specific
2440
(e.g., downhole voltages), processing
related (e.g., modeling errors), or related
to corrections made to the raw measure-
2460
ments because of environmental effects.
Figure 4.19 shows a PEX LQC log. The
density and resistivity standoff curves, DSOZ
Rugose hole example. One Log Quality Control
and RSOZ (track 1, right margin, in this case
of the many examples of Real-time Log Quality Control (LQC)
no standoff is present), appear once a
high-quality measurements helps ensure efficient delivery of the best-
threshold value is reached, indicating several
in a very washed-out hole. quality data. If the field engineer or observer
possible causes—mud is too fresh for micro-
can make a good judgment of data quality
resistivity measurements, barite is present in
while it is being recorded, there is still
the mud, or the density tool has been miscali-
time to recover from a problem or to re-log an
brated. Also in track 1 is an Environmentally
anomaly. PEX LQC has been enhanced by the
Corrected Gamma Ray (ECGR). In track 2 the
introduction of several images and presen-
green stripes are flags showing whether the
raw array signals (A1 to A8) are consistent
Figure 4.19
and whether the MCFL hardware and pro-
cessing is within range. The raw array signals
*** Flag Tracks ***
White = absent Green = good Yellow = warn Red/Black = bad are also displayed to watch for spiking.
Cartridge temperature
100 (degf) 200
1.
2.
MCFL hardware
RXO processing
Another stripe in the depth track will turn red
1. Accelerometer
Corrected
AIT-H borehole/form ratio
velocity
3.
4.
HAIT hardware
HAIT array[1-2] 2. Density detector Pe correction if an electronics fault is detected. The MCFL
0 25 5. HAIT array[3-4] 3. Neutron porosity –3 3
0
(ft/hr)
7200 6. HAIT array[5-6] 4. Density comp. and HALS also have flags representing hard-
Deviation 5. Pef computation Density correction
Cable 7. HAIT array[7-8]
–5 (deg) 45 speed –0.75 (g / cm3) 0.25 ware quality and curves corresponding to the
Resistivity flags
(ft/hr) AIT-H QC fully Hdrx

Nuclear flags
ECGR 0 7200 calibrated signals

A4 A8
Rwo/RBA ratio amount of borehole corrections being applied.
0 (gAPI) 150 0.5 1.5
Tension
RSOZ DSOZ (lbf) A3 A7 Delta neutron
porosity
The nuclear presentation (track 3) consists of
20 (in.) 0 0 1000 A2 A6 –0.1 (V/V) 0.1
A1 A5 GR borehole
quality flags for the accelerometer, density
HCAL BS Depth correction factor
0 (in.) 16 (ft) 12 34567 0 (in.) 16 1 2 3 4 5 0.5 1.5 detector, neutron porosity, density compu-
tation and PEF computation. The RHOB and
sc 850
PEF computation flags are based on the better
sc 900 quantification of errors with PEX. For
example, it is possible to say with confidence
sc 950
that the RHOB accuracy is within 0.01 g/cc
Track 1 Track 2 Track 3
with no mudcake and 0.02 g/cm3 with a
mudcake of 0.5 in.
LQC curves and Flags. Note that once inside casing, the density, PEX, and all
resistivity flags are turned on, indicating invalid readings.
4 14
Figure 4.20 Reliability

The PEX was specifically designed to be
HMIN, HMIN_rep a very reliable tool with a temperature and
HMNO, HMNO_rep pressure rating of 260˚F and 10,000 psi. These
50 (ohm-m) 0 ratings are lower than usual, but cover more
DSO, HCAL, HCAL_rep PEFZ, PEFZ_rep than 75% of the wells in Venezuela. The
DSO_rep
8 (in.) 28
AIT-H 2' 0 10 major reason for this outstanding reliability,
RSO, SP, SP_rep
RSO_rep
–100 (mv) 0
90", 90"_rep NPOR, NPOR_rep which is more than three times greater than
AIT-H
Depth GR, GR_rep
Resistivity
10", 10"_rep DPHZ, DPHZ_rep VCL RWA, RWA_rep that of conventional triple-combo tools, is the
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 Image .2 (ohm-m) 200 50 (p.u.) 0 0 (ohm-m) 1
total redesign of the components, boards, and
4200
how they are mounted in the tool. All PEX
components must pass the same rigorous
shock and cyclical temperature tests used for
LWD tools (2000 shocks of 250 G/ 2 msec and
200 temperature cycles to 125˚C with a five-
hour peak temperature stay each cycle). This
also makes PEX much more reliable to use for
TLC (pipe-conveyed logging) jobs where any
failure will cause excessive down time. The
tool’s short design in conjunction with
knuckles also make it the best candidate
available for pipe-conveyed logging. Short-
radius wells with build rates from vertical to
horizontal in 100 ft have been logged without
the AIT; with the AIT the maximum build rate
4300 to date has been 69˚/100 ft in a 7-in. hole.
This far surpasses what was available in the
past and allows a full evaluation in such
short- and medium-radius wells. There is a
more than a three-fold increase in jobs
between lost time failure seen in Venezuela
over the first year of operation.
Efficiency
Repeat analysis example. PEX efficiency gains are made in a
The repeat section analysis (Fig. 4.20) is
The main run was logged at variety of ways. The shorter length allows
a powerful presentation that allows the
3600 ft/hr while the repeat the tools to be handled more easily and
engineer and observer to see all curves from
was run at 1800 ft/hr. quickly. Less rat hole is required to get log
the main and repeat pass overlaid on each
readings over the lowest sections of the well.
other. Shading between curves indicates
Figure 4.21 provides a picture of just how
when the separation is beyond an acceptable
much this difference in length really is. This
tolerance. Even with the numerous washouts
reduction in length, together with the
throughout this section, there is near-perfect
increased speed of rig-up and rig-down,
agreement in all of the outputs.
reduced calibration time, and ability to log at
twice the speed while providing higher
quality measurements, all decrease the time
required to perform a job.
4 15
Figure 4.21 Table 4.2 is an example of total savings Table 4.2

available by planning and using PEX, and is PLATFORM EXPRESS Value
taken from an actual case in Western Vene- Day rig rate $30,000
Triple-combo
zuela. Significant savings are achieved when Drilling rate 50 ft/hr
a wiper trip or an additional run are avoided. Logging interval 7000 ft
However, even the logging-related times Total depth 12000 ft
are reduced by five hours, or $6250, by Event PEX Triple-Combo
saving 30 minutes here and there in dif- Drill rat hole 0.76 hr 1.80 hr
ferent operations. Initial surface calibration 0.25 hr 0.75 hr
90 ft Figure 4.22 is an average of many wells Rig up tool 0.30 hr 1.00 hr

P PLATFORM
TFORM E XPRESS
EXPRESS
logged in Venezuela over a one-year time RIH to TD 0.80 hr 0.80 hr
period. It is broken down into PEX, PEX- Interval logging time 1.94 hr 3.89 hr
sonic combo, and standard triple-combo- POOH 0.33 hr 0.33 hr
sonic runs. In this direct comparison of actual Final surface calibration 0.25 hr 0.75 hr
38 ft
Venezuelan figures, it can be seen that PEX Rig down tool 0.30 hr 1.00 hr
has saved an average of 6.9 hours per well. Total logging-related time 4.9 hr 10.3 hr
The main savings come from one less run in Conditioning trip 0.0 hr 12.0 hr
the hole, but savings can be also be seen in Additional run 0.0 hr 5.0 hr
Triple-combo versus PEX the area of rig-up/rig-down (0.6 hr) and a Reliability 0.0 hr 1.0 hr
length (90 ft versus 38 ft)— direct comparison of logging time (0.7 hr). Total rig-related cost $6,172 $35,403
the PEX wins every time. Measurement quality $1,000 $0
Real-time answer products $1,000 $0
Total PEX added value $2,000 $0

Figure 4.22
PLATFORM EXPRESS savings: $31,231 and 23.4 hr
14
13.4
Rig-up RIH 2
1.4
The DSI (page 4–33) can be combined with
12 RIH 1 DSI/BHC
PEX/Triple-combo TOOH 2 1.3 PEX to create a very powerful combination.
TOOH 1 Rig-down
10
Change
Logging speed in these cases is usually
Time (hours)
3.6
8 governed by how many modes are utilized
6.5 with the DSI. In the combined DSI/PEX data
6 5.5 1.0 1.1
0.8 1.3 1.0 above, the tool was normally run at 900
4 0.9
ft/hr.
2.6 2.9 3.0 From March 1996 through March 1997,
2
0.7 0.8 1.0 PEX was run in 141 wells for 11 different
0
PEX PEX/BHC-DSI Non-PEX operators, and saved a total of nearly
Breakdown of PEX versus non-PEX logging times. $500,000 in rig time (Fig. 4.23). Rig time
saved by avoiding a wiper trip is not
Figure 4.23
included in this figure. A detailed
4,000
$490,000
500,000 breakdown of rig time was used for each
Rig cost-avg/hr Total $ saved $3,600 $3,500 450,000
3,500 Avg $/well saved operator to arrive at the average savings per
Total rig time $ saved
Avg. rig time $ saved
$3,100 400,000
3,000
$335,000
350,000 well for Eastern, Western and total
2,500 300,000
Venezuela. These savings ($3,500 per well)
2,000 250,000
1,500 200,000 represent 32% of the total time it would have

$155,000 150,000
$1,050
1,000 $875 $988
100,000
taken to log with standard technology.
500 50,000
0 0
Eastern Venezuela Western Venezuela Venezuela total
Average dollars saved over a one-year period with PEX (3/96–3/97).
4 16
Figure 4.24 Invasion oil/water (O/W) contact example:

This example (Fig. 4.25) comes from a field in
GR LDT density Eastern Venezuela and clearly shows an O/W
0 (gAPI) 150
PLATFORM EXPRESS contact at 3940 ft. The microlog curves (HMIN,
Depth CALI density Rhob LDT
(ft) 6 (in.) 16 1.7 (g / cm3) 2.7 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
2.8 HMNO) in track 2 indicates good permeability
in the hydrocarbon-bearing section from 3925
Rhoz PLATFORM EXPRESS

2.6
11180
to 3940 ft. Track 3 gives a visual picture of the
2.4
fluid invasion. A fresh mud invasion profile is
2.2 clearly seen on the AIT in track 4 in the water
2 section from 3940 to 3950 ft. The PEFZ curve,
11210 as well as the Neutron/Density overlay in track
1.8
5, all confirm a very clean sandstone. In this
Comparison of LDT and TLD in a fairly good hole.
real-time quicklook presentation, the Rwa curve
Examples in track 7 gives a direct indication of Rw in the
LDT/TLD comparison example (Fig. 4.24): clean, water-bearing sections, in this case indi-
Both the LDT and the TLD were run on this cating an Rw of approximately 0.2 ohm-m.
well in central Lake Maracaibo. The logging Once again, the measurements are all of
speeds were 1800 and 3600 ft/hr, respec- excellent quality even though the wellbore is
tively. The agreement, although not perfect, is somewhat rugose.
well within specifications of 0.01 g/cm3.
Invasion gas/oil (G/O) contact example: This
Several other comparison logs have been run
example (Fig. 4.26) also comes from Eastern
in Venezuela over the last year; generally
Venezuela and clearly shows a G/O contact at
there is excellent agreement between the two
4095 ft. The microlog curves in track 2 indicates
when pad contact with the LDT is good.
high resistivity close to the borehole and fairly
low invasion. The resistivity image in track 3 also
shows very little invasion throughout most of
this zone. The PEX curve, as well as the Neu-
tron/Density overlay in track 5, all confirm a very
HMIN HMNO
AIT-H 2'
50 (ohm-m) 0 AIT-H 10"
clean sandstone. A coal streak at the top of this
PEFZ
HCAL BS Resistivity
Image
20"
0 10
example is identified by the Density reading.
DSOZ 6 (in.) 16 30"
SP 60" PXND
RSOZ AHTD2
90" DPHZ
2 (in.) 0 –100 (mv) 0
AHTD1 RXOZ NPOR VCL Conclusions
Depth ECGR (in.) RT (p.u.) RWA
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 –90 90 0.2 (ohm-m) 200 0.5 (V/V) 0 0 200 0 (ohm-m) 1
PEX provides a standard logging suite at
an entirely new level of reliability and effi-
3920
ciency. This has and will continue to translate
into large savings in time and costs. Over a
one-year period, savings of three hours of rig
time, or $3,500 per well, have been achieved.
3950 Reliability has decreased down-time by a factor
PEX log with O/W contact. of three to four. As a result, there are a variety
of service guarantees currently in use, such that
4090 if logging time exceeds an agreed-upon
amount, a penalty is incurred. Improved
sensors and tool design provide more accurate
4110 and precise measurements, especially in bad
hole or difficult borehole conditions.
PEX log with G/O contact.
4 17
PEX Quicklook presentation:
HMIN HMNO
AIT-H 2'
Tens 50 (ohm-m) 0 10"
AIT-H PEFZ
0 (lb ´ ft) 5000 HCAL BS Resistivity 20"
Image 30" 0 10
DSOZ 6 (in.) 16
60" PXND
RSOZ SP
AHTD2 90" DPHZ
2 (in.) 0 –100 (mv) 0
AHTD1 RXOZ NPOR VCL
Depth ECGR (in.) RT (p.u.) RWA
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 –90 90 0.2 (ohm-m) 200 0.5 (V/V) 0 0 200 0 (ohm-m) 1
3170
3200
Track 1 Track 2 Track 3 Track 4 Track 5 Track 6 Track 7
Track 1: Conventional track 1 data Track 5: Contains the environmentally cor-

including Density (DSOZ) and Resistivity rected neutron porosity (TNPH) and a stan-
(RSOZ) standoff measurements, as well as dard resolution density porosity (DPHZ) as
a tension (Tens) curve. well as a xplot porosity (PXND) and the
Track 2: Calculated micro-normal and photoelectric effect data (PEFZ) (note the
micro-inverse curves (HMIN, HMNO) from excellent overlay throughout most of the
the micro-resistivity measurement. Separa- sandstone (3173 to 3190 ft) even though
tion is a qualitative permeability indicator the hole is very washed out).
since it occurs in front of mudcake, which Track 6: A lithology quicklook using inputs
Quartz
Calcite
Vcl =
accumulates at permeable intervals. Also from density, photoelectric effect, and GR
Dolomite 5%
Anhydrite
included are the caliper (HCAL), spon- or SP. The left margin is clay volume. Minor
taneous potential (SP), and ECGR curves. changes in clay content stand out; i.e., the
Vcl =
35%
Track 3: A resistivity invasion profile, from thin streaks below 3192 ft.
the center of the borehole out to 90 in., in Track 7: An Rwa curve rounds out the
which red is high resistivity and blue is low presentation as a quicklook indicator of
Vcl =
65% (note the invasion at 3180 ft is approxi- hydrocarbons. An R xo /R t ratio can also be
mately 20 to 30 in.). displayed. In a clean, 100% wet sandstone,
Vcl = Track 4: AIT log showing all five depths of Rwa equals the formation water resistivity.
95%
investigations (10, 20, 30, 60, 90 in.) for the
induction log and RXOZ with an 18-in.
Lithology calibration. vertical resolution for easier comparison
The color scheme indicates with induction measurements. Vertical reso-
quartz, dolomite, calcite lution of the RXOZ measurement can be as
and anhydrite values. good as 1 in.
As clay content increases,
the color tone shifts
toward red.
4 18
PRESSURE GAUGE PERFORMANCE
Pressure transient analysis started to and comparing the simulated pressure

evolve in the 1930s. In 1936 Theis published history with the actual pressure history.
his line source solution, which was the first The shortcoming of the methodology
use of the concept of a type-curve matching was that the log-log plot of pressure-change
approach to well test analysis. In the 1950s versus elapsed time did not display a unique
Horner developed his classic semi-log analy- shape during infinite-acting cylindrical flow,
sis technique, which allowed permeability- and that the plot was not very sensitive to
thickness product, skin and extrapolated variations in pressure at late time. In 1983,
reservoir pressure to be determined from data Bourdet et al. introduced the use of the
corresponding to a cylindrical flow regime pressure derivative in well test analysis.
during a pressure buildup survey. Because of The technique involves plotting the rate of
the ease of use of Horner’s graphical method, change of pressure (pressure derivative) with
the Horner plot became the standard analysis respect to a time function versus elapsed time
technique in well testing. In the 1970s on a log-log scale. The derivative plot has the
Gringarten et al. brought widespread accept- distinct advantage of yielding a zero slope
ance of type-curve matching techniques with line (horizontal stabilization) during
the publication of a type-curve for a well with cylindrical flow regimes. Furthermore, the
wellbore storage and skin in a homogeneous, derivative is very sensitive to changing flow
infinite-acting reservoir. This type-curve regimes, even if they occur at late time.
graphed the solution to the diffusivity The widespread use of personal compu-
equation for these boundary conditions in ters has enabled the pressure derivative and
truly independent, dimensionless parameters. type-curve modeling approach to transient
Gringarten et al. demonstrated the impor- pressure analysis to be universally applied in
tance of a log-log plot of pressure-change the oil industry.
versus elapsed time to diagnose flow regimes
from a direct comparison with the type- Pressure gauge metrology
curves. They showed that unless Horner’s As mentioned above, the pressure
technique was applied to the data acquired derivative is extremely sensitive to pressure
during the infinite-acting flow regime, then variations brought about by changes in the
erroneous results could be obtained. flow regimes occurring in the reservoir. This
Gringarten et al. proposed a well test analysis places the utmost importance on the metro-
methodology that consisted of: logy of the pressure sensing and recording
• model diagnosis from the shape of the instrument that is used to acquire the
pressure-change versus elapsed time transient pressure data. If the pressure gauge
data graphed on a log-log scale introduces pressure changes that are related
• type-curve matching made on the to the characteristics of the instrument, and
appropriate model, allowing initial not caused by real changes in pressure, then
estimates of well and reservoir incorrect interpretation can result and,
parameters to be determined consequently, significantly erroneous well
• flow regime identification made from and reservoir parameters may be calculated.
comparison with the type-curve The downhole environment presents
• specialized analyses, such as the challenging conditions for the operation of a
Generalized Horner Plot for infinite- pressure gauge. The gauge may be subjected
acting flow, allowing the parameter to shocks while being conveyed in and out of
estimates from type-curve matching to the well; exposed to high bottomhole
be cross-checked and refined pressures and temperatures that may change
• model verification by forward modeling rapidly because of production, injection or
4 19
stimulation; exposed to hostile chemicals such • drift—the change of pressure measured

as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, or by the sensor over a given time period
stimulation acid; and it may be subject to when a constant reference pressure
vibration due to flow or shock from tubing- is applied
conveyed perforating guns. The gauge must • noise—the peak-to-peak variation of the
be designed so that the metrological perform- measured pressure when a constant
ance is maintained even in these harsh reference is applied.
conditions. The gauge metrological perform-
ance is measured by many criteria, and some Effects of gauge metrology on
of the most important ones are defined below: transient pressure interpretation
• accuracy—the maximum expected vari- The pressure gauge characteristics that
ation of the measured value from the are of greatest concern when a gauge is used
true value for acquiring pressure data for transient analy-
• repeatability—the maximum expected sis are the gauge drift, noise, pressure reso-
variation when the same measurement lution and transient response to a temperature
is repeated many times variation. The transient response to a tem-
• resolution—the smallest change in the perature variation is particularly important
actual value that can be detected by the when testing gas wells. The effects of these
sensor sensor characteristics on well test inter-
• transient response during a temperature pretation can be demonstrated with simulated
variation—the tendency of the sensor to data using analytical well and reservoir
change the measured pressure when the models. In all the examples that follow, a
temperature of the sensor environment formation thickness of 100 ft and well
is changed production of 5,000 barrels of oil per day
• hysteresis—if the true pressure applied to (BOPD) have been taken.
the sensor is increased gradually up to the Figure 4.27 shows the log-log plot of a
sensor’s maximum working pressure and buildup in a formation with a permeability of
then reduced back to zero, then the 1 darcy. The model used was that of wellbore
hysteresis is the maximum difference at storage and skin in an infinite-acting homo-
any true pressure value between the geneous reservoir. The data points have been
value measured on the increasing cycle simulated, including 0.5 psi/day gauge drift.
to that measured on the decreasing cycle It can be seen that these simulated data

Pressure change and derivative (psi)
102 103
101 102
100 101
Derivative of model Derivative of model

Derivative of model with Derivative of model with
0.5 psi ⁄ day gauge drift 2 psi ⁄ day gauge drift
10–1 k=1000 md 100 k=100 md
10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
Elapsed time (hr) Elapsed time (hr)
The effect of drift on a buildup in an infinite-acting The effect of drift on a buildup in an infinite-acting
homogeneous reservoir. homogeneous reservoir.
4 20
Figures 4.29 and 4.30 Figures 4.33 and

103 103
102 102
101 101

2 psi ⁄ day gauge drift 0.04 psi ⁄ day gauge drift
100 k=100 md 10 0 k=100 md
10–4 10–3 10–2 101 100 101 102 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 103
The effect of drift on a buildup in a homogeneous The effect of drift on a long buildup in a homogeneous
reservoir with a constant pressure boundary. reservoir with constant pressure boundary.
deviate from the model at late time and Figure 4.30 considers a long duration
falsely indicate a boundary or reduction of buildup of 400 hours in a homogeneous
permeability away from the well. Figure 4.28 reservoir but with a constant pressure
shows the same case, but with a formation boundary at 2500 ft from the well. Applying
permeability of 100 md and a gauge drift of 2 only 0.04 psi/day of gauge drift renders the
psi/day, a similar erroneous late time devia- effect of the late boundary almost
tion is observed. imperceptible.
Figure 4.29 uses a model of a well in a These examples serve to highlight the
homogeneous reservoir with a constant detrimental effect that sensor instability can
pressure boundary at 300 ft from the well. have on well test interpretation. Even
When 2 psi/day gauge drift is considered, relatively small gauge drift can have a
the derivative assumes a shape that could be significant impact on the trend of the pressure
incorrectly diagnosed as that of a well in a derivative, which can lead to erroneous
heterogeneous (dual-porosity) reservoir. interpretation. The effects are more marked if
the permeability-thickness product is high
and/or the test duration is long.

103 102
102 101
101 100

0.25 psi noise 0.25 psi noise
100 k=100 md 10–1 k=1000 md
10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
The effect of noise on a buildup in an infinite-acting The effect of noise on a buildup in an infinite-acting
homogeneous reservoir. homogeneous reservoir.
4 21

102 10–3
101 10–2
100 101
Derivative of model
Derivative of model Derivative of model with 0.5 psi noise,
Derivative of model with 0.1 psi gauge resolution and 2 psi
0.1 psi gauge resolution gauge drift
10–1 k=1000 md 100 k=200 md
10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
The effect of gauge resolution on a buildup in an infinite- The effect of noise, gauge drift and resolution on a buildup in a
acting homogeneous reservoir. homogeneous formation with constant pressure boundary.
Figure 4.31 displays the case of a well in Figure 4.34 shows a model of a well in a
a homogeneous reservoir of 100 md perme- homogeneous formation of 200 md perme-
ability. The simulated data show the effect ability with a constant pressure boundary at
on the derivative of 0.25 psi peak-to-peak 300 ft from the well. The simulated data
random noise (no gauge drift is included). includes 0.5 psi peak-to-peak random noise,
Although the effect of the noise is evident, it 2 psi/day gauge drift, and gauge resolution of
is not detrimental to the data interpretation. 0.1 psi. It is clear that such data would lead to
The model in Fig. 4.32 is generated with the a totally erroneous interpretation.
same parameters as used in Fig. 4.31 except A further consideration is the transient
that the formation permeability is 1 darcy. response to a temperature variation of the sen-
The noise level of 0.25 psi has now become sor. This characteristic leads to a transient mea-
detrimental to making a reliable model suring error in the observed pressure entirely
diagnosis and interpretation. caused by a temperature change of the sensor.
Figure 4.33 illustrates the effect of gauge The effect is non-linear and is a function
resolution. The model used is the case of a of the magnitude of the temperature change
well in a homogeneous reservoir of 1 darcy and the rate of change of temperature.
permeability. The simulated data incorporate This effect will be particularly acute in gas
the effect of a pressure gauge resolution of wells where rapid and large changes in
0.1 psi. While the resolution degrades the wellbore temperature can be expected. If a
quality of the derivative, the interpretation suitable gauge is not used in such wells, a
would not be compromised in this case. significant distortion of the pressure deriva-
In general, the effects of gauge noise and tive will be observed.
gauge resolution on the derivative response
are mitigated by the powerful smoothing
algorithm used to generate the pressure deri-
vative. In the case of a real pressure sensor,
the effects of gauge drift, noise and resolution
can not be separated, as has been done here.
4 22
Figure 4.35 The Universal Pressure Platform Technology is currently being developed to
The design of the Universal Pressure reduce the power consumption of the
Platform of gauges was made with primary WCQR, which will make this WTQR gauge
consideration placed on the gauge metrology. obsolete.
Battery Electric The tool architecture of the Universal UNIGAGE-HSapphire (WTSR). This
section line
section Pressure Platform family of gauges is modular gauge incorporates a 20,000-psi hostile envi-
(see Fig. 4.35) and the tools comprise three ronment sapphire strain gauge. The sensor
basic components: employs the strain gauge measurement prin-
• a power section, which is either a ciple in that strain-dependent resistors are
battery or an electric line adapter sputtered onto a sapphire crystal substrate.
through which power is supplied The sapphire has the advantage that, unlike
Microcontroller from the surface through a cable metal substrates, the “creep” characteristics of
• a common recorder section, which con- the sapphire are very low, which gives the
tains the microprocessor and memory gauge excellent long-term stability.
UNIGAGE • a sensor section, which can incorporate UNIGAGE-Sapphire (SLSR). This gauge
recorder EEPROM
section data memory one of a variety of sensors. The appro- incorporates a 10,000-psi sapphire strain
priate gauge sensor can be chosen to gauge sensor. It is identical in principle of
obtain the best metrological performance operation as the WTSR except that it is used
within the acquisition constraints. in non-hostile conditions.
Processor
The Universal Pressure Platform family of
Features
gauges is as follows:
To obtain superior metrological perfor-
UNIGAGE-CQG (WCQR). This gauge
mance, the entire gauge has been designed
comprises a Schlumberger Crystal Quartz
for data quality, reliability and shock
Gauge, which uses a single quartz crystal reso-
resistance. To this end, the following design
nator. Two independent modes of resonance
features were imposed on the Universal
are induced in the crystal, one of which is
Sensor sub
Pressure Platform tools:
section
mainly pressure-dependent and the other
• The entire gauge, including the sensor
which is mainly temperature-dependent. In
section, is rated for Class 6 (harsh
this way, a temperature-compensated pressure
environment). A summary of Class 6 test
is obtained with almost no thermal inertia
specifications are shock tests of 500 G for
effects. This sensor is unique in that it has a
2 msec repeated three times per axis,
dynamic response that is as good as a strain
CQG Customized Sapphire and vibration tests from 10 to 185 Hz for
sensor quartzdyne sensor gauge but has stability, accuracy and resolu-
sensor 20 minutes repeated three times per axis.
tion characteristics of a crystal gauge.
• A complete history log of cumulative
Tool architecture for the UNIGAGE-QUARTZ (WTQR). This
tool usage and jobs are stored in the
Universal Pressure Platform gauge uses a Schlumberger-modified Quartz-
memory of the recorder. This provides a
family of gauges. dyne sensor. This sensor uses two separate
way of tracking the gauge utilization so
quartz crystal resonators for temperature and
that appropriate preventative main-
pressure measurement, which leads to
tenance and recalibration can be conve-
significant thermal inertia. The sensor does,
niently scheduled before any degrada-
however, have excellent stability, accuracy
tion in performance is observed.
and resolution. The sensor has the advan-
tage of having a low power consumption
and so is used for long-duration well tests
where stability is important, but where large
temperature variations are not expected.
4 23
• The tool can store up to 120,000 pressure Field examples

and 120,000 temperature points, Some examples from tests run in
allowing high-density data acquisition in Venezuela using the Universal Pressure
long-duration tests. This memory can be Platform tools are discussed below. They
boosted to 480,000 data sets by simply serve to demonstrate the high performance
changing the memory hybrid chip. The of these gauges.
simultaneous acquisition of temperature
Example 1. High temperature
and pressure gives optimal metrological
and pressure environment
performance.
This example describes a job performed
• A memory guard feature can be sel-
for a major oil company in Western
ected when programming the tool to
Venezuela. The bottomhole pressure reached
extend the memory life. When 80% of
almost 11,000 psi and the maximum recorded
the memory is filled, the scanning rate
temperature was 320˚F. For this test a
changes according to the memory
WCQR and a WTQR were run in tandem.
guard algorithm. In this way, the last
They were run into the well on wireline while
remaining memory will never be
the well was flowing. Figure 4.36 shows the
completely filled before the battery
plot of the pressure recorded by both gauges
autonomy has been consumed.
together with the difference in pressure
This feature allows for unexpected
between them. It can be seen that while
changes in the test program after the
running in the hole there is a difference of up
gauges have been run in the hole.
to 20 psi between the reading of the gauges.
Metrological specifications This is caused by the thermal inertia of
The metrological performance of each the WTQR, which leads to a pressure error
of the UNIGAGE tools is given in Table 4.3. when the temperature is changing rapidly.
The WCQR, on the other hand, has almost no
thermal inertia and reads the correct pressure
Table 4.3
while running in the hole. When both gauges
Characteristics WCQR WTQR WTSR SLSR
reach the bottom of the well, the difference in
Pressure rating, psi 16,000 18,000 20,000 10,000
pressure between the gauges stabilizes at
Temperature rating, °C 177 177 190 130
around 3 psi, which is consistent with the
Battery autonomy
Standard option, days 50 70 40 50 difference in hydrostatic pressure between
Extended life option, months 9 12 6 6
the gauges and the accuracy of the gauges.
Pressure accuracy, psi ± 1 to 2.5 ± 3.2 ± 5 to 10 ±5
The constant difference between two gauges,
Pressure resolution, psi 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.05
(at 1 sec scanning rate) which incorporate totally different measuring
Temperature accuracy, °C ± 0.5 ± 0.5 ± 0.5 ±0.5 sensors, indicates that there is almost imper-
Temperature resolution, °C 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 ceptible drift of the gauges. This gives confi-
First day drift Nil <2 <2 <2 dence that the pressure derivative is repre-
(at 150 °C, 10Kpsi), psi ⁄ day
sentative of the reservoir response. The
First week drift 0.029 0.1 < 0.57 < 0.57
(at 150 °C, 10Kpsi), psi ⁄ day log-log plot of the buildup recorded
Long term drift < 2.0 <3 < 35 < 26 by the WCQR is shown in Fig. 4.37. The
(at 150 °C, 10Kpsi), psi ⁄ 6 months
derivative of the pressure is very smooth and
Stabilization time @4000
psi for 10°C step change, mins <1 <4 < 12 < 12 has been interpreted using a model for a
partially penetrating well with changing
wellbore storage in a homogeneous reservoir.
The type-curve match is very good.
4 24
102

Type-curve model
10,000
Derivative of
8000 pressure
h= 80 ft kr = 29 md
6000 hw = 36 ft kz = 0.06 md
Pressure (psi) 101 Zw = 38 ft S = 91
4000 kz
hw
2000 h Zw kr
0 Running in hole WTQR

20 WCQR 100
10 Difference
0
-10
10–1
0 20 40 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101
Downhole pressures by two different types of gauges Buildup data from the WCQR shown in Fig. 4.36. The deriva-
(WCQR and WTQR), showing negligible drift. tive is very smooth and is interpreted with a model for partial
penetration with changing wellbore storage.
Example 2. High mobility reservoir shut-in the rate of the pressure increase was
In this example, a WTQR gauge was run approximately 0.005 psi/min. Only gauges
on electrical cable for a production test in with a very high resolution can pick up such
Eastern Venezuela. Bottomhole pressure was small pressure changes. The high resolution
approximately 7,500 psia and the bottomhole of the WTQR is ideal for use in these very
temperature was 280°F. high mobility wells. The log-log plot of the
This well produced from a very produc- pressure derivative and the type-curve model
tive gas condensate reservoir. The producti- match for the second buildup period are
vity index was 350 Mscf/D/psi, which meant shown in Fig. 4.39. The high mobility results
that at 17 Mscf/D/psi, the drawdown was less in wellbore storage only lasting around 1 min,
than 50 psi. A Modified Isochronal test was which makes it difficult to obtain a clearly
performed (Fig. 4.38) in which the shut-in defined wellbore storage regime, but enough
periods lasted only 6 hr.. At the end of each data were captured to define a type-curve

7580 80,000 108
Flow rate Pressure data Simulated pressure Derivative of model
Derivative of pressure
7570
Pseudo–pressure change
and derivative (psi2 ⁄ cp)
60,000
Flow rate (Mscf ⁄ D)
107
Pressure (psia)
7560
7550 40,000
7540 106
20,000
7530 Flow rate
kh ⁄ µ = 337,000 md–ft ⁄ cp
S = 1.9
105 k = 240 md
7520 0
20 30 40 50 60 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101

Recorded and modeled data from a modified isochronal test Interpretation of the second buildup period in Fig. 4.38.
in a high-productivity gas condensate reservoir. In spite of the very small pressure changes, the derivative
is well defined.
4 25
108
16000 kh = 59 md Derivative of model
S = –1.3
Pseudo-pressure change
and derivative (psi2 ⁄ cp)
Derivative of data
14000 Mobility ratio = 0.45
Mobility change at
Pressure (psia) 107 71 ft
12000
10000
8000 106
6000
4000 105
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
Large pressure changes on a WTQR gauge in a deep, Buildup data from the WTQR shown in Fig. 4.40. The smooth
hot well. derivative indicates low hysteresis on the gauge.
match. The infinite-acting radial flow regime The interpretation model is for a well in a
is smooth and well defined on the derivative reservoir where the mobility of the formation
despite the high formation mobility, which in a zone up to 70 ft from the wellbore is
causes a very small rate of pressure change at around 50% lower than the virgin reservoir
the end of the buildup. The quality of the beyond. This reduction in mobility has
match can be seen in the simulation of the probably been caused by the injectivity
entire pressure history in Fig. 4.38. In such a testing operation. The low hysteresis of
high-mobility formation, the gauge metrology the WTQR allows it to be exposed to rapid
is extremely important. Any small degree of and large cycles of pressure and still be able
gauge drift would erroneously indicate bar- to acquire high-quality data suitable for
riers in the reservoir, and excessive noise or reliable interpretation. The derivative in this
low resolution would lead to a poorly defined case is smooth and yields an interpretation
derivative that would be impossible to that is easily reconciled with the events
interpret reliably. This example demonstrates during the test.
the benefit of employing a high-quality
pressure sensor in these types of tests. Conclusion
By using simulated data, the importance
Example 3. Hydraulic
of high stability, good resolution, and low
fracturing/Injectivity testing
noise characteristics of a pressure sensor have
Two WTQR gauges were run in a well in
been demonstrated. The Universal Pressure
Eastern Venezuela. An injectivity test was per-
Platform family of gauges have been design-
formed on the well before the main produc-
ed to deliver good metrological performance.
tion testing. During the injectivity test, an
A range of sensors are available so that a
absolute maximum pressure of 16,000 psia
sensor can be chosen for a particular well
was reached while the gauges were down-
test to obtain the best metrological perfor-
hole (Fig. 4.40). The temperature under static
mance within the operational and environ-
conditions was approximately 300°F. During
mental constraints.
testing, the bottomhole pressure was drawn
Three field examples were presented
down to approximately 5000 psi. Conse-
from Venezuela that serve to demonstrate
quently, the gauges in this test were exposed
the ability of the Universal Pressure Platform
to variations in pressure of 11,000 psi. The
family of gauges to capture high-quality
log-log plot of the final buildup and the
pressure data under a range of conditions.
interpretation model are shown in Fig. 4.41.
4 26
WIRELINE JOB PLANNING
Traditionally, logging tools were de- incorporating them into a complete well
signed for a specific measurement or environ- evaluation. We illustrate this approach in the
ment. Typical examples are the induction following example of a well evaluation plan.
resistivity and laterolog resistivity tools, which
were each designed for different mud systems. Proposed well evaluation
The induction works in non-conductive muds The following scenario will be used to
and the laterolog in salt-saturated muds, and demonstrate effective pre-job planning: a
both work in moderately conductive muds up development well with casing set at 3,000 ft,
to certain limits. These tools were normally and an 8.5 in. bit size down to 10,000 ft. The
run alone because the tool architecture and sandstone-shale environment has an average
recording systems did not support simul- porosity of 20% in the deepest 2,000-ft zone
taneous measurements. Major gains in of interest. The expected hydrocarbon type
efficiency were made by combining various is oil with an API gravity of 25, gas-oil ratio
tools and expanding the recording systems to (GOR) of 200, and a bottomhole tempera-
handle more data. For example, developing ture of 200°F.
the three-channel recorder enabled the SP to The requested logging program is stan-
be recorded in the same pass as the resistivity dard resistivity, formation density, neutron
measurements. The recording systems and porosity, microlog, natural GR, compressional
tools continued to evolve throughout the velocity, shear velocity, nuclear magnetic
1970s and 1980s, allowing more and more resonance (NMR) porosity, permeability and
single-measurement tools to be combined and bound fluid volume. While most of the logs
more information to be recorded. This will be run over the entire well, the NMR
approach greatly increased wellsite efficiency. measurements and shear velocities are only
In these wells, pre-job planning was limited to needed over the deepest 2,000-ft zone of
providing the tool requested or required for interest. The logging tools that will be used
the environment and minimizing the descents are the PEX*, CMR* Combinable Magnetic
into the well. Resonance tool, and the DSI*.
During the 1990s, data recording, analy-
sis systems and borehole measurement plat- CMR job plan
forms have evolved exponentially. The archi- The pre-job planning starts with the
tecture of the borehole tools has changed CMR, which has a wide range of operating
from a simple tool design for a specific modes depending on the formation, the
environment to a measurement platform that borehole and the client objective. The
is adaptable to the environment in which it physics of NMR logging is reviewed in
will be used. Changes in the surface record- Chapter 5. NMR logging is special because
ing systems allow many different combina- of the relatively long time required between
tions of measurements to be made at the each measurement to align the hydrogen
same time. The complete evaluation system nuclei (the wait time), and the relatively
(surface and downhole) can now be adapted low signal-to-noise ratio. The formation
to specific well environments and operating rock and fluid determine the wait time and
conditions. This adaptive approach allows the the time to acquire each sample. The down-
highest-quality measurements to be made in hole temperature determines the stacking, or
the most efficient manner possible. While this averaging, which, together with the sample
approach increases wellsite efficiency, it interval, determine the vertical resolution. All
requires more pre-job planning for deter- these factors may influence the maximum
mining the individual measurements and speed at which the log can be run.
4 27
Figure 4.42 every 6 in. Depending on the remaining

environmental variables, this resolution may
need to be changed to arrive at the most
efficient plan. Another option may be a
Bound Fluid log, in which only part of the
information is recorded, but at much higher
logging speeds (see box page 4-29). The mud
type and borehole characteristics are then
entered, along with the lithology, average
porosity and expected hydrocarbon type. Oil,
and oil-based mud (OBM) filtrate, can have a
long relaxation time, which requires a long
wait time. This time can be calculated from
the downhole oil viscosity. It can be entered
directly, if known, or estimated from the API
gravity and GOR. With all the well informa-
tion and environmental variables entered, the
CMR job planner—input
Since there are many variables, a simple program can then compute the best tool
window. The Save button
expert system was developed that codifies the setup to achieve the desired objectives.
saves a set of inputs, and the
rules developed through modeling and field The recommended tool mode and acqui-
Load button allows them to
experiences into an easy-to-use job planner. sition setup are shown in Fig. 4.43. The main
be loaded in another run.
The input window is shown in Fig. 4.42. log is designed to be the most efficient setup
Under log parameters, the log type and to meet the design goals. However, in regions
desired resolution are entered. In this case, where a CMR tool has not been run before,
the standard porosity and permeability we recommend acquiring a repeat section
measurements are required at the standard with a more conservative additional pass
resolution that is achieved by acquiring data and then comparing the results before con-
tinuing with the complete logging program.
Figure 4.43 For this well, the vertical resolution of 18 in.
is the result of stacking three data values
acquired at 6-in. spacing. Stacking improves
the signal-to-noise ratio of the measurement.
The wait time and acquisition time (number
of echoes) are chosen to sufficiently polarize
and measure the longest relaxation compo-
nents in the formation while maintaining a
reasonable logging speed. The recommended
logging speed is based on the required
vertical resolution and the acquisition setup,
and for this plan is 302 ft/hr. If desired, higher
resolution or higher signal-to-noise ratio
could be achieved by lowering the logging
speed, while higher logging speed would
lower the resolution and signal-to-noise ratio.
Finally, a permeability model and a bound
fluid cutoff (T2, cutoff) are recommended.
CMR job planner—Acquisition Recommendations.
4 28
Bound Fluid Logging
Standard borehole NMR logging The speed of NMR logging is

requires low logging speeds, as much as governed by three factors: the initial
10 times lower than traditional neutron- polarization time and the wait time
density logs. This time is dictated by the between measurements must be long
physics of the measurement. However, enough to ensure that the nuclei are
the same physics shows that the slow sufficiently polarized; the time for the
speed is only needed in order to measure acquisition sequence must be long
the long components of the relaxation (or enough that the longest T2 is properly
T2 distribution). If we only measure pro- characterized; and the antenna must not
perly the shorter components below the move too far during each acquisition
bound fluid cutoff (T2, Cut), then we can sequence. There are no hard and fast
log much faster and yet can provide three limits for logging speed because all of
of the most common applications of bore- these factors can be corrected by making
hole NMR measurements in Venezuela: reasonable assumptions, such as about
bound fluid volume (BFV), permeability the T1/T2 ratio (see Chapter 5 for a fuller
and heavy oil evaluation. description of NMR physics). However,
since the corrections should not be too
large, there are recommended acquisition
Figure 4.44
parameters and maximum logging speeds
CMRP and BFV
T2 Distribution T2 Distribution
for different formations, as shown below:
(Main Log)
0.25 (V / V) 0
CALI K (CMR) (Main log) (Fast Pass) (Main Log)
6 (in.)16 1000 (md) 0.1 CMRP and BFV 1 4000 1 4000
Depth K (CMR) (Fast pass) (Fast Pass) T2 Cut–off T2 Cut–off
Mineralogy T 2, Cut Wait time Echoes Speed
(ft) 1000 (md) 0.1 0.25 (V / V) 0 1 (ms) 4000 1 (ms) 4000 (msec) (sec) (ft/hr)
13400 Sandstones 33 0.2 200 3600
Carbonates 100 0.6 600 1200
Recommended acquisition parameters and

logging speed for Bound Fluid Logging. Based
on T1/T2 = 2 and an echo spacing of 0.25 msec.
If T1/T2 or T2, Cut are larger in a particular for-
13500
mation, then logging speed should be lower.
Similarly, smaller values will allow faster logging.
Figure 4.44 is an example of a bound
fluid pass and a normal pass from the
same interval in a Barua well. The bound
fluid pass was recorded with a wait time
of 0.31 sec and 600 echoes and was
13600
logged at 1800 ft/hr, while the main log
was recorded with wait time of 4.0 sec
and 1200 echoes, and logged at 200 ft/hr.
Comparison of a normal
and a bound fluid pass
over the same interval.
4 29
BOUND FLUID LOGGING
Bound Fluid Logging
In this well there are rather few long T2s, The evaluation, made with the main
so that the distributions and the CMR CMR pass, is shown in Fig. 4.45. Since the
porosity from the two passes are very oil is not expected to be heavy, the
similar. Normally, the porosity from the measured BFV is the irreducible water
fast pass would read too low because the volume. This volume is essentially the
late T2s are not properly measured. same as the volume of water seen by the
resistivity/porosity interpretation (see
Figure 4.45 track 3) so we conclude that the well will
produce clean oil. Permeability showed
Fluids considerable variation and was important
CALI Water Saturation Oil Limestone in deciding which intervals to perforate.
(in.) Sxo
Moved oil Sandstone
6 16 1 (V / V) 0 T2 Distribution
The cleaner upper part of each sand has
BS Water Bound water
(in.)
Sw no calcite cement, and is interpreted as a
6 16 1 (V / V) 0 Irreducible water Shale 3 (ms) 3000
Depth K (CMR) Sw (CMR) CMRP Volume Analysis T2 Cut–Off
sand bar from the borehole images. As
(ft) 1000 (md) 0.1 1 (V / V) 0 0.25 (V / V) 0 1 (V / V) 0 3 (ms) 3000 expected, permeabilities are high.
13400 Immediately below the lower sand bar is
a finer grained sand body with increased
clay content. Permeabilities are predicted
to be more than one order of magnitude
lower, even though porosities are only
about 4 p.u. less.
13500 To summarize, in normal NMR logging we
wish to measure T2s of 1 sec or more. If we
only measure T2s of 33 msec or less, then we
can use shorter wait times with fewer echoes
and log much faster. In this example, the key
information needed from CMR logging was
also obtained from a Bound Fluid pass with
13600
the same accuracy, but with 9 times the
speed of a normal pass. If the CMR is required
for gas or light oil detection, for a full T2
Evaluation of the same well The BFV and permeability from the distribution, or where the applications are
as Fig.4.44. The CMR bound two passes also agree well. The main uncertain, then a normal log should be
fluid predicts the well will differences, e.g., at 13,425 ft, are because recorded. However, if the applications are
produce clean oil. induced fractures are affecting one pass known to be BFV, permeability or heavy
more than the other. This also happened hydrocarbon evaluation, then a CMR Bound
on the repeat pass at normal speed. Fluid pass can give the same information at
Permeability was calculated from the the same logging speed as standard PEX logs.
Timur/Coates equation (Chapter 5–4),
since the T2, log equation depends on a full
T2 distribution. Porosity is taken from
other logs, either density porosity or, in
this case, effective porosity from ELAN.
4 30
Figure 4.46 DSI job plan

The DSI can also be run in several opera-
ting modes (see box page 4-33). In this exam-
ple, compressional and shear velocities are
required for formation evaluation. Referring to
the DSI job planner input window (Fig. 4.46),
this information can be entered directly into the
required measurements section. However, it is
not always clear what measurements are need-
ed for a particular application. If there is some
uncertainty, the Client Objective Editor can be
used to evaluate the client’s needs and recom-
mend the necessary measurements (Fig. 4.47).
Tool centering depends on other tool combina-
tions and measurement requirements. At this
time, the centering is left blank and will be
recommended to optimize the measurement.
The borehole, mud and formation character-
DSI job planner—
Other features available include a small istics are then entered. Both hole size and ex-
input window.
Logging Speed calculator that computes the pected shear slowness have a major impact on
logging speed from a user-input wait time, processing parameters, source type and fre-
number of echoes and sample interval; a quency. The hole size is usually estimated using
Remarks facility for entering any additional the bit size and the normal washout expected in
remarks; and a Print button that prints out a the region. In the example well, the borehole is
summary of the inputs and recommendations considered to be in good condition, so the hole
as a record for discussion between the logging size is set to bit size plus 1 in., or 9.5 in. The
engineer and client. Finally, the Next button shear slowness (1/shear velocity) can be enter-
brings up a window with the calculated hydro- ed directly, if known, or estimated from the
gen index and relaxation times of each fluid. compressional slowness (1/compressional
These help later when interpreting the log. velocity) and either Vp/Vs ratio or formation
type (shales, carbonates, sandstones or gas
Figure 4.47 sandstones). The Formation Type Advisor (Fig.
4.48) is a visual display of how this information
is used. In this case, sandstone lithology and a
maximum compressional slowness of 100
µsec/ft lead to an estimated maximum shear
slowness of 201 µsec/ft.
The Recommended Tool Mode and Cen-
tering are shown in Fig. 4.49. In this
example, the monopole source mode (“SAM
4”) with a 3- to 20-kHz filter is used to
acquire the compressional. Because the
estimated shear is slower than the mud
slowness, the dipole source mode (“SAM 1 or
2”) is used to obtain the shear. The DSI has
two dipole transmitters and either one can be
DSI job planner—Client Objectives Editor.
4 31
Figure 4.48 ent source parameters, and that the inputs

must be checked to verify that they represent
the worst case expected, rather than the
average case. The Source Zone Advisor,
shown in Fig. 4.55, is a graphic display that
helps decide the sensitivity to the input
parameters. For this example, increasing the
hole size or shear slowness slightly will not
change the job plan.
Well Evaluation Plan

The job planning process for the
individual measurements systems is comple-
ted, and now these plans need to be integra-
ted into a complete well evaluation plan.
Several factors must be considered in devel-
oping the operational plan. Combinability
and recording/telemetry systems are not
factors, so the most efficient operation will
depend on the logging speed, measurement
interval, surface preparation time, rat hole
DSI job planner—Formation
and additional well depth past the objective
Type Advisor. used for this application. A centered tool is
to accommodate the tool length. In the exam-
recommended for optimum data quality,
ple well, the CMR must be logged at a maxi-
although this can be changed depending on
mum of 300 ft/hr only over the deepest 2000-
the final tool combinations. The processing
ft zone of interest, while the PEX must be
parameters are given in separate windows,
acquired over the entire 7000 ft of open hole
triggered by the STC and Labeling buttons.
with a maximum logging speed of 3600 ft/hr.
The Warnings box displays information
The DSI should be logged at 900 ft/hr for
that should be checked before running the
both compressional and shear velocity over
job. In this case, a warning indicates that the
the 2000-ft zone of interest, and then the
job plan is close to a boundary between differ-
logging speed can be increased to 1800 ft/hr
to acquire the compressional data to the
Figure 4.49 surface casing.
Table 4.4 (page 4–35) shows four
possible scenarios for evaluating this
example well using the information from the
individual job plans. The first scenario uses
three separate descents with a total time of
21.7 hours, and is obviously the least effi-
cient. The second scenario combines the PEX
and CMR and is not much more efficient.
DSI job planner—Acquisition Recommendations
4 32
Dipole shear imager
Tool description Mode 3: Crossed Dipole—standard acqui-

4.50
The transmitter section contains three sition of 32 total waveforms, in-line and
elements: one omnidirectional (monopole) cross-line from both dipole transmitters.
Cartridge ceramic transducer, and two unidirectional Mode 4: Stoneley Mode—eight
wide-band electrodynamic dipole trans- monopole waveforms from firings of the
ducers oriented perpendicular to each monopole transmitter driven with a low-
other. The transducers can be driven at frequency pulse (around 1 kHz). At low
different frequencies as required for differ- frequencies the Stoneley signal is
ent applications. stronger and also more sensitive to
The isolation joint is a mechanical fractures and permeability.
filter that prevents transmitter signals from Mode 5: P and S Mode—eight monopole
traveling up the tool. waveforms from firings of the monopole
The receiver section consists of eight transmitter driven with a high frequency
receiver stations spaced 6 in. apart and pulse (around 14 kHz). Monopole propa-
spanning 3.5 ft. Each station contains two gation is used to measure the compres-
Receiver hydrophone pairs: one oriented in line sional slowness, and also shear slowness in
section
with the upper dipole transmitter, and the hard rocks. Monopole propagation and
other in line with the lower dipole trans- typical monopole waveforms in hard rock
6 in.
mitter. The outputs from each pair are are shown in Fig. 4.52. In soft rocks where
differenced for dipole reception and shear slowness is greater than borehole
summed for monopole reception. fluid slowness, no shear head wave is
The acquisition cartridge performs generated.
9 ft automatic gain control, digitizes eight Mode 6: First Motion Mode–the time at
Isolation
joint waveforms simultaneously with a 12-bit which the signal crossing an amplitude
dynamic range, stacks waveforms from threshold is measured for each receiver
Monopole more than one firing, detects crossing using the monopole source at high frequen-
2 ft
times above an amplitude threshold, and cy. These times are used primarily to com-
Upper dipole transmits signals uphole. pute compressional first-arrival slowness.
Lower dipole0.5 ft Modes can be combined, so that in the
Tool operating modes same logging pass many different types of
Transmitter
section
The operating mode configures the waveforms can be recorded. A Job Planner is
transmitters, receivers and electronics for the available to help plan the optimum modes,
application required. Five standard modes acquisition and processing parameters for a
are provided. However, other configurations particular application.
can be set up at the wellsite using an expert
mode. The standard modes are as follows:
Modes 1 and 2: Upper and Lower
DSI tool
Dipole—eight dipole waveforms from
firings of one of the dipole transmitters.
Dipole sources generate flexural waves
that travel with a slowness closely related
to the shear slowness. Dipole propagation
and typical dipole waveforms in soft rock
are shown in Fig. 4.51.
4 33
DIPOLE SHEAR IMAGER
Dipole shear imager
Slowness Time Coherence (STC) The peaks of coherence correspond to

Wellbore Formation
4.51 Compressional processing is a semblance algorithm that particular arrivals. These are labeled as
wave
aims to find all propagating waves in a compressional, shear or Stoneley accor-
composite waveform (Fig. 4.53). It is ding to their slowness and arrival time (Fig.
Flexural Shear
wave
Directional wave used to process the dipole, Stoneley, and 4.54, right). The value of the peak coher-
source
P and S modes. A fixed-length time ence and the projection of the maximum
window is advanced across the wave- value of the coherence on the slowness
Compressional Shear Flexural
wave wave wave forms in small, overlapping steps through axis are used as quality indicators.
a range of potential arrival times. In dipole processing, one of the
For each time position, the window pos- coherence peaks will correspond to the
ition is moved out linearly in time across dispersive flexural wave. The slowness of
the array of receiver waveforms. For each this peak is always greater (slower)
of these moveouts, a coherence function than the true shear slowness by a
is computed to measure the similarity of small amount, which depends on bore-
the waves in the window. When the hole size, formation slowness and fre-
Dipole propagation and typical
window time and moveout correspond to quency. This bias has been modeled and
waveforms in a soft rock.
the arrival time and slowness of a paris corrected for in the processing.
ticular component (e.g., a compressional Monopole P and S results are borehole-
Wellbore Compressional
wave
wave), the waveforms within the window compensated by averaging the results
4.52
Head
are almost identical, yielding a high value from the receiver array and a pseudo-
waves Formation
of coherence. transmitter array.
Fluid
wave Shear STC processing produces coherence The standard measurement aperture
Omnidirectional wave
soul
contour plots at each sample interval of is the length of the receiver array—3.5 ft.
the log, as shown in Fig. 4.54, middle. However, by using a subset of the array,
Compressional Shear
wave
Stoneley and special multishot STC processing, it is
wave wave
possible to reduce this to 2 ft.
ST Plane
projection STC dot log
Slowness Compressional Shear
ST Plane
(Semblance contour plot)
Depth Z
Monopole propagation and typi-

Depth
cal waveforms in a hard rock.

Slowness
Depth
Varying moveout
Z Z
4.53
Arrival time
Maximum coherences projected on slowness axis Slowness
4.54 STC Contour plot, ST plane projection and labeling.

Varying time
STC computation principle.
4 34
Figure 4.55 The most efficient scenario, in terms of the

direct operating time of 12.7 hours, is
Number 4, which combines all three tools in
one descent. However, this requires the
largest rat hole and, depending on the
drilling conditions, may use more total time
than the other scenarios. Scenario Number 3
uses two runs: the PEX is run first, and then
the CMR is combined with the DSI.
The direct time is increased by three hours,
but the required rat hole is reduced by half.
Using the information from the individual job
plans, either scenario Number 3 or 4 is
acceptable and will produce optimal data
quality in an efficient manner.
Summary
DSI job planner—Source Zone Advisor with data from this example marked in red.
Two main factors have contributed to the
Table 4.4 increased need for comprehensive job plan-
Measurement Logging Logging Rig RIH ROH Total ning. First is the much greater complexity and
System Interval speed time up/down time
higher number of options in modern logging
PEX 7000 3600 1.94 1 1 0.3 4.24
CMR 2000 300 6.67 1 1 1 9.67 tools. Second is the focus on improving
DSI Comp/Shear 2000 900 2.22 1.5 1 0.3 5.02
SDI Comp 5000 1800 2.78 2.78 wellsite efficiency and reducing costs. The
Sub 21.71
important role of pre-job planning is opti-
PEX CMR 2000 300 6.67 1 1 0.3
PEX CMR 5000 3600 1.39 1.39 mizing efficiency while assuring high data
DSI Comp/Shear 2000 900 2.22 1.5 1 0.3 5.02
SDI Comp 5000 1800 2.78 2.78 quality. The CMR, DSI and Well Evaluation
Sub 18.16
plans discussed above illustrate these tradeoffs
PEX 7000 3600 1.94 1 1 0.3 4.24
CMR-DSI 2000 300 6.67 1 1 0.3 8.97 and show how simple, portable software can
CMR-DSI 5000 1800 2.78 2.78
Sub 15.99 be used by logging engineers and oil
PEX CMR-DSI 2000 300 6.67 2 2 0.3 9.97 company personnel to ease the task.
PEX CMR-DSI 5000 1800 2.78 2.78
Sub 12.74
Spreadsheet for comparing efficiency of different tool combinations.
CONCLUSION
New technology has led to improve- of sensor. Therefore, to obtain the best qual-
ments in the quality of borehole data as well ity (fit for the purpose) and the best acqui-
as the efficiency with which it is recorded. sition efficiency, good job planning is essen-
Several of the major advances have been tial, and should be a concern of the data user
described: the rapid development of LWD; a as well as the data recorder. The following
new standard in wireline triple-combo chapters show how this good-quality data can
logging (PEX); the importance of pressure be applied to solving problems of formation
gauge metrology. evaluation, production enhancement and
The modern flexibility in data acquisition reservoir description in Venezuela.
is considerable, whether it is in conveyance
type, tool response, vertical resolution or type
4 35
This chapter was written by C.Kruger, B.Heiam, A.Douglas, and S.Johnston
with contributions from A. Simone and M.Begeer (Shell Venezuela),

J.Husband, J.Donoso and V.Boll.
and with the permission of Corpoven, Lagoven, Shell Venezuela, Maraven

and Maxus Venezuela to publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Logging While Drilling Platform Express

Tabanou, J.R., Bruce, S., Bonner, S., Wu, P., 1997, Time lapse opens new Barber, T., Orban, A., Hazen, G., Long, T., Schlein, R., Alderman, S., Tabanou,
opportunities in interpreting 2-MHz multispacing resistivity logs under difficult J., and Seydoux, J., 1995, A multiarray induction tool optimized for efficient
drilling conditions and in complex reservoirs”, paper II, Transactions of the wellsite operation, SPE Paper 30583, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October
Houston, Texas, June 15-18. 22-25.
Bonner, S.D., Tabanou, J.R., Wu, P., Seydoux, J.P., Moriaty, K.A., Kwok, B.K., Eisenmann, P., Gounot, M-T., Juchereau, B., Trouiller, J-C., and Whittaker, S.
Kuchenbecker, M.W., 1995, New 2 MHz multiarray borehole compensated J., 1994, Improved Rxo measurements through semi-active focusing, SPE
resistivity tool developed for MWD in slim holes, SPE 30547, presented at Paper 28437, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference
the Society of Petroleum Engineer’s 76th Annual Tecnical Conference and and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A., September.
Exhibition held in Dallas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Eyl, K. A., Chapellat, H., Chevalier, P., Flaum, C., Whittaker, S. J., Jammes, L.,
Prilliman, J., Bean, C.L., Hashem, M., Bratton, T., Fredette, M.A., Lovell, J.R., Becker, A. J., and Groves, J., 1994, High resolution density logging using a
1997, A comparison of wireline and LWD resistivity images in the Gulf of three detector device, SPE Paper 28407, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Mexico, paper DDD, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana,
Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18. U.S.A., September.
Carpenter, W.W., Best, D., Evans, M., 1997, Applications and Interpretation Smits, J. W., Benimeli, D., Dubourg, I., Faivre, O., Hoyle, D., Tourillon, V.,
of azimuthally sensitive density measurements acquired while drilling, paper Trouiller, J-C., and Anderson, B. I., 1995, High resolution from a new laterolog
EE, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 38th with azimuthal imaging, SPE Paper 30584, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18. Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.,
October 22-25.
Aron, J., Chang, S.K., Codazzi, D., Dworak, R., Hsu, K., Lau, T., Minerbo, G.,
Yogeswaren, E., 1997, Real-time sonic logging while drilling in hard and soft
rocks, paper HH, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Pressure gauge performance
Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Gringarten, A.C., Bourdet, D.P., landel, P.A., Kniazeff, V.J., 1979, A compari-
son between different skin and wellbore storage type curves for early time
transient analysis, SPE Paper 8205, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Las Vegas, Nevada, September
23-26.
Bourdet, D., Whittle, T.M., Douglas, A.A., and Pirard, Y.M., 1983, A new set
of type curves simplifies well test analysis, World Oil 196 no. 6, May.
Veneruso, A. F., Erlig-Economides, C., and Petitjean, L., 1991, Pressure gauge
specification considerations in practical well testing, SPE Paper 22752,
Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Dallas October 6-9..
4 36
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter overview
NMR: principles and petrophysics
Tar detection and permeability evaluation
in North Monagas
Identification of gas and tar layers with NMR tools
Reservoir fluid sampling
Evaluation in the Orinoco Belt
Carbonates: lithology-independent porosity
Prediction of water-cut in a sand with low
resistivity contrast
Identifying producible zones in OBM wells
Continuous wireline fluorescence logging
E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Venezuela produces a wide range of shows how a range of different measurements

hydrocarbon types, all the way from the very —standard logs, NMR and acoustic logs,
heavy oils in the Orinoco Belt, through the imaging tools, wireline formation testers and
shallow heavy oils in Maracaibo Basin, to the cores—can differentiate zones by telling more
volatile oils and gas condensates in North about the geological setting and the mobility of
Monagas. As a result, formation evaluation in the fluids.
Venezuela is frequently focused on the char- Carbonate reservoirs also contribute to
acteristics of the fluids rather than the rock. The Venezuelan oil production, although in much
knowledge of hydrocarbon properties and smaller quantities than sandstones. In carbon-
their effect on downhole measurements are ates, determining porosity by standard mea-
important issues. surements is dependent on an accurate know-
At the same time, the introduction of true ledge of the lithology. On the other hand, NMR
NMR logging tools has significantly improved porosity has the great, and unique, advantage
our ability to characterize the fluids and the of being independent of lithology, as is shown
pore space. Earlier NMR logging tools required in an example from the Barinas-Apure Basin.
doping of the mud to remove the borehole While in the major reservoirs of Venezuela
signal, and relied on the weak earth’s magnetic it is not difficult to identify zones with produ-
field. Modern tools essentially duplicate cible hydrocarbons, there are formations and
laboratory NMR instruments and provide a intervals where this is not so easy. The next
similar wealth of information. Therefore, this section shows a typical example of a “low-
chapter starts with a summary of the principle resistivity pay” in which standard log
of measurement and the petrophysics of NMR interpretation gave water saturations above
response, emphasizing those aspects that are 50%. The NMR log showed this water to be
of particular interest in Venezuela. irreducible water, thereby predicting that the
The following section shows the use of zone would produce clean oil, as indeed it did
the Stoneley wave generated by a borehole on testing. The log interpretation was subse-
acoustic tool to identify zones of immobile quently backed-up and fine-tuned by a
fluid, usually tar. An alternative method of thorough core analysis, including Fourier
identifying tar zones is with NMR. The second Transform Infrared (FT-IR) analysis of mineral-
article shows how NMR can distinguish both ogy, NMR and electrical measurements.
tar and gas from mobile oil. Another example from Lake Maracaibo shows
Good pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) how NMR can help identify the producible
data are essential for reservoir studies and the fluids in OBM. In marginal zones, the
proper planning of reservoir development. interpretation of standard logs can be difficult
However, it is difficult to obtain PVT-quality due to complicated invasion effects.
samples in some hydrocarbons—notably fluids Fluorescence has been measured for
near the critical point, and heavy oils with high many years on surface samples, but has never
asphaltene content. Many of the difficulties before been available as a continuous down-
have been overcome by recent improvements hole log. The final section introduces this new
in sampling techniques—mainly the ability to technique with examples that demonstrate the
obtain PVT samples with wireline formation validity of the measurement. In the future, this
testers, and the introduction of single-phase technique offers the hope of solving some of
downhole sampling tools. the remaining evaluation problems, such as
In the Orinoco Belt it is easy to identify differentiating oil from fresh water, and
hydrocarbon-bearing zones, but it is difficult to identifying oil in low-resistivity zones.
predict how they will produce. This section
5 1
NMR: PRINCIPLES AND PETROPHYSICS
Figure 5.1 Principle of measurement NMR measurements consist of a series of

Since NMR is involved in many of the manipulations of hydrogen nuclei (protons).
recent improvements in formation evalua- A measurement sequence starts with proton
Precessional tion, a short summary of the principles and alignment, followed by spin tipping,
motion petrophysics are given in this section. precession and repeated dephasing and
Many nuclei have a magnetic moment refocusing (Fig. 5.2). Proton alignment (a) is
and behave like spinning bar magnets achieved by applying a large static magnetic
(Fig. 5.1). These spinning magnets interact field, B0, and takes a finite time characterized
Spinning with external magnetic fields, producing by a time constant, T1. The spins are tipped
motion measurable signals that can be maximized if (b) by transmitting an oscillating magnetic
the field oscillates at the resonant frequency field, B1, perpendicular to the direction of B0.
Magnetic field
of a particular nucleus. NMR logging uses The angle through which the spins are
Precessing protons behave like this signal to measure the amount and tipped is controlled by the strength of B1 and
spinning bar magnets. Once distribution of hydrogen. Hydrogen has a the time it is switched on. The frequency of
disturbed from equilibrium, relatively large magnetic moment and is a oscillation is chosen to be the resonant
they precess about the static direct indication of pore fluids. frequency of hydrogen in the field B0.
magnetic field like a toy top. After the protons have been tipped, they
precess in the plane perpendicular to B0 (c).
Figure 5.2 This generates a small magnetic field that is
z detected by the same antenna that transmits
z the field B1. This signal decays as the protons
Precessing
B0 field magnetic
b lose synchronization because of local
moments B0 field variations in the B0 field and molecular
interactions (d). The desynchronization
caused by B0 variations can be restored
Net magnetization B1 field y
along z-axis temporarily by repeated refocusing signals
y from the antenna. After each resynchron-
(a) Proton aligment x (b) Spin tipping by the ization, or echo, the signal will have decayed
a x about B0 oscillating B1 field
because of molecular interactions with a time
z constant known as T2. T1 and T2 are different
B0 field but closely related, the ratio T1 /T2 being
between 1.5 and 2.5 for most water-filled
Different stages in the c rocks. T2 is by far the most common logging
manipulation of the protons y measurement as it is faster to measure and
to create the NMR signal. more suitable for continuous logging.
x
(c) Precession and de-synchronization Relaxation mechanisms

in the x-y plane in water-saturated rocks
Signal The basic NMR result is the T2 decay, or
d Re-focusing signals
90˚ relaxation, of the NMR signal. The initial
Antenna pulse
signal amplitude can be directly calibrated in

Amplitude
1 2 3 4 600
Decay due to
terms of the total proton population, or
molecular interactions
Decay due to porosity. The relaxation depends on the
B0 variations
strength of different molecular interactions
and is the sum of many relaxations, fast and
slow, from different parts of the sample.
Time (msec)
Spin echoes
5 2
Figure 5.3 magnetization is uniform across the pore (the

fast diffusion limit). These conditions are
Sandstones Carbonates
70 30 normally valid, with some exceptions with
60
microporosity, when pores may not be
25
independent, and large pores, when diffusion
NMR porosity (p.u.)

NMR porosity (p.u.)
50
20 may not be fast enough. T2D is negligible
40
except in gas because low magnetic fields,
15
30 and hence low field gradients, are used. For
20
10 pure water T2B is several seconds and,
5
because the total T2 is an inverse sum of the
10
components, has a negligible influence.
0 0
0 20 40 60 0 10 20 30
However, T2B may be significant in the case
Buoyancy porosity (p.u.) Buoyancy porosity (p.u.) of large pores (long T2S), or in mud filtrates
where T2B is short because of paramagnetic
Comparison of NMR and buoyancy porosity on a large number of cores from
ions. In general, the T2 relaxation in water-
sandstones and carbonates (Straley et al).
filled rocks is a direct indicator of pore size
and is highly correlated with other
Figure 5.4 There are three types of
measurements of pore size or pore throat,
relaxation, one due to
1 such as mercury injection pressure.
T2 decay interactions with the pore
surface, T2S, one due to
Signal amplitude
Petrophysics of NMR
bulk relaxation within the
in water-filled rocks
pore fluid, T2B, and one
Porosity: Numerous laboratory studies
due to diffusion of protons
have shown that NMR porosity is very close
in a magnetic field gradi-
to core porosity derived from buoyancy
ent, T2D. T2S depends on
0 methods (Fig. 5.3).
0 100 200 300 400 the pore size: the smaller
Free fluid: The measured T2 decay is
Time (msec) the pore size, the larger the
usually transformed into a T2 distribution by
8 number of protons close to
T2 distribution mathematical inversion (Fig. 5.4). After this
the pore walls and
transform, the total area under the curve
Signal distribution
Large pores
the faster they will
represents porosity, and the signal at each
relax. The mea-
decay time is the volume for that T2. It is
sured T2 can then
possible to define a value for T2, T2,cut, which
be written:
Small pores divides the porosity into fluid from larger
1/ T2 = 1/ T2S + 1/ T2B + 1/ T2D pores above the cut-off that is free to move,
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 where 1/ T2S = r S/ V (1) and fluid from smaller pores below the cut-
CMR derived
T2 (msec) off that is bound by capillary or clay forces.

f CMR where T2S is given as
It has been found that in many sandstones
shown by r, the surface
f Free-fluid T2,cut is approximately 33 msec and in
relaxivity; S, the surface
carbonates 100 msec. Once determined, this
Clay- Capillary- area of the pore; and V, its
bound bound
Producible
fluids
cut-off may be applied to CMR logs to obtain
water water volume. This relationship
a continuous log of free and bound fluid. In
for T2S is only strictly valid
some cases clay-bound water can be
The measured T2 decay is mathematically invert- if the decay in each pore
separated from capillary-bound water by
ed to obtain a T2 distribution that can be related is independent of other
applying a cut-off between about 1 and 3
to pore size and bound or producible fluids. pores, and if the protons
msec (Fig. 5.4).
diffuse fast enough that
5 3
Figure 5.5 However, T2,cut does vary with

formation, and should be refined by
0.049 1.0
Sample 02-16 laboratory experiments on core plugs. In
Derived T2 cut off Cumulative
Normalized amplitude
brine saturated
T2 distribution
these experiments the water-filled NMR
signal is measured and converted into a
Irreducible
cumulative T2 distribution starting from the
0.5
water
volume smallest pores or shortest T2 (Fig. 5.5). The
sample is then desaturated, usually by
spinning in a centrifuge, and the remaining
irreducible volume of water is calculated
0.000 0.0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000 either by direct weighing methods or from
2MHz T2(TE = 350 msec) relaxation time (ms) an NMR measurement on the desaturated
sample. The intersection of this irreducible
0.049 1.0
Sample 02-16 water volume with the cumulative T2
Normalized amplitude
distribution defines the cut-off (Fig. 5.5, top).

As expected, the NMR signal of the
Brine saturated desaturated sample shows minimum signal
T2 distribution 0.5
Desaturated
T2 distribution
above the cut-off (Fig. 5.5, bottom). Figure
5.6 shows the good agreement between
NMR free-fluid and water removed by
centrifuging.
0.000 0.0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000 Permeability: Most transforms for
2MHz T2(TE = 350 msec) relaxation time (ms) estimating permeability involve combinations
Top: Example of determination of T2,cut by the intersection of the irreducible water of porosity and some estimate of pore throat
volume with the cumulative brine-saturated T2 distribution. Bottom: The desaturated size. NMR relaxation times depend on pore
T2 distribution confirms the cut-off by showing essentially no volume above T2,cut size, but often these are related to throat size.
(and can also give irreducible water volume). Two transforms are commonly used. The first
uses the logarithmic mean value of T2,T2,log,
Figure 5.6 as the indicator of throat size:
20 k=af 4 (T 2,log ) 2 (SDR) (2)

Well A
Well B where f is the porosity expressed as a
Free-fluid porosity at 33 msec (p.u.)
fraction, and a is a formation-dependent

15
constant that is typically 4 md/(msec)2 for
sandstones and 0.4 md/(msec)2 for carbon-
ates. This correlation was developed for the
10 brine permeability of water-saturated clastic
rocks, for which the T2 distribution is a good
representation of the pore size distribution.
5
A typical example of the good results that can
be obtained is shown in Fig. 5.7.
The other common transform uses the
ratio of free fluid, FFI, and bound fluid, BFV,
0
0 5 10 15 20 as the indicator of pore throat size:
Free-fluid measured by centrifuge (p.u.)
Comparison of the free fluid measured by centrifuge with the free fluid ( )
k=a'f 4 FFI
BFV
2
(Timur/Coates) (3)
above T2,cut=33 msec for samples from two wells (Straley et al).
5 4
Figure 5.7 The experimental data (Fig. 5.9) show a

close relationship between the logarithmic
100
Well A, a = 2.8
mean T2 of the oil (T2,log) and its viscosity.
Well B, a = 3.4
The more viscous the hydrocarbon, the closer
the interaction of the hydrogen nuclei with
10
each other and the faster they relax. In
Permeability to brine (md)
practice oils have a wide range of T2S, often

spreading over more than one decade (see
1 Fig. 5.10). Tars, with viscosities over 100,000
cp and T2,log below 0.3 msec, have a
significant signal that is too fast to be
recorded. Thus, in a tar-filled rock the NMR
0.1
KNMR = a(fNMR)4(T2,log)2 porosity will be small and significantly less
than the true porosity. Heavy oils will appear
as bound fluid, while light oils and OBM fil-
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 trates will normally appear as free fluid. Med-
Permeability from NMR (md) ium oils may appear as either one, depending
Comparison of permeability on the viscosity at downhole conditions.
to brine and permeability where a' is a formation-dependent constant Wettability: Some rocks are oil-wet, or
4
predicted by NMR using that is normally 1x10 md for sandstones. contain a percentage of oil-wet pores. Some
equation (2) for two wells. In the above equations, f in the laboratory filtrates, particularly OBM filtrates, are
is either core porosity (as determined by buoy- considered to change the wettability of a rock
ancy methods) or NMR porosity. In log inter- when invading. In an oil-wet pore, the oil

,,,

pretation, f is usually taken to be NMR porosity, undergoes surface relaxation with a relaxivity
which closely approximates the laboratory por- about a quarter that of water. Light oils will
osity. As with free fluid, it is often advisable to therefore relax much faster in oil-wet pores
refine the coefficients in the permeability trans- than in water-wet pores. However, heavy oils
forms for a particular reser- may not be much affected, since the total

,,,

Figure 5.8
voir through laboratory relaxation will depend essentially on T2B. In
measurements on core oil-wet pores, the permeability equation must
Protons in water
relax at grain surface plugs. Carbonates, in parti- be established empirically by adapting the
cular, need special studies. coefficients in equation (2) or (3) to match
core and test data for that formation.

,,,

Protons in gas
or oil relax by
Pores containing Hydrogen Index (HI): The HI of a fluid is
bulk + diffusionoil and water the amount of hydrogen relative to water. For
mechanisms
Bulk relaxation: When most medium oils it is equal to 1, but in heavy
pores contain more than oils it is usually less than 1 (Fig. 5.11). In light
Water
one fluid, the relationships oils it may also be less than 1 if there is a large
are more complex. In a amount of dissolved gas.
water-wet rock, the oil is Permeability: Because the oil relaxes at
not in contact with the its bulk rate independent of pore size,
In water-wet rock, hydro-
pore surface. Since for light and medium oils the T2 distribution is no longer solely
carbons relax by bulk and
the oil-water interface is a non-relaxing representative of the hydraulic radius.
diffusion mechanisms. The
surface, the oil decays at the T2 of the bulk oil
water-hydrocarbon interface
independent of pore size (Fig. 5.8). Very
is not a relaxing surface,
viscous oils start to behave more like a solid
except at high oil viscosity.
and there can be relaxation at the surface.
5 5
Figure 5.9 In these circumstances, equation (2) is

not strictly valid and must be verified
10,000 empirically for different formations.
= Lab A
T1
= Lab B
Equation (3) is still useful, but an allowance
T2 (TE = 0.32 msec) must be made for the oil relaxation time,
1000
T2,oil. If T2,oil > T2,cut, then the oil signal
appears as free fluid. Since oil in water-wet
T2 (TE = 1 msec)
rock normally displaces producible water,
Crudes equation (3) needs no modification.
T, or T2 (msec)
100
However, if T2,oil < T2,cut, the oil signal
appears as bound fluid. In this case in
equation (3), BFV should be decreased and
10 FFI increased by the volume of oil detected
by the measurement.
When considering the effect of oil, it
1 ⁄ T2 = 1 ⁄ T 1 + (1 ⁄ T2)D
must be remembered that the volume
1
investigated by the CMR has usually been
invaded by mud filtrate, especially for light
and medium oils.
0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Viscosity (cp) Pores with gas
Gas has long T1 values, ranging from
Logarithmic mean T2 versus viscosity for bulk oil samples from the Belridge Field
3 to 7 sec, depending on formation
(triangles), international oil field samples and oil viscosity standards (plus symbols)
temperature and pressure. Therefore, in
(Morriss, 1994).
normal logging conditions only part of the
gas is polarized and the signal measured is
Figures 5.10 and 5.11 too low. Gas also has a very low HI, further
lowering the signal relative to a water-filled
T2: 45 msec Sample 1
Grav: 27˚API 1 rock. In addition, gas diffuses within the
Visc: 20 cp
pore space during the course of the
Hydrogen index
0.5
measurement. Due to the gradient in the
T2: 8.3 msec Sample 2
Grav: 16.2˚API magnetic field B0, there is an additional
Visc: 300 cp 0.2
relaxation, T2D, which will shorten the
0.1 measured T2 while keeping it in the free-
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 fluid range (see equation (1)).
T2 (msec) 0.05
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 These features can be used to detect
˚API gravity gas, for example, by comparing the CMR
T2 distributions for two oil
signal with other porosity measurements, or
samples pressed from sidewall HI as a function of API gravity for a suite of
by comparing two runs recorded with
core plugs. Viscosity is estimated dead oils from 4 to 60˚API at 77°F. Note that
different acquisition parameters that were
from the API gravity using in downhole conditions, the light oils may
chosen to cause a different response in gas.
published tables (Morriss, 1994). contain a large amount of dissolved gas,
Permeability can still be obtained from
thereby reducing the HI (adapted from
equation (3), taking the porosity from
Vinegar, 1991).
another source, such as the density log in
shaly sandstones or the density-neutron log
combination.
5 6
CMR Tool
The principle of the CMR is the same The standard outputs are CMR
as a laboratory NMR instrument. The two porosity (CMRP), free fluid and bound
powerful permanent magnets provide the fluid volume (CMFF and BFV), perme-
static magnetic field, B0. The transmitter ability, and the T2 distribution. Other
and receiver are provided by an antenna outputs include the analysis of the T2
that is skid-mounted to cut through mud distribution in terms of pore size, the
cake and has good contact with the detection of hydrocarbons and the vis-
formation. By design, the tool cosity of oil. Polarization or wait time,
measurement volume is a region from number of echoes, echo spacing and other
about 0.5 in. to 1.25 in. into the formation parameters can be selected according to
and stretches the length of the antenna, the needs of the job (Chapter 4–29). With
about 6 in. The volume in front of the echo spacings being reduced to 0.2 msec,
antenna up to 0.5 in. does not contribute and with processing that takes advantage
to the signal, which allows the tool to of the early echoes, the CMR is able to
ignore a certain amount of rugosity, similar measure T2s down to 0.3 msec.
to a density tool.
The CMR is only 14 ft long and is
combinable with many other logging tools.
The bowspring eccentralizer, or external
powered calipers, ensure good contact
over most hole sizes. Calibration is simple
and consists of placing a bottle of water
against the skid to simulate 100% porosity.
Permanent magnet
Bowspring
eccentralizer Borehole wall
Electronic
cartridge Antenna
14 ft
Tool Specifications Wear plate

CMR skid
Length 14 ft
Weight 300 lbm
Minimum hole 6.5 in. Sensitive zone

Special cases 6.0 in. Permanent magnet
Measurement aperture 6.0 in.
Mud resistivity No limits
Max. temperature 350°F
5 7
TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
The Oligocene and Cretaceous sand- Stoneley mobility

stone reservoirs in North Monagas are a Correlations of permeability with
sequence of up to 30 distinct oil-bearing Stoneley wave slowness or attenuation have
sandstones separated by shales. These been reported by many authors over the
sandstones contain oil that varies in gravity years (e.g., Winkler et al., 1989). In a
between 5° and 36°API. It is common to find cylindrical borehole with a rigid formation,
the unproductive heavy-oil zones sand- the Stoneley propagation would be both
wiched between zones of light oil, and vice- nondispersive and nonattenuative. With an
versa. Ever since the discovery of these elastic formation the Stoneley becomes
deep-seated reservoirs, a few intervals have dispersive; in other words, it changes with
yielded noncommercial production for one frequency, because the borehole wall yields
of the following reasons: to the pressure in the fluid column. When
Figure 5.12
1. low-permeability, very tight reservoirs the formation fluid is mobile, the Stoneley
2 2. high-permeability formations containing induces fluid flow in the formation, which
heavy to extra-heavy oil deep along the causes it to lose energy and slow down. This
Velocity change (%)
–2 flanks of the folds happens even in the presence of a mudcake,

–4 3. reservoirs that have undergone a high although the latter can have an important
(a) degree of tectonism, so that the lighter effect. Theoretical and experimental results
–6
High hydrocarbon fractions have migrated have shown that the Stoneley is dependent
–8 Medium
–10
Low through nonsealing faults, leaving behind on the mobility of the fluid, k/m. Figure 5.12
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
the heavier asphaltenes and resins. shows the typical effect on Stoneley velocity
Frequency (kHz)
Because it is uneconomical to test each and attenuation in sandstones with perme-
0.25 zone, it is important to use logs to abilities of 1.0, 0.1 and 0.01 darcy with a
High
distinguish unproductive intervals. However, fluid viscosity of 1.0 cp. Similar effects will
Attenuation (1 ⁄ q)
0.20 Medium
Low
(b) the majority of the wells are drilled with be observed if the permeability is held
0.15
OBM, so that many conventional techniques constant and the viscosity varied. It can be
0.10
are limited or not applicable. In this seen that at low frequency, the Stoneley is a
0.05 situation, two measurements have been used sensitive measure of mobility, providing the
0.00 to indicate fluid mobility—the Stoneley wave latter is reasonably high.
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
and NMR. In combination with standard The Stoneley was used successfully in
Frequency (kHz)
logs, these can clearly separate zones of low the late 1980s as an indicator of which zones
Theoretical predictions for mobility with extra-heavy oil. In addition, to test. A quick but reliable result was
(a) velocity difference they can be used to estimate permeability. important, so the efforts focused on use of
(relative to impermeable The example below illustrates the use of the the Stoneley energy. The total amplitude
rock) and (b) attenuation Stoneley wave measurement in this situation. between 0.5 and 5.0 kHz at one receiver was
for three rock mobilities: summed, inverted and then normalized
(adapted from Winkler between 0 and 1 using the lowest and
et al., 1989). highest values found in the well.
5 8
Figure 5.13 similar to those in Fig. 5.13a. The production

from this zone was zero, and thin sections
Oil showed the pore space occluded with dead
Water oil. A study of 18 zones from six wells
. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. ... successfully predicted which zones would
. . . . . . . .Quartz
. . . . . . Time
Clay produce and which would not. It was also
DCAL Stoneley Index 1000 (msec) 5000
Volume Analysis shown that the higher the Index, the higher
1 V⁄V 0 –1 (in.) 9 0 1
13,960.0
the productivity.
The need for normalization and shale
(a) correction made this technique quite
13,980.0
empirical. However, the advent of the DSI
tool (Chapter 4–33) has made it possible to
use Stoneley velocity, rather than Stoneley
energy, for mobility determination. This
avoids the need for normalization and
13,650.0 empirical shale correction, and improves the
(b) robustness of the result. It has been shown
that, to the first order, and in the absence of
13,670.0 mudcake, the fluid mobility is a complicated
function of Stoneley slowness as follows:
k/m = C Se2 (Sst - Se)2 (4)

13,690.0
where C=f (borehole radius, porosity,

frequency, mud density, the general elastic
Examples of the effect of Unfortunately, shales have the same effect as coefficients and k/m). Sst is the measured
fluid mobility on the Stoneley fluid mobility in attenuating the signal. Stoneley slowness, and Se is the theoretical
waveform. In (a) the Stoneley Therefore, it was necessary to multiply the Stoneley slowness for an equivalent zero
is strongly attenuated and result by (1–Vsh) to obtain a shale-corrected permeability rock. Se can be determined
the zone produced well; in Stoneley Index. Figure 5.13a shows the result from other measurements as follows:
(b) the Stoneley is not in a zone of good mobility. The Stoneley
(Se / Ss)2 = (Sf / Ss)2 + rm/ rb (5)
attenuated and the zone waveforms on the right are clearly
did not produce. attenuated, causing a high Stoneley Index. where Ss is formation shear slowness, rb is
This zone produced 5579 BOPD with a GOR bulk density and rm mud density. Sf is the
of 2468. On the other hand, Figure 5.13b mud slowness and can be determined by
shows a strong Stoneley waveform in the analyzing the DSI waveforms in washed-out
sandstones and a correspondingly low holes or opposite impermeable zones, as
Stoneley Index, even though the volumetric described below. Thus, it is possible to
analysis shows the sandstones to be very calculate k/m from logging measurements.
5 9
TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
Figure 5.14 Figure 5.14 shows standard logs from a

North Monagas well. In this rare case, WBM
LLD was used so that the resistivity profile
1 (ohm-m) 1000
CALI LLS RHOB
derived from LLD-LLS-MIFL easily
6 (in.) 16 1 (ohm-m) 1000 1.9 (g / cm3 ) 2.9 distinguishes which zones have immobile
GR Depth MSFL NPHI
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 1 (ohm-m) 1000 0.45 (V⁄ V) –0.15
fluids. For example, the resistivity curves at
14,800
B (15,860 ft) shows large separation, and
hence invasion, whereas the sandstone at A
(15,890 ft) shows no invasion even though
porosity and shaliness are similar. The
pressure profile from the RFT* Repeat
Formation Tester shows this zone to be oil-
bearing. The logs were interpreted with
14,900
ELAN* Elemental Log Analysis to give the
formation evaluation shown in track 4, Fig.
5.15 and the fluid analysis in track 3. The
difference between yellow mobile hydro-
carbons and green immobile hydrocarbons
is clearly seen.
15,000
A DSI was also run in this well and
processed to give compressional, shear and
Stoneley slownesses. Track 2 shows the
measured Stoneley slowness and the zero-
mobility Stoneley slowness, Se. The latter
was calculated from equation (5), ignoring
15,100 dispersion, which is small and constant at
the frequency of measurement. Sf was
picked so that Sst and Se overlay on average
15,500 in the shales. Sst and Se show no separation
C
opposite zones with immobile oil, such as A,
but separate very clearly opposite the zones
with moveable hydrocarbons, such as B. The
excellent agreement between the Stoneley
15,800
and the resistivity indication of mobile fluids
is confirmed at C (15,500 ft) and in other
zones not shown. This demonstrates that in
B
an OBM well, where the resistivity profile
is not available, the comparison of Se and
A Sst can be used as a reliable indicator of
15,900
mobile fluids.
Standard openhole logs over the Oligocene and Cretaceous in MUC-20.
5 10
Figure 5.15 Cores were taken from 15,500 ft and

above, and standard analysis was made on
Hydrocarbon more than 600 core plugs. The porosities and
Moved hydrocarbon permeabilities are shown in Fig.5.15. Several
Mud cake
Water attempts were made to calculate permeability
Mobility effect
DCAL
Vxw
Shale from the Stoneley using the full theoretical
Vw
–2 (in.) 8 Sandstone relationship summarized in equation (4).
St Permeability
Elastic Æt Stoneley Fluid analysis
10,000 0.1 Porosity However, the results were unstable and not
Core Permeability Æt Stoneley Core porosity Volumetric analysis
Depth
(ft) (ms / ft)
entirely satisfactory. The mudcake is largely
10,000 (md) 0.1 280 230 0.25 (V ⁄ V) 0 1 (V ⁄ V) 0
responsible. Being a strongly elastic material,
14,800
it adds to the measured slowness, but at the
same time it introduces an impedance
between borehole and formation, which
reduces it. At the time of processing, there
was no way to estimate these parameters
independently and they had to be input
14,900
empirically. In the end the Stoneley mobility
was calculated using equation (4) and using a
constant factor of C=2 by calibrating to the
cores. The results (track 1, Fig. 5.15) are
remarkably good, particularly considering the
different scale of the two measurements (a
15,000 few feet for the Stoneley versus 1 in. for the
plug). The agreement is generally within a
factor of 3, and the trends, such as the fining-
up in sandstones D and E, are well reflected.
In the small zone of immobile oil at C, the
Stoneley reflects the lack of mobility (m is
15,100 high), whereas the core shows some
permeability because it has been cleaned. The
core description shows organic matter
15,500
throughout this zone.
C
Conclusion
In the Oligocene and Cretaceous sand-
stones of North Monagas, acoustic logs can
15,800
clearly distinguish between mobile and
immobile fluids. Unlike resistivity, this distinc-
tion works in OBMs as well as WBMs.
Acoustic logs can also be used to estimate
B
permeability. However, in the current state of
A the art, this needs calibrating against another
15,900 source of permeability.
Core analysis and log interpretation results from MUC-20. An alternative method of estimating
permeability and detecting tar in OBM wells
is with NMR. An example is shown in the
following pages.
5 11
I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
The Santa Bárbara Field, located in the Effect of gas on CMR porosity
area known as North Monagas, is geologically NMR tools measure a signal pro-
very complex, both in the structural and portional to the volume of hydrogen in the
stratigraphic sense. It is characterized by a pore fluids and are, therefore, a measure-
very unique and complex distribution of ment of the formation’s hydrogen index
medium to light hydrocarbons that are of (HI), which is significantly less in the case of
considerable economic interest. gas. In this simple manner, NMR tools
With more than 2500 ft of reservoir provide a gas detection indicator analogous
deposition, gravitational segregation has pro- to the conventional neutron porosity
duced a fluid column exhibiting considerable measurement. However, unlike the latter, the
variations, from light crude at the bottom of NMR does not respond to changes in
the structure, to gas condensate near the top. lithology nor to neutron absorbers, nor does
In addition, a region of critical fluid has been it suffer any “excavation effect”. The
identified at the gas-oil interface. Additional difference between the HI of oil and gas is
complexities are associated with the presence significant.
of asphaltenes and discrete tar levels that may Published charts allow us to estimate
have a significant impact on field management the importance of the variation in HI
during production. between an oil and a gas. For an example,
In such an environment, fluid charac- with pure methane, at the downhole
terization becomes a very important log conditions corresponding to these wells, the
interpretation issue. Traditionally, this implies gas HI would be 0.5, while that of a 30˚API
estimating formation hydrocarbon density oil would remain 1, close to water.
based on invaded zone saturation and Therefore, based on hydrogen effect alone,
assumed hydrocarbons, filtrate, matrix density CMR porosity in a 100% gas zone would be
and neutron responses. In many cases, results halved.
become ambiguous because of deep invasion However, CMR porosity is reduced even
or lithology changes masking changes in further in gas because of its long polariza-
formation fluid density. In the case of the tion time, or T1 (see above, page 5–6). The
Santa Bárbara Field, the interpreter’s task is long T1 means that in standard logging
made more complex by variable invasion of conditions the hydrogen in the gas is
OBM filtrate that cannot be characterized by uncompletely polarized and does not
resistivity logs. In other words, a small contribute to the signal.
density-neutron separation can be attributed An empirical polarization correction
either to a mixture of gas and invading OBM, based on an estimated T1/T2 ratio is
or to a light oil, with shallow invasion. In routinely applied to compensate for this
addition, tar levels are not seen by incomplete polarization. While this
conventional logs. polarization correction is adequate for
The following interpretation examples liquid-filled rocks, it is normally insufficient
demonstrate how NMR in combination with in gas zones. and does not fully compensate
conventional porosity logs can provide the the reduction in CMR porosity.
additional information required to reliably
distinguish between gas, liquid and tar in the
Santa Bárbara Field.
5 12
Figure 5.16 Given the conditions prevalent in the

Santa Bárbara Field, and the occasional deep
fe
invasion, it is important to calculate the
Density–Neutron actual volume of gas seen by the CMR in the
Depth of investigation
VIW VXWA VXOI VXGA invaded zone to verify the fluid distribution
inferred from the density-neutron separation
CMR
and assumed fluid densities. In this manner,
VIW VXWA VXOI VMF_CMR VGAS_CMR
Depth of investigation the nature of the fluid present in the virgin
zone can be ascertained.
HI*CTOE*VGAS_CMR
Given the conditions prevalent in the
Santa Bárbara Field, and the occasional deep
fCMR
invasion, it is important to calculate the
actual volume of gas seen by the CMR in the
The CMR’s shallow depth of In the Santa Bárbara Field, all wells are
OBM filtrate invaded zone to verify the fluid
investigation may cause it to drilled with OBM. Since OBM filtrate has a
distribution inferred from the density-
see more filtrate than the relatively long polarization time, CMR logs
neutron separation and assumed fluid
density-neutron tools. Gas are routinely acquired with deliberately long
densities. In this manner, the nature of the
volume is quantified using wait times, 5 secs in the current example.
fluid present in the virgin zone can be
the gas HI and CMR While still insufficiently long for complete
ascertained.
polarization time correction. gas polarization, simple NMR theory allows
us to estimate the level of polarization of the
Estimating the volume
gas protons under these conditions, as is
of gas in the invaded zone
now shown.
Figure 5.16 shows how effective
Assuming that formation gas is pure
porosity, as calculated by ELAN using
methane, at downhole conditions of 140˚C
conventional density and neutron logs after
and 10,000 psi, charts give us an estimated
clay and hydrocarbon corrections, can be
gas T1 around 5 sec, identical to the applied
expressed in the following manner:
wait time. The signal is then given by:
fE = VIW + VXGA + VXOI + VXWA (7)
CTOE = 1- e- WT/T1 (6)
In this expression, the X subscript
and corresponds to an effective polarization
denotes flushed volumes at the density-
of only 63% of the gas protons. Therefore in
neutron depth of investigation, IW indicates
spite of the long wait time and slow logging
irreducible water, GA indicates gas, OI
speed, an additional reduction in CMR
indicates oil and WA indicates free water.
porosity is caused by incomplete
At the shallower CMR depth of
polarization of the gas protons.
investigation, some additional gas may have
NMR tools are also shallow reading
been displaced by mud filtrate, therefore:
tools, with a depth of investigation of 1 in.
for the CMR, and their sensitivity to gas will VXGA = VMF(CMR)+ VGAS(CMR) (8)
be reduced by mud filtrate invasion. In some
The CMR porosity itself, seeing invaded
cases, invasion may even mask the presence
zone fluids, and before polarization
of gas altogether. However, because of its
correction, will be equal to:
high mobility, gas often will return to the
flushed zone through gravity segregation. fCMR= VIW + VXWA + VXOI + VMF(CMR)
This mechanism is time-dependent and most + HI*CTOE*VGAS(CMR) (9)
effective in high vertical permeability
formations.
5 13
Figure 5.17 filtrate in the invaded zone are correct, these

volumes should essentially be the same,
Fluids with only minor differences related to depth
MDT Pressure Water Quartz of invasion. If the assumptions are incorrect,
10250 (psi) 10750
Gas Coal these volumes will differ significantly,
MDT Dry test T2 Cut–off
1000 (md ⁄ cp) .1 CMR Porosity Bound indicating that it is not gas.
deficit water 3 (ms) 3000
MDT Mobility Such a comparison is presented in track
1000 (md ⁄ cp) .1 Oil Clay T2 Distribution
2 of Fig. 5.17, where we have defined a gas
Depth CMR Permeability Gas Fluid analysis Volume analysis
(ft) 1000 (md) .1 flag .25 V ⁄ V 0 1 V⁄V 0 3 (ms) 3000 indicator as the ratio of apparent gas volume
16,200
calculated from the density-neutron,
A (assuming a gas density of 0.4 g/cm3) to the
gas volume seen by the CMR. Where gas is
16,250 truly present in the formation, this ratio will
be close to unity. Where no gas is present,
B
this ratio will be close to zero.
16,300 In this manner, the CMR confirms that
C
the intervals A, C, H (16,210 to 16,230 ft,
16,305 to 16,315 ft and 16,410 to 16,445 ft)
D
16,350
are gas-bearing, and separated by oil-
E
bearing intervals. In these intervals, the
F
estimated gas volume from the density-
neutron (shown as the red gas volume in
16,400
G track 3) agrees with the CMR gas volume,
and the hydrocarbon correction applied to
H
the standard porosity logs yields the true
16,450
effective porosity.
I The CMR also identifies layers of
considerably reduced CMR porosity that are
Santa Bárbara reservoir This set of equations can be solved for not associated with any reduction in porosity
showing alternating oil, VGAScmr, the gas volume seen by the CMR, on the density-neutron. In Fig. 5.17, the
tar and gas-bearing zones. to obtain: separation between fE and CMRL, coded in
blue, becomes very large and the gas flag
VGAS(CMR) = (fE- fCMR) / (1-HI*CTOE) (10)
remains close to zero, showing no gas. We
With the values of HI and CTOE attribute this response to the presence of tar,
estimated in equation (10), a difference since these zones (e.g. B, D, E, F, I ) also
between fE and fCMR of three p.u. will correspond to regions of much shorter T2
correspond to 4.5 p.u. of gas present in the distribution. As discussed above (page 5–5),
formation at the CMR depth of investigation. tars, with very high viscosities, have short
These equations also allow us to calculate a T2s and a significant signal which is too fast
liquid-only CMR porosity (CMRL), by to be recorded by NMR instruments.
subtracting VGAS(CMR) from fCMR. The characteristic response of the CMR
This simple computation allows for to tar makes it one of the few tools able
direct comparison of gas volumes seen by to conclusively identify tar in a
the CMR and gas volumes estimated from hydrocarbon-bearing zone drilled with
the density-neutron response. If our OBM, where no resistivity contrast exists
assumptions of a mixture of gas and OBM between tar and non-tar intervals.
5 14
Figure 5.18 Invasion effects

Another well from the same field
Water illustrates how OBM filtrate invasion can be
Oil mud quite deep, contrary to what is normally
filtrate
Filtrate volume
from CMR
Gas assumed, and that it can severely reduce the
.25 V⁄V 0 Quartz gas effect on all shallow reading tools,
Water Coal making gas detection considerably more
MDT Pressure T2 Cut–off
9950 (psi) 10150 Oil mud Bound difficult. The intervals under study are
filtrate water 1 (ms) 3000
MDT Mobility
Gas Clay T2 Distribution
located in the known gas leg, and the
1000 (md ⁄ cp) .1
Depth CMR Permeability Fluid analysis Volume analysis
presence of gas in the formation is
(ft) 1000 (md) .1 .25 V ⁄ V 0 1 V⁄V 0 1 (ms) 3000 unambiguously confirmed by MDT pressure
gradients. Our purpose here is again to
quantify the respective volumes of formation
14,500
gas and OBM filtrate seen by the porosity
tools and the CMR in the invaded zone.
Figure 5.18 is from an interval located in
the upper part of the well and presents a
direct comparison of gas volumes estimated
14,550
from density-neutron, red in track 3, and
CMR. The volume of liquid seen by CMR
Gas reservoir after partial (CMRL) is calculated by the method
dissipation of invasion. Independent confirmation of tar pre- described above so that the CMR gas volume
sence is provided by the MDT results. Four is the difference between CMRL and the
pressure points were attempted in front of effective porosity. Even though the pressure
layers interpreted as tar. All four of them potential is low, the gas has had time to
turned out to be dry tests. Conversely, all return to the immediate borehole vicinity.
pressure points attempted in zones diagnosed This is undoubtedly related to the high
as oil or gas were successful. Furthermore, permeability (track 1) predicted by the CMR,
the pressure distribution seen in this interval and confirmed by the significant MDT
does not fall on a simple straightforward mobilities. As a consequence, the logs
gradient. Considering that the field is in exhibit a very strong gas effect, amounting
production, this indicates a zone of reduced to nearly 50% of the total pore volume.
vertical permeability, where fluid redistri- Furthermore, gas volumes calculated from
bution is slow, compatible with the existence CMR and density-neutron values are virtually
of a tar mat of some lateral extent. identical, suggesting a homogeneous
In this case, the CMR allows the distribution of gas at their respective depths
petrophysicist to conclusively characterize a of investigation.
complex gas-oil distribution within relatively Figure 5.19, over an interval close to the
thin layers, where based on density-neutron bottom of the well, shows a much reduced
alone one would challenge an interpretation hydrocarbon effect. Based on density-
showing an “oil above gas” profile neutron interpretation alone, and the fact
accompanied by insignificant changes in that this interval is deeper and at higher
formation pressure. At the same time it is pressures, this interval could have been
able to detect and quantify the distribution interpreted either as a mixture of gas and
of tar versus depth, tar being the probable invading oil filtrate, as shown in Fig. 5.19,
cause of this unusual fluid distribution.
5 15
Figure 5.19 In a qualitative manner, the CMR T2

distribution in both intervals confirms this in-
Water terpretation. In the lower interval (Fig. 5.19),
Oil mud
filtrate
the T2 distribution is remarkably uniform, and
Filtrate volume largely contained between 100 and 1000
Gas
from CMR
.25 V⁄V 0 Quartz msec. This is consistent with the OBM filtrate
Water Coal signal of 300 msec, as measured on the
MDT Pressure T2 Cut–off
9950 (psi) 10150 Oil mud Bound surface at room temperature by the CMR tool.
filtrate water 1 (ms) 3000
MDT Mobility When allowing for changes of viscosity due
1000 (md ⁄ cp) .1 Gas Clay T2 Distribution
Depth CMR Permeability Fluid analysis Volume analysis
to temperature that will raise the bulk oil
(ft) 1000 (md) .1 .25 V ⁄ V 0 1 V⁄V 0 1 (ms) 3000 filtrate T2, this response qualitatively confirms
15,100 that most of the porosity is invaded by filtrate.
Any diffusion occurring in the gas fraction of
the pore fluids is too small to be noticed.
A
In the upper interval, the T2 distribution
is much broader, extending from less than 10
msec to about 800 msec, and has a tendency
15,150
to flatten out and evolve into two separate
peaks. This is most probably due to
B
significant diffusion effects taking place in
C
the large amount of gas in the pore space,
and shortening the T2 distribution times in
15,200 the gas phase.
D
This example shows that although both
zones are gas-bearing, the reduction in gas
Deeply invaded gas-bearing section of the same well. effect caused by deeper and more complete
OBM invasion can easily be mistaken for
or as light oil. The interpretation of gas is light oil, based on density-neutron informa-
supported by the liquid filled porosity from tion alone. Independent calculation of gas
CMR, CMRL, which generally agrees with the volume from the CMR confirms that the zone
oil filtrate volume from density-neutron. In is in fact gas-bearing.
the intervals where it does not, such as B
and C, it is assumed that the gas has not yet Diffusion effects
migrated back to the borehole wall. This is Molecular diffusion is much faster in gas
more likely than in the upper interval (Fig. than in liquid. This effect can be observed
5.18), given the shorter time since drilling, in the NMR response.
the lower permeability (track 1) and the Diffusion has a significant effect on
lower MDT mobility. Some zones show the pulsed NMR measurements, since a diffusing
amount of gas decreasing with depth below molecule with a polarized proton can travel
a shalier streak, e.g. at A and D, indicating a significant distance between successive
that gravity segregation is at work. manipulations. As the static magnetic field of
a logging tool is not uniform, this
displacement will cause a dephasing of the
proton magnetization, and a shift in the
T2 distribution toward shorter times.
5 16
Figure 5.20 By taking the difference between the

two distributions the liquid signal is
.03
Echo spacing 1 msec subtracted out, leaving only the gas. The
Echo spacing .32 msec
Difference spectrum
positive lobe corresponds to the gas signal
present in the short echo station, and the
negative lobe to the gas signal present in the
T2 Amplitude
long echo station. The areas under each lobe

0
are almost equal, and correspond to the
volume of gas in the formation, before
correction for HI and CTOE.
While these CMR spectra were acquired
during a station, the same operation could
–.03
.1 1 10 100 1000 be performed during depth logging, using a
T2 Distribution (msec) standard main pass with a 0.32-msec echo
Diffusion effects on CMR:
spacing, and a repeat pass with a 1-msec
Shifted Spectrum Method. Clearly, the effect of diffusion on an NMR
echo spacing. Combining these two passes
logging tool will depend on the echo spacing
would provide an independent qualitative
(page 5–2), since echo trains with a short
confirmation of the presence of gas, based
spacing will allow far less time for diffusion
on gas diffusion effect on the CMR alone.
than echo trains with long echo spacing.
Another technique for gas detection is
Akkurt et al. (1995) have taken
based on the difference in polarization
advantage of this phenomenon to propose a
between a long wait time and a short one
qualitative gas detection method known as
(Akkurt, 1995, Flaum, 1996). However in all
the Shifted Spectrum Method. Two separate
these difference techniques, the relative
measurements are taken at widely differing
change in signal, and hence the robustness
echo spacings, and one distribution is
of the indicator, is much less than the
subtracted from the other, eliminating the
difference between CMR posoity and
contribution of non-diffusive fluids.
density.
Figure 5.20 shows T2 distributions from
a CMR station in a known gas zone with a
Conclusion
porosity of 12 p.u. from a nearby well. Both
Identifying gas and tar in a formation is
T2 distributions were acquired using the
one of the most important issues in log
same wait time of 6 sec, but with different
interpretation. The examples presented
echo spacings of: 0.32 and 1 msec, respec-
show that the unique properties of NMR
tively. The difference between the short and
allow for unambiguous identification and
long echo spacing measurements have been
quantification of the volume of both gas and
calculated and displayed.
tar present in the invaded zone, removing
Both stations show a bimodal
uncertainties inherent to traditional density-
distribution, but the relative size of each
neutron interpretation, even in complex
peak changes with the echo spacing. The
cases such as OBM and deep invasion.
area under each curve remains the same,
and so does the porosity, but at longer echo
spacing, the shorter T2 peak becomes the
larger one, as expected due to the much
greater diffusion in the gas at this spacing.
5 17
RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Types of hydrocarbons The general description of each classification

Reservoir engineers often describe and the approximate range of some
reservoir fluids using classical, but rather properties that are encompassed are given in
unscientific, terms that are widely understood Table 5.1.
in the industry. These are: tar, heavy oil, black Venezuela has one of the most
oil, volatile oil, gas condensates, wet gases comprehensive ranges of hydrocarbon
and dry gases. These definitions do not have deposits in the world, covering the complete
distinct boundaries of application and so they spectrum of fluids from the extra-heavy
become difficult to employ in the transition crudes of the Orinoco Belt through the
areas between volatile oil and gas complex volatile oils and retrograde gas
condensate, and volatile oil and black oil. condensates in North Monagas, to reservoirs
that produce virtually dry gas. The fluids
Table 5.1 from the North Monagas fields are very
Fluid type Color of stock API GOR (1) Phase in Bo Mole% challenging from a sampling point of view as
tank liquid gravity reservoir (2) (3) heptanes plus
they are near-critical in behavior.
Tar Black ⁄ Dark <10 no gas Liquid - <1.05 >45
Visc >10,000 cp Volatile or near-critical oils are very light
Heavy Oil Black ⁄ Dark 10—25 <100 Liquid - pb <1.2 >35 fluids that are liquid at reservoir conditions.
Black Oil Black ⁄ Dark 30—40 100—2500 Liquid - pb <2.0 >20 The reservoir temperature is very close to the
Volatile Oil Various colors 40—50 >3000 Liquid - pb >2.0 20—12.5 critical temperature of the fluid. These oils
Gas Condensate Pale 50—70 3000—100,000 Gas - pd n/a <12.5 exhibit a bubble point saturation pressure
Wet Gas Colorless 60—70 >100,000 Gas - n/a <4 and have a very high shrinkage that is
Dry Gas No Liquid No liquid 100,000 Gas - n/a <0.7 typically 40% of the hydrocarbon pore space
(1) GOR is initial producing gas oil ratio expressed in scf ⁄ STB for as little as 10 psi reduction in pressure.
(2) Phase in reservoir - liquid with no bubble point
liquid exhibiting bubble point (pb). This phenomenon can be easily understood
gas with dew point at phase change (pd).
gas no phase change at reservoir temperature. from the phase diagram shown in Fig. 5.21.
dry gas-no phase change at reservoir or surface temperature.
(3) Bo is oil formation volume factor at bubble point. The quality lines near the critical point and
reservoir temperature are extremely close
A typical classification of hydrocarbon type.
together and almost parallel to the bubble
point line. Any reduction in pressure below
Figure 5.21
the bubble point will very quickly intersect
2700 the 60% quality line, indicating the typical
Liquid Bubble point C Dew point Gas
lume high shrinkage of these oils.
2600 y vo
ui db
Liq
2500 100 % Similarly, for fluids that exist as gas at
90 % 0%
2400 80 % reservoir conditions with a reservoir temper-
70 %
2300 ature very close to the critical temperature, a
2200 60 %
very small reduction of pressure below the
Pressure (psia)
2100
50 %
dew point results in a high percentage of
2000
liquid formation. This liquid or retrograde
1900
condensate is relatively immobile when
1800 40 % compared to the gas phase; therefore,
1700
production will preferentially be gas, and the
1600
valuable liquid will not be produced.
1500 30 %
1400
20 %
1300 10 %
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Temperature (˚F)
Typical phase diagram for a volatile or near-critical oil.
5 18
The physical characteristics of the Furthermore, the design of surface pro-

volatile oils and retrograde condensates duction facilities is usually totally dependent
recovered in the stock tank may be very on fluid properties determined from samples
similar and do not allow accurate classifi- obtained from exploratory and appraisal
cation of reservoir fluid type. Many cases wells. If this sampling provides unrepresen-
exist in Venezuela where gas condensate tative fluids, the cost implication can be high.
reservoir fluid produces dark stock tank In the Beryl Field of the North Sea, the
liquid of 33 to 35°API, while some volatile oil surface production facilities had to be
reservoir fluids produce lighter-colored stock modified at considerable additional cost, as
tank liquids of higher gravity. later evidence revealed the oil to be more
At the opposite end of the spectrum, volatile than originally thought.
heavy oils present a challenge in that their When dealing with light hydrocarbons,
physical properties must be well defined to and particularly when the reservoir temper-
design appropriate artificial lift systems, sur- ature is very close to the critical temperature,
face production facilities and export facilities. the accuracy of such mundane parameters as
Small amounts of dissolved gas can reservoir temperature and initial pressure
significantly alter properties such as viscosity, must be viewed in a completely different light.
which is central to reservoir modeling and As discussed above, a relatively small change
production flow calculations. in temperature or pressure will result in drastic
changes in the expected PVT behavior of the
The importance of high-quality fluid. Sampling techniques are, therefore, of
reservoir fluid samples the utmost importance in such cases to obtain
In studying the economics of a hydro- high-quality PVT samples.
carbon reserve, the predicted production In many near-critical fluids studied in
capacity needs to be evaluated against the Venezuela, the type of fluid present in the
capital investment and the operating costs. reservoir could not be defined until the
The most accurate estimate of recoverable results of laboratory studies were available.
reserves is, therefore, critical in determining It has been found in some cases that two
the economic viability of a potential different zones in the same well contain
reservoir. The calculation of total reserves in different types of critical fluid at initial
place and the projected recoverable reserves reservoir conditions, one in the gas phase
depend on the reliability of the data and one in the liquid phase. The correct
employed. A reliable reserves calculation is classification of a hydrocarbon can have a
most needed during the early stages of a significant economic impact on a project
project when often only a minimum amount from the aspect of OPEC quota, fiscal
of information is available. Electric logs, core regime, production sharing agreements, etc.
analysis, PVT studies and production well
tests are central to initial economic models. Sampling methods to capture
representative samples
Because of advances in sampling
technology, operators can now choose to
obtain PVT-quality samples in openhole or
cased hole. This offers considerable flexi-
bility from both an operational point of view
and in terms of improving the quality and
quantity of samples.
5 19
Figure 5.22 In the openhole environment, a new OBM filtrate is miscible with reservoir
generation wireline formation tester known hydrocarbon fluid, which not only makes
as the MDT has been developed specifically contamination more difficult to detect, but
to obtain high-quality samples at multiple also the consequences of the contamination
Electric power
module
depths in the well. A modification to this are much more serious, since the mud filtrate
tool is being developed that allows it to be can significantly change the PVT properties
Hydraulic power
run in a cased hole, drill a hole in the casing, of the reservoir fluid.
module take a fluid sample, and then re-plug the The MDT wireline formation tester has
hole with a special steel plug. For sampling overcome the limitations of the RFT by being
Probe module during a well test or at any time during pro- designed specifically with reservoir fluid
duction of a well, a new bottomhole sampler sampling in mind. The tool incorporates a
has been developed that allows a sample to pump that enables pumping of the forma-
OFA
module be captured downhole and brought to tion fluid into the wellbore to clean up the
surface under monophasic conditions. formation fluid to condition it for sampling.
Multisample Preservation of the monophasic state of the Only when the fluid being pumped is pure,
module
sample means that PVT laboratory results a representative reservoir fluid sample is
more faithfully represent the true fluid captured into a sample chamber. The tool is
Pump-out
module properties. able to identify the fluid flowing through it
Surface sampling of liquid and gas in a by use of a resistivity measurement and from
surface separator for recombination in the an analysis of the absorption of light in the
A typical configuration of the
laboratory in the ratio of the field measured visible and near-infrared region. Resistivity
MDT for openhole sampling.
GOR usually complements other sampling distinguishes hydrocarbon from WBM
methods. However, it has drawbacks if it is filtrate, while optical analysis discriminates
used as the only sampling procedure. gas from liquid and formation hydrocarbon
from OBM filtrate.
Sampling in openhole The MDT can be configured in many
Sampling technology has evolved ways because of its modular construction.
significantly in recent years. Until recently, it The selection of modules and their position in
was not generally considered feasible to the tool string are decided by the objectives
obtain PVT-quality samples from an of the operation and the well characteristics
openhole wireline formation tester such as and conditions. A typical MDT configuration
the RFT. During the drilling process, the for sampling is shown in Fig. 5.22. The tool is
formation is always invaded to a greater or set at the desired depth by hydraulically
lesser extent by mud filtrate. Samples taken forcing the probe against the formation wall.
by the RFT were usually contaminated with The probe cuts through the mudcake to make
mud filtrate. An attempt to overcome this was communication with the formation, while the
to take “segregated” samples where flow was surrounding rubber packer isolates the probe
initially directed to one sample chamber to from the hydrostatic borehole pressure.
“clean-up” the zone around the RFT probe,
and then to a second chamber to capture
what was hoped to be uncontaminated
reservoir fluid. In highly invaded zones this
method still resulted in contaminated
samples. The situation has been further
complicated by the widespread use of OBM.
5 20
Figure 5.23 A schematic of the If the formation is hydrocarbon-bearing, the

single-probe archi- resistivity cell measurement will saturate at a
CQG tecture is shown in high value, while if the formation is water-
Crystal Quartz Gauge
Fig. 5.23. Once set, a bearing, the resistivity cell measurement will
pre-test can be per- stabilize at a value characteristic of the
formed that involves formation water resistivity. When the fluid is
Isolation
valve
withdrawing up to considered to be representative of formation
20 cm3 of fluid by fluid, the pumping may be halted and the
Equalizing
valve the displacement of fluid diverted to a sample chamber.
Wellbore
a small piston. The In wells where the drilling fluid is OBM
pressure resulting perturba- or where the fluid is close to its saturation
tion of the formation pressure, then the OFA* Optical Fluid
Strain pressure is used to Analyzer module can be extremely valuable.
gauge
estimate the permea- The principle of operation of the OFA is
bility of the forma- shown in Fig. 5.24. If the mud filtrate is oil-
Block diagram tion surrounding the based, then resistivity is unable to discriminate
of the single- probe. The subse- between the filtrate and the formation fluid. In
probe module. quent buildup deter- this case the OFA can be used to discriminate
Pretest
mines the formation the fluids by analyzing the way visible and
pressure. The per- near-infrared light is absorbed by the flowline
meability helps fluid. The flowline passes through two
Resistivity decide the feasibility independent optical sensors. In one sensor
cell
of attempting a sam- absorption spectroscopy is used to detect and
ple at that depth, analyze liquid. In the other sensor a light
Packer while the pressure reflection measurement detects gas.
profile versus depth These measurements allow distinction
Probe
helps identify the between OBM filtrate and formation oil and
nature of the form- help determine when to divert the flow to a
ation fluid. If it is sample chamber. When sampling fluids are
Flowline bus
decided to take a close to their saturation pressure, the sam-
sample, then the pling pressure can be raised if gas is detected
pump-out is used to pump fluid from the in the flowline so as to ensure the sample is
formation through the flowline bus and into taken under monophasic flow conditions.
the borehole. The resistivity cell adjacent to
the probe helps discriminate between saline
water and hydrocarbon. The resistivity of the
fluid being pumped will initially be charac-
teristic of the mud filtrate. As the fluid cleans
up, the resistivity will trend to a constant
value characteristic of the formation fluid.
5 21
Figure 5.24 An important consideration in sampling

is having a suitable receptacle in which to
Gas detector
capture and preserve the sample. The MDT
Lamp
has a multisample module (see Fig. 5.25)
@À,Q¢
that contains six separate cylinders each
capable of holding 450-cm3 of sample. A
¢Q,À@
motor-driven, surface computer-controlled
throttle valve provides inlet choking to
@@@@

ÀÀÀÀ
,,,,
QQQQ
¢¢¢¢ ¢Q,À@
control the pressure in the flowline so that
Fluid flow the fluid can be maintained in a monophasic
condition. In addition, a water cushion is
@@@@

ÀÀÀÀ
,,,,
QQQQ
¢¢¢¢
Flowline
used behind the sample chamber piston to
Liquid detector
further regulate the sample collection. The
Water Oil Gas
cylinders once filled are sealed by a control
The OFA module with its two sensor systems: one for liquid detection and analysis valve. At the surface, the cylinders can be
and the other for gas detection. detached from the module and shipped
directly to a PVT laboratory without the
Figure 5.25
need for sample transfer. This feature
eliminates the possibility of mishandling the
Sample point sample at the well site.
The MDT single probe has a diameter
Single-shot of just less than one inch. If the formation has
control valves
Motor-driven
throttle seal low permeability, then the pressure drop due
valve
to fluid withdrawal can be considerable and
may cause formation fluid to become dipha-
Water
cushion sic, leading to unrepresentative samples.
line
Flowline bus
Manual
shut-in
valves
Water
cushion
choke
Motor-driven
throttle seal
valve
Water cushion relief

Water
receiver
Left: block diagram of the multisample module.
Right: the 450-cm3 multisample bottles are certified for air transportation.
5 22
Figure 5.26 MDT run with OFA in Venezuela

Figure 5.27 shows a log run in a well in
To overcome this, a dual packer module (see
Venezuela that was acquired while pumping
Fig. 5.26) has been developed that is inflated
out before sampling with an MDT. The tool
and deflated using the pump-out module.
string included an OFA and the mud system
When inflated, the dual packer isolates 1 m of
was water-based. In the right track of the
formation between the packers that
station log, the fraction of oil and water
represents a large surface area for flow. Fluid
flowing through the OFA are represented
sampling can be achieved in low-
graphically along with a “coloration” indi-
permeability formations with very little
cator. Resistivity of the fluid is shown in the
drawdown. Although the dual packer module
left track. It can be seen that the coloration
was developed primarily for fluid sampling, it
indicator and the oil/water content analysis
is also finding applications in rock mechanics
clearly indicate an increasing oil content in
evaluation. The pump-out module is used for
the pumped-out fluid before the resistivity
in-situ rock stress tests to pump between the
measurement shows any significant change.
dual packers to perform a mini-frac of the
This is because while the continuous phase
formation. This determines the magnitude of
is water, the resistivity is not very sensitive to
stresses in the formation.
the amount of the oil fraction. With
resistivity alone, a sampling attempt could
The advantages of sampling
be abandoned prematurely. By the same
in openhole are:
token, when the continuous phase is oil, the
• samples can be taken at many different
resistivity measurement is not sensitive to
depths. This is important if different
small droplets of water. The optical analysis,
layers contain different fluids or if the
however, gives a fine-scale level of fluid
fluid properties in a thick, single
Dual-packer purity that allows the right sampling time to
reservoir vary significantly with depth.
module with be determined to ensure that an uncon-
• fluids can be sampled with very small
its basic taminated sample is captured. This example
drawdown. Openhole sampling is
components demonstrates the value of having an optical
arguably the most effective method for
and a single- analysis of the fluid content so that in real
sampling critical fluids for this reason.
probe module. time the appropriate information is available
• water samples can be taken while the
to optimize the sampling operation.
well is uncased, whereas water pro-
duction is usually avoided in choosing
Sampling in cased hole
perforations for a cased hole test.
The most common method of sampling
• there is no production at the surface,
when a well is cased is by simultaneously
which has benefits in environmentally
taking samples of separator gas and
sensitive areas.
separator liquid during either a test on the
• a reservoir fluid sample can be taken
well or during routine production. The
even if the formation pressure is not
drawbacks of this method are that the gas
sufficient to allow natural production
usually contains droplets of liquid that may
to surface.
not be sampled in the correct proportion,
thus distorting the gas composition. The gas
and liquid must be recombined in the ratio
of the GOR measured in the separator.
5 23
Figure 5.27 To avoid the problems associated with

recombined surface samples, a monophasic
Oil
Example of an sample of the produced fluid can be
Water Fluid coloration MDT station log, captured at the bottom of the well with a
Elapsed
Resistivity Highly
time absorbing
(FCOL) acquired while bottomhole sampler. Earlier types of
0 (ohm-m) 2 (sec) fluid 0.0001 0.01
pumping out bottomhole samplers were circulation-type,
1620
before sampling. which were run open in the well. The
sample chamber was flushed with fluid by
slowly moving the wireline up and down
1530
just before sampling. A mechanical
1440
triggering device closed the sampler at the
required time, trapping a sample of fluid in
1350 the pressure chamber. The advantage of this
type of sampler was that no differential
1260
pressure existed during sampling. A
disadvantage was the risk of not completely
flushing the tool with fluid at the sampling
1170
depth. A later design of the production

sampler was the admission type. These tools
1080
were run closed in the well and then opened
at the required depth. As the wellbore fluid
990
entered, it forced hydraulic oil through a
choke into an air chamber. When the sample
900
chamber was full, it was closed and brought
back to surface.
810
In any bottomhole sampling operation,
the temperature decreases when the
720
sampling tool is brought back to the surface.

630
By the time the sample is recovered, it has
cooled sufficiently to reduce the pressure
540 below the bubble point of the sample,
causing the sample to become diphasic.
450
Before transferring the fluid to a shipping
bottle, it must be returned to a monophasic
and homogeneous state. This process is,
360
especially for heavy oils, time-consuming

Any error in the GOR measurement could and often impossible to achieve. In addition,
have serious consequences on the accuracy when sampling fluids for asphaltene or wax
of the PVT properties, particularly for deposition studies, the pressure reduction to
volatile oils, gas condensates and critical or two-phase conditions can result in solids
near-critical fluids. precipitation. This can be irreversible, thus
rendering the sample unrepresentative.
5 24
Figures 5.28 and 5.29 When the sampler is activated, the

wellbore fluid enters the tool and displaces
Reservoir Pressure com-
the floating piston, driving the hydraulic
fluid pensating fluid
fluid into the air chamber. When the sample
Buffer Nitrogen
fluid chamber is full, the floating piston acts on
the closure device to move the fixed piston
Clock
that isolates the sampling ports, thereby
sealing the sample inside the tool. At the
same time the spool valve is opened, which
allows communication between the nitrogen
Regulator charge and the top of the floating piston,
valve
thereby applying additional pressure to the
sample (Fig. 5.29). When the sampler is
Nitrogen charge
brought to the surface, although the
Hydraulic
oil maintains sample temperature decreases, the nitrogen charge
pressure above
reservoir pressure is sufficient to ensure that the sample always
Floating remains above reservoir pressure. The
piston
Sampling pressure evolution with time in the sampling
ports
process is shown in Fig. 5.30.
A specially designed shipping bottle
Nitrogen
allows the sample to be transferred under
charge monophasic conditions. The shipping bottle
also has a nitrogen buffer that is isolated
from the sample by a floating piston. This
allows the sample to be maintained in
monophasic condition in the bottle.
The single-phase reservoir The single-phase sampler ready to
The system has now been used to
sampler ready to be run in pull out of the hole, with nitrogen
sample a wide range of reservoir fluids, from
the hole. charge activated.
gas condensate in the North Sea to 8°API
A recent development in sampling tech- very heavy viscous crude in Venezuela.
nology has overcome these problems. The These heavy crudes are notoriously difficult
sampler is called the SRS* Single Phase to sample both downhole and at the surface.
Reservoir Sampler. The SRS is unique in that Heavy oils tend to foam in the separator,
the sample taken in the reservoir is making separation of oil, gas and water
maintained in single-phase condition, difficult. The fluid flow rates tend to be
including during retrieval from the reservoir erratic and unstable; consequently, the GOR
and transport to the laboratory. Figure 5.28 varies with time and is not sufficiently
shows the single-phase reservoir sampler accurate or representative to give PVT-
ready to be run in the hole. A nitrogen charge quality samples by recombination. In
is set at the surface in the tool. The sampling addition, the physical recombination of
ports are closed and the mechanical clock is heavy oils, even in the laboratory, is a
set to open the regulating valve at the laborious and difficult process.
required time. The air chamber above the
regulating valve is at atmospheric pressure
and the buffer fluid maintains the floating
piston at the lower end of its travel.
5 25
Figure 5.30 A newly developed version of the MDT

multisample module now incorporates the
10,000 Tool fires Hydraulic fluid pressure single-phase sampling technique by allowing
Reservoir fluid sample pressure
Reservoir pressure
a nitrogen charge to be applied to the
8,000
captured sample, via a floating piston, to
Sample is pressure-compensated
Pressure test in Relief valve ensures maintain it in monophasic conditions as it is
Pressure (psi)
W.L. lubricator tool working pressure

Start pulling out of hole
6,000
is not exceeded brought back to surface.
Running in hole, hydraulic
In some cases sampling is required in
pressure maintains sample
4,000 chamber in closed position zones that are behind unperforated casing.
This can be performed by a Cased Hole RFT.
Complete
Start running in hole
2,000 sampling Sample is recovered The tool is a modified RFT and uses shaped
above reservoir
Start
sampling
pressure charges to create a hole in the casing. Only
0 two shots per run in the well can be made.
0 2 4 6 8 10
The drawback is that the holes made in the
Elapsed time (hr)
Pressures in the hydraulic casing have to be squeezed off afterward,
fluid and reservoir fluid Single-phase sampling is also appro- except in the unusual case where
during a typical single-phase priate for the sampling of fluids containing recompletion of the well is not compromised
sampling operation. asphaltenes and wax. Production problems by leaving the holes open.
caused by asphaltene deposition are well A new development of the MDT
known worldwide, but the complex overcomes the limitations of the Cased Hole
mechanisms are not fully understood. This is RFT. A module with a hydraulically powered
mainly because of the difficulty of obtaining drill makes a hole in the casing. After use, the
representative samples for study. The hole is plugged off with a special steel plug.
precipitation of asphaltene and wax deposits In this way many samples and pressure
is, in many cases, irreversible. Deposition measurements can be made in a cased hole
often occurs in production tubing as the without compromising the recompletion of
pressure of the fluid decreases. Therefore, to the well. This method of cased hole wireline
obtain a representative sample of the formation testing will have particular appli-
reservoir fluid, it must be maintained at cations in new wells that are unstable while
reservoir pressure until the study in the open, wells that are “sticky” in openhole, and
laboratory is performed. In Venezuela the high-pressure wells. The ability to perform
SRS has been used successfully to obtain pressure profiling and sampling in the cased
representative samples for both normal PVT hole will dramatically reduce the risk of such
and asphaltene deposition studies in the operations in these types of wells. It also has
fields of North Monagas and Lake Maracaibo. applications in old wells.
For studies of trace compounds in the The challenges presented by some of
reservoir fluid, it has been shown that the sampling conditions and fluid properties
surface adsorption of the trace compounds in Venezuelan wells are demonstrated by the
on the sampler wall can significantly change following examples. These examples serve
the laboratory analysis. As a result, a to illustrate how volatile oils and near-critical
variation of the SRS has been introduced fluids need to be sampled with extreme care
called the NRS* Non-Reactive Reservoir and proper techniques to correctly define
Sampler, which is identical to the SRS except the PVT characteristics.
that the wall of the sampler is coated with an
inert polymer that prevents adsorption of the
trace elements.
5 26
Figure 5.31 Sample analyses in

North Monagas,
8900.0
There are some striking examples of
pb
critical fluids from North Monagas. For exam-
ple, in Well A the two major sandstones are
Dew Point the Naricual Media (NM) and Naricual
Inferior (NI) from 16,430 to 16,678 ft and
7240.0 17,230 to 17,400 ft, respectively. The former
pd contains rich gas condensate with a dew
point pressure of 10,724 psia at 281° F, while
the latter produces a classical example of
volatile oil very close to the critical temp-
erature. The bubble point of the fluid is 7265
5580.0
psia at a reservoir temperature of 302°F.
Pressure (psia)
However, at only 500 psia below this pres-

62 %
60 %
55 %
sure, the fluid is 43% gas. Identifying this

24 %
behavior without the availability of labora-
tory studies would be virtually impossible.
23 %
3930.0 The stock tank fluid of Well A-NI is dark in
21 % color with a gravity of approximately 33°API,
very similar to the tank fluid from Well A-NM.
However, the latter fluid is gas condensate
but that in Well A-NI is volatile oil.
An additional parameter that is often
2280.0
given too little attention is the producing
GOR. The GORs of the fluids in the example
wells range from 2577 scf/bbl for Well A-NI
to 5662 for Well B and 2842 for Well C (Table
1000.0 5.2). The phase diagram of the fluid from
100 200 300 400
Temperature (˚F)
Well C, shown in Fig. 5.31, clearly
demonstrates that the fluid is very close to the
Phase diagram for the fluid from Well C, Jabillos Formation, showing that it is very
critical point. For the cases of Wells A and C,
close to the critical point.
it can be seen that the difference in the GORs
is very little, approximately 10%. The
Table 5.2
reservoir temperatures are within 5%, the
Well STO ˚API Color GOR pb pd
(scf ⁄ STB) (psia) (psia) tank liquid densities within 3% and colors are
A - NI 33 Dark 2577 7265 – almost identical. However, when the reservoir
(302˚F)
fluids are examined in the laboratory, Well A-
A - NM 35 Dark 8270 – 10,724
(281˚F) NI exhibits a bubble point pressure and Well
B 33 Dark 5662 – 9968 C a dew point pressure, demonstrating that
(301˚F)
these fluids are on opposite sides of their
C 33 Dark 2842 – 7850
(288˚F) respective critical points. An error of only
270 scf/bbl and a 4% change in temperature
Properties of four North Monagas fluids.
could result in an incorrect identification of
either fluid, with potentially serious impli-
cations on the final recoveries and hence
economics of the field development project.
5 27
Table 5.3 Conclusions

The technology to acquire PVT-quality
Surface samples has undergone rapid development
MDT OH MDT CH SRS ⁄ NRS
sample in recent years and is still evolving. The
Near critical fluids * * * *
discussion above shows that the flexibility
now exists to be able to sample either in
Oils with pb = pi
openhole or cased hole conditions. In some
Dry gas cases there is a preferred method of sampling
Gas condensates (diphasic) because of the requirements of obtaining the
Oils with asphaltic content best PVT-quality sample; in other cases the
method chosen may be driven by operational
Trace analysis required
limitations or preferences. The choice of
Large volume samples sampling methods available are shown in
Samples at many depths Table 5.3, with an indication of the suitability
Viscous oils of each method.
Accurate PVT properties are essential
Highly recommended
Overview of optimum Recommended with some limitations for optimal, cost-effective reservoir manage-
sampling techniques Not recommended ment and field development. The ability to
for different fluids. The Well C fluid changes from 100% gas to capture representative samples of reservoir
48% liquid and 52% gas at only 144 psia fluids that have been difficult to sample in
below the dew point; fortunately, the initial the past is a major advancement for the
pressure of the reservoir is 3400 psia above benefit of the industry.
the dew point.
E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
The enormous reserves of heavy and They are essentially meandering river channel
extra-heavy oil in the Orinoco Belt are fills and crevasse splays that vary considerably
generating ever-increasing interest in the oil in quality, thickness and extent. The oil gravity,
industry. These shallow reservoirs are rather while always characterized as heavy, from
special from the point of view of formation about 6 to 12°API, also varies according to the
evaluation. The area being drilled, and becomes heavier as one
Figure 5.32
producing sand- nears the Orinoco River.
stones are from The Oficina sands are high-porosity,
the Oficina Form- unconsolidated sands held together by tar. A
ation that uncon- Scanning Electron Microscope photograph
formably overlies (Fig. 5.32) reveals that the sand grains are
Precambrian spaced quite far apart and are not cemented.
crystalline rocks. The pore system is very well preserved with
large, well interconnected pores. However,
sand bodies may be no more than a few
centimeters thick and are separated by thin
shale layers.
Scanning Electron Microscope photograph of a clean, medium-
grained, loosely packed Oficina sand sample. Magnification 80x.
5 28
Figure 5.33
Fluids
Water Coal
Estimated Moved oil from MCFL Orthoclase

Permeability
(Herron) Moved oil from CMR Quartz
Core T2 P2
Permeability Oil Bound water
T2 Distribution T2 P1
MDT
Stoneley MDT pressure
Mobility Tar Shale 0.3 V⁄V 3000 permeability
Depth Volume analysis T2 Cut-off Amplitude indicator 700 850
CMRP
(ft) 1000 V⁄V (psia)
(md) .01 0.5 V⁄V 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.3 (ms) 3000 0 50
1900
2000
2100
2200
Composite display of the In such an environment, log analysis heavy crude displacement. In this way, logs
interpretation of a well in must go beyond the simple differentiation will contribute to the identification of the
the Zuata area of the Orinoco between an oil- and a water-bearing zone, better sandstones for horizontal drainhole
Belt, incorporating ELAN, and must attempt to characterize both oil placement. The example that follows is taken
CMR and MDT information. gravity and reservoir quality, in terms of from a well drilled in the Zuata area of the
depositional trends and relative ease of Orinoco Belt.
5 29
Figure 5.34 The resulting effective porosity compares

very well with porosities obtained from core
1100
under a 2100 psi overburden pressure. Core
1000
porosities tend to be slightly lower, probably
because it is difficult to clean the samples
900
Overshoot fully, in spite of applying an extraction
process with toluene and methanol.
The MDT tool offers a promising
Pressure (psia)
800
Reservoir approach for oil typing, due to the very high

pressure
700 accuracy of the CQG quartz gauge. Contrary
to expectations, downhole fluid mobility is
600
sufficient to obtain reliable pressure points. In
Drawdown
fact, even though oil viscosity is high,
500
pressure recovery is surprisingly rapid. A
typical pressure point taken in the Oficina
400
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Formation is shown in Fig. 5.34. Note the
Time (sec) slight pressure overshoot seen at the end of
Representative MDT pres-
the drawdown period. This feature has been
sure response in the heavy Determining oil gravity and viscosity:
seen on several tests and is thought to
oil reservoirs of the Orinoco Volumetric analysis
correspond to sand collapse in front of the
Belt, showing rapid pressure Conventional logs in the Orinoco belt do
packer and a subsequent squeezing resulting
recovery to reservoir pres- not provide the analyst with a reliable
in transient compaction by the setting shoe.
sure, with a 5-cm3 pretest. estimate of downhole oil density. Oficina
Still, complete pressure recovery to formation
sandstones contain appreciable amounts of
pressure was reached in a matter of seconds,
feldspars, such as microcline, which have a
opening the possibility to record detailed
grain density of about 2.53 g/cm3 versus 2.65
pressure gradients.
g/cm3 for quartz. This light mineral lowers the
In doing so, care should be exercised to
formation density and induces a
obtain a minimum of three pressure points in
density–neutron separation that can easily be
each sandstone body to estimate a reliable
mistaken for a light hydrocarbon effect. To
fluid gradient. This may require several probe
estimate an accurate effective porosity from
settings, as the probability of probe plugging
conventional nuclear logs, it is necessary to
in these unconsolidated sandstones remains
account for this amount of feldspar within the
high, and is normally encountered in
ELAN petrophysical analysis, as presented in
sandstones where invaded zone flushing by
Fig 5.33. Feldspar density and other
mud filtrate is deeper, indicating lesser
parameters were taken from published values,
consolidation. Various probe configurations
and clay parameters were selected from
are available to mitigate this problem.
crossplot. The dual-water saturation equation
Figure 5.33, track 7, shows the heavy oil
was used with a=1, m=1.85 and n=1.85, as
gradient obtained on the Zuata well.
recommended in the 1983 MFM-7S case study
Although this gradient is obtained over
of the Orinoco Belt performed by the
several sandstones, in contradiction with the
Schlumberger Doll Research Center with
above recommendation, these sandstones
Intevep.
appear to be in hydraulic equilibrium, and
yield a downhole oil density of 0.94 g/cm3, an
acceptable value for a produced oil of about
10° API and a 80 scf/STB GOR.
5 30
Figure 5.35 In addition, NMR measurements are

sensitive to the bulk properties of heavy oil,
10,000
= Lab A
and are strongly dependent on the viscosity
T1
= Lab B (page 5–6). For the heavy oils of the Orinoco
Belt, the bulk T2 of the oil is expected to be
1000 less than 10 msec. In these conditions, it is
important to retrieve as much early-time CMR
signal as possible. Short echo spacing and
Crudes total CMR porosity processing are essential.
T, or T2 (msec)
100
A representative sample of Faja stock
tank oil from the area of the well was tested
in the laboratory and had a viscosity 2656 cp
10
at surface conditions, versus 1257 cp at down-
Orinoco Belt hole temperature. The NMR response of the
sample
sample was also measured, using the CMR
1 ⁄ T2 = 1 ⁄ T 1 + (1 ⁄ T2)D tool itself. Figure 5.36 shows the response at
1
downhole temperature. The T2 distribution
exhibits a clear peak at 5 msec and fits the
general trend of T2 versus viscosity shown in
0.1
Fig. 5.35
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 Surprisingly, a second T2 peak is seen at
Viscosity (cp)
about 500 msec. This suggests that there is
Logarithmic mean T2 versus Gradient information should be com- water in the sample, approximately 10% in vol-
viscosity for bulk oil samples of pleted by sample analysis, either from a ume. As no water could be detected by visual
various international oil fields. single-phase sample taken in the production inspection, a sample of this oil was submitted
The Orinoco Belt sample column or from a wireline formation tester. to Dean Stark analysis, yielding a 7% water
follows the curving trend of the (Partially filled standard sample chambers content, and confirming that the water is in fact
more viscous oils. were recovered some years ago with the RFT emulsified within the heavy oil sample.
tool in the Orinoco Belt, confirming the Downhole T2s measured by the CMR
feasibility of this technique). over the Oficina sandstones of the same well
also show a clear bimodal distribution, as
Figure 5.36
shown in Fig. 5.33, presented in wiggle form
in track 4 and in variable density display in
track 5. As in the surface oil sample, the
heavy oil peak, labeled T2P1, is found in the
shorter T2 region. The second peak at higher
Amplitude
times corresponds to water, in this case most

probably WBM filtrate. Occurrences of water
production from zones at very low water
saturation have been mentioned in the Faja
MFM 7-S case study, suggesting the possibility
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 of in-situ emulsified water. Unfortunately, this
Time (msecs) formation water, if it exists, cannot be
differentiated from filtrate invasion based on
T2 distribution measured by the CMR tool on an oil sample from the Orinoco Belt
CMR information alone.
heated to downhole temperature. The oil signal corresponds to the short T2 peak. The
long T2 peak is associated with water contamination of the sample.
5 31
Figure 5.37 present in the pore space, while the light

green coding corresponds to the oil that has
440
Rt been displaced by mud filtrate invasion, at
400
Mid-point reading RB0 the depth of investigation of the CMR of 1 in.
Rt RB1
360
Rxo RB2
from the borehole wall. In this sense, this
320 light green coded volume corresponds to an
Resistivity (ohm-m)
280 CMR region of sensitivity

estimate of movable oil.
B2 B1 B0
240
Characterizing invasion
200
This volume of movable oil seen by the
160
CMR is always greater than or equal to the
120
flushed oil volume estimated from the MCFL
80 Rxo (Chapter 4–13) Rxo reading, even in the upper
40 part of the reservoir where MCFL displace-
0 ment is maximum. To clarify this apparent
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
contradiction, it is necessary to go back to the
Distance from the borehole wall (in.)
physics of the MCFL tool. The MCFL is
Computer simulation of the Peak times of the downhole in-situ oil designed to estimate three parameters: Rxo,
response to a step profile of signal also lie in the range of 3 to 6 msec, mudcake resistivity and mudcake thickness.
invasion of the B0, B1 and B2 comparable to the measured surface sample. To achieve this objective, three measurement
buttons of the Platform This confirms that in heavy oils, the CMR buttons, B0, B1 and B2, located within the
Express MCFL sensor for does indeed measure the bulk T2 time of the main electrode, provide resistivities at three
typical resistivity values in-situ oil, from which a viscosity of about different depths of investigation. The central
encountered in the Orinoco 1000 cp can be predicted using the chart on button B0 reads primarily the flushed zone
Belt. Fig. 5.35. The irreducible water T2 signal lies resistivity, while B1 and B2, located
in the same region as the heavy oil signal and progressively closer to the edge of the pad,
cannot be distinguished from it based on are predominantly sensitive to mudcake
cutoffs. For this reason, we have assumed properties. An inversion algorithm provides
that the sandstones are actually at irreducible real-time estimates of Rxo, mudcake resistivity
water saturation and have taken Swirr=Sw. and thickness.
A T2 cut-off of 20 msec was selected to In this heavy oil environment, the mud-
clearly separate the heavy oil signal from the cake thickness, if any, is negligible, and the
mud filtrate signal. This choice was based on invasion is very shallow. B0, B1 and B2 will
the observation that the surface sample does therefore respond primarily to the invaded
not give us any oil signal above 20 msec, and zone, and their individual responses will de-
that the T2 distribution exhibits a clear valley pend on their respective depths of investiga-
at 20 msec in the oil sandstones. tion. To clarify this, their responses were
Comparison between effective porosity simulated with Rxo=40 ohm-m, Rt=400 ohm-
from ELAN and CMR porosity shows a m, similar to resistivities encountered in this
general porosity deficit in the heavy oil leg, well, and for a varying step profile of
coded in black. This is to be expected, and invasion from zero to 1.5 in. As shown in
corresponds to the shorter T2 components of Fig. 5.37, the midpoint reading of B2 is
the heavy oil. The remainder of the oil signal, approximately 0.28 in., B1 is 0.52 in. and
between 0.3 and 20 msec, coded in dark B0 is 0.62 in., all lower than the median
green, corresponds to the heavy oil still depth of investigation of the CMR of 1 in.
5 32
Figure 5.38 For example, at 1 in., all three curves formation, from 0.75 to 1.25 in. away from the
read higher than the theoretical Rxo, borehole, in a bulk manner, and provides a
Synthetic resistivity with RB2=60 ohm-m, RB1=90 ohm-m more reliable estimate of movability.
from CMR free-fluid
and RB0=117 ohm-m. As expected, Borehole images from the FMI give
LLD
B2 yields the lowest Rxo estimate, with additional information regarding this complex
B2 resistivity
B1 and B0 progressively more invasion process. Figure 5.39 shows an FMI
B1 resistivity
influenced by the virgin zone resistivity. image with static normalization recorded in a
Depth B0 resistivity
(ft) However, even B2 overestimates Rxo by cored section of this well. The oil-bearing
1 (ohm-m) 1000
50%. Conversely, for an invasion sandstones appear lighter in color, while the
diameter exceeding 1.5 in., differences more conductive shales appear darker. In the
between the three resistivities are sandstones, changes in resistivity near the
1900
greatly reduced. wellbore create an image with a patchy
To compare the shallow radial inform- aspect, indicating a very heterogeneous
ation provided by the MCFL to the CMR invasion pattern in three dimensions, at a
information, we have calculated a syn- scale of a few centimeters within the same
thetic resistivity curve from the volume sandstone body, the darker zones corres-
of filtrate seen by the CMR. This ponding to deeper invasion. These hetero-
2000 synthetic resistivity curve is plotted on geneities cannot be detected easily on the
Fig. 5.38, along with the three MCFL raw core photograph.
resistivities and the deep laterolog Figure 5.40 provides at least a partial
resistivity. All four shallow curves agree explanation for the varying depth of invasion
very well in regions of deep invasion, observed in the Oficina sandstones. Both the
such as the upper three sandstones or static and dynamically normalized images are
the very flushed zone between 1980 ft displayed side by side, along with the
2100
and 1968 ft. However, in the less invaded corresponding stratigraphic dips. The three
sandstones, large discrepancies exist resistivity curves from the MCFL, along with
between the synthetic curve and Bo or the apparent filtrate volume corresponding to
B1, even though their midpoint is close each resistivity curve, are shown for
to the CMR depth of investigation, while reference. The static image clearly shows a
the agreement with B2, a much shallow- region of higher resistivity, or shallower
2200 er measurement, remains reasonable. invasion, in layers where the sedimentary
This is because the invasion pattern is far dips are higher, whereas sandstones showing
from piston-like. Resistivity tool low dips (i.e., perpendicular to the vertical
measurements react to the continuous hole) are more completely flushed.
water phase, while the CMR sees the This implies that lower dipping beds,
Comparison between actual resis- total water volume. In heavy oil, as which previous studies on the Orinoco Belt
tivity curves from the MCFL and invasion progresses away from the have associated with crevasse splays, may be
Laterolog sensors and theoretical borehole wall, it loses its continuity drained more efficiently by a vertical well than
Rxo corresponding to the actual around the grains, and stops contributing higher dipping beds, associated with river
filtrate volume seen by the CMR. to the resistivity signal. For this reason in channel fill deposits. Unfortunately, typical
The discontinuous invasion profile heavy oil with shallow invasion, only the crevasse splays have limited lateral extent,
causes B0 and B1 to miss much of shallowest resistivity curve can be contrary to river channel fill deposits. In a
the invading filtrate, even though expected to read a representative filtrate horizontal well, the lateral extension and
they investigate a similar volume. volume. It may still underestimate the frequency of the thin interbedded shales seen
Only the very shallow B2 reading true movability, as seen at 2180 ft. The on the FMI images will be the key to recovery.
approaches the true value. CMR, by contrast, sees the total amount
of filtrate that has penetrated the
5 33
Figure 5.39 Surprisingly good results are obtained

when comparing a modified Kozeny-Carman
N E S W N
1981.5 ft equation (Herron, 1987) taking into account a
simple sand-feldspar-shale-clay mineralogy.
As shown in Fig. 5.33, track 1, a reasonable
correlation is observed between core and
estimated permeability for the few core
points available. However, one must bear in
mind that these core permeabilities were
obtained after considerable cleaning of the
samples. In downhole conditions, it is the
mobility of the fluid (k/m) that matters. A
good downhole mobility indicator is the low-
frequency Stoneley available with the DSI.
As discussed above (page 5–9), the
difference between the measured Stoneley
slowness and the theoretical elastic slowness
is a function of the mobility. This difference is
plotted in Fig. 5.33, track 6.
Qualitative correlation with invasion as
evidenced by the CMR T2 distribution is, in
FMI image showing general, excellent. It is also striking to notice
the patchy nature of that in the lower sandstone at 2200 ft, the
invasion in very heavy general trend shown by the mobility indicator
oils. Accurate depth closely tracks the increase in irreducible
matching with core water saturation seen from the resistivity logs.
confirms a missing The highest mobility values are seen where
core section (between the MCFL detected the deepest invasion,
1989.5 ft
1983 and 1985). probably because of the lower viscosity
values of the mud filtrate, but maybe partly
Mobility indicator from because these zones have the highest
Stoneley wave analysis mobility in situ. Finally, the lowermost water-
The task of estimating permeability from bearing sandstone shows higher mobility
logs in the Orinoco Belt is a challenging one, because of the lower viscosity of the water.
because of the oil-wet nature of the forma-
tion. Traditional Wyllie-type equations for
water-wet reservoirs do not apply and tend
toward infinite permeability as Swirr estimated
from the resistivity equation approaches zero.
As discussed above (page 5–6), the standard
NMR estimates need to be considerably
modified due to the wettability and the
viscous oil, which appears as bound fluid.
5 34
Figure 5.40 These techniques involve a lot of care in

the preparation and handling of the core. In
Bed boundary PHIE such conditions, the high-quality electrical
FMI FMI
True dip Vw from B2
dynamic static images recorded by the FMI tool provide the
image image B2 resistivity Vw from B1
Inter-cross bed B1 resistivity Vw from B0
analyst with excellent high-resolution
True dip
B0 resistivity Vwirr Depth
sedimentary information in a timely and cost-
N E S W NN E S W N0 (deg) 90 1 (ohm-m) 1000 0.5 V⁄V 0.0 (ft) effective manner. They also provide the
analyst with an efficient means of correlation
from log to core, through the identification of
thin shales, as shown in Fig. 5.39, where a
missing core section can be identified.
Figure 5.41 displays the FMI image and
associated sedimentary dips recorded over
one of the main sandstone bodies of the
2185
Zuata well. Visual inspection of the image
confirms that this sandstone, appearing quite
massive in a standard petrophysical
evaluation, is in fact interbedded with thin
shale layers, darker in color, and very
heterogeneous. Stratigraphic dips confirm
that this sandstone can be subdivided in
several distinct units with changing bedding
orientation, corresponding to distinct
2190 depositional events and changing directions
of sediment transport.
For example, the main sandstone body
Efficient oil displacement by Evaluation of reservoir sandstone located between 1950 and 2055 ft can be
mud filtrate is closely related quality through images interpreted as a series of 15- to 30-ft thick,
to stratigraphic dips. Because of the unconsolidated nature fining-upward, stacked point bar deposits
of the Oficina Formation, coring is a within a distributary channel oriented
very difficult operation. Cores have a southwest-northeast. Intercalations of shales
tendency to disaggregate, and core recovery are interpreted as delta plain deposits.
can be very poor. Particular attention must be Stratigraphic interpretation of the FMI image
paid to the mud composition, and special and dips indicates cross-bedding dipping
core takers are recommended to maximize toward the northeast, in a “blue” pattern (dip
core recovery. decreasing with depth) seen between 2000
Visual inspection of a reservoir section 1995 ft, representing the paleocurrent
reveals a medium-grained sandstone strongly transport direction. The sequences of “blue”
impregnated with very heavy oil, and and “red” patterns (dip increasing with depth)
interbedded with thin laminated shales. The seen between 2020 and 2005 ft or 1995 and
abundant heavy oil completely masks the 1980 ft correspond to lateral accretion
bedding within the sandstone, making surfaces of channels oriented northeast
sedimentary features unidentifiable directly southwest. The red pattern seen between
from core. Previous studies on Oficina cores 1975 and 1970 ft corresponds to a higher
have identified this problem, and sometimes energy environment, possibly tidal, dipping at
have relied on X-ray radiography for 180˚ from the main direction of transport.
sedimentary bedding information.
5 35
Figure 5.41 Conclusion

In a complex environment such as the
N heavy oil reservoirs of the Orinoco Belt, the
availability of a very complete, high-quality
W E logging suite, including PLATFORM EXPRESS,
Borehole
MDT, DSI, FMI and CMR, allows the log
drift
S
FMI image
True dip
analyst to go beyond the traditional volu-
True dip metric interpretation to characterize reservoir
(deg)
Depth
quality and oil type, and estimate oil recovery.
N E S W N
(ft)
0 10 –10 (deg) 90 The CMR allowed us to estimate the
1950
viscosity of the oil and to quantify the pore
fluids, separating displaced oil from the
remaining oil in the pore space and estimating
the fraction of this oil directly coating the
grains. Because of the irregular nature of
invasion in heavy oil, the estimate of pro-
ducible oil from CMR was considered more
reliable than the one obtained from conven-
2000
tional microresistivity curves. The DSI allowed
us to independently corroborate indications of
fluid displacement from MDT and other logs
and to derive a stand-alone mobility indicator.
The FMI, beyond information on rock texture
and invasion patterns, also supplied an easy
way to delineate sandstone units, determine
stratigraphic dips and infer the direction of
2050
sediment transport, an important factor in
planning reservoir development.
FMI image and dips reveal a strongly heterogeneous sandstone. From the dip
orientation, the paleocurrent direction can be inferred.
C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
The large majority of Venezuelan fields Only in very shaly carbonates is there some
produce from sandstones. Nevertheless, a few uncertainty as to how much of the very short
produce from carbonates, and present differ- T2s are associated with microporosity in the
ent petrophysical challenges. For example, in shales rather than the carbonates.
complex carbonates, it is difficult to obtain an Carbonates also can have a very
accurate estimate of porosity from conven- broad pore size distribution, from micro-
tional logs without combining many measure- crystalline to vuggy, which greatly affects
ments or resorting to costly calibration against estimates of producibility, permeability and
core. However, NMR porosity is derived hydrocarbon saturation from resistivity logs.
independently from formation lithology, NMR T2 distributions provide useful
eliminating errors associated with the un- information on the pore size distribution.
known matrix effects on other measurements.
5 36
Figure 5.42 and has undergone considerable diagenesis. It

is a mixture of limestone, dolomite and silty
Bound fluid Oil Water clastic material, as indicated in track 4. Track
volume
Dolomite 2 is a display of the density porosity on a
Porosity difference
GR CMR-FF – f ELAN
Calcite limestone matrix, neutron porosity on a
0 RHOB CMRP Quartz T2 Cut-off
(gAPI) limestone scale, and CMR porosity.
0 300 1.95 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.95 0.2 0.0 0.3 3000
Bound water
CALI NPHi ELAN Porosity T2 Distribution Comparison of the raw data curves
in. .45 (V ⁄ V) –.15 0.2 0.0 Shale
Depth BS CMRP CMR-FF Volume analysis
allows us to illustrate two features of the
(ft) 6 in. 16 .45 (V ⁄ V) –.15 0.2 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 1.0 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 0.3 3000 CMR porosity: insensitivity to matrix type
and, in this case, insensitivity to clay content.
The agreement between the CMR porosity
12050 and the density porosity is good over the
lowermost 20 ft (interval A), where little
dolomitization has occurred. Differences
B
between neutron and CMR porosity are large
12100 because of the presence of shale and bound-
water porosity, which are not seen by the
A CMR tool. Above 12,110 ft, density porosity
and CMR begin to separate because of the
12150
increasing amount of dolomitization, which
affects the density porosity. Neutron porosity
and CMR porosity are almost equal in the
clean intervals, where both measure the pore
12200
fluid HI, and separate as before in the
CMR porosity is inde- presence of shale.
pendent from matrix Determining an appropriate cut-off that Track 4 shows a traditional inter-
and shale effects. separates bound fluid from producible fluid is pretation made with ELAN. The lithology is
a more challenging task in a carbonate than in more complex than shown, but the
a sandstone, and is best performed on whole interpretation is limited by the number of
core samples analyzed in the laboratory. available lithoporosity logs. Over interval A,
Published values range from as little as 30 ELAN and CMR porosity agree quite well. In
msec to as much as 100 msec or more. what is predominantly a limestone, the ELAN
Nevertheless, in favorable cases, a reasonable shale corrections performed well. In
guess can be made based on log data alone. addition, the CMR T2 distribution shows that
Traditional permeability transforms, establish- almost all the pores are small. In the absence
ed on sandstones, are not necessarily valid in of core data, the T2 cut-off was selected at 80
carbonates. Again, core measurements should msec in the carbonate based on the average
be made on representative plugs to estimate a troughs in the distributions. With this cut-off,
rock type’s specific permeability transform. most of the porosity in this interval is at
The example shown in Fig. 5.42 is irreducible saturation.
located in the Borburata Field in the Barinas Both curves correctly show the large
area. While the main producing zone is porosity peak at 12,110 ft. The CMR also
a sandstone, it is overlain by a carbonate shows a longer T2 distribution, indicating an
known as “Caliza O,” which has variable increase in pore size that parallels the
thickness and production potential. In this increase in dolomitization.
well, it extends over the interval from 12,060
to 12,140 ft. This carbonate is very complex
4 37
C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
In interval B (12,100 to 12,060 ft), the the CMR which, as a result, will show more
neutron-density separation and the GR dolomite in place of shale. The T2
response are high. This can be caused by distribution in this horizon becomes
shale or dolomite with high uranium bimodal, and suggests the presence of
content, or both. Normally, this would be vugular porosity, within a dolomitized
interpreted as shale, as was done in this matrix of some effective porosity.
case. However, the CMR shows significant Based on these observations, we see
porosity throughout the interval, with a peak that the bottom 20 ft of this carbonate
at 12,075 ft. There is no reason to doubt the (interval A) has no reservoir potential, and
CMR porosity—the hole is in gauge, and that useful porosity is to be found in the
there is no indication of a mud signal upper 60 ft. Of these 60 ft, the upper 40 ft
(typically a strong and constant signal (interval B) are missed by traditional
around 10 msec). Consequently, we should petrophysical analysis, and are correctly
reinterpret this zone with the porosity from seen only by the CMR.
P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
One of the major problems of log A simple interpretation of the top zone,
interpretation is the identification and including clay correction, gives a water
evaluation of low-resistivity and low-contrast saturation of 42%, or a water volume of 11
pays. These are zones that produce clean oil, p.u. In many rocks this would imply water
but in which there is little contrast in production, or at least the production of oil
resistivity between a water and an oil zone, with a large water cut. However, the CMR
and usually also the surrounding shales. tool shows that there is an average of 10 p.u.
There are three main causes—a thinly of bound fluid throughout the zone.
laminated sand-shale sequence in which the Therefore, this zone should produce clean
shale dominates the resistivity response; high oil with a small water cut. In fact, the top
irreducible water trapped usually in fine zone was tested and produced clean oil with
pores and which gives a high water saturation a productivity index of 0.974 bbl/day/psi.
but is not producible; and a high content of To better understand and quantify this
dispersed clay. Often the last two causes result, a series of measurements were made
occur together. The following section shows on plugs taken from the core over the
an example of this from Eastern Venezuela. interval 5945 ft to 5974 ft. These included
In Fig. 5.43 two sandstones can be mineralogy (Dual Range Fourier Transform
seen—one at 6100 ft with resistivities around Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy), chemical
30 ohm-m, and one at 5900 ft with analysis, NMR and electrical measurements.
resistivities around 7 ohm-m. Both have
approximately the same porosity (27 p.u.)
and are expected to have the same formation
water resistivity of Rw=0.14 @ BHT (160°F).
While the lower sandstone, with Rwa=2.5,
should clearly produce oil, the top sand-
stone, with Rwa=0.5 and hence a quicklook
water saturation above 50%, is doubtful.
5 38
Figure 5.43 and knowing the standard spectrum of

each mineral, it is possible to solve quanti-
LLS BFV tatively for the composition of the mixture.
0.1 1000 0.5 0.0
SP LLD CMRP Fourier transforms of the spectra are
–130 (mV) –30 0.1 1000 0.5 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 T2 Distribution
CALI MSFL RHOB
smoother, have reduced noise content, and
6.0 (in.) 16 0.1 (ohm-m) 1000 1.825 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.65 therefore are more suitable for full spectrum
GR Depth RWA TNPH T2 Cut-off
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 0.001 (ohm-m) 10 0.5 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 0.5 (ms) 3000
analysis. The procedure combines the mid-IR
spectrum with the far-IR spectrum before
data processing, resulting in a dual range FT-
IR with even greater accuracy. Detection
limits are approximately 1 wt%.
However, the properties of individual
5900 minerals can vary. To account for this natural
variability, the SDRC FT-IR procedure
includes 50 mineral standards representing 28
minerals. Multiple standards are included for
quartz, calcite, dolomite, kaolinite, illite,
6000 smectite and chlorite. The use of multiple
species mineral standards is an important
reason why this procedure has attained a
high degree of accuracy. In the case of
feldspars, spectral standards have been found
for the Na-, K-, and Ca-feldspar end
6100
members. The procedure then solves for the
fractions of the end members in the mixture.
The fractions found for each mineral in
six samples from this well are shown in Fig.
Openhole logs with tests and
Mineralogy and chemistry 5.44. Specific carbonate and evaporite
core zones marked.
The goal is to identify the major minerals have been shown separately, as the
minerals and then to determine the optimum quantities are very small. The top four
parameters to use for log interpretation. samples are typical of the main body of the
Mineralogy was determined using a shaly sandstone, while the bottom two are
unique FT-IR technique developed by essentially shale. As can be seen, the shaly
Schlumberger Doll Research Center (SDRC). sandstones contain an average of 14 wt%
It has been shown that this technique gives clay, which is predominantly illite with some
better quantitative results than the more com- smectite and kaolinite. They also contain 20%
monly used X-ray diffraction (Matteson, feldspars, with a ratio of approximately 4:1
1995). The FT-IR technique is based on the plagioclase to orthoclase.
response of molecular bonds to infrared
light. Among other properties, minerals have
chemical bond vibrational energies that lead
to characteristic IR absorbance spectra for
each mineral. Then, by measuring the com-
posite spectra of a combination of minerals,
5 39
P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.44 Chemical analysis is used to indepen-

_ _ _ p
Quartz Carbonate
dently monitor the quality of the FT-IR
mineralogy, and to determine logging tool
response parameters. The analysis includes 23
Chert Illite
elements using a variety of methods: X-ray
Fluorescence, Prompt Neutron Activation,
Qtz+ Chert Smectite
Coulometry, and Induction Coupled Plasma
Mass Spectrometry. The volume of each
K-Feld Kaolinite
element in each sample is compared with the
volume reconstructed from the mineralogy.
Na-Feld Chlorite
The latter is obtained from the mineral volume
found by FT-IR and the elemental
Ca-Feld Glauconite
composition of each mineral standard.
The results for this well are shown in Fig.
Feldspar Clay
5.45. The major elements compare very well,
0 20 40 60 80
while the trace elements Th and U do not.
Evaporite
This is probably because of trace minerals
Mineralogy of the six samples, as deter-
such as rutile, zircon and monazite, which are
mined by FT-IR. The top four samples 0 20 40 60 80
not measured by the FT-IR. Otherwise, the
are typical of the shaly sandstone facies, while the bottom two are essentially shale.
results confirm the FT-IR mineralogy.
The accurate FT-IR mineralogy combined
Figure 5.45
with the array of elemental concentrations
Silicon Calcium Iron measured on the same samples enables us to
50 40 15
calculate logging tool response. For example,
40
30 the matrix GR is calculated from the Th, U and
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
10
30
20
K concentrations according to the formula
20
5
(Ellis, 1987):
10
10
GR = 4 Th + 8 U + 16 K (11)
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15
Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %)
The matrix density is computed from
grain density values for each mineral and the
Potassium Aluminum Sulfur mineral concentrations determined by FT-IR
5 15 20
4 analysis. The cation exchange capacity (CEC)

15
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
3
10 is computed in the same way. The chemical
2
10 concentrations and the matrix density values
5
5
are entered into the SNUPAR computer
1
program, which calculates a wide variety of
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20 nuclear properties and logging tool response
Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %) parameters (McKeon and Scott, 1988). The
Thorium Uranium parameters computed in this study included
30 10
Comparison of the zero porosity formation response to
7.5 volumes of elements thermal neutron (NPHIMAT), zero porosity
Core (ppm)
Core (ppm)
20
5
measured directly formation hydrogen index (HIMAT), form-
10 versus reconstructed ation photoelectric factor (PEF), and sigma
2.5
from mineralogy. matrix (SIGMAT).
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (ppm)
5 40
Figure 5.46 These results can also be used to check However, to distinguish between them will
the usefulness of different logs in estimating be difficult, so we will solve for an
100
clay and other volumes. For example, Fig. appropriate mixture of the two. We can also
Total clay (wt %)
80
5.46 compares the (GR), neutron-density, and estimate the amount of orthoclase (K-
60 SpectroLith estimates of clay weight percent feldspar) with the help of the NGS, but we
40 with the FT-IR values. The GR is quite good cannot measure the plagioclases directly. (We
20
but shows a spread of about 10 API units for could estimate them using the ratio of
the same clay volume in the sandstones. plagioclase to orthoclase of approximately 4:1
0
0 50 100 150 There is also some non-linearity. The neutron- from the mineralogy.) There are no significant
Gamma ray (API)
density correlation is good. The SpectroLith carbonates or evaporites.
100
technique estimates the volumes of the major The minerals and the tool response
Total clay (wt %)
80
lithologies (sandstone, clay, carbonate, parameters to be used in log evaluation are
60 evaporite) from measurements of elemental shown in Table 5.4. Also shown are the
40 concentrations, mainly Si, Ca, Fe, Su, Ti, Gd. response parameters for the two main
20 As is shown in Chapter 6–17, this technique lithologies present, sandstone and clay. The
0
generally gives more reliable estimates of clay latter are calculated from the response
0 20 40
volume than the GR. In this case the results parameters for each mineral and the mineral
N-D (sandstone separation p.u.)
are similar to the neutron-density results. concentrations determined by FT-IR. In this
100
However, SpectroLith may be used through case, the sandstone group contains all
Total clay (wt %)
80
casing in old wells where a good set of minerals except clays.
60 openhole logs is not available.
40
Electrical parameters
Log interpretation model Porosity exponent (m), saturation
20
and end-point calculation exponent (n) and CEC were measured on
0
0 50 100 The accurate FT-IR mineralogy helps us three samples. The results are shown in
Spectrolith
decide what minerals to put in our log Table 5.5 and Fig. 5.47. The exponents m, n
Clay volume as predicted interpretation model. The main clay is illite and the resistivity index I are shown after
by GR, Neutron-Density with small, and approximately equal amounts correcting for the effect of clay conductivity
and SpectroLith versus of smectite and kaolinite. The two latter clays using the Dual Water model. Because of the
actual volume measured both have low Th/K ratio, so together they friable nature of the rock, the number of
on six samples. may be distinguished from illite with the help samples analyzed is small. However, the
of Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy (NGS). results are consistent, and will be used for
the log interpretation, with a=1, m*=1.84,
n*=1.90.
Table 5.4
Sand Clay Quartz Illite Smectite/ Orthoclase NMR parameters

Kaolinite
The laboratory NMR measurements
Density, g/cm3 2.64 2.782 2.65 2.50 2.28 2.52
Neutron porosity, V/V 0.0016 0.309 0.002 0.47 0.73 0.00 were used to determine the bound fluid cut-
PEF 2.43 3.71
Gamma ray, API 56.5 161 45 180 100 100 off, T2,cut, and also to examine how much of
Sigma, c.u. 11.35 31.47
CEC, meq/g 0.0 0.264 0.0 0.25 0.45 0.0 the bound fluid was attributable to clay and
Wet clay porosity, V/V 0.0 0.16 0.0 0.156 0.24 0.0
how much to irreducible water.
WSi, p.u. 41.8 22.3
WCa, p.u. 1.0 0.6 Measurements were made with water-
WFe, p.u. 0.7 7.3
WAI, p.u. 2.3 13.6 saturated and desaturated samples, as
WK, p.u. 1.4 2.6
WTh, p.u. 5.3 21.9 explained above page (5–4). The results are
WU, p.u. 1.6 4.0
given in Table 5.6, and show that the
End-point parameters used for major minerals, total clay, optimum value of T2,cut, is 21 msec.
and sandstone (including feldspars).
5 41
P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.47 The volume of clay-bound water is often Note also (Table 5.5) that NMR porosities are
taken to be the fraction below 3 msec on average 2.3 p.u. less than buoyancy
100
(Straley, 1994). In practice, capillary-bound porosities in the sandstones.
Resistivity index, I* = Rt/Ro,
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3 water may also be found either below this Therefore, even after allowing for
corrected for clay
value, while clay-bound water may be found inaccuracies in the measurements, there is
10
above it, or may decay too fast to measure. good evidence that a significant amount of
The T2 of clays has been related to clay type capillary-bound water occurs below 1 msec,
(Prammer, 1996), but there is also evidence and that some porosity is missing from the
that it depends more on clay distribution and NMR signal due to the clays.
1 history. Figure 5.48a shows the volume below
0.01 0.1 1
3 msec (BFV3) plotted against the volume of Log processing
Brine saturation
clay-bound water (CBWm), calculated from The log interpretation model and
Brine saturation versus
the mineralogical analysis, using the Dual parameters are based on the mineralogical
Resistivity Index corrected
Water model with CEC and rdcl values from and electrical parameters described above.
for clay effects on plugs 1,
Table 5.4. The separation between the 1:1 The CMR was recorded with an echo
12, and 20. The slope gives
line and the actual trend shows that there is a spacing of 0.32 msec, and is processed to
n*=1.96.
large proportion of capillary-bound water give a T2 distribution between 0.3 msec and
below 3 msec. In addition, BFV3 is generally 3 sec. To obtain the fastest components, we
lower than CBWm in the sandstones by about must use the signal from the first few echoes
1 p.u., suggesting that some clay-bound water with little or no averaging between echoes.
is not measured by NMR. The intercept with This lowers the signal-to-noise ratio for these
the X-axis suggests that up to 3 p.u. is components, and is compensated for by
missing. The same trends are seen if we plot increasing the averaging over depth levels.
the porosity below 1 msec (Figure 5.48b). In this case, a five-level average was used.
Note the good agreement between CMR
Figure 5.48 porosity and density (Fig. 5.43).
The clay-bound water is calculated from
0.15 0.15
Clay-bound fluid from
Clay-bound 1:1 line

(a) Clay-bound
(b) the mineralogy. The capillary-bound water is
Clay-bound fluid from
fluid fluid
calculated by subtracting half the clay-bound
mineralogy
0.10 Capillary-bound 0.10 Capillary-bound

mineralogy
fluid fluid water from the CMR bound fluid between 0.5
0.05 0.05 and 21 msec. (By subtracting only half,
we allow for the missing porosity noted
0.0 0.0 above.) The results are shown in Fig. 5.49.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
The effective water saturation in zone 1 is
NMR bound fluid < 3 msec NMR porosity < 1 msec
found to be close to 30%, all of which is
Clay-bound fluid from mineralogy versus NMR signal below (a) 3 msec, and (b) 1
capillary-bound water. This zone will
msec.The black line is the 1:1 clay-bound fluid line.
produce clean oil.
Permeabilities measured on the core
Table 5.5
plugs would normally have been used to
Sample Porosity Grain density CEC Formation Porosity Exponent calibrate the NMR permeability. However,
Nº V/V g/cm3 meq/100 g factor, F m m*
the permeabilities were measured with
1 0.290 2.66 1.19 9.39 1.81 1.830
air and after cleaning, which effectively
12 0.302 2.66 0.82 8.45 1.78 1.795
removed all capillary-and clay-bound water.
20 0.253 2.67 2.54 10.6 1.72 1.760
This can be seen from the high buoyancy
Electrical and other properties measured on three samples. The CEC was measured porosity values in Table 5.6.
on wet chemistry. The resistivity of the brine was 0.273 ohm-m at 25°C. The
effective confining stress was 2000 psi.
5 42
Figure 5.49 Even at 2000 psi overburden, the

permeabilities are very high (see Table 5.6).
X Zone Oil VXBW They are also at conditions that are very
Moved Hydrocarbon VMON+VKAO different from the reservoir, in which oil flows
Irreducible Water VILL in the presence of a large volume of bound
BFV .CMR VMON water. Therefore, the permeability has been
VUWA VCL T2 Distribution calculated from the CMR using the
VXWA VILL Timur/Coates equation ((3), page 5-4) with
Depth KCMR PIGN PIGN T2 Cut-off the default parameters. This equation was
(ft) 10000 (md) 1 0.5 (V ⁄ V) 0 1 (V ⁄ V) 0 0.3 (ms) 3000
found to be more representative than
equation (2) in this case, possibly because of
5850
the high amount of microporosity. The
arithmetic average of the permeability in the
top zone 1 is 70 md. A buildup from the test
5900 of this zone gave k=146 md. The log estimate
is reasonable, considering that core calibration
was not possible.
5950
Conclusion
The combination of CMR and other
openhole logs correctly predicted water-free
6000
production from a zone of low resistivity that
gave a quicklook water saturation above 50%.
This gave confidence in the test planned for
6050 this zone and established guidelines for the
interpretation of similar zones in other wells.
CMR-based permeability gave a reasonable
6100
prediction of well test permeability.
Log interpretation results using ELAN and parameters from log-core integration.
Table 5.6
Sample Porosity, Porosity, Permeability BFV, after T2 Cut-off BFV, with BFV BFV Clay-Bound Water
No. (Buoyancy) (NMR) (air, 2000psi) desaturation msec 21 msec cut-off <3 msec <1 msec (Mineralogy)
V/V V/V md V/V V/V V/V V/V V/V
2 0.323 0.302 344 0.075 18 0.092 0.033 0.011 0.018
5 0.326 0.308 508 0.054 17 0.062 0.010 0.002 0.016
9 0.206 0.326 1.14 0.25 – – 0.279 0.205 0.104
11 0.319 0.304 661 0.055 27 0.048 0.009 0.008 0.017
14 0.299 0.261 240 0.07 21 0.070 0.011 0.003 0.018
24 0.176 0.240 1.54 0.19 – – 0.189 0.128 0.066
NMR properties measured on six samples using low field NMR with echo spacings of 0.16 and 0.4 msec.
5 43
P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
The predictions were confirmed and ex- now be applied with confidence to other
plained by core analysis. FT-IR spectroscopy wells in the area—both openhole evaluation
and chemical analysis determined the min- of new wells and through-casing spectro-
eralogy, and hence the optimum log inter- scopy evaluation of old wells.
pretation model and tool response para- The combination of core and log data,
meters to be used. Electrical measurements and the interpretation methodology used
determined the correct porosity and satura- in this example, serves as a model for
tion exponents. NMR analysis determined the the interpretation of other low resistivity
cut-offs to be used for capillary- and clay- pays caused by high irreducible water and
bound fluid volumes. These parameters can clay content.
IDENTIFYING PRODUCIBLE ZONES IN OBM WELLS
In principle, identifying producible In water zones, the filtrate displaces water

zones in wells drilled with OBM is and Rxo > Rt. In practice, it is often not so
straightforward. In hydrocarbon zones, the easy. OBM mud can invade deeply, and the
OBM filtrate replaces the formation oil, and invading fluid may involve the water phase,
the resistivity of the invaded zone (Rxo) the oil phase, or both, depending on the
equals the non-invaded zone resistivity (Rt). specific formulation of this complex mixture
of oil, salt water and solids. In addition,
Figure 5.50 OBM often contains surfactants that modify
the water surface tension in the invaded
Water zone Hydrocarbon Zone
(at irreducible water) zone, and affect residual water content near
the borehole. However, a combination of the
CMR tool and the AIT tool can solve the
problem. Conventional shallow resistivity
tools rely on laterolog devices that do not
operate in resistive boreholes. However, the
AIT 10-in. curve reads close to the borehole
and provides an estimate of invaded zone
a) Incomplete flushing c) Normal flushing
saturation. The CMR measures irreducible
Rxo > Rt Sw > Sxo > Swirr Rxo = Rt Sw = Sxo = Swirr
water in the invaded zone.
In zones where water is the movable
fluid, OBM filtrate will replace water, and the
invaded zone saturation (Sxo) will be lower
than the virgin zone saturation (Sw), but may
still be higher than the irreducible water
saturation (Swirr) (Fig. 5.50a). In other cases,
b) Complete flushing d) Partial flushing of irreducible water there may be complete flushing of formation
Rxo > Rt Sw > Sxo = Swirr Rxo > Rt Sw > Sxo water in the near wellbore and the calculated
Sw = Swirr Sxo may actually be equal to Swirr (Fig. 5.50b).
Sxo = Swirr (CMR)
Irreducible water OBM filtrate
Free water Formation oil
Different invasion profiles for a water zone and a hydrocarbon zone

at irreducible water saturation.
5 44
Figure 5.51 and 5.52
BFV BFV
Moved water Shale Moved water Shale

Oil Bound water Oil Bound water
KCMR CMRP T2 Distribution KCMR CMRP T2 Distribution
Quartz Quartz
1000 (md) 0.1 0.25 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 1000 (md) 0.1 0.25 (V ⁄ V) 0.0
Depth MDT Mobility MDT Pressure Volume analysis T2 Cut-off Depth MDT Mobility MDT Pressure Volume analysis T2 Cut-off
(ft) 1000 (md ⁄ cp) 0.1 10900 (psi) 11400 1.0 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 1.0 6000 (ft) 1000 (md ⁄ cp) 0.1 10900 (psi) 11400 1.0 (V ⁄ V) 0.0 1.0 6000
B
18600
18000
18700
18100
A
18800
OBM filtrate invasion in an oil zone, confirming that the zone is at
irreducible water saturation.
OBM filtrate invasion in a water zone showing both complete and
incomplete flushing of the free water.
Both cases are seen on the logs in Fig. Fortunately in this case, differences between
5.51. The lowest zone (A) shows some Sw and Sxo remain small and, more
movable water (white) between the water important, the same change in wettability
flushed by the mud filtrate (dark blue) and the affects the CMR-derived Swirr. Therefore, if
irreducible water (light blue). Therefore, this Sxo equals the CMR-derived Swirr but is a little
sandstone has not been completely flushed by less than Sw, the zone can still be at
filtrate, at least at the depth of the AIT 10-in. irreducible water saturation and produce
tool. On the other hand, sandstone B at 18,600 clean oil.
ft shows no remaining movable water and has An example of this is shown in Fig.
been flushed. The MDT pressures fall on a 5.52, where moved water at several levels
water gradient, confirming that these are, in reflects slight differences between Sw and
fact, water-bearing sandstones. Sxo. However, Sxo remains almost identical to
In hydrocarbon zones at irreducible Swirr, indicating a zone at irreducible water
water saturation, oil is displaced by oil saturation. This interval was perforated and
and generally Sw=Sxo=Swirr (Fig. 5.50c). produced 400 bbl per day of clean oil.
However, in some cases, one may paradoxi-
cally still observe Rxo > Rt and therefore Sw
>Sxo. This anomaly occurs when surfactant
invades the formation, changing the wetta-
bility of the sand grains (Lavigne, 1997).
5 45
CONTINUOUS WIRELINE FLUORESCENCE LOGGING
Fluorescence detection of crude oil on For wireline fluorescence logging, the

drill cuttings and cores has been employed in natural size of optical elements gives very
the oil field for more than 50 years; high vertical resolution, about one cm. This
fluorescence continues to be used today, in resolution is a vast improvement over cuttings
part, because it provides the direct detection analysis, and should allow accurate detection
of hydrocarbons. The aromatic components of producing formations. In addition, detailed
of crude oils, such as benzene, give rise to analysis of the changes of the fluorescence
fluorescence (Ralston et al., 1996). The signal with depth can provide more
fluorescence properties of intensity and color information about the nature of the hydro-
provide information about the distribution carbons and formations. However, the
and type of hydrocarbons within formations. fluorescence techniques are qualitative in that
However, a significant limitation of the crude oils of different API gravity fluoresce
fluorescence logging of drill cuttings is the with different intensities and at different
poor vertical resolution associated with these frequencies (Downare and Mullins, 1995).
cuttings. Depending on depth and drilling Also, variable amplitude of the fluorescence
conditions, the vertical resolution might be 5 signal can result from variable oil flushing in
m, and contributions to cuttings from the invaded zone and from variable window
previously penetrated sections only degrades contact resulting from rugosity, differing mud
the resolution. At present, this poor vertical cake removal, etc. Nevertheless, the
resolution hinders the use of fluorescence in measurement of the fluorescence spectrum
its natural applications. helps to identify characteristics of the
fluorescing hydrocarbons.
The primary application of fluorescence
Figure 5.53
logging is to help resolve cases where
electrical logging yields ambiguous results.
For instance, in problematic cases of low-
resistivity pays or fresh-water pays,
fluorescence can discriminate water from oil.
Highly laminated zones can yield averaged,
thus ambiguous electrical parameters,
whereas high-resolution wireline fluores-
cence logging can detect the oil. Furthermore,
the introduction of a totally new physics
measurement in the borehole will undoubt-
edly generate specific applications within
individual fields. Experience will be required
to exploit this expectation.
To determine the feasibility of fluores-
cence logging, we have built a prototype for
field testing. We anticipate that the experience
gained with this prototype in generating the
The fluorescence logging tool prototype emerging from a well in Patagonia. first-ever wireline fluorescence logs will help
The optical heads, which contact the formation, can be seen to protrude from us in designing more effective and robust
the lower end of the pads. Blue light emanates from the window of the optical fluorescence logging tools in the future.
head facing the observer.
5 46
Figure 5.54 allows characterization of the fluorescing

hydrocarbon. For instance, very light oils
AHO60 produce strong blue fluorescence but little red
AHO30 fluorescence. We do not list optical design con-
RHOZ
SP
AHO20
1.9 (V ⁄ V) 2.9 straints except to say that very high per-
AHO10 BFV
–80 (mV) 20
T2 Distribution
formance optical systems must be built in
HCAL NPOR Blue Red
RXOI
6 16 induced induced order to reject scattered source light in the fluo-
Depth GR AHORT CMRP fluores. fluores. T2 Cut-off
(ft) 0.0 (gAPI) 300 1.0 (ohm-m) 100 0.45 (V ⁄ V) –.15 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.5 1.0 (msec) 3000
rescence detection channel. Our downhole
optical train provides optical blocking that
rivals research-grade laboratory spectrometers.
In addition to fluorescence detection, we also
1150 record for each light source the scattered light
returned from the borehole wall as a log
quality indicator. If the optical head is in
contact with only mud or mudcake, the
1160 scattered light signal will exhibit very little
variability, whereas if the optical head contacts
the borehole wall, variation in scattered light is
expected. For instance, limestones tend to
1170 scatter light more effectively than shales.
The feasibility of establishing optical con-
tact with the borehole wall involves the mech-
anical design and requires overcoming mud-
cake and rugosity problems. Key features of
Fluorescence log along with Two principal design areas must be con- the mechanical layout can be gleaned from
the Platform Express and sidered: optical and mechanical. Schlum- Fig. 5.53, which shows a picture of the FLT
CMR logs from a well in berger is the leader in delivering optical prototype emerging from a well at sunrise
Patagonia. In both the red technology to the borehole. The first com- after a logging job in Patagonia. Four pads
and blue fluorescence mercial, optical wireline service is the OFA, deliver the fluorescence measurement, two
channels, there is a large and which analyzes the contents of the MDT pads for blue fluorescence and two for red
variable fluorescence (oil) flowline. The quantity of oil, water, and to fluorescence, providing redundancy and
signal in low-permeability some extent, gas are determined (Smits et al., allowing for comparative testing of different
zones and an intermediate 1993). In addition, OBM filtrate can be optical heads. With careful inspection, the
magnitude signal, constant distinguished from crude oil by colorimetry. optical heads can be seen protruding from the
with depth, in the high- The optical components employed in the lower section of the pads in Fig. 5.53; the win-
permeability zones. OFA are similar to those required in the FLT* dow of the pad facing the viewer is emitting
Fluorescence Logging Tool. The windows of blue light in Fig. 5.53. The contact area of the
the FLT are subject to greater abrasion than tool with the borehole wall is not the pad
those of the OFA, yet they have been shown area, but only the face of the optical head,
to survive intact. which is quite small. This small contact area
For the optical design of the FLT, we have coupled with normal pad forces produces
used two light sources of different wavelength, high applied pressures, which are required to
one light source measuring the amount of cut though mudcake, and in favorable cases,
blue-induced fluorescence, the other mea- into the rock. Future fluorescence logging
suring the amount of red-induced fluores- prototypes may employ significantly different
cence. The spectral information obtained by mechanical designs; nevertheless, this first
measuring the blue and red fluorescence prototype is a very good test platform.
5 47
CONTINUOUS WIRELINE FLUORESCENCE LOGGING
Figure 5.55 The substantial variation in fluorescence

signal indicates that optical contact is estab-
Moved water lished with the borehole wall. The fluorescing
Moved hydrocarbon hydrocarbons exhibit both red and blue
Water fluorescence, indicating that these hydrocar-
Gas
bons are somewhat heavy. In other wells (in
Oil
Quartz
West Texas), we have seen crude oils that
Blue induced
B2 fluorescence Bound water exhibit much larger blue than red fluorescence;
2.0 –2.0 T2 Distribution
HCAL B1
Red induced
Illite these are light oils.
B0 Volume analysis T2 Cut-off
Depth
(ft) 6.0
BS fluorescence
In both the red and blue channels the
(in.) 16 1 (ohm-m) 100 –2.0 2.0 0.0 (V ⁄ V) 1.0 0.3 (msec) 3000
fluorescence signal occurs in two distinct
forms; at certain depths, the fluorescence sig-
nal is very large and shows substantial varia-
tion signal magnitude with depth. These zones
show low permeability in the CMR and
2500 Platform Express logs. At other depths, the
fluorescence signal is somewhat smaller and
nearly constant with depth. In these latter
zones, both the CMR and Platform Express
indicate high permeability. An explanation
consistent with these results is that the perme-
able zones are invaded, flushing the crude oil
and reducing the fluorescence signal; however,
the sandstones are relatively uniform, giving a
nearly constant fluorescence signal with depth.
2600
The low-permeability zones may consist of
finely laminated shale-sandstone sequences.
The hydrocarbons in these low-permeability
sandstones are not swept away, and our mea-
surement is not impeded by any mudcake, so
the fluorescence signal is large. However, the
shale laminations do not fluoresce much,
giving highly variable fluorescence signal with
depth. This log example illustrates not only the
Fluorescence log along with Figure 5.54 shows an FLT log example detection and some characterization of
CMR and ELAN results from obtained from field testing in Patagonia. In hydrocarbons in continuous wireline fluores-
a well in the Lagunillas Field. addition to the FLT, the Platform Express and cence, but also indicates that information
Reservoir sandstones are the CMR were run, providing very good stan- about the formations can be gleaned from the
characterized by large blue dards for comparison. The SP in track 1, and fluorescence log.
and red fluorescence. Shales the induction and MCFL resistivity curves in Figure 5.55 shows another FLT log
rich in organic matter also track 2 clearly distinguish permeable zones. example, this time recorded in the
emit considerable red track 3 presents the porosity data from Lagunillas Formation in Lake Maracaibo.
fluorescence. Platform Express and CMR, the CMR free-fluid Along with the blue and red fluorescence,
porosity being shaded in yellow. The FLT shown in track 3, a caliper log is displayed
curves are presented in track 4, and show the in track 1, showing a rather rugose hole
power level of blue fluorescence (blue curve) with no significant mudcake buildup.
and red fluorescence (red curve).
5 48
The high-resolution resistivity curves B0, B1 content in the upper sandstone. There are
and B2 provided by the MCFL sensor of the several types of shale layers in this well. Low-
Platform Express confirm the densely lami- resistivity shales are seen at 2665 and 2600 ft.
nated nature of the formation sandstones They exhibit almost no red or blue fluores-
and the flushing of the near wellbore vol- cence. (The fluorescence signals in these zones
ume by mud filtrate, as shown in the ELAN are baseline.) Likewise, in the low-resistivity
evaluation presented in track 4. The CMR T2 shales at 2490 and 2520 ft, there is very little
distribution shown in track 5 shows very signal. In contrast, the high-resistivity shaly
short T2 times, confirming that we are in the sandstone section between 2590 and 2530 ft
presence of heavy oil reservoirs. exhibits a high level of red fluorescence
Comparison between the MCFL response broadly correlating with resistivity variations.
and the FLT fluorescence curves confirms the However, the blue fluorescence remains non-
very high resolution of the optical measure- zero and relatively invariant in this section.
ment. Interestingly, the mechanical design of Perhaps the upper sandstone and to some
the optical windows proves to be relatively degree the high-resistivity shale contain some
immune to the borehole rugosity seen in this blue fluorescing crude oil.
well. Even in the more rugose sections, the In this Venezuelan example, fluores-
small FLT optical windows maintain contact cence has provided additional information
with the formation and provide us with a on the formations beyond the detection of
continuous reading of fluorescence. hydrocarbon-bearing intervals.
Fluorescence in the reservoir sections is
very high. The lower reservoir gives out a Conclusion
very strong red signal, and a somewhat lower The application of fluorescence in the oil
blue fluorescence, consistent with what is patch has had a long and continuing life.
expected in the heavy Lagunillas oils. In Many have dreamt of a continuous wireline
comparison, the upper sandstone shows a fluorescence log; this is the first attempt to
reduced fluorescence level. This is probably make this a reality. The feasibility and the
because this sandstone is shalier, has a higher potential of fluorescence logging are evident
irreducible water saturation as shown by the in our field examples. Fluorescence logging is
ELAN, and by and large has been more at a very early stage of development; the exact
deeply invaded than the lower sandstone. utility of fluorescence logging for particular
Interestingly, the reduction in fluores- fields will have to be established and may
cence appears to be higher for red than for depend on local field and wellbore condi-
blue. Perhaps this is due to the different oils tions. This effort in fluorescence logging will
contained in the two sandstones. Perhaps this be continued with the intention of increasing
phenomena is related to the increased shale measurement robustness and expanding the
utility of the fluorescence log.
This chapter was written by V.Patel (BP de Venezuela), E.Decoster, A.Douglas, R.Chambers,
O.Mullins, Xu Wu, M.Kane, P.Rabbito, T.Terabayashi, N.Itagaki and J.Singer.
with contributions from D.Flores, J.C.Porras and A.di Massimo (Corpoven), A.Lamus,
C.Curtis and T.Clancy (Petrozuata), O.Ortiz, A.Khayan and R.Sanseviero.
and with the permission of Corpoven, Maraven, Petrozuata, BP de Venezuela

and YPF to publish data from their wells.
5 49
REFERENCES
General Evaluation in the Orinoco Belt

The Log Analyst, 1996, volume 37, No. 6 (November- Everett, R. V., Herron, M., Pirie, G., Schweitzer, J., and
December): Edmundson, H., 1985, Orinoco Belt case study results
on a single well—MFM-75, SPE Paper 14176, Society of
Kleinberg, R.L., and Vinegar, H.J., NMR properties of
Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and
reservoir fluids, pp 20-32.
Exhibition held in Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.A., September.
Akkurt, R., Vinegar, H.J., Tutunjian, P.N., Guillory, A.J.,
Sampling
NMR logging of natural gas reservoirs, pp 33-42.
Morris, C. W. and Sonnier, B., 1991, Evaluation of
Akkurt, R., Prammer, M.G., Moore, M.A., Selection of
reseroir fluids using formation tester tool samples,
optimal acquisition parameters for MRIL logs, pp 43-52.
SPE Paper 22129, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Morriss, C.E., Deutch, P., Freedman, R., McKeon, D., Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Kleinberg, R.L., Operating guide for the combinable Anchorage, Alaska.
magnetic resonance log, pp 53-60.
Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1996, Wireline Formation
Prammer, M.G., Drack, E.D., Bouton, J.C., Gardner, Testing and Sampling.
J.S., Measurements of clay-bound water and total
Felling, M.M., Morris, C.W., 1997, Characterization of
porosity by magnetic resonance, pp 61-69.
in-situ fluid responses using optical fluid analysis,
The Log Analyst, 1997, volume 38, No. 2 (March-April): SPE 38649, presented at the 1997 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas,
Kenyon, W.E., Petrophysical principles of applications
October 5-8.
of NMR logging, pp 21-43.
Prediction of Water Cut in a Sand
Morriss, C.E., Freedman, R., Straley, C., Johnston, M.,
with Low Resistivity Contrast.
Vinegar, H.J., Tutunjian, P.N., Hydrocarbon saturation
and viscosity estimation from NMT logging in the McKeon, D.C. and Scott, H.D. (1988) "SNUPAR—A
Belridge diatomite., pp 44-59. nuclear parameter code for nuclear geophysics applica-
tions," Nuclear Geophysics, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 215-230.
Chang, D., Vinegar, H.J., Morriss, C.E., Straley, C.,
Effective porosity, producible fluid, and permeability in Matteson,A. and Herron, M.M. (1993), “Quantitative
carbonates from NMR logging, pp 60-72. mineral analysis by Fourier Transform infrared spec-
troscopy”, presented at the 1993 Society of Core
Horkowitz, J.P., Clerke, E.A., Hartman, D.E., Vinegar,
Anlaysts Conference, Houston, paper 9308.
H.J., Coates, G.R., Residual oil saturation measure-
ments in carbonates with pulsed NMR logs, pp 73-83. Ellis, D.V., (1987) “Well logging for earth scientists”,
Elsevier, New York, p 532.
Straley, C., Rossini, D., Vinegar, H.J., Tutunjian, P.,
Morriss, C.E. Core analysis by low-field NMR, pp 84-94. Identifying Producible Zones in Oil-Base Mud Wells
Oilfield review, Summer 1997, p. 34-57. LaVigne, J., Barber, T., Bratton, T., 1997, Strange invasion
profiles: what multiarray induction logs can tell us about
Tar detection and Permeability Evaluation
how oil-based mud affects the invasion process and well-
in North Monagas
bore stability, Paper B, Transactions of the Society of
Winkler, K.W., Liu, H.L., and Johnson, D.L., 1989, Professional Well Log Analysts 38th Annual Logging
Permeability and borehole Stoneley waves: Comparison Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
between experiment and theory, Geophysics, p. 66-75.
Continuous Wireline Fluorescence Logging
Martinez, O., Flores, D., and Singer, J., 1990, Prediction
Ralston, C.Y., Wu, X., and Mullins, O.C., 1996, Quantum
of fluid mobility from Stoneley energy in Eastern
yields of crude oils, Applied Spectroscopy 50, p. 1563.
Venezuela, Schlumberger Doll Research Centre
Symposium. Downare, T.D. and Mullins, O.C., 1995, Visible and near-
infrared fluorescence of crude oils, Applied Spectroscopy
Identification of gas and tar layers with NMR tools
49, p. 754.
Herron, M. M., 1987, Estimating the intrinsic permeabili-
Smits, A.R., Fincher, D.V., Nishida, K., Mullins, O.C.,
ty of clastic sediments from geochemical data,
Schroeder, R.J., and Yamate T., 1993, In-situ optical fluid
Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
analysis as an aid to wireline formation sampling, Society
Analysts Conference, London, 29 June - 2 July.
of Petroleum Engineers, Paper 26496.
Jiménez, F., Di Massimo, A., and Peretti, F., 1997,
Resonancia magnética, la introspección futurista de la
petrofísica en el Norte de Monagas, paper EF-12,
Sociedad Venezolana de Ingenieros de Petróleo, XI
Jornadas Técnicas de Petróleo en Maturín, Monagas,
Feb 19-22.
5 50
Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter overview
Saturation through casing
Porosity through casing
Lithology through casing
Permeability and pressure
Advances in production logging
Hydraulic integrity
Permanent monitoring systems:
Extending the life of a reservoir
E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
A key factor in improving production Since its invention, production logging

from old wells is a proper evaluation of its relied heavily on the spinner for fluid
current condition. Although much can be velocity and the gradiomanometer for
inferred from surface measurements, a study holdup. The difficulties are well known,
of production history, and general know- particularly in two- or three-phase flow and
ledge of the field, there are many ambiguities deviated wells. They become insurmount-
that can only be resolved by examining the able in horizontal wells. The large increase
in-situ state of the well downhole. This is in the number of horizontal wells, together
particularly true for the large number of with laboratory studies and advances in
wells that are producing from different technology, have led to a whole new range
layers, horizontal wells with long sections of production logging sensors that can today
open to the formation, or wells that provide three-phase holdup and two-phase
penetrate multiple reservoirs. This chapter flow at any deviation, and will soon provide
discusses the techniques for in-situ quantitative three-phase flow. Section 5
evaluation in old wells, and shows how describes these new techniques and shows
advances in technology have led to how they can be used alone or together to
considerable improvements in this area. evaluate flow at any deviation.
The first key is to understand the state of Good hydraulic integrity is important,
the reservoir around the well. The main and so is knowing whether or not it exists.
concern is the fluids, but in old wells there In old wells it is particularly important, since
are often limited data, so that it is also cement and casing can deteriorate and the
necessary to determine the lithology and original completion practices are not always
porosity. Although all this has been possible well known. Section 6 shows how modern
for several years using nuclear spectroscopy acoustic techniques can give detailed
and other techniques, there have been two information on both cement and casing
recent improvements. The first is a significant quality in a wide range of conditions.
increase in accuracy because of better hard- The future lies with permanent sensors,
ware and vastly improved characterization in and the ability to continuously monitor the
laboratory formations. The second is the in-situ state of the well and the reservoir
development of slim tools that can log the beyond it. At present, pressure inside the
reservoir without pulling the tubing. well is the only routine permanent
The evaluation of water saturation, measurement made. Examples from many
lithology and porosity is discussed with parts of the world show the advantages of
examples in the first three sections. Two permanent sensors, not only for reasons of
important dynamic properties are also logistics, but also for improved reservoir
needed: the permeability and pressure of management. A conceptual view of future
each layer. These can be obtained directly developments is also presented.
by special tests, or indirectly from logs and
correlation with new wells.
6 1
S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Production in old wells is affected by Capture and Inelastic

natural depletion and, when reservoirs are Scattering logging
under waterflooding, by the progression of Two nuclear reaction mechanisms are
the front of injected water. A major concern currently used to obtain water saturation
in these wells is the increased water cut that through casing: Pulsed Neutron Capture
may quickly become uncontrollable. (PNC) and Inelastic Scattering (IS). In the
Production logs such as Flowmeter and future it may also be possible to make contin-
Gradiomanometer logs help to diagnose uous through-casing resistivity measurements,
existing problems. These logs describe the but at present these are experimental and sta-
fluid flow behavior (rate and type) for each tionary. The RST* Reservoir Saturation Tool is
open interval. However, well repairs that use designed for both PNC and IS logging tech-
only this information often turn out to be niques (see RST box, page 6–10). The pulsed
short-lived solutions. The reason is a lack of neutron generator, or minitron, operates in
knowledge of what is occurring in the dual neutron burst mode for PNC logging
reservoir. Is the water produced from (referred to as sigma mode) and in single
coning, breakthrough, or encroachment? For neutron burst mode for IS logging (referred to
instance, plugging off perforations at the as inelastic or carbon/oxygen mode).
levels where water is produced with a In sigma mode, high-energy neutrons
cement squeeze may reduce the water cut from the minitron are captured after they are
only temporarily. If the water finds a slowed to thermal energy level by the nuclei
preferential path, it can rapidly reach other present in the formation rock or fluid. The
perforations. A thorough diagnosis of the rate of decay of the thermal neutron popu-
problem requires additional information on lation is characterized by its decay time, t.
the current water saturation within the Because chlorine is a very efficient neutron
reservoir. This information, therefore, needs absorber, the decay time in a formation is a
to be acquired through the casing. function of the volume and salinity of the
Today, multidisciplinary teams are water it contains.
focused on enhancing production in existing The quantity actually used in petro-
wells (Chapter 7–2). One obvious way to physics is not the decay time of the
achieve this objective is to look for zones with formation but its capture cross section, S.
bypassed oil, for which saturation through the It is related to decay time by:
cased hole is a key piece of information.
The first section will describe nuclear (1)
techniques used in wireline logging to
derive water saturation through the cased The expression of S for a composite
hole. We will then illustrate this technique formation is a linear function of the
by two examples from Tía Juana district and contribution of each solid and fluid compo-
El Furrial Field. nent. In the general case of a shaly, porous
formation containing hydrocarbon and
water, it is:
Sf=(1-Vcl–f)Sma+VclScl+fSwSw+f(1-Sw)Sh (2)
where f is the formation porosity, Vcl is the

volume of clay, Sw is the water saturation,
and Sma, Scl, Sw, and Sh are the capture cross
sections of rock matrix, clay, water, and
hydrocarbon, respectively.
6 2
Scl is obtained from crossplot tech- IS logging is the alternative technique in

niques. Determining Sma requires knowledge such complex environments. It measures
of the lithology which, in addition to gamma rays resulting from the interaction of
porosity and clay volume, is usually derived inelastic (high-energy) neutrons with the
from an openhole log evaluation. However, nuclei present in the formation. Spectral
often the data are not sufficient, especially in processing is used to extract gamma ray
old wells. Because the RST can identify most yields from the inelastic spectrum. The rela-
important rock constituents, it can be used tive contributions of carbon (C) and oxygen
in such conditions to provide clay volume (O) nuclei relate to the volumes of oil and
and lithology (page 6–17). It can also water in the formation, and the observed C
provide a hydrogen index, or neutron and O yields are used to determine Sw.
porosity, measurement (page 6–12). Because the carbon concentration in gas is
Because of the presence of the bore- extremely low, IS logging is not suitable for
hole, the rate of decay measured by a PNC obtaining Sw in gas reservoirs.
device is a combination of formation sigma The ratio of the carbon and oxygen
(Sf)and borehole sigma (Sbh). The RST can (COR) yields is used rather than the
separate both components of the decay and independent C and O yields, because it
provide Sf and Sbh because of its dual reduces the effects of varying borehole size,
neutron burst capabilities. casing size, porosity, and other environ-
From equation (2), the expression for Sw mental effects.
can be written as: The equation to convert COR to Sw is
(Scott et al., 1991):
(3) Matrix Formation Borehole
Charts (Schlumberger Log Interpretation +Cement Fluid Fluid
Charts, 1997) are available to determine Sw YC K + K f(1-Sw) + KC3(1-yw)
COR = = C1 C2 (4)
and Sh. Sw is directly related to the salinity YOX KOX1 + KOX2fSw + KOX3yw
of the water, its value ranging from 20 cap-
The K coefficients represent the sensi-
ture units (c.u.) for fresh water to more
tivities to C and O, respectively. The matrix
than 120 c.u. for salt-saturated water. Sh
plus cement term expresses the contribution
typically varies between 18 c.u. and 22 c.u.
from the matrix and cement around the
for oil and remains below 17 c.u. for gas.
casing, the formation fluid term from the oil or
The quantity f(Sw-Sh) in the denominator water in the formation, and the borehole fluid
of equation (3) shows that PNC logging term from the borehole oil or water. The
requires a contrast between Sw and Sh. Hence, variable yw represents the borehole water
the water must be salty and the salinity must fraction (holdup). Values for the K coefficients
be known to evaluate Sw. There are no hard come from an extensive database constructed
limits, but it is generally considered that when with laboratory measurements made from
f is less than 10 p.u. and water salinity less different borehole environments, formation
than 30,000 ppm, the contrast is insufficient. lithologies, and porosities. Lithology, porosity,
These conditions are usually not met in caliper, casing size and casing ID information
reservoirs where production is maintained by must be known to calculate these values.
water injection programs. The resulting form-
ation water, a mixture of injection water and
connate water, has a variable and often low
salinity. Also, most Venezuelan reservoirs have
connate water salinities outside this range.
6 3
Figure 6.1 The detectors of the 1 11⁄16-in. RST are

sensitive to both borehole and formation
fluids, and so the borehole fluid composition
must be known or measured independently.
Once yw is inserted, equation (3) can be
solved for the volume of water (fSw) and the
volume of oil (f[1-Sw]), independently using
the near or far detector, or a combination of
the two.
Hydrogen
Because of the detector shielding in the
2 ⁄2-in. RST, there is a strong signal contrast
1
Counts
Oil between near and far detector signals.

Carbon
Equation (4) can then be written for both
detectors and the two-equation system can
solve for Sw and yw.
Oxygen
Alpha processing
Water
Spectral processing is hampered by
large statistical uncertainties and requires
very low logging speeds to ensure that
enough gamma rays are measured.
0 2 4 6 8
Energy (Me V) Another approach uses broad energy
windows in the gamma ray spectrum across
RST spectra obtained in an oil tank and a water tank. The broad energy windows
the region of the predominant C or O peaks
used across the region of the predominant C and O peaks are indicated.
(Fig. 6.1). This method gives better statistical
precision but the interpretation is prone to
Figure 6.2
bias. The windows do not only represent C
and O, but are strongly influenced by other
VUOI-COR
ELAN effective porosity VUOI-WIN
elements present in the formation and by the
Depth –10 (p.u.) 40 VUOI-ALFA gamma radiation induced by the tool itself.
(ft) –20 (p.u.) 70
Consequently, the ratio from the C and O
windows is very dependent on environmental
effects, especially borehole effects such as
3650
washouts and cement integrity.
To improve the statistical precision with-
out losing accuracy, a method called “Alpha
3675 Processing” combines the windows and spec-
tral processing to obtain an accuracy com-
parable to the C/O yields ratio and a pre-
3700 cision comparable to the C/O windows ratio.
Figure 6.2 shows for one well the
formation porosity with the volume of oil
3725
computed from the yields (VUOI-COR) and
windows (VUOI-WIN) ratios, and the same
volume resulting from alpha processing
(VUOI-ALFA). VUOI-WIN exhibits sub-
Alpha processing results in an accurate volume of oil with low statistical variations. stantially fewer statistical variations than
6 4
Figure 6.3a & 6.3b Precision and job planning

Unlike most logging tools, there is no
standard logging speed at which to run the Oil in borehole
rh = 0.74 g ⁄ cm3
RST in C/O mode. The speed is determined Gravel pack f = 35%
Sw (gravel pack) = Sw (for
by the client objective and especially the
.7
statistical precision that is required for the
.6
Near detector C ⁄ O ratio

water saturation, Sw. To improve the statis- Sw = 0 %
.5
tical precision requires an increased counting
rate at the detector, hence a slower logging .4
speed. This counting rate also depends on .3 Sw = 100 %
the tool environment, such as borehole and .2

casing geometry and formation porosity. .1
To help the logging engineer plan the
.0
data acquisition, an RST Job Planner routine 0 .1
has been developed that determines, for all Porosity

(a)
well conditions, the logging speed needed
to produce an Sw answer that meets the
client objective.
The environmental parameters are enter-
RST Job Planner, input window. ed in the input window (Fig. 6.3a): lithology,
hole and casing sizes, casing weight, form-
ation oil carbon density value, average forma-
tion porosity and downhole temperature. Also
required are processing parameters such as
alpha processing window length and vertical
averaging filter length. Finally, the desired
precision on the water saturation is entered.
The output window (Fig. 6.3b), repeats
all the input parameters on the left and shows
the calculated logging speed on the right. The
logging speeds are indicated for both water-
filled and oil-filled hole. Note the speed
improvement when using alpha-processing.
Station logging is usually not used with the
RST Job Planner,
VUOI-COR and both quantities correlate. RST since alpha-processing cannot be done
output window.
However, VUOI-WIN is not accurate—its with stationary data. Using alpha-processing
value is as much as 30 p.u. above the porosity on continuous logs gives the same quality
value. VUOI-COR, on the other hand, agrees answer in less time than performing stations.
with the porosity when it is oil-filled. The logging speeds are computed for two
The result of the Alpha Processing is an degrees of confidence on the statistical preci-
accurate volume (VUOI-ALFA has the same sion of Sw. In this example, where the required
average value as VUOI-COR) with improved precision is 10 saturation units. (s.u.), the log-
statistical precision (the statistics on VUOI- ging speed needed to return Sw within 10 s.u.
ALFA are equivalent to the statistics on at one standard deviation is given in the first
VUOI-WIN). column and at two standard deviations in the
second column. Ten s.u. at one standard devia-
tion implies that 68% of the measured values
6 5
Figure 6.4 Several extra variables are introduced in the

response: the size of the liner; and the
Oil in borehole Bit size = 8.5 in. Red = Without gravel pack porosity, density and water saturation in the
rh = 0.74 g ⁄ cm3 7-in. csg. 23 lbs ⁄ ft Green = With gravel pack
Gravel pack f = 35% 4.5-in. liner 11.6 Ibs ⁄ ft gravel pack. Recently, however, many
Sw (gravel pack) = Sw (formation)
common gravel pack situations have been
.7 .7
modeled using a Monte Carlo simulation.
.6 .6
Near detector C ⁄ O ratio

Typical results are shown in Fig. 6.4. It can be
Far detector C ⁄ O ratio

Sw = 0 %
.5 .5 Sw = 0 %
seen that the far detector is relatively
.4 .4 unaffected while, as expected, the near is
.3 Sw = 100 % .3 affected. In either case, the proper response is
Sw = 100 %
.2 .2 now available. The similarity in response
.1 .1
shows that even when conditions such as
gravel pack density are not known precisely,
.0 .0
0 .1 .2 .3 0 .1 .2 .3 we can use the far detector with confidence
Porosity Porosity and the near detector as a check. More gravel
(a) (b)
pack and dual pipe completions are being
Response of the near (a) and will be within ±10 s.u., while 10 s.u. at two
modeled and measured in the laboratory.
far (b) RST detectors as a standard deviations implies that 95% will be
function of porosity and within ±10 s.u. Example 1: Looking for the oil-water contact
saturation, with and without Recording speed with RST ranges from and bypassed oil in Tía Juana District
gravel pack and liner. 100 ft/hr to 200 ft/hr. Hence, an effective log- Some reservoirs in the Tía Juana District
ging speed of 20 ft/hr will require five passes in western Venezuela, operated by Lagoven,
at 100 ft/hr or 10 passes at 100 ft/hr. For are currently under waterflooding. The
practical purposes, the number of passes is Lagunillas Inferior (LGNF-5) is one of the
often limited at 10, which implies a minimum most complex reservoirs because of its
effective logging speed of 10 ft/hr. If the RST geology and lithology. It is an undersaturated
planner returns a lower logging speed, then reservoir flowing from unconsolidated
the precision requested cannot be met in this sandstones. To further complicate matters,
environment. Such environments are reser- this reservoir was first developed almost 60
voirs with porosities below 15 p.u. For lower years ago and the wells have old and limited
porosities, less and less precision must be sets of openhole logs.
accepted. In addition, small errors in the One of the most complicated areas of
interpretation parameters in equation (4) the reservoir is the east-central region of
become increasingly important. LGNF-5. It contains several sandstone layers
open to flow, all of which have different
Inelastic scattering in gravel pack petrophysical properties.
The original database from which the Using the Production Enhancement
C/O interpretation coefficients were deter- Group (PEG) approach (Chapter 7–2), the
mined (equation (4)) did not include gravel well LL-1841 was chosen as the best candidate
pack completions. Internal gravel packs are to run an RST log to monitor the current oil
quite common in Venezuela, particularly in saturation and identify bypassed oil zones.
the Miocene sandstones of the Maracaibo This well is injecting water into a lower
Basin. The internal gravel pack not only puts horizon, so that the fluid in the borehole is
more distance between the RST and the constant and well known, and the reservoir
formation, but also introduces an additional is undisturbed by production at the well.
material (the gravel pack) with C and O.
6 6
Figure 6.5 Figure 6.5 shows the RST measurements

(near detector and far detector CORs,
Sigma borehole Sigma formation Near COR
250 (c.u.) 0 60 (c.u.) 0 –.1 .4
borehole and formation sigmas, and
Depth GR Deep induction RST porosity Far COR
porosity) together with the openhole logs.
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 100 .2 (ohm-m) 2000 60 (p.u.) 0 –.1 .4 The increase of COR within the sandstone
from 3692 to 3715 ft indicates an increase of
formation oil saturation. Sigma does not
respond to this change because the for-
mation oil and water have a similar capture
3500
cross section caused by very low water
salinity. As expected with fresh injection
water filling the tubing, borehole sigma
remains low and changes very little.
With only GR and deep induction
resistivity measurements, there was not
3600 enough information to do a volumetric
evaluation of the openhole logs. However,
with the additional measurements from
the RST, such as neutron porosity and for-
mation sigma, it was possible to perform
the evaluation.
3700 The interpretation of openhole and RST
logs is shown on Fig. 6.6. Clear oil-water
contacts occur at 3703 ft and 3504 ft.
Injection water has completely swept the oil
Openhole and RST logs in
Being old, any invasion fluids should have in sandstones 3 and 4. There is remaining oil
well LL-1841. The RST logs
been displaced long ago. Therefore, at the top of sandstones 1 and 5, while
complement the limited
information obtained from this well could be sandstones 2, 6, 7 and 8 do not show any
openhole data set.
a good indicator of the state of the reservoir, depletion. This confirms that the sandstones
and could be used to design workovers in are not always in communication throughout
neighboring wells. the reservoir.
The RST was logged inside the 3 1⁄2-in. These results were correlated to
tubing and 7-in. casing from 3300 to 3800 ft, equivalent sandstones in neighboring wells.
corresponding to the LGNF-5 reservoir. LL-408, which had been shut in because of
Because of fresh water, the tool was run in excessive water production, was selected as
inelastic mode to derive water saturation. an excellent candidate for workover. The
It was also run in capture mode to obtain well is located only 100 ft east of LL-1841
a porosity log that would complement and has a sandstone that is correlated with
the limited information available from open- sandstone 8 in LL-1841. A NODAL*
hole logs. (production system analysis) showed a
potential of 230 BOPD assuming a water cut
of 30% (Fig. 6.7).
6 7
Figure 6.6 After fishing the slotted liner and

squeezing cement into existing perforations,
Water
Moved oil
Oil
the interval corresponding to sandstone 8
Water Water
Sand was perforated with 4-in. (tubing-conveyed
Oil Oil
Sw RST Bound water perforating system) guns loaded with
100 (p.u.) 0 Fluid analysis Fluid analysis Clay
from RST from OH logs 51J–ultra penetrating charges. Finally, a gas
Depth RST porosity Sw OH Volume analysis
(ft) 50 (p.u.) 0 100 (p.u.) 0 50 (p.u.) 0 50 (p.u.) 0 0 (p.u.) 100 lift was installed. After the workover, the
well is producing 250 BOPD, close to the
NODAL analysis prediction, and the water
8
cut is only 6%.
7
6
Example 2: Monitoring
3500
5
water front and looking for bypassed oil in
El Furrial Field.
4
The El Furrial Field started producing in
1986 from the Naricual Formation, which is
3 divided into three members: Superior,
Medium, and Inferior (Chapter 2–37).
3600
Producing wells are often completed with
two strings: the Naricual Inferior produces
2
through the long string and the Naricual
Medium and Superior through the short
string. Because of a rapid pressure drop in
the reservoir, a water injection program was
3700 initiated in 1991. Results from this flood
1
scheme were very satisfactory until recently,
when some wells started producing water.
Within a few months the water cut reached
RST log interpretation in well LL-1841.
levels as high as 80%, and even new wells
had to be shut in early.
Figure 6.7 When well FUL-29 started producing
water from the long string, it was thought
1400
Fluid conduit that the Naricual Inferior would have to be
Theoretical performance
1200
Predicted performance
shut in. Before doing so, an RST was logged
assuming 30% water cut in inelastic mode to monitor the water front
1000
Pressure (psig)
at this well.
800
600
400
200
0
0 100 200 300 400
Liquid rate (BOPD)
The NODAL analysis predicts a production of 230 BOPD in well LL-1841.
6 8

,
,
,,

@@
A

ÀÀ
Á

B

C
Â

Ã
,
B

Â
Figure 6.8 The interpretation of the RST survey RST
performed over the Naricual Inferior (Fig.

,
Water 6.8) shows a waterflood profile very
Moved oil
Oil
Water Water different from the previous example. The
Sand
water front does not uniformly progress in
,,
,

@

A

C
BB

À

Á
Ã
ÂÂ ,
@

À
Oil Oil
Sw RST Bound water

,

Perfs.
100 (p.u.) 0 Fluid analysis Fluid analysis Clay the reservoir. Some sandstones are almost
from RST from OH logs
Depth Permeability Sw OH Volume analysis completely invaded with injection water (7
(ft) 0 (md) 200 100 (p.u.) 0 25 (p.u.) 0 25 (p.u.) 0 0 (p.u.) 100
and 8), others are partially flooded (4, 6, and

,

10), and sandstones of lower porosity

A

Á
,,
@@

ÀÀ
1 exhibit the original reservoir oil saturation

,

(2, 3, 4, 12, and 13).
2
In track 1 of Fig. 6.8 is the average
15,300 permeability, computed from openhole logs,
for each perforated sandstone. It is clear that

BB
C

ÂÂ
Ã

A

Á
,,
@@

ÀÀ
the injected water has flushed the oil in

,
3
high-permeability sandstones (7 and 8)

,

without reaching those that were less
4 permeable.

BB
C

ÂÂ
Ã

A

Á
,,
@@

ÀÀ
15,400
These results led Lagoven to plan a work-
5
over on the well instead of simply shutting in
the long string. The workover consisted of

,

,

6 injecting a polymer in the flooded sandstones
to block the water migration.
Based on the findings in well FUL-29,
7 the perforation strategy was revised in both
15,500
new injector and producer wells. In the

,

injectors, the high-permeability sandstones

,

are now perforated with a lower shot density
,,
,

@

A
BB

C

À

Á
ÂÂ
Ã ,
@

À
8
to reduce the injection rate. In the producers,

these sandstones are not perforated at all.
9
,

15,600
Conclusion
10
ÁÂÀAB@,,,ÂÀB@,
ÃÂÂ

CBB

A crucial piece of information for
reservoir monitoring is water saturation.
11
By combining and improving two techniques
12 to obtain this information, the RST is a break-
through in cased-hole logging. Sigma logging
13
15,700 can quickly provide Sw in formations
with known and high water salinity.
C/O logging is the alternative in reservoirs
RST log interpretation in well FUL-29. with low formation water salinity or under
water injection.
6 9
RST
111/16 -in. RST tool

After slowing down to thermal
energy, mainly by interaction with
Telemetry,
Gamma ray casing collar Acquisition Far Near Neutron hydrogen (Fig. 6.10b), the neutrons are
(optional) locator cartridge detector detector generator
(CCL) captured by formation nuclei, emitting
other characteristic gamma rays (Fig.
6.10c). The spectra of these capture
21/2 -in. RST tool
gamma rays are recorded in timing gates
Figure 6.9 Principles of measurement: The B and C. A fraction of gate B is used to
measurement section of the RST, (Fig. 6.9), remove the capture background present
consists of a pulsed generator of high- in gate A. The measured spectra are
energy neutrons, a near and a far GR compared with the standards for each
detector each with cerium-doped element (Fig. 6.12) to determine the
gadolinium oxy-ortho silicate crystals. relative contribution, or yield, of each
There are two sizes, 111⁄16-in. and 21⁄2-in. In element to the spectrum. The Inelastic
the 21⁄2-in. size the near detector is Spectrum is used to determine the COR.
shielded from the formation and the far The COR is also determined by
detector from the borehole. For through- comparing the counts in windows C and
casing formation evaluation, two modes O of the Inelastic Spectrum. The Capture
are used—Inelastic Capture Mode and Spectrum is used to determine the relative
Sigma Mode. For production logging, yields of Si, Ca, Fe, S, Ti and Gd.
Activation is used for Water Flow Logging,
Figure
and a special form of Sigma
Time (msec)
Neutron
Inelastic scattering Excited
6.10a Mode for measuring marker Fig. 6.11
burst
nucleus
Fast Nucleus arrival times in Phase

neutron 100
Velocity Logs.
C, O, Si, Ca, Fe, ...

g-ray Inelastic Capture Mode: C
80
Counts
Fast neutrons from the
pulsed neutron generator C
6.10b Thermalization
collide inelastically with 60
Fast
neutron
Nucleus formation nuclei, losing Net inelastic =
B
some of their energy and A – bB
Counts
40
emitting gamma rays of Net inelastic
B
Counts
Primarily H (mass close to neutron mass) characteristic energy (6.10a).
C
The spectrum, or number 20 A
O
Neutron
Counts
6.10c Neutron capture and energy of these gamma

burst
Energy
Excited
nucleus A
rays, is measured by the
Slow Nucleus 0
neutron detectors during the neutron Energy
burst, gate A (Fig. 6.11).

g-ray
H, Cl, Si, Ca, S, Fe, Gd, Ti ...
6.10d Activation
n + 16O ® 16N + p ® 16O* + b ® 16O + g with half life = 7.1s
6 10
RST
Fig. Oxygen counts in the near and far detectors. The

Silicon
6.12 Tool background
Calcium
background counts are measured
Iron
Carbon periodically between bursts. In the Phase
Velocity Log, another timing sequence is
used with rapid, short bursts so that the
Counts
precise time of arrival of a high S marker
can be measured.
Activation Mode: A short burst of

neutrons from a stationary tool activates
atoms which, after a certain time delay,
Energy (MeV) decay back to normal with the emission of
Sigma Mode: Fast neutrons from the a gamma ray (Fig. 6.10d). Most decays are
pulsed neutron generator are slowed very short. However, the half-life of the
down and captured as they diffuse away oxygen decay is 7.1 sec. This is sufficiently
from the source (Figs. 6.10a & 6.10b). A long that at normal flow rates the activated
capture cross section (S) is inferred from oxygen in moving water is decaying and
the decline in total gamma ray counts at emitting gamma rays as it passes one of
the detectors. A Dual Burst technique the detectors a few seconds later. This
(Fig. 6.13) is used, in which the count-rate signal is distinct from the background
decay is measured after both a short burst radiation and from the signal created by
and a long burst. Data from both stationary oxygen, which decays
detectors and both bursts are used, with exponentially (Fig. 6.14)
Sformation being obtained prin-
cipally from the long burst of Neutrons Flowing Stationary Background
on signal signal signal
the far detector, and Sborehole
No flowing signal Slow flowing signal Fast flowing signal
from the short burst of the near
Count rate
detector. Porosity is estimated

from a ratio of the late time
Time
Short burst Long burst
Fig. 6.14
Counts
0 500 1000 1500

Time (msec)
Fig. 6.13
6 11
POROSITY THROUGH CASING
Various methods are used to obtain poros- Compressional and shear slownesses (Dtc
ity in old wells. If an adequate modern open- and Dts) can also be measured through casing
hole logging suite is available, it is usually and transformed into porosity. When cement-
sufficient to rely on the openhole porosity. ation is very good or when the formation is
However, in many cases the openhole logging faster than the casing, the first arrival can be
suite is insufficient or non-existent. In other used to determine Dtc. However, this is not
cases, the openhole porosity is no longer ac- generally reliable and it is recommended to
curate; for example, carbonates that have been record full waveforms and process accord-
acidized. Nuclear and acoustic measurements ingly (see the DSI box, page 4–33). The last
must then be used to determine the porosity. section describes how the DSI can be tuned
The most commonly used technique is a and processed to give optimum results in
neutron-type porosity measurement. Such these conditions, and shows one example.
measurements are relatively insensitive to the
casing and the cement, and can be charac- Porosity from RST
terized so as to remove these effects. The In the sigma mode, the RST makes a
most convenient is a through-tubing measure- pulsed neutron capture measurement that
ment, such as from the 111⁄16-in. or 21⁄2-in. RST . can be used to determine porosity. As
The next section describes the described in the RST box (page 6.10), the
characterization and processing of this neutron generator emits a short and a long
measurement and shows an example in a burst that are recorded at each detector.
complicated completion. Density tools are Figure 6.15a shows typical time decay spectra
also used. However, in general, the effects of for the short burst at the near detector, while
casing and cement are significant, and unless Fig. 6.15b shows spectra for the long burst at
the cement bond is excellent, the results are the far detector. It is clear that the slope of
considered unreliable. the short burst/near detector decay is strongly
dependent on borehole salinity, whereas the
long burst/far detector is not.
Figure 6.15
Borehole Borehole
salinity salinity
0 kppm
Count rate
Count rate
0 kppm
200 kppm 200 kppm

Long
burst
Short
burst
0 50 100 150 200 600 1000 1400
Time (ms) Time (ms)
a.) Typical signal decay from the short burst of the RST near b.) Typical signal decay from the long burst of the RST far
detector for different borehole salinities. detector for different borehole salinities. Note the time scale.
The short burst decay is already completed before the start of
this figure.
6 12
Figure 6.16 On the other hand, the slope of the long

burst/far detector is strongly dependent on for-
Input mation capture cross section (S), whereas the
Time decay spectra short detector/near decay is not. Borehole
salinity is one of many factors that influence
Correction to spectra
the decays. The goal of sigma processing is to
Counting loss corrections extract three parameters from the data-form-
Background adaptive filtering
Background subtraction ation sigma, borehole salinity and porosity.
The processing steps are summarized in
Compute apparent quantities Fig. 6.16. The first step is to correct the spectra
Near apparent borehole sigma SBNA for background counts and loss in counts at
Far apparent formation sigma SFFA
Near ⁄ far capture count rate ratio TRAT very high counting rates. The second step is to
etc.
compute apparent decay times and count rates
from the spectra, mainly far formation sigma
Environmental
(SFFA), near borehole sigma (SBNA) and near-
Data-
parameters base to-far capture ratio (TRAT). TRAT is obtained
Borehole size
Casing size ⁄ weight in the late time region by dividing the cor-
Lithology
rected counting rate of the near detector by
Transform from apparent to that of the far detector. These are apparent
corrected quantities
quantities in the sense that they are still
dependent on the environment (e.g., casing
size, casing weight, borehole size). Correct-
Outputs
Borehole salinity ⁄ Cross section BSAL ⁄ SIBF
ions for all these factors are made in step 3.
Porosity TPHI
Corrected near and far sigma SFNC SFFC
The heart of step 3 is the database of
Sigma formation SIGM
more than 1000 measurements taken with the
Block diagram showing RST in different borehole and formation con-
Sigma/Porosity ditions. Table 6.1 lists the database as of 1996,
processing of RST data. but it is being added to regularly. The
measurements are made with the tool flush
Table 6.1
against the casing/borehole wall. All casings
Hole size Casing Lithology1 Porosity2 Formation Borehole
Size Weight flush3 fluid4 are steel and are centered in the borehole. All
(in.) (in.) (lbm/ft) (kppm NaCl) (kppm NaCl)
cement sheaths are class H cement mixed
4.125 Openhole LS Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
4.12 2.8755 6.4 LS Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air with fresh water. The porosity of the forma-
4.125 3.5 12.7 LS Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
tion is determined by measuring the weight
6 Openhole LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
6 4.5 10.5 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air and volume of the rocks, and is accurate to
6 5.0 18 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
approximately 0.1 p.u.
8 Openhole LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
8 5.5 15.5 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air The desired outputs—Formation S
8 7.0 32 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
(SFFC), Porosity (TPHI), and Borehole Salinity
10 5.5 15.5 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
10 7.0 32 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air (BSAL)—are found to be functions of the
10 7.625 26.4 LSD Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
environment and of each other, as follows:
11 7.625 26.4 LS Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
12 9.625 32.3 LS Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air
12 9.625 53.5 LS Z*M H 0 70 140 210 0 25 50 100 200 Air BSAL = f (SBNA, TRAT2, SFFA,
1) L=Limestone S=Sandstone D= Dolomite CID, Tcsg, Tcem, Lith)
2) Z=zero (0 p.u.) M=medium (15-20 p.u.) H=high (33 p.u. for sand, 38-43 p.u. in lime and dolomite)
3) For sand the 70 and 210 kppm points are modeled, for dolomite 70 and 210 kppm are omitted. TPHI = f (TRAT, TRAT2, BSAL,
4) For sand the 25 and 100 kppm points are modeled, for dolomite 25 and 100 kppm are omitted.
5) RST-A only since RST-B will not fit inside this completion. SFFA, CID, Tcsg, Tcem, Lith)
*) These 0 p.u. points are modeled for sand.
SFFC = f (SFFA, TPHI, BSAL,
Current Sigma/Porosity database. CID, Tcsg, Tcem, Lith)
6 13
Figure 6.17 where CID is the casing inside diameter, Tcsg processed (see page 6–4) to improve pre-
is the casing thickness, Tcem is the cement cision, using SFFC as the accurate measure-
60
thickness, and Lith is the lithology. In the past, ment and SFFA as the more precise one.
50
Measured sigma (c.u.)

specific equations were developed with static The accuracy of the processing has been
40 coefficients that were direct functions of the checked against the database itself. Figure
30 above quantities. This leads to equations that 6.17 shows the measured sigma versus. the
20 are very cumbersome and possibly unstable assigned sigma for 900 points where Sf < Sb,
10
when extrapolating outside the range of the which is the normal situation. The average
-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5
Deviation from assigned sigma (c.u.)
database. In the new technique, the coeffi- absolute errors for the RST-A tool are 0.22 c.u.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 cients are determined at each depth level for SIGM, 0.9 p.u. for TPHI, and 5.5 kppm for
Assigned sigma (c.u.) through a weighted multiple linear regression BSAL. For the RST-B tool the corresponding
Measured Sigma versus technique that weights heavily those points in errors are 0.2 for SIGM, 1.7 p.u. for TPHI and
assigned sigma for 900 the database that are closest to the measured 6.9 kppm for BSAL. The overall accuracy of
points where Sf < Sb. data. This dynamic technique is found to be the measurement has also been checked
stable and robust, as confirmed in the exam- against the industry standard calibration
ple below. The final sigma (SIGM) is alpha- pits in Houston and in the EUROPA facility
in Aberdeen.
Figure 6.18
Figure 6.18 shows an example of a well
Gas effect (RST) Water logged from inside a 31⁄2-in. tubing lying with-
Gas effect (OH logs) Gas
in a 95⁄8-in. casing. The well produces from a
TPHI Moved Oil Oil
50 (p.u.) 0 Water Sand lower formation and has a packer set at
NPHI Gas Bound water
6963 ft, approximately 500 ft below the
50 (p.u.) 0 Oil Clay
Depth CALI CALI RHOB Fluid analysis Volumetric analysis

interval logged. Since the well is deviated 20°,
(ft) 30 (in.) 0 0 (in.) 30 1.85 (g / cm3) 2.65 50 (p.u.) 0 0 (p.u.) 100 the tubing is expected to lie against the side
of the casing. There is a gas lift mandrel in the
interval logged at 5933 ft, which could
A
possibly cause some stand-off. However, this
is opposite a shale and the effects on the RST
5800
outputs are not significant. There was water
in the tubing and the tubing-casing annulus at
the time of logging.
Such a dual-string completion had not
B
C been included in the database at the time of
5900
D
logging. However, it could be approximated
by taking the total thickness of both casings
as the casing thickness. The results show
that this is a good approximation, with good
agreement between the openhole neutron
(NPHI) and the RST porosity (TPHI).
Track 4 shows the evaluation of the open-
E
hole logs. Track 3 shows the openhole fluid
6400
analysis compared to the fluid analysis from
the RST C/O measurement. As in Figs. 6.6 and
6.8, moved oil is the difference between the oil
seen by the RST and the openhole logs. Track
Example of porosity and C/O measurements from an RST run inside a 3 1/2-in. 2 shows NPHI, density and TPHI.
tubing lying inside a 9 5/8-in. casing.
6 14
Figure 6.19
S / T Projection Sonic Waveform

GR Depth
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 40 (ms / ft) 240 500 (ms ) 1700
0
S / T line
150 3660
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
(Depth = 15,048.8 ft)
225
200
Slowness (ms / ft)

175
150
15,000
125
100
75
50
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
0
S / T line
150 3660
(Depth = 15,109.8 ft)
225
200
15,100
Slowness (ms / ft)

175
150
125
100
75
50
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
0
S / T line
150 3660
15,200 (Depth = 15,204.8 ft)
225
200
Slowness (ms / ft)

175
150
125
100
75
50
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
15,300
Zone B at 5870 ft was found to contain oil

Data from the P and S mode The comparison of NPHI and TPHI shows with a thin gas cap when the well was drilled,
of a DSI recorded through some interesting features. In the shales at the as shown in track 4. Zone C at 5880 ft also
casing. Waveform 1 is top (e.g., between 5800 ft and 5850 ft) there contained gas. However, both are now found
shown in track 3. The S/T is very good agreement. In the gas zone, A, at to be water-filled by the C/O measurement
plane projection is in track 2. 5775 ft, they also agree, indicating that the gas (track 3). Unlike in zone A, TPHI shows no
Three typical STC contour has not moved since the well was drilled. The gas effect in either zone, confirming that they
plots are shown on the right. apparent moved oil in track 3 should be have been flushed.
ignored. In a gas zone, the COR is only a
qualitative measure of saturation.
6 15
Figure 6.20 only shows the current state of the reservoir

but also indicates some interesting features of
CALI Vp ⁄ Vs fluid movement.
6 (in) 16 0 6
SP LLS RHOB
20 (mV) 120 0.1 (ohm-m) 1000 1.825 (g / cm3) 2.65 Acoustic measurements
GR LLD DTCO
(gAPI)
Depth through casing
0 150 (ft) 0.1 (ohm-m) 1000 113 (ms / ft) 55
First arrivals have been used for many
years to determine compressional slowness
through casing. However, success depends
15,000 on the cementation being good enough to
allow the generation and transmission of
strong formation signals. Also, unless there is
a near-perfect cement bond, the formation
slowness and casing slowness must be
significantly different.
15,100 These limitations can be overcome by
recording and processing full waveforms.
Two special techniques are recommended to
improve the results. First, the data should be
acquired at a lower transmitter frequency
than in openhole. Second, the processing
should include a wave separation technique
15,200
to remove the casing signal.
The amplitude of the compressional signal
increases with frequency because of the effects
of borehole resonance. However, in cased
holes more casing propagation modes are
15,300
excited at higher frequency, especially when
the cement bond is poor. Therefore, the fre-
Openhole logs and DSI Zone D (5900 ft) was found to be gas- quency must be lowered, but without reducing
results through casing. filled when the well was drilled. However, the amplitude of the compressional signal be-
The compressional slowness TPHI shows no gas effect, and the COR low measurable limits. This limit depends on
(DTCO) is on a compatible indicates oil. This is an interesting indication formation slowness, since the compressional
scale with the density of the movement of fluids in the reservoir. amplitude also increases with formation
(RHOB). (50 p.u. to 0.0 p.u. Zone E (6375 ft) shows no change in slowness because of lower contrast (better
for a sandstone matrix fluid content between the openhole logs coupling) between borehole and formation.
and for the Raymer-Hunt- and the RST log. NPHI and TPHI overlay Therefore, the recommended transmitter fre-
Gradner transform in this almost exactly, as they do in the water zone quency is 7.5 kHz in a hard formation, which
porosity range). below, except opposite the shalier intervals is reduced to 5 kHz in medium and soft for-
where NPHI reads higher. mations, and 3 kHz in very soft formations
Overall, this example confirms that the (Dtc > 130 msec/ft). Other parameters, such as
RST porosity gives good results through two filter range, sampling interval and length
strings in 121⁄4-in. hole in these conditions of must be chosen accordingly.
25 p.u. sands and eccentered tubing. It also
shows the benefit of monitoring old wells.
The comparison of RST porosity and satura-
tion with the original openhole results not
6 16
A DSI was run in a 7-in. casing lying The results of processing are shown in Fig. 6.20
within an 81⁄2-in. hole with washouts up to 15 alongside the openhole data recorded some
in. The shear was obtained from the upper years earlier. The compressional slowness
dipole mode, and the compressional from the P (DTCO)isdisplayedonascalethatiscompatible
and S mode, which was run using a 5-kHz with the density. The openhole density and the
doublet. The data shown in Fig. 6.19 is from the cased hole compressional overlay very well in
P and S mode. The waveform in track 3 shows the cleanest sand around 15,230 ft, and also
a strong constant arrival above 15,080 ft. This is follow each other opposite the zone of strong
the casing signal. Below 15,080 ft. the casing casing signal above 15,080 ft. The Vp/Vs ratio
signal is barely visible, while the formation (=Dts /Dtc) is in the range expected throughout
compressional and sometimes the shear are the log. These results confirm the quality of the
clearly seen. These results are also seen in the compressional and shear measurements. With
S/T planes in track 4 and the S/T projection in this data the operator was able to evaluate the
track 2. In the middle S/T plane at 15,109.8 ft. mechanical properties of his reservoir and the
peaks can be seen for all four arrivals. The shear surrounding formations.
is missing from the top S/T plane and the casing
from the bottom one.
The waveforms were first processed
through a waveform separation module
(WAVSEP), using a median filter to detect and
then remove the casing signal. Standard STC
processing was then applied to find Dtc and Dts.
LITHOLOGY THROUGH CASING
Lithology is an important component of The examples discussed below are from

formation evaluation. It is needed not only shaly sandstones, where it is important to
for its geological significance, but also as an determine the percentage of clay. Knowing the
input in the determination of petrophysical clay percentage is essential for interpreting the
parameters such as porosity, permeability other through-casing logs, such as COR and
and saturation. In old wells the formation capture cross section. In old wells with shaly
lithology is often uncertain because of the sandstone intervals, the GR is often the only
limited amount of data gathered at the time measurement available to determine clay per-
of drilling. centage and to distinguish sandstones from
shales. However, the GR has many limitations
as a quantitative measurement of clay, and
alternative solutions must be examined.
6 17
Figure 6.21 As expected, there is a general correlation.

However, the slopes and offsets vary widely
100
Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 and there is often considerable scatter.
Clay wt%
The wide range in slope can be seen by
50
comparing Wells 1 and 2. An extrapolation
to pure clay would give a GR reading of
0
about 100 API units in Well 1, while it would
100
Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8 read about 500 API units in Well 2. The
Clay wt%
range in offsets, or zero clay readings, can
50
be seen by comparing Well 4 and Well 12.
The offset is 30 API units in Well 4, whereas
0
100
in Well 12 an extrapolation gives 70 API
Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Well 12 untis. Such variations are well known and
Clay wt%
are partially circumvented in practice by

50
using local knowledge and calibrating the
GR to core data in a particular reservoir.
0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200 In the examples of Fig. 6.21, this
Gamma ray Gamma ray Gamma ray Gamma ray calibration would give good clay predictions
in Wells 2, 11 and 12. However, the results are
Synthetic GR (computed
The first two sections will review the still not satisfactory. After calibration the
from Th, U and K concen-
limitations of the GR and the advantages of reliability must be judged in terms of the
trations) plotted against total
capture GR spectroscopy for clay determin- scatter and dynamic range of the data. Several
clay (kaolinite, illite, smectite,
ation. The following sections will show how wells show a large scatter, especially in low-
chlorite and glauconite)
elemental yields from a through-tubing clay, reservoir-type rocks where small changes
measured on the same
pulsed neutron tool are corrected for casing can lead to large relative errors. For example,
sample for 12 data sets.
effects and converted into elemental and in Wells 3, 5, 7 or 9 the scatter at about 20 wt%
Wells 3 and 7 are from
mineral concentrations. Capture GR spectro- clay is such that even a calibrated GR would
Lake Maracaibo.
scopy can be used to give more reliable indicate clay percentages varying from 0% to
estimates of clay percentage even through 40%. This can make the difference between
casing. The whole procedure, known as reservoir and non-reservoir rock, and relative-
SpectroLith, is illustrated with an example ly clean zones may be wrongly condemned as
from Lake Maracaibo and supported with too shaly to be considered. Wells 11 and 12 are
another from the Orinoco Belt. examples of small dynamic range.
Although the GR is an essential qualitative
Limitations of the GR indicator of clay percentage, it should be used
Figure 6.21 shows the relationship with caution in quantitative evaluation. This is
between GR and clay weight percentage particularly true in old wells where core data
(wt%) from core data in 12 wells. The may not be available for calibration.
GR was synthesized from laboratory
measurements of thorium, potassium and
uranium, while the clay percentage was
measured by Fourier Transform Infrared
(FT-IR) techniques (see Chapter 5–39).
6 18
Figure 6.22 GR spectroscopy

The same database was used to examine
100
other estimators of clay. Figure 6.22 shows
the relationship of various elements to clay
Clay (wt%)
50 in Well 3. Of the three elements thorium,
uranium and potassium (Th, U and K) that
make up the natural GR signal, only K shows
0
0 10 20 0 5 10 0 2.5 5 a better correlation than the total GR.
Thorium (ppm) Uranium (ppm) Potassium (wt%) Aluminum (Al) correlates well, and silica (Si)
100
anti-correlates well except for a few points
Clay (wt%)
that have a high iron (Fe) percentage.

50 In general, the most reliable estimator
is found to be Al. However, it is a complicated
measurement to make in a borehole, currently
0
0 10 20 0 1 2 0 5 10 requiring a chemical source, two spectro-
Aluminum (wt%) Titanium (wt%) Gadolinium (ppm) meters and a measurement of formation cap-
100
ture cross section. K is not generally as
reliable as in the example in Fig. 6.22.
Clay (wt%)
50 Therefore, an alternative estimator is used

which is based on the observation that as the
clay percentage increases, the amounts of
0
0 25 50 0 15 30 0 20 40
several elements decreases. This was already
Silicon (wt%) Iron (wt%) Calcium (wt%) noted for Si in Fig. 6.22. Similar anti-
Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging correlations can be observed with calcium
against total clay for Well 3. (Ca) in carbonate intervals, and with Fe where
siderite or pyrite are present. After converting
Figure 6.23 from elemental to oxide concentrations and
optimizing the coefficients for the data from
100
Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 Wells 1-10, the following algorithm has been
Clay wt%
found:
50
Clay=1.67(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -MgCO3 -1.99Fe) (5)
0 The result is shown in Fig. 6.23, where
100
Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8 the estimated clay from equation (5) is plotted
against the measured clay. The estimate has a
Clay wt%
50
correlation coefficient of 0.94 and a standard
error of 6.9 wt%, and is an improvement over
0 the GR estimate shown in Fig. 6.21. The
100
Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Well 12 scatter is drastically reduced, particularly at
low clay concentrations where clay estimation
Clay wt%
50 is most critical. Even in Well 8, where the

overall change is smaller, there is an
0 improvement in the cleanest sandstones.
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100
Wells 11 and 12 are drilled in feldspar-rich
Estimated clay Estimated clay Estimated clay Estimated clay
sandstones and are best treated by using an
Clay estimated from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe in wt% plotted against alternative algorithm with different
total clay for all 12 wells. coefficients.
6 19
Figure 6.24 The remainder of the rock is divided into These observations provide the basis for
carbonate (calcite + dolomite) and quartz- a practical, convenient through-casing lith-
100
feldspar-mica. For the carbonate fraction, the ology measurement. Spectroscopy has been
Calcite + dolomite wt%

sum (Ca + 1.455Mg) represents 40 wt% used for many years to provide detailed
50
carbonate regardless of the mixture of calcite mineralogical information. However, it has
and dolomite. Then, after optimizing the generally been based on the measurement of
coefficients with the database, the carbonate at least nine elements, including Al, and the
0 fraction is determined as follows: measurement taken in openhole conditions.
0 50 100
The equations above depend on a much
Estimated calcite + dolomite wt% Carbonate = -7.5 + 2.69 (Ca + 1.455Mg) (6)
simpler set of measurements, although some
Calcite + dolomite estimated
The non-zero offset of 7.5 and the modifications are needed before applying
from equation (6) plotted
slightly higher coefficient account for a small them to log data. These will be discussed
against measured calcite +
Ca contribution from plagioclase feldspars. later, after describing how accurate elemental
dolomite for all 12 wells.
The result is shown in Fig. 6.24, where the concentrations are measured through casing.
estimated carbonate from equation (6) is
plotted against the measured carbonate. The Elemental measurements
correlation coefficient is 0.98. through casing
The quartz-feldspar-mica fraction is then The RST measures the yields of Si, Ca, Fe,
simply (1 - clay - carbonate). Note that these sulfur (S), titanium (Ti), and gadolinium (Gd).
are weight rather than volume fractions, and Figure 6.25 shows the yields obtained in the
that, unlike the GR, they are independent Inelastic Capture mode in a Lake Maracaibo
of porosity. well. This is the same as Well 3, for which the
detailed core data was shown in Fig. 6.22.
Figure 6.25 From the raw yields, we can see evidence
of a shaly sandstone sequence; the silica yield
10,000
alone suggests the location of sandstone and
10,100 shale beds. The high Fe is predominantly from
the casing, as expected in this environment. In
10,200
addition, the Inelastic Capture spectrum of Fe
10,300
contains GRs from both Fe and Al, such that
the measured yield should be considered as
Depth (ft)
10,400 the sum (Fe + 0.14 * Al).

The first step in the processing chain
10,500
is removing the casing signal from the
10,600
Fe yield. This is accomplished by a back-
ground subtraction that is based on a histo-
10,700 gram of the Fe yields, shown in Fig. 6.26. The
casing Fe correction is generally taken close
10,800
–0.1 0 0.1 –0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 –0.1 0 0.1 –0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 to the leading edge of the histogram
Silicon Calcium Iron + .14Al Sulfur Titanium Gadolinium in order to zero-out the lowest values. Using
this histogram, a value of 0.35 was selected
Capture yields from the RST far detector in a Lake Maracaibo well, unsmoothed
for the Fe correction in this data set. Typical
and not corrected for casing or cement.
values are in the range of 0.2 to 0.4.
6 20
Figure 6.26 The other elemental yield that normally Yields to elemental concentrations
needs a casing or cement correction is Ca. Unfortunately, because the total signal
350
The size of this signal is more variable, but depends on the environment, the yields are
300
an estimate can be made with knowledge of not measurements of the absolute concen-
250
the borehole and casing size. The correction trations of each element, but indicators of the
Frequency
200
ranges from 0 to about 0.10. This well has a relative concentrations. However, the two are
150
5.5-in. casing in an 8.5-in. hole, for which related by the equation:
100
the laboratory data indicates a cement
50 Wi = F Yi /Si (7)
contribution to the Ca of about 0.05.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 The histogram correction technique is where Wi is the absolute weight fraction of
Fe yield also used to make the Ca cement correction, element i, Yi is the relative yield for element i
Histogram of the far detector but the correction is taken near the peak as measured by the tool, Si is the relative
capture Fe yield. instead of at the leading edge of the data sensitivity of the measurement to element i,
distribution. If significant formation Ca exists, and F is a normalization factor. The relative
Figure 6.27 it would show up as either an asymmetrical sensitivities, Si, are tool constants that can be
300 tail or a second peak in the histogram. measured in the laboratory. The normalization
250
The histogram of the Ca yields is shown in factor, F, is a complex function of nearly every
Fig. 6.27, from which a value of 0.045 was physical parameter of the borehole/formation
200
Frequency
selected. Note that these corrections are environment, and has to be derived at each
150
about an order of magnitude smaller than the level. As in earlier techniques, F is determined
100 Fe casing corrections. by an oxide closure model. This is based on
50 The corrected yields, after truncating at the principle that the sum of the weight
0 zero, are shown in Fig. 6.28. Note that the Ca percent of all oxides must be 1. The weight
–0.1 –0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
yields have dropped to nearly zero, but most percentage of an oxide can be determined
Ca yield
of the well still has significant Fe. from that of its element using an oxide
Histogram of the far detector
association factor. Then, using equation (7),
capture Ca yield.
the oxide closure model can be written as:
F (XSiYSi/SSi + XCaYCa /SCa + XsYs /Ss

Figure 6.28 + XTiYTi /STi + XGdYGd /SGd + XFeYFe /SFe ) = 1 (8)
10,000 where X i is the oxide association factor to

convert element i to its common oxide.
10,100
Several oxides are not accounted for in this
10,200 model, mainly Al and K. However, it has been
observed that the weight percentage of these
10,300
oxides is strongly related to the amount of
Depth (ft)
10,400
clay and hence to the amount of Fe.
Therefore, XFe is chosen to compensate for
10,500 these missing oxides such that the left-hand
side of the equation does sum to 1.
10,600
The value used is based on empirical
10,700 observation from a very large range of core
samples from different environments. XFe
10,800
–0.1 0 0.1 –0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 –0.1 0 0.1 –0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 also takes into account the contamination of
Silicon Calcium Iron + .14Al Sulfur Titanium Gadolinium the Fe yield by Al mentioned above.
Capture yields from the far detector, after casing and cement correction.
6 21
Figure 6.29 Elements to minerals

10,100 Equations (5) and (6) provided a means
for obtaining minerals from elements, based
10,200
on core data. There are two complications
using log data. First, magnesium (Mg) is not
10,300
normally measured by spectroscopy logging
Depth (ft)
tools, although recent work shows this can be
10,400
done. However, as discussed above, the sum
10,500 (Ca + 1.455Mg) is independent of whether
there is calcite or dolomite, which is the same
10,600 as saying that this sum equals the Ca
measured by logs. Therefore, the log Ca can
10,700 be used to estimate the total carbonate.
0 50 0 20 40 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 2 4 0 20 40
Silicon Calcium Iron + .14Al Sulfur Titanium Gadolinium Second, the optimization for clay percentage
(wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (ppm) needs to allow for the fact that the
Fe measurement is contaminated by Al.
Elemental Concentration Logs computed with SpectroLith are compared with cores.
Equations (5) and (6) are therefore modified
as follows:
Thus, while the normal oxide association
factor for Fe is 2.075, the one used in the Clay (log) =1.91 ( 100 - SiO2
above model is typically close to 6. - CaCO3 - 1.99Fe) (9)
The model as described is suitable for shaly
Carbonate (log) = -7.5 + 2.69Ca (10)
sandstone intervals. In carbonates and
evaporites, further refinements are made to Quartz - Feldspar - Mica = 1 - Clay
account properly for dolomite and anhydrite. - Carbonate (11)
The elemental concentration logs
In the case of sandstones rich in feld-
computed using this processing are presented
spar or mica, such as Wells 11 and 12, the
in Fig. 6.29 as solid blue curves. Core data are
alternative clay computation is as follows:
presented as red dots for comparison. In
general, the correlation between core and log Clay2(log)=
data is quite good. It is particularly good -18.5+3.34(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -1.99Fe) (12)
considering that the data were obtained
The results for Well 3 are shown in Fig.
through casing with a 111⁄16-in. tool. Both the
6.30, and are compared with core data
core and log data distinguish the silica-rich
acquired with FT-IR measurements. For the
sandstones (Si > 40 wt%) from the shales.
sandstones and shaly sandstones, where the
Both data sets show the near-absence of Ca.
quartz-feldspar-mica component is greater
The Ca peak at 10,650 ft actually represents a
than 70 wt%, the core and log data agree
cement-filled washout that can be identified
very well. The absence of calcite and
on the openhole caliper. The Fe, Ti and Gd
dolomite is clear in both the core and log
logs all agree reasonably well with core.
data. The SpectroLith interpretation correctly
quantifies the clay content in the sandstones
and shaly sandstones where accurate
quantification is most critical. In the shales,
the SpectroLith clay quantity is somewhat
lower than the core data.
6 22
Figure 6.30 core measurements permit a very thorough

comparison. The GR has been scaled to give
10,100
a clay wt%, using GRmin=11 API units to
match the minimum reading at X890 ft, and a
10,200
GRmax=80 API units. Then, following the
work of Bhuyan and Passey, a scaling factor
10,300 has been used because many shales have a
Depth (ft) clay percentage around 0.6. Hence:
10,400
ClayGR = 0.6 * (GR - 11)/69 (13)
10,500
The SpectroLith processing was auto-
matic. As can be seen, the two log estimates
agree well between X855 ft and X885 ft.
10,600
Elsewhere, and in spite of the scaling factor,
the GR gives too high a clay percentage by
10,700
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100 about 10 to 20 wt%. Furthermore, it shows
Clay (wt%) Carbonate (wt%) Quartz-Feld-Mica (wt%) excursions, such as at X760 ft and X815 ft,
Mineral weight percentage which would be interpreted as sealing shales,
The response of the GR log can be
computed with SpectroLith, but which are not shales at all. SpectroLith
judged from the core measurements, shown
and compared with cores. gives a better picture of the reservoir.
as Well 3 in Fig. 6.21. It can be seen both
from Fig. 6.21 and the SpectroLith results in
Summary
Fig. 6.30 that there are no entirely clean
In shaly sandstone intervals, it is impor-
zones. This will make an empirical pick of
tant to know the percentage of clay to estimate
GRmin very difficult without core data. Even
porosity, saturation and permeability. Very
with core data, it can be seen from Fig. 6.21
often the clay percentage is estimated from the
that the GR regularly overestimates the clay
GR. However, it has been shown that the GR
in the sandstones (clay wt% < 30%).
is unreliable as a quantitative estimator of clay.
Another example comparing the two
This is especially true in old wells where core
techniques is shown in Fig. 6.31. In this well,
and other logs are not often available to
from the Orinoco Belt, the large number of
calibrate and help interpret the response.
An alternative technique is to use
Figure 6.31
capture GR spectroscopy yields from an RST
100
GR
tool. Using the SpectroLith procedure, these
90 Spectrolith yields can be turned into elemental and
80
mineralogical concentrations. Based on
70
examples from Lake Maracaibo and the
Clay (wt%)
60
Orinoco Belt, it has been shown that more
50
40
accurate clay percentages can be obtained by
30 this technique. This improvement was
20 significant in enhancing the reservoir
10 evaluation, so that potentially good zones
0 were not falsely judged to be poor quality
X650 X700 X750 X800 X850 X900
Depth (ft) reservoir, and so that facies with high GR
were not treated as reservoir barriers.
Clay weight percentage in a Orinoco Belt well from SpectroLith, GR and cores.
The SpectroLith value clearly agrees more closely with the cores.
6 23
PERMEABILITY AND PRESSURE
In the last three sections we have seen After the direct methods described
how to obtain water saturation, porosity and above, the next-best solution is to use
lithology in old wells. Two important indirect methods; for example, estimating
components of the formation evaluation are permeability from logs and pressure from a
missing—the permeability and pressure. nearby new well. In new wells there are
These are also some of the hardest data to several ways of estimating permeability from
obtain. Both can be derived from a build-up logs—from the CMR tool and from the
test. This is straightforward in a single-layer Stoneley wave (Chapter 4) or from porosity
reservoir (e.g., Permanent Monitoring, page and mineralogy. Unfortunately, in many old
6–41). However, in a multilayer reservoir, wells adequate openhole logs are not
several different layers are usually open to available. However, with the methods
flow. Isolating and testing each zone is described above of determining porosity and
difficult and expensive. Special tests may be lithology through casing, it is now possible
made. In the Selective Inflow Performance to estimate permeability in old wells. These
(SIP) test, production logs measure the methods of estimating pressure and perme-
contribution of each layer at different ability are discussed with an example below.
surface flow rates. From this data, the in-
flow performance relationship and the Permeability
formation pressure of each layer can be The link between porosity, mineralogy
derived. In a Layered Reservoir Test (LRT) and permeability is provided by the so-
the pressure and flow rate of a layer are called L parameter, which relates perme-
recorded versus time while a step change in ability to L and Archie’s formation factor F
the flow rate is induced at the surface by as follows (Johnson et al., 1986):
changing choke size. After this is repeated
KL = L2 / 8F and 1/L = S / Vp (14)
for each layer, the permeability, skin and
reservoir pressure of each layer can be where S is the surface area and Vp the
estimated. The interpretation is complex. volume of the pores. The ratio S/Vp is
The zones must be isolated, and flow rates related to the total porosity, grain density
must be reasonably high to get sufficient and specific surface area of the rock (in units
accuracy. Clearly these types of tests cannot of m2/g) as:
give information about zones not open to
S/Vp = S0 rg f / (1-f) (15)
flow. However, many successful examples of
both SIP and LRT have been published. Furthermore, minerals have fairly
A cased-hole wireline formation test is a unique and constant specific surface areas,
possible solution for unperforated zones. S0i, which may be determined by laboratory
The tool is set opposite the zone to be tested analysis. Thus, the total specific surface area
and a hydraulically operated drill bit is used S0 can be computed from the mineral
to drill a hole through the casing to the zone abundances Mi, as:
to be tested. After the test, the hole is
S0 = S Mi S0i (16)
plugged with a Lee plug. As in the openhole,
such tests can measure formation pressure The above equations can be combined
and a permeability close to the borehole to give a direct expression for permeability:
wall. However, the zone tested must still
KL = A f (m+2) / (rg2 (1-f) 2 S Mi ni S0i ) (17)
be well isolated from other zones behind
the casing.
6 24
Figure 6.32 Pressure

One of the simplest and best established
10,500
methods of obtaining layer pressure is to
make openhole wireline formation tests in a
nearby new well. The key to success is a
10,600 good correlation between the old and new
well, and a good knowledge of sealing faults
and other factors that might cause a
10,700
discontinuity in pressure. Typically in old
wells the correlation is based on a good
geological model, and on GR and resistivity
logs. Here again the SpectroLith lithology
10,800
can improve results. Chemostratigraphy,
Depth (ft)
which is based on the elemental volumes

from SpectroLith, can help make correlations
10,900 that are better than those from GR and
resistivities alone (Herron, 1988).
11,000 Example
The example shown in Fig. 6.33 is from
Bloque IV in the Maracaibo Basin. VLD-1112
is a new well and VLD-775 is an old well in
11,100 Shell
core data the same block. An extensive study of cores
Maraven
core data
and logs in this area led to a new definition
of layers for the reservoir, shown as layers I
11,200
0 50 100 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 to XII on the left. This layering was strongly
Clay (wt %) Permeability (md) confirmed by the MDT* Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester pressures recorded in VLD-
Comparison of core and
The factor n was introduced to account 1112. Some layers are clearly much more
K-L permeability for a
for low predictions in shalier sandstones. It depleted than others. The permeabilities
Lower Lagunillas well
has been suggested that in these sandstones were estimated with the K-L method using
(Herron, 1995).
not all the specific area participates in the the openhole mineral volumes.
flow. Much better fits to core data are The old well, VLD-775, is about 1 km
achieved if the specific area is reduced by SE of VLD-1112 and was drilled in 1978.
n, which is between 0.1 and 0.2 for clays After producing about 5 MMBbl of oil it
and 1 for non-clays. Figure 6.32 shows a recently showed a large increase in gas cut.
comparison of the K-L prediction and core The fluids in the different layers at the time of
for a Lower Lagunillas well. the original openhole and a recent RST are
summarized on the right of Fig 6.33. In this
case, the openhole logging suite was
sufficient to make a reasonable estimate of
porosity and lithology. The permeability in
track 2 was derived from the mineralogy and
the K-L model. The correlation between the
two wells is based on the new layer model,
6 25
PERMEABILITY AND PRESSURE
Figure 6.33
VLD – 775
Openhole 12 ⁄ 78
Hist + RST 4 ⁄ 94
VLD – 1112
6 ⁄ 94 2 ⁄ 79
12 ⁄ 91
Member
Layer
2 ⁄ 79
Layer
Sand
Layer SP
MDT Pressure (psig)
Average -80 -20
GR 1050 1300
Porosity and md
K (md) GR KINT (md)
0 (gAPI) 120 Depth Permeability
(ft) 1.00 10000. 0 120 ft 1 10000
Laguna

10,400
f =19% XII
XII
k =31 md
f =18% 10600 XI
XI k = 4 md
L X
f =19%

X k =152 md
10,500 IX
IX f =23%
k = 306 md
VIII
Lagunillas I nferior
VIII
10700
f =16% VII
VII
k= 3 md
f= 16% VI
,
M VI
k = 2 md
10,600
V
V f= 22%
k =1498 md
IV IV
III 10800
III
f 24%
10,700 k 1585 md II
N II
I
I
Open perforations Closed perforations
Sequence boundary Oil Gas Water
Flooding surface
Other marker
Indirect estimates of dynamic properties in an old well (VLD-775). Permeability is from openhole measurements and pressure by correlation
with the new well VLD-1112, (after Bryant, et al, 1996).
using the layer VIII shale as a datum horizon. All the formation characteristics needed
The tops were refined and made consistent to make a sound decision about VLD-775
with flow units using the permeability. are now known: porosity, lithology,
Note that if the correlation had been based permeability, current fluid saturations and
on GR alone, layers II to VI would have layer pressures.
been harder to define. With this correlation
we can take the layer pressures from VLD-
1112 as our best estimate of the layer
pressures in VLD-775.
6 26
ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Production logging tools were first Phase hold-up measurement

introduced more than 30 years ago. Even The measurement of phase hold-up has
with the fairly simple technology that existed never been a direct measurement. It has
at that time, a monophasic flow profile in a usually been derived from fluid density. The
well could be quantitatively defined. The fluid density is typically determined from the
key sensor for determining flow rate was the difference in pressure between two vertically
same as is used today, namely the spinner. displaced points, and the sensor is known as
The spinner can be calibrated in-situ so that a gradiomanometer. If the densities of the
its rotational speed can be directly related to pure phases are known, then the density of
fluid velocity. The major challenge for the fluid mixture can be expressed as a sim-
production logging over the years has been ple linear combination of each phase present.
achieving quantitative flow profiling in di- Thus, in two-phase flow, the following
phasic and tri-phasic flow. This challenge equation can be used to find hold-up:
has only increased with the greater number
Fluid density = rf = yhp • rhp + ylp • rlp (20)
of highly deviated and horizontal wells now
also yhp + ylp = 1 (21)
being drilled.
The most common di-phasic flow rearranging and substituting for ylp from (21)
condition encountered is that of water and
yhp = (rf - rlp) / (rhp - rlp) (22)
oil flowing together. We can write the
general equations for two-phase flow as The method of using differential
follows: pressure to calculate fluid density is subject
to many drawbacks:
qhp = qt • yhp - qs (18)
• The measurement includes the frictional
qlp = qt • ylp + qs (19)
pressure losses of flow and requires cor-
where: rection at high flow rates to avoid calcu-
q = flow rate, hp = heavy phase lating an erroneously high fluid density.
lp = light phase, y = phase hold-up, • The measurement must be corrected in
vs = slippage velocity, deviated wells because the pressure
qs = slippage flow rate defined as difference depends on the true vertical
yhp • ylp • A • Vs depth between the ports. It becomes
In a bubble flow regime; i.e., when one less sensitive for the same reason. In a
phase is continuous while the other is horizontal well, a differential pressure
distributed as bubbles within it, then it is measurement of fluid density will not
assumed that the spinner can determine the work at all as there is no difference in
total flow rate qt. The hold-up of the phases elevation between the measuring ports.
has to be determined from measurements, • The use of density to determine phase
while the slippage velocity is found from hold-up is an indirect method. If a well
laboratory-established correlations. has entries of different salinity water, and
entries of different density oil, then in
equation (22) no unique values of rhp or
rlp can be found. This problem leads to
inaccurate estimation of hold-up and may
incorrectly cause an interpreter to diag-
nose a fresh-water entry as an oil entry if
the wellbore contains saline water.
6 27
The recognition of the shortcomings of A high-frequency alternating current is

gradiomanometry has led to attempts to de- emitted from the probe into the surrounding
termine hold-up by other methods, such as: fluid. The current returns to the body of the
• Measuring the capacitance of a two- tool. The amplitude of the signal depends on
phase wellbore fluid. This capacitance the impedance of the fluid around the probe.
can be related to hold-up if the capa- Because there is a large contrast between the
citance of each pure phase is known. impedance of oil and that of water, the tool is
• Measuring electron density by deter- self-calibrating. It sets a high-voltage thres-
mining the ability of the fluid mixture to hold above which the probe is in oil, and a
absorb gamma rays emitted by a Cesium low-voltage threshold below which it is in
source. In this case, the density can be water. The hold-up of water is calculated
used to determine hold-up in the same directly as the ratio of the time the signal is
way as the density from gradiomano- low to the total time. This digital hold-up
metry is used. The density measured in measurement is a significant breakthrough
this way, however, is not affected by fric- because no input of fluid properties is
tional pressure losses. required and the measurement is unaffected
The first of the above techniques suffers by friction effects, deviation, differing water
because the change in capacitance is not or oil densities, etc. The measurement is
linear with hold-up, and the unaffected by water salinity, providing it is
Figure 6.34 response exhibits a discon- above 2000 ppm, which covers the large
tinuity when the continuous majority of cases. With four probes distri-
phase changes from water to buted across the borehole, the results can be
Probe output
oil. The response also de- displayed as an image of the hold-up across
Not conducting
Probe
Conducting pends on the flow regime as the borehole.
the electrical properties are In a bubble flow regime, the changes in
affected by the spatial dis- impedance seen by the probes can be
persion of the phases. The considered as bubbles impinging on the
electron density from nuclear probe. By counting the changes from the
Probe measurements is strongly low-voltage threshold to the high-voltage
affected by the casing, threshold, the number of bubbles passing
cement and formation. the probe can be found. The bubble count is
Flow These drawbacks have moti- extremely sensitive and can be used to
vated research into a tech- detect small entries of oil or water.
nique for directly measuring
Oil
water hold-up. The result is Example of improved hold-up mea-
Gas
the Digital Entry and Fluid surements from FloView
Imaging Tool (DEFT), also This example from Western Venezuela is
known as the FloView, a vertical well completed in selected inter-
Digital Entry and Fluid Imaging
which is the only tool in the industry that vals within the reservoir. It has a 5-in., 18-
Tool (DEFT). The local impe-
directly measures water hold-up. lb/ft casing, with a 31⁄2-in. production tubing
dance around the probe
The tool consists of four probes (Fig. set at 4981 ft and equipped with three gas-
changes as bubbles of the
6.34) that are protected from damage by lift valves. At the time of logging seven
dispersed phase pass the
being placed inside a protective cage. Each intervals were open, giving an average pro-
probe tip. The signal level indi-
probe is, in essence, a small coaxial antenna. duction of 133 bbl/day of oil, 530 bbl/day of
cates which phase is observed,
water and 737 Mscf/D of gas.
leading to a direct measure-
ment of phase hold-up.
6 28
Figure 6.35 The tools could not descend below 5423 ft,
probably because of sand or an obstruction.
Water Thus, the lowest perforated interval could not
Moved oil be logged. After the well had stabilized,
Average BUB count Perforated Oil
zones
several passes and stations were recorded.
0 (cps) 500 Sand
Depth
Fluid density Spinner velocity Water phase Clay Figure 6.35, track 5 shows the inter-
(ft)
.5 (g / cm3) 1.5 0 (rps) 20 Oil phase Bound water preted results based on the RST and the
Hold up Average holdup Fluid temperature Flow rate Combined model
image 0
original openhole logs (Induction, Density,
(%) 1 177 (oF) 183 0 (B / D) 750 1 (V / V) 0
Neutron and GR). They show partial drain-
A
age of oil in most sandstones, with some-
what less in the upper sandstones and in the
upper part of the sandstone from 5292 ft to
B 5346 ft. No gas was detected. However, on
the basis of the RST alone, it is difficult to
C
decide what action to take.
Figure 6.35 also shows the production
logs while the well was flowing. Track 1
contains the FloView hold-up image and
track 2 contains the average hold-up and
D bubble count from the FloView, together with
the fluid density from the gradiomanometer.
Track 3 contains the spinner, the temperature
and the perforated intervals. Track 4 shows
the oil and water flow rates based principally
on the FloView hold-up and the spinner. The
FloView hold-up in track 2 reads slightly less
E than 1 from the bottom, suggesting an influx
of water with a small amount of oil from the
F lower, obstructed interval. The bubble count
curve and image also show that there is a
G small flow of oil, while the gradiomanometer
shows no variation. The perforated interval
labeled E contributes some water, as does
most of interval D. At the very top of this
An example of a DEFT log Before planning how to enhance pro-
interval, the FloView clearly identifies the first
run in a well in western duction, it was decided to determine the
major entry of oil that is also detected by the
Venezuela. remaining oil saturation in the different
gradiomanometer. Interval C produces mainly
sandstones and the source of the high water
water. The interval B produces some water
cut (80%). Therefore, the well was shut in
and oil. This oil influx is not detected by the
and a combined production logging string
gradiomanometer, as the density shows
(Manometer-Thermometer-Gradiomano-
no significant reduction. The oil entry at A
meter-Spinner) and RST were run over the
also has no perceivable effect on the
perforated interval. The well was then put
measured density.
back on production and a production logging
string with FloView was run in the well.
6 29
Figure 6.36 An independent measurement of water flow

velocity is possible by a technique known as
Signal if there is no flow Water Flow Logging (WFL). In this technique
Signal with water flow a pulsed neutron tool, such as an RST (see
Water flow signal with
static subtracted
box, page 6–10), is used to irradiate the
600
environment around the tool with high-
energy neutrons. Atomic nuclei absorb these
Counts ⁄ sec neutrons and become unstable atoms that
400
then decay and emit gamma rays. Most of
these decays have very short half-lives
200
except for activated oxygen, which has a
half-life of 7.1 sec. Consider a well that has a
flow stream consisting of water and
hydrocarbon. It is only the water that
10 20 30 40 50
contains oxygen atoms. So after emitting a
Time (sec)
pulse of neutrons, a small “slug” of activated
Water Flow Logging
water is created that is measured by the
The advantage of the accurate FloView detectors as it flows past them. As shown in
hold-up measurement and bubble count is Fig. 6.36, this slug can be clearly
clearly demonstrated in this case. Without the distinguished from the signal due to static
FloView, we would have concluded that the oxygen, which has an exponential decay.
main oil producer was D. Similarly, the small The water flow velocity can then be
GR Neutron influx of oil from below the obstruction calculated from the distance between the
detector generator
Near
would not have been detected. With this generator and the detector and the “time of
detector information, suitable actions can be taken to flight” of the activated water slug. The tool
Far Far enhance production. In this case, a gel string has to be configured in the appropriate
detector detector
injection job was designed to shut off the configuration to detect either down-flow or
Near
detector main water producing intervals without up-flow (Fig. 6.36).
GR
Neutron
detector
significantly affecting oil production. At the The irradiation of water is not restricted
generator
same time, the injection profile of nearby to water that is inside the wellbore; if there is
injectors was re-evaluated. Using only con- water moving behind the casing, through
Configuration Configuration
for up-flow for down-flow ventional measurements an erroneous profile cement channels, for example, then the WFL
The pulsed neutron tool is would have been determined, which could technique can determine the velocity at which
configured appropriately to have led to incorrect remedial action. it is moving. This ability to reliably detect
detect up or down flow of and quantify the movement of water outside
water. Above, a typical Water flow logging the production casing or tubing makes
signal at the far GR detector As stated above, in a bubble flow regime the WFL an extremely powerful technique.
is shown with and without it is reasonable to assume that a spinner
water flow. responds to the average flow of the mixture.
However, in other regimes this is not a good
assumption, and in all cases it is beneficial to
measure the individual phase velocities.
6 30
Figure 6.37 The WFL was run in up-flow mode to check

if there was water channeling upward behind
LL3 the casing from a lower sandstone. The three
ILM
stations below the perforations clearly show
Water flow log Water flow log no flow (track 3, Fig. 6.37). The WFL was then
ILD
up flow down flow run in down-flow mode to check for chan-
0.02 ( ohm-m ) 200
GR
neling downward from the upper sandstone.
0 (gAPI) 200 The five stations clearly show downward flow
Perforations Depth Water velocity up Water velocity down originating from between 11,739 and 11,824 ft,
(ft) 0 (ft ⁄ min) 20 0 (ft ⁄ min) 20
presumably from the sandstone at 11,770 ft. or
at 11,790 ft (track 4, Fig 6.37). Only the WFL
technique could have determined the source
of water in such a case.
Horizontal well production logging

In recent years there has been a
growing trend in the industry to drill
horizontal wells. They present a significant
challenge from a well servicing point of
view, in particular the acquisition of
CPS ⁄ cycle
production profiles. The environment for

11,800
production logging is very complex: a
Time (sec)
horizontal well is seldom truly horizontal but
instead has a trajectory that rises and falls
over its length. These minor variations in the
11,900
well trajectory create traps at the low points
for water, mud, stimulation fluids, etc., and
traps at the high points for gas. These traps
12,000
of stagnant fluid have a dramatic influence
on the measurements made by many
production logging sensors. The type of
12,100
completion may also add complexity. For
example, uncemented slotted liners will
allow flow both inside and outside the liner
CPS ⁄ cycle
12,200
and flow may enter and leave the liner as a
function of the openhole geometry, which
Time (sec) may easily be confused with production or
12,300
cross-flow. Furthermore, as discussed above,
the traditional gradiomanometer cannot be
used to measure hold-up.
An example of a WFL
Figure 6.37 shows an example of a WFL Therefore, a new production logging
showing water flowing down
acquired in a well in Western Venezuela. The tool string was designed specifically for
from an upper zone, and not
well was producing 258 B/D of water and 172 horizontal well logging. First, the mechanics
up from a lower zone.
B/D of oil from an interval that was not of fluid flow in a horizontal well were
expected to have such a large water cut. studied. This involved making experiments
with oil and water mixtures in a flow-loop.
6 31
Figure 6.38 6.38 shows results from the flow-loop

experiments where four different pipe
positions are considered at three
different total flow conditions with a
Oil
6000 50% oil/water mixture. If the flow is
Water
going “uphill” then because the water is
Total flow rate (B/D)

heavier than oil, the velocity of the
water reduces, but to maintain the same
Oil mass flow rate, the hold-up must
1500
Water increase. Conversely, the light oil phase
velocity increases while going “uphill”
and so its hold-up decreases. When the
Oil pipe is tipped “downhill,” then the
600
Water water velocity increases with a
corresponding decrease in hold-up,
80˚ 89˚ 90˚ 91˚
Deviation from vertical
while the oil velocity decreases with a
Three different total flow corresponding increase in hold-up. At
rates are shown for The study revealed some very interesting high flow rates the hold-up is less
experiments in a 5-in. OD phenomena that indicated the type of dependent on pipe deviation because
flow-loop. In all cases the measurements that must be made to the frictional effects become much more
water cut is 50%. The successfully understand and quantify the important than the gravitational effects.
variation in hold-up can be flow profile in a horizontal well. Two major From the above observations, it is clear
observed at four different conclusions were reached: that a change in hold-up in a horizontal well
pipe angles. 1. Oil and water are always flowing in a could be mistakenly identified as an entry of
stratified flow regime. That is to say that fluid, when actually it is only induced by a
the oil and water segregate into two change in well deviation. Therefore, to
distinct layers, and remain so up to high accurately quantify the production profile in
flow rates of 30,000 BPD in a 7-in. liner. a horizontal well, the hold-up and velocity
2. At low flow rates, typically less than of each phase must be measured along the
3,000 B/D in a 5-in. liner, the phase wellbore trajectory. Once the flow-loop
hold-up is significantly affected by even experiments defined the parameters that
small changes in pipe deviation. Figure needed to be measured, then a production
logging suite could be designed to meet the
Figure 6.39 objectives. The tool-string that emerged as a
result of this development work is known as
Combinable Production Digital Entry Fluid Phase Velocity Sonde
the Flagship Integrated Production Logging
Logging Tool Reservoir Saturation Tool
Oil hold-up Imaging Tool String, and is shown in Fig. 6.39.
Pressure & temperature Gas indicator Flow regime
Gamma Ray Water hold-up The Flagship string is designed to
Detector
simultaneously measure the phase hold-up
and phase velocity of both oil and water.
However, because of the complexity of the
Dual DEFT flow conditions, the philosophy is to make
many redundant measurements to gain high
Spinner
Marker injection for oil confidence in the results.
Water velocity and ⁄ or water velocity
Water hold-up index
Water flow-rate index
A schematic representation of the Flagship Integrated Production Logging String.
6 32
Figure 6.40 Flagship hold-up measurements are made in

the following ways:
• Dual FloView tools are arranged at 45°
to each other so that the eight probes
6000 0.5
can measure hold-up all around the
0.57 0.52 0.51 0.49 borehole. The measurements are
Flow rate (B ⁄ D)
processed into an image that leads to a
1500 direct measurement of phase hold-up.
0.5
The FloView measurements corres-
0.74 0.63 0.48 0.40
ponding to the flow-loop conditions of
Fig. 6.38 are shown in Fig. 6.40. It can
600
be seen that the percentage of the pipe
1
0.87 0.68 0.34 0.21
cross-section occupied by the segre-
80¡ 89¡ 90¡ 91¡
gated oil and water phases agrees well
Deviation from vertical (deg) with the visual estimation of Fig. 6.38.
• The RST measures the neutron capture
The cross-sectional hold-up image maps are shown that were acquired with the
cross section of the borehole fluid (page
Dual-DEFT of the Flagship string during the same flow-loop experiment that is
6–13). This cross section is a linear
shown in Fig. 6.38.
combination of each phase hold-up and
capture cross section. Thus, in a two-
Figure 6.41 phase mixture, provided that there is
enough contrast between the fluids’
capture cross sections, then the hold-ups
Marker signal Near detector borehole sigma indicator
can be calculated knowing the capture
cross section of the oil and the water
• The RST also determines the COR of the
borehole fluid (page 6–4), and the ratio
of total inelastic counts from the near
and far detectors. The former is sensitive
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 to the relative volumes of water and oil,
Time (sec) while the latter is sensitive to the volume
of gas, so that by combining both it is
Oil-miscible marker possible to measure a three-phase hold-
up (oil, water and gas).
Casing
Oil
Flagship phase velocity measurements are
made as follows:
• The WFL for the water, as described
Water above.
• Phase Velocity Log (PVL). A tracer ejector
PVS Phase Velocity Sonde RST
tool (PVS) uses two miscible markers
to independently measure the oil and
An oil-soluble gadolinium-based marker is injected into the oil phase. The arrival of water velocities. The tool contains
the marker at the RST is detected by a perturbation of the capture cross section of two chambers, one that carries an
the borehole fluid. Time of flight is used to compute phase velocity. A water-soluble oil-soluble gadolinium-based com-
marker can be ejected downward for water velocity. pound, and the other that carries a water-
soluble gadolinium-based compound.
6 33
Figure 6.42 Spinner measurement

The Flagship string also incorporates an
500
in-line spinner (CFS) and a fullbore spinner
(FBS). When two phases are moving in a
stratified flow regime at different velocities,
400 a spinner cannot be considered as
measuring the average total velocity.
Velocity set in flow loop (fpm) However, because of hold-up variations due
300
to changes in well deviation and/or fluid
entry, the spinners may at certain points be
immersed in one of the phases, at which
time the spinner will give a representative
200
measurement of the velocity of that phase.
Taken in isolation it can not be determined
when the spinner is representative.
100 However, when independent, stationary
measurements are available from the WFL
14,000 B ⁄ D and PVL, the spinner can be validated in
(5-in. liner) Oil certain sections and then extrapolated to
0 Water
0 100 200 300 400 500 give a continuous profile.
PVL velocity (fpm)
The PVL accuracy was Auxiliary measurements
verified by making measure- The Flagship also includes pressure,
The tool has two diametrically opposed
ments in an oil-water mixture temperature and deviation measurements,
ports that are oriented such that ejection of the
in a flow-loop. The measure- all of which can help in the interpretation.
oil-soluble marker is made toward the top of
ments compared well with Despite the fact that the Flagship tool
the hole, while ejection of the water-soluble
the reference flow rates. string is approximately 110 ft long, it can be
marker is made toward the bottom of the hole.
conveyed into a horizontal well in a single
This ensures that the marker is ejected into the
trip on coiled tubing.
appropriate phase. The arrival of the slug of
The Flagship string can reliably quantify
marker is detected by the RST in its Sigma mode
oil and water flow profiles in a horizontal or
because the gadolinium has an extremely high
highly deviated well. It has been shown that
neutron capture cross section that momentarily
the stratified flow model is also applicable in
perturbs the borehole capture cross section as
well deviations of 80 to 100°. As discussed
it passes the tool. Similar to the WFL, a time of
above, the RST is capable of a three-phase
flight is used to calculate the oil or water
hold-up measurement. In addition, a
velocity. Figure 6.41 indicates the measure-
measurement of gas velocity is being
ment principle. Figure 6.42 shows the results of
developed. With this the Flagship will
the PVL measurement in a flow-loop and
measure the velocity of all three phases and
demonstrates the accuracy of the technique. It
be able to quantify three-phase flow profiles.
also shows that the technique is capable of
These developments will be extended to
measuring extremely low velocities. This is
vertical and slightly deviated wells so that
because the marker is not radioactive and is
three-phase production logging can be
stable at downhole conditions, and so it will
reliably made at all deviations.
eventually be detected even if it is traveling
very slowly.
6 34
The study of fluid mechanics in a flow- (This assumption can be verified by using the
loop also enabled a two-phase model to be RST C/O measurement to determine the hold-
constructed for horizontal wells. This model, up of the three phases, but software was not
called Strat-Flow, enables the flow of one of yet available at the time of processing.) Figure
the phases to be estimated if the flow of the 6.43 shows the calculated oil and water flow
other phase, the fluid properties and hold- rate profiles. It can be seen that most of the
up of both phases, and the well trajectory water enters the well between 9500 and 9950 ft.
are known. The oil enters between 10,000 and 10,250 ft and
9500 to 9700 ft.
Example of a horizontal well The gas hold-up changes quite signifi-
production log cantly from flowing to shut-in. When shut-in,
The following example is from a well in the gas accumulates in the high points of the
Trinidad. The well is a horizontal producer that trajectory. During flow, the gas is distributed
is completed with 61⁄4-in. prepacked screens. A along the wellbore as an equilibrium is set up
Flagship string was run in the well without a between the frictional forces and the gravity
PVL measurement, as a tool was not available forces. Figure 6.43 also shows the cross-
at the time of the operation. This well presented sectional hold-up image maps at 9200 ft and
a real challenge for production flow profile 9000 ft. There is no change in the oil and water
determination as the well was producing oil, flow rates between these two stations, but it can
water and gas. Figure 6.43 shows the shut-in be seen that the water hold-up is 0.37 at 9200
and flowing hold-up images from the Dual- ft where the well trajectory is going downhill
DEFT tools. The presence of gas is indicated by and 0.65 at 9000 ft where the well is going
the flag that is turned on when the ratio of uphill. The water velocity increases in the
inelastic counts from the near and far detectors downhill section and decreases in the uphill
of the RST is above a certain threshold. The section, and vice-versa for the oil velocity. The
RST-WFL was used to determine the water phase flow rate, being the product of the hold-
velocity which, when combined with the water up, the velocity and the pipe cross-sectional
hold-up from the Dual-DEFT, gave the water area, remains unchanged at these two stations.
flow rate. As the PVL was not available, an These hold-up changes are exactly what has
independent oil velocity was not possible. The been observed in the flow-loop experiments
spinners were erratic, probably because of gas, discussed above. Without Flagship measure-
but in places agreed with the WFL velocity. ments, where hold-up and velocity of each
Therefore, the spinners were of little help in phase are measured, the changes in hold-up
determining the oil velocity. As the gas would have led to the erroneous interpretation
production was small, it was safe to ignore the of fluid influx.
gas and use the Strat-Flow model to determine This example demonstrates that flow
the oil flow rate. The total oil rate calculated profiles of oil and water can be obtained with
from the model agreed very well with the oil the Flagship string even in a complex three-
rate measured on the surface when converted phase environment. A standard production
to downhole conditions. This gave confidence logging string with only conventional sensors
in the assumption that the gas hold-up was would have been uninterpretable. When the
small and could be ignored in the modeling. model for interpreting RST C/O measurements
for three-phase hold-up and the gas velocity
measurement are available, wells such as this
one can be logged for full quantitative
evaluation of the oil, water and gas flow profile.
6 35
Figure 6.43
Oil 2000
Water
Flow profile Normalized flow rate
(B ⁄ D)
Q ⁄ T ratio
Computed oil flow rate
(B ⁄ D)
WFL station water

flow rate
(B ⁄ D)
7378.0ft
Phase hold-up (well flowing)
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
7383.0ft 0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
10200
10300
10400
10000
8700
8800
8900
9000
9100
9200
9300
9400
9500
9600
9700
9800
9900
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Borehole gas Below 0.06
7378.0ft
Phase hold-up (well shut-in)
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Borehole gas Below 0.06
7383.0ft
A Flagship log run in a horizontal well in Trinidad. The hold-up images of water and oil for flow and shut-in conditions are shown
together with gas hold-up indication. The interpreted flow profile of water and oil is shown. The cross-sectional hold-up images at
9200 ft and 9000 ft indicate a difference in oil and water hold-up due to deviation changes only.
6 36
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
The evaluation of an old well is not the casing, we still may not be able to shut off
complete without a check of hydraulic the water production. It then becomes
integrity. For example, measurements of important to evaluate the quality of the
saturation behind casing and flow within the cement and the casing before designing a
well may tell us exactly which zones have workover program.
been charged by injection water and which Cement evaluation logs are often run
still have producible oil. However, if there is after the primary cement job to check that it
,,,

communication behind the pipe or a leak in was successful and to provide an input into
ÃÃÃ

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BBB

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AAA

ÁÁÁ
,,,
@@@

ÀÀÀ
the better design of future jobs. It is
Figure 6.44 generally accepted that a good primary
cement job is the single most important
Formation
factor in ensuring hydraulic integrity, since

CCC

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BBB

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AAA

ÁÁÁ
,,,
@@@

ÀÀÀ
,,,

Cement Casing
remedial cement jobs are difficult, expensive
and not always successful. However, cement
The principle of the
can deteriorate, particularly when it was not
USIT: a) a rotating
Acoustic well set in the first place, and when it
beam transducer,

CCC

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BBB

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AAA

ÁÁÁ
,,,
@@@

ÀÀÀ
contains channels or microfractures that
,,,

,
Transducer b) casing resonance
allow acids and damaging fluids to act on it.
Rotation and reflections,
Metal
Regular mud acid has been used in many
c) received signal
a)
plate Venezuelan sandstone reservoirs to remove
with large first
drilling mud residues and formation fines
,,

@@
A
BB
C

ÀÀ
Á
ÂÂ
Ã
echo and cement-
(Chapter 7–31). Alternatively, pressure

,

dependent signals.
cycles during injectivity tests and stimulation
can break down a cement bond.
In old wells there is very often no
,,

@@
A
BB
C

ÀÀ
Á
ÂÂ
Ã
information on the quality of the original
Zsteel cement. Even if there is, it is not safe to

Zmud Zcem
Vsteel
Vmud
a
assume that the quality is still good. In
addition, the casing can be corroded and
have holes. Corrosive formation fluids are
not common in Venezuela, but the arrival of
b) injection water or the use of a well for
Transducer Mud Casing Cement Formation injection can cause problems. Cement
quality can be checked by the traditional
Cement sonic technique and by the more recent
Water
ultrasonic methods. Ultrasonics can also be
used to check casing quality, as can a variety
of other techniques. The following sections
tc
describe sonic and ultrasonic techniques
Amplitude
c)
with examples.
50 60 70 80 90
Time (µsec)
6 37
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Figure 6.45 The USIT* Ultrasonic Imaging Tool

measures the acoustic impedance of the
4
material behind the casing, Zcemf, at all
azimuths. The main advantage is the high
Setting slurry
cement + mud Default
azimuthal and vertical resolution, the
threshold measurement of a physical quantity (Zcemf),
t
3
en
and less sensitivity to environmental effects. It
em
tc
uses a rotating transducer that fires an
gh
y
Slurr
Li
Impedance (MRAY)
ultrasonic pulse at the casing, causing it to
resonate at a frequency between 200 and 700
2
max kHz (Fig. 6.44a). The main echo is from the
WBM
inner casing wall (Fig. 6.44b and c). The time
Fluids of arrival, tc, is used to measure the internal
casing radius. It is also used to normalize the
1 Diesel signal for environmental effects such as
temperature, pressure and mud attenuation.
The shape of the resonance depends mainly
Gas 200 bar on the acoustic impedances and velocities of
0 the mud (Zmud and Vmud), the casing (Zsteel
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
and Vsteel), and Zcemf. The mud properties are
Slurry density (g ⁄ cm3)
measured while running in the hole by turn-
Acoustic impedance versus
Cement and corrosion ing the transducer to face a metal plate and
density for typical materials
evaluation techniques analyzing the reflection. Then, knowing the
found in the casing-formation
Two main techniques are used for steel properties, a model of the resonance is
annulus.
evaluating the casing-cement bond: the built with casing thickness (d) and Zcemf, and
Cement Bond Log (CBL), which measures the iterated on with d and Zcemf as variables until
attenuation of sonic waves along the casing a good fit to the data is established. Finally,
and is sensitive to shear coupling between Zcemf is corrected for non-planar effects.
casing and cement; and pulse echo ultrasonic Figure 6.45 shows the impedance of
tools that measure the damping of a thickness materials likely to be encountered behind the
mode resonance and hence the acoustic casing. Thresholds are used to distinguish
impedance of the casing-cement bond different materials, which are then displayed
(Hayman et al., 1991). In addition, it is in different colors on the USIT image—usually
common to look at the amplitude of the red for gas, blue for liquid, and yellow to
formation arrival in the sonic wave train as an black for solids in 0.5 MRayl increments. The
indicator of the cement-formation bond. interpretation can never be entirely unambi-
The traditional sonic CBL is all-directional guous, since mud/cement mixtures (i.e.,
and so cannot detect a cement channel, which contaminated cements) can be solid but have
may appear as a relatively good bond. A more lower impedance than cement slurries. A
recent directional tool is described in the next microannulus also reduces the impedance. If
section. The CBL is sensitive to the properties it is liquid-filled, the effect is less than with a
of the fluid in the well, but this can be CBL, and it is possible to distinguish solid from
corrected by using the difference of amplitude liquid with a microannulus up to 100 mm.
between two receivers. Other factors that can
make the measurement misleading are fast
formation signals, poor centralization and a
microannulus.
6 38
Figure 6.46 The spatial resolution of the USIT

images is determined by the size of the
Fluid compensated
0
ultrasonic beam—about 1.2 in. ±0.08 in.
CBL amplitude Acoustic
0 (mv) 50 impedance Good resonant signals depend on having the
Max Acoustic
Transit time impedance acoustic standoff between transducer and
Min
400 (ms) 200
Liquid Avg VDL variable casing in the right range. As this depends on
Min density Max
Depth Gamma ray Gas (MRAY) casing size and mud weight, various sizes of
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 100 Cement 0 10 10 200 (ms) 1200
ultrasonic transducer are available. However,
if the attenuation in the mud is greater than
17,650
12 dB/cm/MHz, the signal is too weak
to analyze. This is discussed further in the
next section.
Corrosion can be detected by many tech-
niques. These include multifinger calipers,
17,700
and electromagnetic methods such as the
METT* Multifrequency Electromagnetic
Thickness Tool and the PAL* Pipe Analysis
Log. The METT measures a phase shift of a
signal transmitted through the casing, which
17,750
is sensitive to the casing thickness. The PAL
measures the flux leakage and eddy current
loss from 12 pads pressed against the casing.
Example of a USIT showing a However, with gas the effect is generally The USIT, through its measurement of
clear cement channel. stronger. In these cases, as with low- internal radius and casing thickness, is a good
impedance solids, it is important to compare detector of corrosion, either internal or
USIT and CBL results. Microannuli can usually external. Holes can be identified down to 1.2
be removed by running the log under in. diameter.
pressure. A rough inner casing surface can For more detailed corrosion evaluation,
cause problems, but this is identified by the the UCI* Ultrasonic Corrosion Imager is
amplitude of the first reflection (Fig. 6.44b) used. The UCI uses a high-frequency 2-MHz
and displayed on the amplitude image. Good transducer to give much higher spatial
centralization is also important. resolution than the USIT. The beam is
A typical USIT log is shown in Fig. 6.46. focused to a width of 0.11 in. at 2 in. from
The channel can be seen at the bottom, and its front face to further improve the spatial
is clearly distinguished from the isolated resolution, and to reduce eccentering effects
patches of bad cement further up. On the and sensitivity to rugosity compared to a flat
CBL alone this distinction could not be made. transducer. At this frequency the casing does
Further examples of USITs run before and not resonate but it is possible to clearly
after a squeeze job in an old well are shown measure the time of arrival of the echoes
in Chapter 7–9. from the inside and outside of the casing. As
with the USIT, the fluid velocity is measured
running in the hole and used to calculate
inner and outer casing radii with a resolution
of 0.004 in. and an accuracy of ± 0.04 in.
6 39
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Figure 6.47 The resolution of the USIT can be

judged from Fig. 6.47. The well was
-500.0000 perforated at 12 shots per ft using perforating
charges with a nominal entrance hole of 0.91
in. The holes can be seen very clearly. The
External External
USIT was run in this well to evaluate the
0.0760
radius
average
radius
average
cement over a higher section. It was lowered
Internal radii
Depth Gamma ray (GR)
minus average
(ERAV) (ERAV) to check the perforations, which it did with
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 0 (in.) 150 0 (in.) 150
(IRBK)
success. The advantage of USIT in the
evaluation of old wells is that both corrosion
7553 and cement quality can be assessed on the
same trip in the well. The combined evalu-
ation of cement and corrosion integrity
allows effective workover decisions to be
made.
Cement evaluation in attenuative

muds and small holes
Ultrasonic imaging tools do not work
when the mud attenuation passes a certain
limit. These muds contain a large amount of
solid particles and are usually associated
with high densities. However, although
limits are sometimes quoted in terms of mud
density, this is not generally sufficient. In
one study in the Barinas area, OBMs were
analyzed in the laboratory. Although the
mud weights were moderate—12.5 lb/gal—
7560.5
the total solid content was very high at 40%.
Of this, 15% was due to high-gravity solids
Example of USIT clearly showing the perforation holes.
such as barite, which had been added
The high-resolution, focused beam can intentionally, while the remaining 25% was
detect either external or internal pits as small due to light solids picked up while drilling.
as 0.3 in. in diameter, according to specifi- Wellsite solids control systems do not always
cations, and 0.16 in. in some experiments eliminate these light solids, and wellsite
(Hayman et al., 1995). However, because of measurements of solids content do not
the high frequency, the maximum mud always include them. Thus, as in this case, it
attenuation acceptable is 2 dB/cm/MHz, is possible to find a medium-weight mud
which in practice means water, brine or a where the cement quality cannot be
light mud. evaluated with ultrasonic measurements.
The converse is also true—some very heavy
muds can give good images because of
moderate solids content. In cases in Eastern
Venezuela, good USIT results were obtained
in 16.3 lb/gal mud.
6 40
Figure 6.48 It is still possible to obtain directional

cement evaluation data in the case of high
CBL amplitude solids mud, using the Cement Mapping Tool
0 (mv) 100 0
Travel time
Average map
(CMT). This tool makes 10 CBL measure-
200 (Ms) 1000
0 (mv) 100
20 ments from 10 evenly spaced radial seg-
Depth GR Casing attenuation VDL variable density
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 40 (mv) 0 Cement map 200 (Ms) 1200 ments. It also provides standard CBL and
Variable Density Log (VDL) data from omni-
directional 3-ft and 5-ft receivers and a 1-ft
17,700 receiver for fast formations. In addition, this
tool is only 27⁄8 in. in diameter and can thus
be run in small casings and liners, and
through large tubings. (A future 111⁄16-in.
version with eight measurements will soon
be available.)
The ability of the CMT to identify a
channel can be seen in Fig. 6.48. On the
17,750 standard CBL, it is difficult to distinguish the
channel at 17,780 ft. zone from the well
cemented zones above and below.
17,800
Example of a CMT showing a clear cement channel.
PERMANENT MONITORING SYSTEMS: EXTENDING THE LIFE OF A RESERVOIR
If the opportunity occurs to work over hydrocarbons can be increased, in most

an existing well or new wells are drilled, cases, if the reservoir structure and pro-
then the installation of permanent downhole duction dynamics can be well defined at an
sensors can aid in extending the life of a early stage in the reservoir drainage. This
reservoir by providing information that helps allows an appropriate development strategy
to improve reservoir management and to be implemented, which optimizes the
optimize production. recovery from the field. To be successful in
Many operators in recent years have improving the management of a reservoir in
turned their focus from exploring for new this way, adequate and timely data must be
reserves to finding ways to increase the acquired. To this end operators are perform-
recovery of existing reserves. The recovery of ing more and more 3-D seismic surveys,
6 41
Extended Well Testing, borehole imaging, The industry’s desire to achieve optimal
horizontal well drilling and logging, etc., in reservoir management can be aided by the
an effort to understand the reservoir charac- real-time monitoring of downhole data, as
teristics early in the exploitation cycle. Once opposed to periodic acquisition. This desire,
the reservoir is put on production, it is neces- coupled with improvements in reliability and
sary to monitor the reservoir performance so cost, have led to a rapid increase in the instal-
that additional information can be obtained lation of permanent monitoring systems in
about the reservoir dynamics, and changes to recent years.
the exploitation strategy can be made in a The new Well Watcher* concept (Fig. 6.49)
timely fashion, if required. integrates surface and downhole measure-
In the past, monitoring of producing ments and gives the operator immediate access
wells has been limited mainly to periodic to key production parameters of the well.
pressure gauge surveys. Permanently in- These systems can play a major role in
stalled monitoring systems have been avail- reaching the goal of real-time monitoring and
able for more than 25 years, but the lack of control of reservoir processes.
reliability and high system cost have limited Current permanent sensors can deliver
their widespread application. Recent develop- measurements of pressure, temperature,
ments in technology have improved the flow rate and fluid density, while other
reliability to the point where a system can be sensors are under active development.
expected to last as long as the completion,
while its cost has been reduced.
Figure 6.49
Surface sensors
and controls
• Single-phase flow rate
• Valve and chok e control
• Pressure measurements
• Sand detection
Field office
• Production reports
• Alarms
• Problem identification
Data retrieval and Integrated

communications applications
software
Downhole sensors District office

Host server • Production engineering
• FloWatcher* monitors (flow and database
rate and density)
• PumpWatcher* gauges
(ESP control)
• PressureWatch* gauges
(pressure and
temperature)
Head office
The Well Watcher concept.
• Field performance
6 42
Table 6.2 These early systems were essentially

Main Applications Description adaptations of electric wireline technology.
Difficult field or well conditions • Restricted access Since then, detailed research and
• Highly deviated wells
• Pumping wells development have resulted in a new
Reservoir management • Interference testing generation of permanent gauges and
• Reservoir pressure control
• Transient well testing associated components that have much
• History matching
greater reliability.
Production optimization • Well performance monitoring
Current systems routinely capture pres-
sure and temperature data (Fig. 6.50). Some
As the technology evolves further, monitor- also capture flow rate and density. These sys-
Figure 6.50
ing will be combined with downhole control tems are engineered specifically for the per-
(intelligent completions), allowing even manent monitoring market and are designed
greater control of production, which will find for longevity. The gauges have digital elec-
a particular applications in the new generation tronics designed for extended exposure to
of multilateral wells. high temperature and undergo extensive
Several reservoirs in Venezuela already design qualification tests. They are designed
Section A
Cable benefit from permanent monitoring installa- for maintenance-free operation and are sub-
protector
tions, and there are many more that could do ject to strict quality checks during manu-
Cable so. As seen in Chapter 2, Venezuela is distin- facture before being hermetically sealed. The
Gauge guished worldwide by the large variety of its sensor element is selected according to the
mandrel
reservoirs in terms of rock and fluid pro- application. The most common is the PQG
Section A perties, drive mechanisms, depth, well quartz sensor, which exhibits excellent tran-
Pressure and completions and production practices. There sient response and resolution (0.01 psi), long-
temperature
gauge are two broad groups of applications for term stability (2 psi drift per year), and long
permanent monitoring systems (Table 6.2): lifetime. Sapphire sensors are also used. (See
improved reservoir management and pro- Chapter 4–19 for a discussion of downhole
duction optimization due to the availability gauges.)
of continuous, real-time downhole data; and Cables for permanent installations are
Exploded view of
metal-to-metal seal difficult field or well conditions, in which the encased in stainless steel or nickel alloy
problems of well intervention prevent the pressure-tight tubing. Polymer-encapsulation
recording of downhole data at all. The may be added for extra protection. All con-
Wellhead
Wellhead
outlet
following sections describe briefly the nections are verified by pressure testing
outlet
technique, and show examples of appli- during installation. Connections through tub-
b
cations in Venezuela and elsewhere. ing hanger and wellhead vary, depending on
the type of completion subsea, platform or
Permanent gauge history land. Components are standard, using tried
and development and tested designs made in conjunction with
Although Permanent Monitoring Systems the tubing hanger and wellhead manufac-
have been around for a number of years, the turers (Fig. 6.50). Data transmission and
technology has evolved fairly slowly, with recording are tailored to oil company needs,
reliability being a major issue in the early and wherever possible industry standards
days. The first permanent installation was run such as Supervisory Control and Data
Cable
Cable
penetrato
penetrator by Schlumberger for Elf Gabon (Africa) in Acquisition (SCADA) are used so that signals
1972, followed one year later by the first may be integrated with other existing
Components of current
North Sea installation on Shell's Auk platform. systems.
permanent monitoring
systems: a) downhole and
b) surface.
6 43
Figure 6.51 Of equal importance is the pumps it is impractical to log by wireline

planning and project management methods. However, a permanent pressure
for each installation. Although gauge can provide useful information about
Wellhead
outlet most permanent monitoring hard- well and reservoir performance by recording
ware is considered off the shelf, formation pressure when the pumps are
Cable
pentrator several parts may have to be cus- switched off. In addition, pump efficiency can
tomized for special types of well- be improved by monitoring pressure at the
heads. Longer lead times may be pump inlet and outlet during pumping. Pump
needed if the project requires efficiency has an impact not only on
custom-built equipment. production, but also on pump life and
Gauges are usually connected to workover schedules.
Control the cable at the workshop where A special application of permanent
line
pressure or welded seals can gauges in sucker rod pumping wells is used
easily be made and pressure- in Argentina (Fig. 6.51). The completion has
Electrical
cable tested. At the wellsite, the gauge been modified to include a permanent gauge
is mounted onto a mandrel, which and a flapper valve that can be controlled
is connected to the tubing. The from the surface. In this case, the gauge
Upper
Filter
cable is supplied on a reel and is reads the pressure in the tubing-casing
run in the hole with the tubing. annulus, rather than inside the tubing. When
Cable protectors placed on every the valve is closed, the gauge is only in
tubing joint help prevent damage contact with the upper reservoir. By varying
Flapper as the system is run in the well. the pump rate and measuring the surface
valve
Digital
During the entire procedure, both flow rate and downhole pressure, it is
permanent
gauge pressure integrity and gauge possible to establish the Inflow Production
operation are checked to ensure a Rate (IPR) for the upper reservoir. When the
working system. Once connected flapper valve is open, it is in contact with
Packer
and running, permanent moni- both reservoirs and the composite IPR can be
Lower toring systems begin paying back measured. In both cases, a long time
their cost in many different ways, (approximately 20 hr) is needed at each
as the following examples show. pump rate to achieve stabilized flow.
These reservoirs are under independent
The permanent gauge and Difficult field or well conditions water injection, so it is important to measure
the flapper valve allow the There are many cases in Venezuela the IPR at regular intervals. It is also
IPRs of the two reservoirs to where it is difficult or expensive to obtain important to measure pressure downhole so
be measured independently downhole data in producing wells. These as to separate the effect of the two reservoirs
and regularly. include highly deviated wells such as in the and to avoid uncertainties in the tubing
Bolivar District Coast; locations with difficult pressure drop (e.g., due to foam). The
access such as in the south of Lake permanent monitoring system solves this
Maracaibo, the south Apure area, or problem by providing a non-intrusive data-
Pedernales; and horizontal wells and gathering system that is continuously
pumping wells. available. In Venezuela, most of the extra-
In highly deviated and horizontal wells, heavy, heavy and medium oil producers
the alternative is to convey wireline or slickline have mechanical pumps.
gauges using coiled tubing. The relative costs
of the two alternatives must be considered.
In wells equipped with electrical submersible
6 44
Figure 6.52 Gullfaks is heavily faulted with a number

of sealing or partially sealing faults. One
Well A important reservoir monitoring objective is to
4900
4800
Pressure pulses measure the degree of communication be-
4700 tween the fault blocks. Data are used in both
4600 fields to ensure single-phase oil flow in each
Pressure (psi)
4500 fault block, to monitor and optimize well per-
4400 formance with time, to conduct transient well
4300 test analyses, and to match numerical models.
4200 Interference testing is recognized as
4100 a very useful reservoir management tool
4000 for determining reservoir compartments.
However, it is not often carried out because
Well B of the difficulty and total cost of devoting two
or more wells to the experiment for many
5060
days. Permanent systems solve much of this
Pressure (psi)
5040
problem. The data in Fig. 6.52 is from a North
5020 Effect of
short pulses
Sea field. Pressure changes of less than 5 psi
5000
are detected in a well approximately 600 m
4980 Effect of
long pulses (2000 ft) away from one being pulsed. These
4960
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 data show that although the reservoir is
June mapped as being compartmentalized, there is
generally pressure communication between
Interference test. Pressure Reservoir management
compartments.
pulses recorded in well A Complex fields require careful reservoir
Permanent pressure data have been
(top) are seen as small management. Two North Sea fields, Gullfaks
used to model the interaction between the
changes in pressure and Veslefrikk, illustrate how permanent
three oil accumulations of the Scapa Field
recorded by the permanent monitoring can help.
directly through extensive interference
gauge in well B (bottom). In Veslefrikk, commingled production
testing, and indirectly through use of the data
and injection was planned from the Brent and
in material balance and simulation studies.
Intra Dunlin Sand reservoirs to reduce total
This has resulted in a more thorough
investment. Here gauges are used in dedi-
understanding of field behavior, leading to
cated wells to monitor the two reservoirs
optimized recovery of reserves and con-
independently. Control is obtained by selec-
tinued development drilling.
tive perforation in producers and downhole
Venezuela has its fair share of complex
chokes in injectors. A carefully planned data
fields. In addition, apparently simple fields
acquisition program during the initial
can become complex once secondary
production phase provided information about
recovery projects are started. Well locations
reservoir properties, production potential and
and injection strategy can all be improved
well behavior. In addition, two of the largest
with the understanding gained from
uncertainties were partially resolved: the
continuous downhole data.
degree of communication across the main
arcuate fault, and the vertical transmissibility
between the Lower and Middle Brent through
the low-quality Rannoch sandstone.
6 45
Figure 6.53 Gullfaks field development is based on

single-phase oil flow without free gas in the
reservoir. In wells with permanent monitoring
Pressure (kPa)
28,000 systems, bottomhole flowing pressure (BHFP)
is maintained slightly above saturation
pressure by adjusting the flow rate (Fig. 6.53).
27,000
This results in a potential increase in the
individual well production rate of 630 to 3150
3000
BOPD. In wells without permanent moni-
toring, calibrated curves based on empirical
Flow rate (m3 ⁄ d)
multiphase equations and permanent pres-

sure data from nearby wells are used.
The state-of-the-art
Permanent monitoring systems are an
2500 important factor in a long-term effort to
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
improve recovery factors by continuous
Time (hr)
monitoring and control of the key processes
Adjusting bottomhole flowing
Production optimization in the reservoir. At the present time, most
pressure (BHFP) to maximize
Careful optimization of the producing systems allow continuous real-time measure-
oil production. As BHFP is
conditions is essential in reservoirs with oil ments of pressure and temperature at the
decreased to slightly above
near the bubble point, and with near-critical bottom of the tubing. These measurements
saturation pressure (top),
fluids. More generally in high producing alone offer significant advantages in three
daily oil production rate
wells, small improvements in the operating areas: reservoir management, production
increases (bottom).
point can significantly increase the pro- optimization, and where well conditions or
duction rate. These conditions exist in the logistics make normal wireline interventions
deep Oligocene fields of North Monagas, and too difficult or expensive.
in the Center Lake area. Permanent pressure
data makes it easier to regularly monitor and Future directions
adjust the producing conditions. For example, Current research is directed at extending
in the reservoir shown in Fig. 6.52, the bubble permanent in-situ installations to include
point of the oil in one of the zones is 3700 psi arrays with a large number of diverse
and the initial formation pressure is 4600 psi. sensors (Fig. 6.54). Arrays of sensors
So drawdown had to be less than 900 psi to distributed at many points in the reservoir
sustain gas-free production. High skin factor will allow time-varying distributions of
in the first well meant that as large a draw- reservoir properties, such as saturation and
down as possible would be needed for ade- pressure, to be continuously monitored.
quate production, introducing a further com- These measurements can eventually be used
plication. However, the pressure could be to continuously update the reservoir model
carefully monitored and production opti- for optimum reservoir management. Figure
mized to maintain reservoir pressure at 6.54 is a conceptual idea of how this might
around 40 psi above bubble point. eventually be done.
One direction is the development of
sensors in direct contact with the formation.
6 46
Figure 6.54 depletion in multiple reservoir zones.

I A1 A2 P A3 A4 Implanted pressure gauges will need to
meet competing requirements. On the one
hand, these gauges will measure long-term
pressure depletion trends in the reservoir.
P6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 This requires the use of pressure gauges with
P7
Q1 Q3
excellent long-term stability and accuracy.
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Q4
P5 On the other hand, in-situ pressure gauges
P1
Q2 directly indicate reservoir pressure communi-
C1
P2 C2 cation as surrounding producer or injector
C3 wells are shut in or the rates adjusted. This
P3
involves measuring short-time pressure tran-
P4
T1
sients, which requires gauges with good
T2 transient response and pressure resolution.
T3 One other direction of development is
T4
the measurement of water saturation varia-
tions with time using electrical resistivity data
Looking ahead. In-situ
For the traditional permanent measurement of acquired with implanted electrode arrays.
installations including arrays
pressure, this would allow the placement of Such arrays can sense saturation variations
with a large number of
arrays of pressure gauges in direct contact both locally around the array (e.g.,
diverse sensors in direct
with the formation pore pressure. This could monitoring a water contact intersecting the
contact with the formation.
lead to a number of benefits, as such gauges array), as well as deeper in the reservoir (e.g.,
would experience no wellbore storage effects the pattern of water moving away from an
or perforation skin losses. As important, place- injector or toward a producer). Eventually,
ment outside the casing would allow arrays of acoustic sensors could be used to detect the
gauges to be installed without complications advance of a gas cap, and chemical sensors
related to, for example, multiple completion to detect tracers emitted into injection water.
packers and cabling inside the casing. Finally, Figure 6.54 also shows the abandoned
an array of gauges would allow continuous branch of a multi-lateral shut-off by an
monitoring of pressure transients and pressure intelligent completion.
CONCLUSION
Improvements in the understanding and Improvements in sensor design and

characterization of nuclear measurements laboratory measurements have led to signifi-
have led to greatly improved formation cantly better characterization of flow within,
evaluation in old wells, particularly where and even without, the pipe. In particular, two-
openhole data are limited. It is now possible and three-phase flow in horizontal wells can
to determine porosity, lithology and water now be quantified.
saturation through casing with confidence in Thus, current technology allows a full
a large percentage of wells in Venezuela. evaluation of the formation, hydraulic integrity
These improvements lead to realistic esti- and downhole flow in old wells, in most cases
mates of permeability. Layer pressure can be without pulling the tubing. In the future,
obtained directly from special tests and permanent downhole sensors will allow the
cased-hole wireline formation testers, or continuous monitoring of many different well
indirectly by correlation with new wells. and reservoir properties.
6 47
This chapter was written by P.Laurent, J.Singer, A.Dueso and A.Douglas
with contributions from F.González (Lagoven), E.Solorzano (Lagoven), M.Herron,

S.Herron, O.Ortiz, T.Baumbach, D.Murray, J.J.Gutierrez, and J.C.Burgoa.
and with the permission of Maraven, Lagoven, Amoco Trinidad,

and Corpoven to publish data from their wells.
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cementing and acidizing operations is the key to minimize acid damage to the
Petroleum Engineers 62nd Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
cemented annulus, SPE Paper 36112, Presented at the 4th Latin American
Proceedings.
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Port of Spain, April.
Matteson, A., and Herron, M.M., 1993, Quantitative mineral analysis by
Permanent monitoring
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Paper SCA 9308, Society of Core
Analysts Technical Conference. Oilfield Review, Winter 1995, p. 32-47.
Roscoe, B.A., Grau, J., Cao Minh, C., and Freeman, D., 1995, Non-conven- The Search for Oil and Gas in Latin America & the Caribbean, No. 5, 1997,
tional applications of through-tubing carbon-oxygen logging tools, Paper QQ, p. 28-41.
in 34th Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts Annual
Logging Symposium.
6 48
Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter overview
Production Enhancement Groups:
Methodology and practices
Identification of bypassed zones
Controlling water production
Maximizing fracture conductivity
Fracture optimization
Controlling fines migration
Customized perforating
PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Production from an oil field can be The first section describes the methodology
enhanced by many different actions involving and practices of a PEG.
technologies from reservoir management Subsequent sections discuss specific
through well completion to surface facilities. techniques that have proved particularly suc-
This chapter focuses on single-well production cessful in improving production in Venezuela.
enhancement, and will show a variety of The first is a classic case of reviving a well by
techniques that have been successful in opening up zones that still contained oil, and
Venezuela. Single-well production enhance- closing zones that were producing water.
ment is concerned with improving the produc- While the basic techniques were described in
tion of individual wells, although the effect of Chapter 6, here we concentrate on how they
or on neighboring wells must always be con- were used together in a PEG approach.
sidered. However, surface facilities and overall Excess water production is a major
reservoir management are not discussed. source of poor well performance. However,
some water is often needed to sweep the
Figure 7.1 reservoir. Water control diagnostic plots can
4500 make a quick initial distinction between good
water and bad water. Two examples show
Reservoir
completion the diagnosis of bad water and its reduction
4000 by gel treatments.
Two cases of fracture optimization are
shown. The first is in high-permeability, rela-
tively unconsolidated rock where carefully
3500
Pressure (psia)
designed tip screenouts led to wider, more con-

ductive fractures and significantly improved
Fluid conduit
artificial lift production. The second shows how acoustic
3000
log data, pseudo-3D fracture models and asso-
ciated software helps improve fracture designs
in consolidated sandstones. This improved un-
2500 derstanding has explained why some previous
Performance
gap fracture treatments did not perform well, and
Existing performance Potential can lead to better results in future treatments.
2000 The movement of fines can dramatically
0 20 40 60 80 100
reduce the production from good reservoirs.
Flow rate (B ⁄ D)
Clay Acid*, although not a new technique,
The well performance
The main objective for single-well prod- has proved particularly successful in main-
gap, as illustrated by
uction enhancement is to identify wells exhi- taining performance in some areas of Lake
a NODAL* plot.
biting a production gap between current and Maracaibo. An analysis of the problem and the
potential performance (Fig. 7.1), and to design results of several treatments are presented.
production enhancement solutions using The main concern in perforating used to
appropriate technologies. Different approach- be the penetration and entrance hole of the
es are suitable for different problems. One of shaped charge. Recently, the focus has been
the more recent initiatives has been the creation on designing customized solutions for the total
of Production Enhancement Groups or PEGs. perforating job so as to optimize efficiency as
The PEG is an integrated and multidisciplinary well as production. This has led to a whole
team that is proactive in looking for oppor- range of new techniques in deployment sys-
tunities and is focused on rapidly finding tems, guns and charges, some of which are
the most appropriate economic solutions. shown here.
7 1
PEG METHODOLOGY AND PRACTICES
A multidisciplinary team organized to At the heart of the PEG approach is the

proactively find candidate wells is called a identification of candidate wells for im-
PEG. Typically, a PEG approaches an proved performance. Well performance, and
operator with a proposal to examine well some of the commonly encountered oppor-
files for a particular field and report tunities for improving performance, are
opportunities for production enhancement, reviewed first. The process of candidate
to be followed by execution of appropriate selection and the procedures used are
services. The proactive nature of the described afterwards.
exercise and the emphasis on an optimal
solution (considering economics and risk) Well performance
often results in value pricing of the services. The well production system may be
The focus is on results; that is, on enhancing viewed as a chain of elements allowing flow
well production in an economically from the reservoir to surface-handling
attractive fashion. Treatment effectiveness is capabilities (Fig. 7.2). The components
evaluated and used to improve services in include the reservoir, the completion, the
subsequent wells. tubulars, artificial lift, and surface facilities.
The surface facilities generally must be taken
as a given in single-well production
enhancement studies and are not considered
Figure 7.2 here. So also is the overall development plan
for the reservoir. However, the reservoir in
Flowline the drainage area of the wellbore and the
Surface
facilities effect of or on nearby producers and
injectors are of paramount importance. The
NODAL* analysis plot shown in Fig. 7.1
illustrates the most effective way to quantify
Flow conduit the gap between the current well perfor-
mance and what could be achieved by
adjustments in tubing/artificial lift or in the
reservoir inflow performance.
Reaching the optimum production (or a
maximum return on investment) is a
complex engineering task. All the elements
of the system are coupled, and often the
Completion performance of the whole system is
conditioned by its weakest links. However,
to enhance production it is helpful to
Reservoir
consider which of the different components
contribute to the production gap.
The well production system.
7 2
Figure 7.3 The drawdown through the completion can

be reduced by reperforating and/or
acidizing existing intervals, or by opening up
flowing pressure
Actual
a larger interval to reduce partial penetration
Bottomhole
• Gas lift design/
Artificial lift pump operating
performance conditions
skin. A gravel pack may be needed to
Potential
prevent sanding. A cement squeeze or gel
treatment may be needed if some zones are
Flow rate
producing unwanted water or gas, or taking
fluid. For the same reasons, poor cement-
flowing pressure
Bottomhole
Actual • Scale removal with coil ation may be enabling communication
Flow conduit tubing/acidizing
performance • Coil tubing completion behind the casing.
Production gap
• Clean out fill

Potential The flow conduit may limit flow
Flow rate because of scale inside the tubing, excess fill
2 spf or an unnecessary restriction. Scale may be
through perforations
removed by acid or coiled tubing. Artificial
Pressure drop
• Reperforate
Actual
Completion • Gravel pack
• Squeeze cementing
lift efficiency affects the flowing well
performance 12 spf
• Acidizing
pressure and well performance. Gas lift
Potential systems and pumps may need to be replaced
Flow rate
or their operation optimized.
Potential
NODAL techniques are used to analyze
flowing pressure
• Stimulation - frac ⁄ acid

Bottomhole
Reservoir • Perforate other zones and optimize the production system. NODAL
• Drill laterals
performance • Water control analysis couples the reservoir’s capability to
Actual • Fines control
produce fluids into the wellbore with the
Flow rate capacity of tubulars to conduct fluids to the
surface, including surface piping if
The production gaps for Figure 7.3 graphically illustrates the applicable. The name reflects the discrete
different components of the production gaps for the different well locations, or nodes, at which independent
system, and typical solutions. performance components and lists some of equations can be used to describe fluid
the solutions. For example, a production gap inflow and outflow. This procedure helps
exists if the reservoir deliverability can be determine the rate that the system is capable
increased. The result is less than optimal of delivering, and shows the effect on
flow rates even with high drawdowns. production of changing parameters such as
Deliverability can be improved by increasing wellhead or separator pressure, tubing and
the effective radius of the borehole through choke sizes, perforation shot density and
hydraulic fracturing, acidizing or high- stimulation. Production can also be
performance perforators, or by damage estimated based on future reservoir condi-
removal. Identifying and opening up new tions. NODAL analysis is often used as a
zones, and drilling laterals are other ways to diagnostic tool to identify system
achieve significant production enhancement. bottlenecks—e.g., formation damage or
Fluids flow from the reservoir into completion limitations—that cause produc-
the borehole through the completion. It tivity or injectivity losses and to quantify the
includes the perforations or liner slots, expected production increase if the
the cement/borehole annulus, gravel packs restrictions are removed.
and any zone of formation damage.
7 3
PEG METHODOLOGY AND PRACTICES
Figure 7.4 The procedures used in the analysis of

each zone are shown in more detail in (Fig.
Analysis process 7.5, following page). Ideally, the well file
contains formation evaluation logs, buildup
Catalog multiwell info
tests and production data. If no formation
Identify production anomalies evaluation data are available, then field
maps of porosity and net hydrocarbon
Choose first well
Current performance analysis thickness must be consulted. If there are no
Analyze current producing zone Production history analysis production or buildup data, then it is usually
Enhancement studies recommended to perform a buildup test.
Move to next zone
With partial data it is often possible to iterate
Check production potential through the NODAL analysis until a good fit
(WellLog, BU, RST, PLT)
is obtained. In any case, a NODAL analysis
Candidate selection
Risk analysis is necessary, first to confirm the accuracy of
The overall PEG candidate
the input parameters and then to evaluate
Prioritize candidates (Risk vs. NPV) selection process is shown in
different production enhancement options
Fig. 7.4. First, a field for
Present proposal through sensitivity studies. Based on these
(FracCADE, StimCADE, PacCADE, CoilCADE) enhancement is identified. The
studies, it is possible to forecast production,
well files are scanned and a set
Execute estimate costs, compute economics, and
of possible candidates are
Post-job evaluation
assess risk for each viable production
identified based on anomalies in
enhancement option. Once completed, we
The overall PEG production, estimates of remaining oil in
move to another zone or well as already
analysis process. place and other factors. Each well is
shown in the analysis process.
analyzed for current performance,
production history and sensitivity to different
The keys to success
enhancement actions. At this stage logs and
At the heart of the PEG is the ability to
tests may be recommended to quantify the
analyze a large amount of data efficiently
reservoir parameters needed to estimate the
and reliably. Candidate selection and
production potential, calculate the net
recommendations are a matter of hours or
present value (NPV) of various options and
days, not weeks or months. Good software
assess associated risks. Appropriate
tools are important. These include software
intervention plans are designed for the
to analyze input data such as build-up tests
selected candidates. After execution, the
and logs; the analysis of production history
results are analyzed and the experience used
and material balance calculations; NODAL
in subsequent wells.
analysis of production performance; design
of the production enhancement options such
as fracturing, acidizing, cementing, gel
treatment, gravel packing, and perforating;
and economics analysis.
7 4
Figure 7.5 It is important to realize that not all

production gaps can be closed with the PEG
Select well file approach. Some problems do take weeks or
months to solve. The PEG must recognize
File includes FE log ? N Consult field map for estimates of porosity
thickness and net hydrocarbon thickness such problems and pass them on to reservoir
Y
studies or other groups for solution.
New techniques may even need to be
Estimate porosity thickness and net developed—some good examples of cus-
hydrocarbon thickness from well log interpretation
tomized solutions are given in the perfor-
File includes buildup test ? N ating section below.
Finally, the PEG approach is not only
Y
applicable to old, poorly performing wells.
Determine p,k,s and drainage area Some of the biggest production gains can be
from test interpretation
achieved with relatively new wells that are
performing well but still not at their
If no production data and no buildup test,
File includes production data ? N
recomended buildup test designed to determine
optimum. All these factors, combined with a
p,k,s and drainage area
skill for recognizing production gaps and
Y
analyzing causes and solutions, allows a PEG
Verify or determine p,k,s and drainage area to achieve its goal of enhancing production
with production history match
in an economically attractive fashion.
Perform NODAL analysis
The PEG initiative first started in North
America in early 1993. The first PEG team in
• Confirm accuracy of p,k,s and drainage area Venezuela was set up in the East in late 1993
• Perform sensitivity study to evaluate PE option
to solve problems of inefficient production
Forecast production, estimate cost, compute
Typical PEG process for from a number of wells in North Monagas.
economics, and assess risk for each viable PE option identifying candidates and Corpoven, Intevep, Schlumberger Dowell
designing solutions. and Wireline & Testing teamed up to solve
Present designs for viable options
sand production and asphaltene flocculation
Execute best option problems. The group examined all the
potential well candidates and identified those
Evaluate job success wells whose NPV could give the maximum
return from a remedial treatment. As a result,
Another key is the right mixture of
Corpoven increased the field production by
knowledge in the group. It helps to have
250% at a cost of 5% of a new well (SEARCH
people looking at the problems from
3, 1996). Today there are more than six PEG
different perspectives. This requires involv-
groups operating in Venezuela. These teams
ing people not only from different disci-
are continuing to identify enhancement
plines but also from both operating and
opportunities with successful results.
service companies. Service company person-
nel are most familiar with the techniques
and services, while operating company
personnel are most familiar with their appli-
cation and the overall reservoir view.
7 5
I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
A good example of a production en- Reservoir characterization

hancement alliance is the one started in mid- The Tía Juana District controls several
1996 between Lagoven and Schlumberger large reservoirs located near the eastern
Oilfield Services, with the charter to maintain coast of Lake Maracaibo (Fig. 7.7, following
and repair wells for Tía Juana District on Lake page). Many of the reservoirs are shallow
Maracaibo. The objective of the alliance is to and produce from unconsolidated
recognize candidates for workover using sandstones. They require sand control
PEG methodology and software, and to completions, the internal gravel pack being
enhance well productivity through the the most common. Most are undergoing
optimum use of technology. secondary recovery with active water and
gas injection projects. In such large
Figure 7.6 reservoirs, characterized by heterogeneities,
faulting, and poor lateral sand body
Sedco Forex
continuity, some major concerns are water
Dowell Rig operations,
Stimulating, Operational engineers
or gas break-through and bypassed oil
Cementing,
Sand control, zones.
Coil tubing,
Reservoir
The Lagunillas Inferior 4 reservoir
engineering (LGINF-04) is an old and shallow reservoir
Workover producing heavy oil (18°API). The reservoir
Lagoven alliance
Reservoir Engineering consists of three main unconsolidated and
and Completion departments
high-porosity (30 p.u.) Miocene sandstone
formations known as the Laguna, Lagunillas
Barge Inferior, and La Rosa (Chapter 2–12). These
LGV - 406
W&T three members are subdivided into 11
Perforating,
Production logging, different sandstone lenses, all of them with
Reservoir engineering
limited lateral extent and complex facies
distribution. The formation tops vary from
The workover alliance with
A team of reservoir engineers from 2300 to 2500 ft. The thickness varies from 10
its multidisciplinary team for
Dowell and Wireline & Testing, and to 100 ft for each unit, the La Rosa being the
candidate recognition and
operating engineers from Sedco-Forex, work most well developed and continuous sand-
workover operations.
closely with Lagoven engineers in their stone. Formation water salinity is approx-
offices to identify underperforming wells imately 6000 ppm. The structure is a mono-
and estimate the type of repair and expected clinal plane dipping 4˚ to the southwest.
productivity after the workover. In addition,
all the operations executed on the Lagoven-
owned barge are managed by Sedco-Forex
personnel, and all the auxiliary services such
as Coiled Tubing, Cementing, Stimulating,
Fracturing, Gravel Packing, Perforating and
Logging are provided by Dowell and
Wireline & Testing (Fig. 7.6).
7 6
Figure 7.7 Pressure in the LGINF-04 recovered to

920 psi and oil production benefited from
the water injection. However, optimizing
the water injection was complicated by
101 47A
709 1146 556 several factors:
69 48 • The lack of new drilling in the field
910
883 makes it difficult to acquire new pres-
886 53
46 sure data for each layer and limits the
1144 805
100 61 utilization of wireline formation testers.
909
1091
62
• The field was developed more than 15
1093
794
•Cabimas 932 years ago, and as such the openhole
731
931
information is old and too basic for a
LGINF - 04 •Tía Juana full petrophysical analysis.
• The physical and chemical properties of
Lagunillas
= Injectors
the injected water are nearly the same
as the formation water, making the
Lake characterization of the produced water
Maracaibo
very difficult.
• Traditionally, all prospective sandstones
were open to production simulta-
Bachaquero
neously, making it impossible to identify
Location map showing the fluids produced for each layer.
The initial reservoir pressure was 1150
the reservoir and the • The internal gravel pack completions
psi, but declined over the years to 900 psi,
surrounding wells. have prevented conventional produc-
below the bubble point of 1050 psi. In 1976
tion logging from quantifying produc-
a secondary recovery project was started
tion in each layer.
using edge-water injection. Five injector
• The complex geology and discon-
wells were drilled for pressure maintenance
tinuous facies make well-to-well cor-
in the Lagunillas Inferior and La Rosa.
relation difficult and unreliable.
However, if bypassed oil zones could
Figure 7.8 be identified in spite of these complications,
then the ultimate oil recovery would
800
Oil be increased and the workover success
Water
700 ratio improved.
600
Production (bbl / D)
shut - in
500 (high water cut)
400 sanded up
300
200
100
'81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93
Year
Production history of well TJ-886.
7 7
Figure 7.9 7–12). Although the upper reservoir zones

(Lagunillas Inferior) were not producing,
Water opening them to production represented a
Moved oil
Oil major risk because neighboring wells TJ-883,
Water Water
Sand
Oil Oil
TJ-909 and TJ-805 produced with high water
Sw RST Bound water
CRRA 100 (p.u.) 0 Clay
cut from the same zones. Well TJ-886 was
1.6 2.6 Perfs Perfs Fluid analysis Fluid analysis
Depth
after before Sw OH from RST from OH logs Volume analysis chosen to run the first-ever RST in gravel
(ft) 100 (p.u.) 0 50 (p.u.) 0 50 (p.u.) 0 0 (p.u.) 100 pack completion in Venezuela.
2400 The well completion consisted of 27⁄8-in.
production tubing, with a packer set at 2500
ft in a 51⁄2-in. casing. The gravel pack hanger
was set at 2550 ft with 27⁄8-in. slotted liner
K
down to the end of the gravel at 2744 ft. Five
J
intervals were open to flow (see perforations
2500 I
A-E in Fig. 7.9). It was decided to monitor
H the entire LGINF-04 reservoir from 2330 to
2710 ft. The annulus was filled with water to
minimize the change in logging environment
across the reservoir. The RST Planner was
used to determine logging speed (number of
G
passes) and station times for specific well
2600
F
E
conditions. In this case, five inelastic passes
D at 100 ft/hr were needed to obtain a 95%
C confidence in the oil saturation mea-
B surement. In addition, two passes in the
Sigma mode were proposed to cross-check
A
the porosity and lithology, as well as to
2700 identify any gas zones in the reservoir
(Chapter 6–12).
Interpretation of the RST and
Measuring oil saturation The RST was run in November 1996. The
openhole logs in TJ-886. The
behind casing interpretation of the RST and the openhole
perforated intervals before
As was shown in Chapter 6–6, it is logs (Induction and Gamma Ray) is shown in
and after workover are
possible to make quantitative measurements Fig. 7.9. The two bottom perforated intervals
shown in track 2.
of the formation oil volume with the RST in are watered-out (A, B), and the overlying
a gravel pack completion. The issue then is intervals (C, D) have high water saturation
to find suitable candidates in which to look (50%). However, the top of the lens from
for bypassed oil. 2575 to 2620 ft, including the perforated
The team started to study carefully any interval E, was still close to the original oil
wells with production anomalies, especially saturation and represented an attractive
those that were near injectors. One such zone to be recompleted. The intermediate
well was TJ-886, close to the injectors TJ- zone (2474 to 2560 ft) had not been
1144 and TJ-794 (Fig. 7.7). This producer produced in this well but shows a clear oil-
was shut down in 1993 because of excessive water contact at 2532 ft, and original oil
water production—350 BOPD with 98% saturations at the top. The small sand
water cut (Fig. 7.8). The sudden jump in body K also shows original oil saturation.
water cut is typical behavior for a thief zone
(see Diagnosis of water problems, page
7 8
Figures 7.10 and 7.11 These intervals with near-initial oil satura-
tions are clear examples of bypassed oil
caused by an irregular water front.
–500
The Sigma passes found the sandstone
Contaminated body at 2400 to 2430 ft to be invaded with gas
Liquid
Gaseous Acoustic impedance (see the count rate indicator, CRRA, in the
Gas with thresholds (AIKB)
Bonded
depth track). This is not surprising consid-
ering the pressure history of the reservoir,
10,000 and that this lens is not influenced by water
Depth Before cement squeeze After cement squeeze injection. The original perforated intervals
(ft)
were in the middle or bottom of the
sandstone for this reason.
Well repair
These excellent results enabled the
team to quickly establish a procedure to
reactivate the well. The integrity of the
2450 cement sheath is crucial when producing
zones close to an active aquifer, especially in
older wells (TJ-886 was drilled in 1981).
Therefore, the first priority after recovering
the completion and gravel pack was to
monitor the cement integrity, and squeeze
more cement if necessary. Following this,
new intervals would be perforated and the
completion reinstalled.
2500
The USIT/CBL Ultra Sonic Imaging
Tool/Cement Bond Log showed poor
cement quality in the entire interval to be
completed (Fig. 7.10). Squeeze perforations
were opened from 2520 to 2525 ft and a
packer set at 2600 ft. 12 bbl of cement were
forced into the old open perforations and
circulated up to the squeeze perforations. A
2550
second USIT-CBL was run 18 hours after the
cement squeeze. It showed a successful
USIT log before the cement squeeze, USIT log after the cement squeeze, cement repair (Fig. 7.11) with a bond index
showing poor cementation throughout showing good cementation except for a of almost 1.
the interval. small zone at 2450 ft. Experience shows that these formations
need stimulation to produce properly.
In this case, the team decided to avoid
hydraulic stimulation to avoid the risk of
opening communication between the
aquifers and the open perforating intervals.
Instead, it was decided to use deep pene-
trating guns to go beyond the damaged zone.
7 9
Figure 7.12 SPAN* Schlumberger Perfo- conditions.) The Inflow Performance Relation-
ration Analysis software ship (IPR) and outflow curves indicated a
Cross section showing charge penetration depth
showed that the best option minimum of 190 BOPD of oil (Fig. 7.13).
28
was a 31⁄2-in. tubing-con- However, after the well was put back on
21
veyed deep penetrator gun, production, productivity tests showed a total
14 using 37J charges at 4 shots production of 530 BOPD with 7% water cut
per ft and 60° phasing. without choke.
7
Simulation showed that in The pay-out time of the RST log and
–28 28
this case formation pene- workover is estimated to be 35 days. The
–21 –14 –7 7 14 21
tration would be 21.4 in., cumulative recovery, taking into account
–7
which is normally enough to reservoir decline, is predicted as 500,000 bbl
–14 get past the damaged zone over three years.
(see Fig. 7.12).
–21
Underbalance is essential Conclusions
–28
Formation
Cement
to clean up perforations, TJ-886 was rejuvenated by applying new
Perforator characteristics particularly in this case, so a technology for reservoir monitoring in the dif-
Gun/Charge type : 3.5 HPG 4spf 37JUJ HMX
Gun position : Centralized
pressure differential of ficult environment of a gravel pack comple-
Shot phasing DEG : 60 450 psi from formation to tion, and by taking a new, integrated ap-
Gun offset DEG : 0
wellbore was applied while proach to customizing solutions for workover.
Perforation characteristics (at all orientations)
Total penetration IN : 23.227 shooting. Afterward, the The following conclusions can be drawn:
Formation penetration IN : 21.423
Entrance hole dia. 1st csg IN : 0.4319
guns were left on the tubing 1. The RST is a reliable tool to be used in
(for alternative methods of gravel pack completions at least in
The results of SPAN showing perforating underbalanced, page 7–41). formations with porosities greater than
the penetration of the 31⁄2-in. The minimum expected production from 20%, as was the case with the LGINF-04
tubing-conveyed perforator. the workover was simulated with a NODAL reservoir.
analysis prior to the work approval, using an 2. There are still significant recoverable
estimated (not measured) permeability of 100 reserves that have been bypassed in
md and a skin of 10. (This is an average value secondary recovery schemes such as
measured by well tests in non-stimulated water or gas injection. These need to be
wells with similar formation and completion addressed in the near future.
3. An integrated, multidisciplinary team,
such as Lagoven and Schlumberger
Figure 7.13 Oilfield Services, makes use of best-
value technology and gives the best
1000
inflow as modeled chance of success in procedures such as
900
ideal inflow (e.g., no skin)
outflow (tubing intake)
workover.
800
700
Pressure (psia)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Oil rate (BOPD)
NODAL analysis of TJ-886 showing an expected production rate of 190 BOPD.
7 10
C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Figure 7.14 The control of water production is a

major challenge to reservoir and workover
engineers. Various techniques are used to
reduce the water cut and increase the life of
Oil Oil
the well. The key to a successful solution
Oil lies in defining the origin of the water and
Oil determining whether it is necessary to the
Water associated oil production. Produced water
High-permeability layer
(No crossflow) Water coning Fissures to a water zone can be considered either good or bad. Good
water sweeps an oil bank and carries with it
Injector
a significant amount of oil. The amount of
Injector Producer Injector Producer
good water that is acceptable is determined
by the cost of water disposal. Bad water
Producer
inhibits oil production, but can often be
reduced if properly identified. Bad water is
sometimes misinterpreted as a rise in the
High-permeability layer thief zone Gravity-segregated layer Fissures to an injector
water-oil contact, causing premature
abandonment of the reservoir.

,,

Six typical reservoir conditions leading to bad water production.
Bad water can be caused by conditions
in the reservoir or near the wellbore.
Figure 7.15
Typical reservoir conditions are illustrated in
Fig. 7.14. They include coning, fissures and

,,

,,

high-permeability layers, all of which
bring water to the well without sweeping
Poor cement bond a significant volume of oil with them.
Not all high-permeability layers are bad.

Some can help sweep nearby layers,
Formation damage
particularly when the permeability contrast
is moderate. Water injection wells create
more potential sources of bad water, also
shown in Fig. 7.14.
Near-wellbore flow is often the most
critical, but since it is linked to the
completion, it also offers more opportunity
for treatment. It may be caused by a wide
variety of factors; for example (Fig. 7.15):
Cavern
poor cement bond, caverns formed by sand
production, reduced oil flow due to
formation damage, and frequent stimulation.
Some observations can be made about these
Previously
different factors:
sealed
fracture
Poor cement bond
There are several reasons for the deterior-
ation of the cement bond, such as exposure
to adverse conditions of temperature,
pressure, and perhaps sulfate waters.
Typical causes of bad water production from near the wellbore.
7 11
Figure 7.16a This is more likely to Reduced oil flow due

happen if, during the to formation damage
100
Coning
WOR
WOR'
primary cementing job, The higher pressure drop caused by
10
WOR
problems such as low- formation damage can cause water to be
pressure zones, gas migra- drawn into the producing interval from
WOR or WOR'
1
tion, and poor design of another zone. Hence, water production may
0.1 washers and spacers were be reduced by stimulating the producing
encountered. interval and reducing the pressure differential
WOR'
0.01
at the perforations. Clearly, the stimulation
Caverns formed by sand
0.001
must be successfully diverted from the water
1 10 100 1000 10000 production
Time (days) zone, or else the result will be unfavorable.
100
Poorly consolidated, friable
WOR
Thief layer
WOR' sandstones may collapse,
WOR Diagnosis of water problems
10
producing sand and
Various techniques may be used to
creating caverns behind
WOR or WOR'
1
diagnose the origin of produced water. Plots
the casing. These caverns
of production history are very useful in
0.1
WOR'
may eventually communi-
making a quick initial analysis of many wells.
cate with a water zone.
0.01 It has been shown by reservoir simulation of
Frequent stimulation in different conditions that plots of the (WOR)
0.001
1 10 100
Time (days)
1000 10000
the vicinity of and its derivative (WOR’) versus production
100 the well time on a log-log plot are particularly helpful
WOR
Near wellbore
WOR' Frequent matrix stimula- in determining the cause of water production
10
tion of carbonates can (Chan, 1995). Figure 7.16a shows the modeled
WOR or WOR'
1
create caverns in the for- response of three common cases of bad water
WOR mation and establish com- and how they can be distinguished. A
0.1
munication with a water decrease in WOR’ with time suggests coning;
0.01
WOR'
zone. Frequent stimulation a sudden increase followed by a flattening out
of either sandstones or car- is typical of a high-permeability thief zone
0.001
1 10 100 1000 10000
bonates can also dissolve from an injector; and a sharp increase in WOR
Time (days)
the cementing material in and WOR’ indicates near-wellbore flow. Figure
Schematic of water diagnostic plots showing the fractures or affect the 7.16b shows two cases that are often typical of
response of the water-oil ratio (WOR) and its cement bond, and likewise good water. The first is the normal sweeping
derivative (WOR’) as a function of time in (a) for establish communication of a reservoir by water, albeit at high water
three typical cases of bad water, and (b) for two with water. volume (water cut is always > 60%). The
typical cases of good water. second is multilayer channeling, with each
layer being successively swept.
Figure 7.16b
100 100
Normal displacement Multilayer channeling
with high water cut WOR
WOR
WOR WOR'
10 10
WOR'
WOR
WOR or WOR'
WOR or WOR'
1 1
0.1 0.1
WOR' WOR'
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 1000
Time (days) Time (days)
7 12
Figure 7.17 When several zones are open, or the

diagnostic plots are not clear, borehole
VLE-1156 VLE-1119
measurements are necessary. Conventional
Depth
La Rosa
(ft) La Rosa production logs (e.g., flowmeters, temperature
11,500 WOC @ 11,630 ft logs, noise logs and gradiomanometers) can
B-6 ⁄ 9
identify the fluids being produced from
C-1
12,000
different zones. The Digital Entry Flow tool
C-1
(Chapter 6–28) can identify the first entry of
C-2 Misoa water in low WOR wells, and the first entry of
12,500 C-2 oil in high WOR wells at any deviation. The
Water Flow Log (Chapter 6–30) can measure
C-24
not only the flow of water in the casing, but
13,000 also the flow behind casing. This can be
C-3 TD @ 12,900 ft C-4
particularly useful for identifying the source of
near-wellbore flow. Pressure measurements
13,500 WOC (VLE-1119) @ 13,328 ft
13,408 ft
and pressure history can indicate injection
C-5
13,589 ft water breakthrough. Through-casing satura-
tion measurements with the RST can measure
the remaining oil and water in different zones.
Guasare
After diagnosis comes the search for a
suitable treatment. Many sources of bad
water can be controlled. Near-wellbore
water, in particular, can be reduced by
improving the completion or by sealing off
Cross section through VLE-1156 and VLE-1119. VLE-1156 is completed
the source with polymer gel. High-per-
in the C-5 reservoir.
meability streaks carrying bad water can also
be sealed with polymer gel. Selective
Figure 7.18
stimulation can reduce the pressure draw-
10 down at the wellbore and encourage oil
WOR
Derivative production. Bad water can also be reduced
1
by a careful selection of which zones to
open and which not to open, in both
WOR and its derivative
producers and injectors. Other techniques

0.1
include limiting production and injection
rates, and careful placement of wells.
0.01 Two examples of water control by gel
placement are discussed below. In the
0.001 previous section (Identification of bypassed
zones) water is controlled by recompletion
of the well.
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000
Cumulative production time (days)
Water-control diagnostic plot for VLE-1156.
7 13
Figure 7.19 Example 1: Water control

with polymer gel in VLE-1156
LLS Well VLE-1156 has been completed with
1 (ohm-m) 1000 a single selective completion in the C-5
GR LLD reservoir, Lagocinco area (Fig. 7.17). The
0 (gAPI) 150 1 (ohm-m) 1000
nearest well, VLE-1119, is located to the
SP Depth
–80 (mv) 20 (ft)
Perforations north on the other side of a normal fault and
has a fairly good production rate (1600
BOPD) and low water cut (20%). However,
in VLE-1156 the water cut had risen to 75%.
13,200 The diagnostic plot (Fig. 7.18) shows a jump
at 100 days within a general upward trend
on both WOR and WOR’. This was
interpreted as channeling through a
formation layer. To determine the source of
13,250
the water, a Production Log was run in
November 1995. This showed that the
uppermost perforated interval was con-
tributing the most water (36%, see Fig. 7.19).
13,300 Even though this interval (13,262 to 13,268 ft)
showed an average porosity of 16%, and a
hydrocarbon saturation of 70% at the time of
drilling, it was now producing only water.
Based on this information, it was
13,350
decided to inject sealing gel in the upper-
most interval to isolate it and allow
production to come from the lower intervals.
The well was first filled with sand up to
13,400 13,293 ft to cover the lower intervals. The
treatment was performed on August 20, 1996,
injecting 100 bbl of Maraseal in the interval
from 13,262 to 13,268 ft, using diesel for the
Interval Qo Qw
(ft) BOPD BWPD displacement. No operational problems
13,262-13,268 0.0 203.5
13,281-13,286 0.0 0.0
Logs and perforated intervals for VLE-1156. The relative to the treatment were experienced.
13,296-1,3310 18.0 95.1 table shows the relative contribution of each
13,318-13,326 7.0 25.1
13,353-13,358 13.2 47.4 interval as indicated by a production logging tool.
13,364-13,376 262.9 195.3
Total 301.1 566.4
7 14
Figure 7.20 Before the treatment, the well was

producing 257 bbl of net oil and 770 bbl of
1200
Oil Gel water on average. The water and sediment
Water lnjection
rate (W & S) was 75% and WOR was 3. In
1000
addition, 35.9% of the water was coming
from the interval 13,262 to 13,268 ft (Fig.
800
Flow rate (bbl/D)
7.19, previous page) with zero oil

production. After the treatment, water
600
production declined by 76% (186 bbl) and oil
Choke change production increased by 374% (787 BOPD).
400
Figure 7.20 shows clearly the inversion of the
production curves after gel injection. A
200 decline in oil production is observed in
October (month 17), when the choke was
0 changed from 1⁄2 to 3⁄4 in. Later on, production
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Elapsed time (months) recovers and continues to increase until
November, when it starts declining again. Oil
Production history of VLE-1156. The effect of gel injection is clearly seen.
production, however, continues to be
satisfactory. The water production curve
shows a constant drop until November, when
it starts to increase again. This can be
attributed to the gradual deterioration of the
Figure 7.21
gel by temperature, chemicals, friction, and
VLA-36 other factors. It has been shown elsewhere
that gels are effective for up to two years
(Paz and Anez, 1996).
VLA-12 Although oil production is now declin-
ing and water production is increasing, the
treatment has still been a success. From the
date of the treatment until December 1996,
the accumulated additional production has
been 79,560 STB and the reduction in water
6364'-70'
BLR
production has been 87,610 STBW.
6388'-00'
6424'-30' If the trends in oil and water production
shown in Fig. 7.20 continue, the well will
eventually return to the pretreatment WOR
Merging
C-5 of 3. At this point the treatment will have lost
its effectiveness. However, until this
happens, and assuming the total flow rate
Cross section through VLA-36 and VLA-12, showing the merging remains constant, the reduced WOR due to
of the reservoirs C-5 and BLR. the treatment will lead to an additional oil
production of 150,000 bbl.
7 15
Figure 7.22 Example #2: Water control

with polymer gel in VLA-36
100
Water/oil ratio
Well VLA-36 is completed in the Basal La
Derivative Rosa reservoir (BLR). In this area the BLR
Water/oil ratio and derivative
10 merges with the C-5 reservoir (Fig. 7.21). The

nearby well VLA-12 is injecting water into C-
1
5. This water may be entering the BLR reser-
voir, and hence VLA-36, through a near-
wellbore connection with C-5. Production
0.1
logs were not available to verify this inter-
pretation. The sharp rise in the diagnostic
0.01 curves after 400 days (Fig. 7.22) also suggests
a near-wellbore connection is likely. Whatever
0.001 the cause, it was decided to inject sealing gel
10 100 1000
in the interval from 6424 to 6430 ft (Fig. 7.23,
Cumulative production time (days)
A) to prevent entry of water from below.
Water-control diagnostic plot for VLA-36.
The target interval was isolated by a
Coiled Tubing packer. Before the treatment,
an injectivity test was performed using
diesel, which indicated 0.23 BPM injectivity
with 1800 psi pressure. A gel system
Figure 7.23
injection was performed on September 19,
1996. One hundred barrels of Maraseal gel
ILD
Perforations 1 (ohm-m) 1000 system were injected in the 6424 to 6430 ft
GR Depth SN interval, using diesel for the displacement.
0 (gAPI) 150 1 (ohm-m) 1000
(ft) No operational problems were experienced
during the treatment.
6350
Before the treatment, the well was
producing 25 BOPD and 596 BWPD (96%
W & S and WOR 23.89). After the treatment,
oil production increased to 229 BOPD while
6400 water production decreased to 417 BWPD.
The W & S percentage dropped to 24% and
WOR to 0.43. Figure 7.24 (next page) shows
A
the well production before and after
treatment. Following the treatment, the well
6450
was opened with a 1⁄2-in. choke. Oil
production increased while water production
declined significantly. When the choke was
changed to 1 in., both oil and water
6500 production started a zigzag behavior until
stabilizing in December (month 18). In spite
of the behavior during this period, the well
produced a total of 19,980 bbl more oil and
Logs and perforated intervals for VLA-36.
17,518 bbl less water than at the rates before
treatment.
7 16
Figure 7.24 Rigless Workover
700
Oil
Gel Water The ability to enhance production
injection
600
without a workover rig is very attractive,
Choke change
both economically and logistically. Snub-
500
bing units, coiled tubing, wireline and slick-
Flow rate (bbl/D)
400
line all offer rigless solutions, in approxi-
mately that order of logistical complexity.
300 One interesting possibility is the through-
tubing bridge plug, or PosiSet plug. This
200 plug can be set in casings from 41⁄2-in. to 95⁄8-
in. well without pulling the tubing and
100
without shutting in the well.
The principle is shown in Fig. 7.25.
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 After reaching the setting depth the tool is
Elapsed time (months) fired, causing the seal elements to be
Production history of VLA-36. squeezed and expanded until they seal
In January, the well production became
The effect of gel injection is against the casing wall. At the same time
steady, oil production was higher than water
clearly seen after production anchors are set above and below to hold
production, and both continue to increase
has stabilized. the seal in position. This plug can hold 500
and decline, respectively. The destabilization
psi of differential pressure, which is
observed during the first production period
normally sufficient to plug the well while
may be because the sandstones were still
cement is dumped above it. In a 7-in.
water-saturated, whereas in January the well
casing it is normal to dump a minimum 10
had a uniform sweep, thus increasing oil
ft of cement. This can withstand 400 psi of
production.
differential pressure. The plug itself is only
21 in. long when set, so that, if necessary,
Conclusions
very short intervals can be plugged, but
The production of unwanted water can
with lower pressure rating.
be controlled. However, we first must
The well shown in Fig. 7.26 was pro-
recognize whether the water is good water,
ducing 505 B/D at 86% water cut from the
which helps to drain the oil, or bad water,
perforations in the Eocene C-6 reservoir
which inhibits the oil production. The
shown on the right of track 1. An RST was
source of the water must also be known.
run using a mast unit to identify the depleted
Diagnostic plots of the production history
zone. From the interpretation of the RST and
can be of great use in scanning a large
of the openhole logs in track 2, depletion
number of wells. Production logs can then
can be clearly seen opposite the
confirm or clarify different hypotheses.
perforations and above. It was decided that
Once diagnosed, various actions can be
in order to achieve a production of at least
taken. Two examples showed the successful
400 BOPD of oil, it was necessary to open
use of polymer gel in controlling the water.
up the top intervals in the C-4 and C-5, and
In one example, the estimated gain from the
shut off the existing perforations. These
treatment is 150,000 bbl of oil.
reservoirs were known to be at nearly the
same pressure potential and hence could be
opened together.
7 17
Monocable Displaced oil

7.25 Head Water
7.26
Upper
Oil
anchor
Cartridge Sandstone
Buttress Bound water

backup Perfs. Shale
Before
Setting
After
25 ft Depth Combined model
tool Petal (ft) 0 (p.u.) 100
111⁄16 in. backups
Seal
12,400
elements
12,500
12,600
7 ft
12,700
Lower
anchor
12,800
Cement
21 ⁄ 8 in.
PosiSet
plug
12,900
The most efficient method to repair the
well was to shut off the bottom zone with a
PosiSet plug and perforate the top intervals
13,000
through tubing. This could be done quickly,
without the need for a workover rig, be-
cause no other operations were needed on 13,100
the well. For example, it was considered
unlikely that there were any cement
channels that needed to be squeezed off
because the original cement bond was The well came in at 600 BOPD with only 1%
good. Experience also showed that through- water and sediments.
tubing charges, shot underbalanced, gave Thus, in this example a rigless work-
good productivity. Therefore, with the well over, using a PosiSet bridge plug and
shut-in, but with a tubing head pressure of through-tubing perforation guns, was able
100 psi, the PosiSet was run in the hole and to enhance production by 450 BOPD with-
set at 12,850 ft. A 15-ft long cement plug in 15 days of diagnosing the problem.
was set on top of it. The upper intervals Using a workover rig would have taken
shown in Fig. 7.26 were perforated with longer, leading to more lost production and
21⁄8-in. enerjet EJ III at 4 shots per ft. greater expense.
7 18
MAXIMIZING FRACTURE CONDUCTIVITY
Since the early 1950s, the Miocene oil- The production increase after an SOS is not
bearing formations of Lake Maracaibo have substantial and very often declines to nothing
been stimulated using a technique developed in the span of a few months. The SOS is nor-
by Exxon called Sand Oil Squeeze (SOS). mally performed over several perforated
This technology proved fairly successful in intervals, each of which range from 20 to 100
the past when reservoirs had their original ft, but can span several hundred feet between
pressures, but now that pressures are low, it upper and lower perforations. In the standard
has been unsuccessful in providing good treatment, large volumes of crude oil (100 to
productivity from the wells. 300 bbl) are pumped (sometimes with ball
What is needed to improve the pro- sealers to ensure every perforation is open-
ductivity is a high-conductivity path from the ed), followed by a sand-oil slurry up to 5 PPA
undamaged formation to the wellbore. This (pound proppant added) in concentration, for
article describes how the introduction of a a total of 15,000 to 30,000 lb of proppant. The
new high-permeability stimulation tech- first weak point of such treatments is that the
nique, HyPerSTIM*, has solved this problem, large volumes of oil preflush, or pad, give the
leading to significantly improved production slurry a high penetration into the formation,
performance and revised expectations from but the low sand concentrations do not allow
the reservoir. We first describe the previous any significant fracture thickness to develop.
technology, then the HyPerSTIM technique, Since embedment will absorb a good 2 lb/ft
its introduction and case histories. in this type of soft, unconsolidated form-
ation, propped fractures disappear in a short
amount of time (hence the quick decline of
Figure 7.27
production after a few months). The second
weak point is the choice of proppant. In the
Sand oil slurry
past this consisted of 16/25 local sand,
Frac width whose sphericity is very poor compared to
API standards. The lack of sphericity
facilitates crushing and causes deterioration
Effective fracture length into a very low-permeability proppant pack.
Coupled with the poor fracture width
Schematic of a TSO fracture.
Previous technology achieved by SOS (0.1–0.2 in.), this contributes
The SOS technique was developed by to a very low conductivity in the propped
Exxon as a low-cost, quick stimulation for channel and hence poor production
damaged high-permeability formations performance. More recently, this practice has
(200–1000 md) by creating high-conductivity been eliminated as it became evident that
channels driven from each perforation productivity was being sacrificed for a small
through the damaged zone and into the additional cost.
undamaged formation. These treatments are After understanding the weaknesses of
usually followed by the conventional SOS, we can make appropriate modifications:
gravel packing of a slotted liner, essential using the same crude oil as a base fluid and
in containing the sand production from the same amount of proppant, we can try to
these highly unconsolidated sandstones. shorten the fracture (the damaged matrix is
only a few feet in radius), increase the
fracture width and maximize the fracture
conductivity, which is, in effect, a HyPerSTIM.
7 19
Figure 7.28 The final result is a greater propped width

after closure, and an enhanced fracture
6000 12
Pressure conductivity.
Rate Tip screen-out fracturing can be divided
5000 10
into three stages:
1. Pad—Clean pumped fluid to create the
4000 8
Pressure (psia)
desired fracture geometry.
Rate (BPM)
3000 6
2. Low Concentration Stage—A low con-
centration of proppant is necessary to
2000 4
create the tip screen-out and stop the
growth of the frac.
1000 2 3. Main Stage—Ramp proppant to the
point of packing the frac.
0 0 In order for the TSO to occur when the
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
design length has been reached, it is neces-
Elapsed time (min)
sary to have a very well defined value for the
Step-Rate and Calibration
Tip screen-out fracturing fluid leak-off. The only possible way to get an
tests prior to treatment in
HyPerSTIM uses the methodology devel- adequate value for the fluid leak-off
well LL-1671.
oped for tip screen-out (TSO) fracturing coefficient is by doing a DataFRAC* Fracture
where, once the fracture has reached its Data Determination Service. A DataFRAC is a
designed length, we create an artificial barrier calibration treatment done prior to the main
close to the tip and along the entire perimeter treatment, similar to a “dress rehearsal,” to
(Fig. 7.27). At the moment of screen-out the determine various factors that are used to
fracture stops growing, leading to an increase fine-tune the final design and to ensure that
in pressure within the fracture that translates the objectives of the treatment are met.
automatically into a greater hydraulic width. The DataFRAC uses the same fluid base
This greater hydraulic width allows us to (crude oil) for the main treatment and it is
achieve much higher proppant concen- pumped at the same rate as planned for the
trations within the fracture and hence coun- main treatment. It consists of an initial step
terbalances the effect of proppant embed- rate and a main pumping period (Fig. 7.28).
ment in soft unconsolidated formations.
Figure 7.29a and 7.29b

3200 3200 600
Pressure
Pressure Max Derivative
Straight line Instantaneous shut-in pressure
approximation
Bottom hole pressure (psia)
2800 500
Closure pressure
Min
2800
Derivative (psi)
Pressure (psia)
2400 400
2400
2000 200
2000 1600 100

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
a ÃShut–in–time (ÃÆt (min)) b G–function (1 / sec)
Interpreting the DataFRAC in LL-1671: determining fracture Interpreting the DataFRAC in LL-1671: determining fluid
closure pressure. efficiency and leak-off coefficient.
7 20
Figure 7.30 To complement and improve the analy-

sis, radioactive tracers are run with the fluid
1600
Expected production during the pumping period, and both
Total production
1400
Net oil production
Temperature and Radioactive logs are run
prior and after the treatment to determine the
1200
actual fracture height. However, in this case,
Production (bbl ⁄ D)
1000 logs were omitted to keep costs at the same

800
level as for SOS.
600
The introduction of HyPerSTIM
400 on Lake Maracaibo
On the first three wells, a partial
200
HyPerSTIM treatment was performed, with
0 no DataFRAC or ball sealers, but with the
LL-2558 TJ-855 LL-484 TJ-254 LL-3094 LL-686 TJ-1110 LL-3422 LL-1671
maximum proppant concentration taken to 8
Well name
Summary of production PPA. Some evidence of TSO was observed.
results after HyPerSTIM The latter is as long as is necessary to ensure While the maximum expected production
treatments in LGINF-04 that the length of the fracture is sufficient to rates ranged from 120 to 150 B/D, one well
and LGINF-05 wells. give a fracture area that is representative for stabilized after a few days at 700 B/D, and
fluid loss. the other two at 164 and 300 B/D. The
Analysis of the step rate portion helps to results were sufficiently good, showing
determine the closure pressure of the form- considerable improvement over the SOS
ation. Analysis of the main pumping period is technique, so that full HyPerSTIM treatments
similar to a flow test in a well. During the were started in other Miocene wells.
pumping period, there are diagnostic plots Ideally, the treatment terminates with a
that enable the growth pattern of the fracture total screen-out at the wellbore. This signifies
to be recognized. Then after pumping is that the fracture has been completely packed
stopped the pressure falloff is used to from the tip to the perforations, ensuring
determine the fluid efficiency and fluid leak- maximum propped width and hence
off coefficient. For this, specialized plots of maximum conductivity. The first treatments
pressure and a function of time are used (Figs. had not achieved total screen-out, and a
7.29a and 7.29b, previous page). In Fig. 7.29a, few more were needed to improve our
Figure 7.31
the change in slope identifies the closure knowledge of the reservoir properties and
400 pressure as 2800 psi. This can also be seen in fine-tune through each job’s DataFRAC.
Production (BOPD)
Expected (BOPD) 390

300 Actual (BOPD) Fig. 7.28—at the fifth step, the sharp rise to a
flat pressure at 2800 psi indicates flow into a
200
133
170 fracture.
100 107
In Fig. 7.29b, the time to reach the clo-
0 sure pressure yields a value of fluid efficiency
SOS–'95 HPS–'96 that in turn is used to determine the size of the
pad for the main treatment. The slope of the
Comparison of average
pressure plot prior to closure yields an in-situ
production results for SOS
value of leak-off coefficient that is used in the
and HyPerSTIM.
fracture simulator to fine-tune the final design.
7 21
Table 7.1 We can also analyze the results in terms

Treatment Reservoir No. of Expected Actual Actual / of the cost of treatment per barrel of daily oil
type wells increase increase expected
(BOPD) (BOPD) (%) production. Figure 7.32 shows such a cost
SOS LGINF-04 9 145 99 68 analysis, calculated using average production
(95-250) (0-201)
rates and treatment costs associated with all
SOS LGINF-05 25 121 114 94
(60-240) (0-473) SOS treatments performed in 1995 and all oil-
SOS LGINF-04/05 34 133 107 80 based HyPerSTIMs performed in 1996 and
(60-250) (0-473)
1997. The cost of a HyPerSTIM with crude oil
HyPerSTIM LGINF-04 1 170 390 229
LGINF-05 8 (110-250) (195-993) as the carrier fluid is, on average, no more
than that of an SOS, as the total volumes of
Comparison of SOS and
Three of the jobs were pumped using crude oil and proppant are roughly the same,
HyPerSTIM results in
the 16/25 local sand to try to directly and all that is required is slightly more horse-
LGINF-04 and LGINF-05
compare the performance of this proppant power to achieve the desired rates. On the
from 1995–97. Numbers in
to HyPerSTIMs with imported sand. These other hand, as already seen, the production
brackets indicate the range
three wells performed very poorly. improvements are much higher.
of production increase.
However, in none of them did we observe a The reason for the improvements can be
TSO with certainty, so the comparison is not appreciated from the DataFRAC results in
fully valid. Given the success of wells with Table 7.2 and the pump schedules in Table
imported sand, it was decided to use this 7.3 (both in next page). The SOS treatments
proppant in subsequent jobs. On the tenth use, on average, 200 to 300 bbl Pad, 600 lb of
HyPerSTIM, the first total screen-out was 16/25 local sand per ft of perforations,
achieved, the well producing 1430 BPD (993 proppant concentrations from 1 to 4.5 PPA,
BOPD). This excellent production finally and a number of ball-sealers released during
validates the theory. the oil-sand slurry equalling 120% of the
number of perforations. The pump schedules
Figure 7.32 Summary of results for the eight of the HyPerSTIMs in LGINF-04
The overall performance for the 32 and LGINF-05 are shown in Table 7.3. As
250
HyPerSTIM jobs performed between August mentioned above, the first three treatments
200 205 $ ⁄ bbl
1996 and February 1997 has been very good. were simply designed with a more aggressive
150 Some wells produced above expectation, proppant concentration and without ball
$ ⁄ bbl
100 but with a high percentage of water, hence sealers. DataFRACs were performed for TJ-
81 $ ⁄ bbl
50
responding successfully to the TSO 254 onward. In most cases, the leak-off
technique but contributing poorly to the net coefficient is lower than expected, so that the
0
oil production figures. volumes of pad traditionally pumped in an
SOS HyPerSTIM
A direct comparison can be made by SOS are too large. Smaller volumes are
Treatment cost per barrel of only considering wells in the same reservoir necessary to induce a TSO at around 40 to 80
increased daily oil production, and with similar completions. Table 7.1 and ft of fracture half-length. This was implement-
SOS versus HyPerSTIM. Fig. 7.31 summarize the results of SOS and ed in LL3094 and later wells.
HyPerSTIM treatments in the LGINF-04 and
LGINF-05 reservoirs between 1995 and 1997.
It can be seen that on average the SOS treat-
ments only gave 80% of the expected pro-
duction, whereas the HyPerSTIM treatments
gave 229%. Figure 7.30 shows the expected,
actual and net oil production for the nine
HyPerSTIM wells.
7 22
Table 7.2 Conclusions and recommendations

Well Frac. grad. Closure pres. Leak-off Fluid 1. HyPerSTIMs have proved to be an
name psi⁄ ft psi ft⁄ (min)0.5 efficiency
excellent improvement over the SOS
TJ-254 0.54 1370 0.0160 0.03
technique.
LL3094 0.63 2500 0.0045 0.37
2. Crude oil can be used as a low-cost
LL-686 0.67 2596 0.0190 0.05
carrier fluid for fracturing depleted
LL3422 0.64 2580 0.0210 0.06
reservoirs, provided an adequate
LL1671 0.65 2801 0.0035 0.27
technique is used to achieve a packed
DataFRAC results. fracture.
3. The incremental cost of HyPerSTIM over
Table 7.3 SOS is small, so that in terms of
Well Pad Conc. Proppant Quantity treatment cost per barrel of extra oil
name bbl PPA type lbm
production, HyPerSTIM is much more
LL2588 200 2-7 16/30 Brady 45,000
effective.
TJ-855 170 2-7 16/30 Brady 35,000
4. The crude oil viscosity is a limiting
LL-484 200 2-8 16/30 Brady 40,000
factor for the maximum proppant
TJ-254 300 2-8 16/30 Brady 60,000
concentration that can be mixed during
LL3094 35 2-8 16/30 Jordan 45,000
the treatments (typical maximum
LL-686 40 2-8 16/30 Brady 32,000
concentration is 7 to 8 PPA), which is
TJ1110 55 2-5 16/30 Jordan 53,700
also a function of pump rate and BHT.
LL3422 80 2-5.5 16/30 Jordan 30,600
This can be a limitation in the creation
Pump schedules for HyPerSTIM wells. and packing of large fractures (fracture
height greater than 80 ft).
Following these good results, other
5. The high friction loss of crude oil limits
operating districts became interested in
its use as a fracturing fluid to shallow
stimulating their Miocene wells using the
wells less than 5000 ft deep, otherwise
HyPerSTIM technique, and treatments were
surface pressures exceed the wellhead
performed in formations such as BACH-02,
and casing limits.
LGINF-07, LAGNA-05, B-6-X and B-2-X.
6. Long-term follow-up of some of these
However, in several of these cases the use of
wells is necessary to evaluate whether
crude oil as carrier fluid is limited because of
the concentration of proppant in the
the high friction pressures it generates at high
fracture should be increased to achieve
rates, and also because of the higher closure
long-term production stability.
stress of the deeper Miocene formations. In
these cases it is more appropriate to use a
cross-linked fracturing fluid with low polymer
loading (to reduce damage). Because of the
ability of these fluids to carry higher proppant
concentrations, a better packing of the frac-
ture is achieved.
7 23
FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
DSI log data have been used successfully Three-dimensional (3-D) or P3D models
to characterize the mechanical properties of have been available for use by the industry
the formations penetrated by wells in the giant for some time. These models are generally
fields of North Monagas. This information was considered to be more accurate since they
used in Pseudo 3-Dimensional (P3D) fracture more rigorously model the fracture’s growth.
stimulation model studies to determine why They require accurate mechanical property
some propped fracture treatments were more data (Poisson’s ratio and Young’s Modulus of
successful than others in achieving increased Elasticity) as input. The contrast in Poisson’s
productivity and reduced asphaltine floccu- ratio among the various zones (segments of
lation, and eliminating formation sand produc- the formation) influences the height growth
tion. The results of this investigation indicate of the fracture. The value of Young’s
that the surface pressure predictions of these Modulus of Elasticity influences the width
P3D simulations more closely match those growth of the fracture.
recorded during the course of the pumping Until recently, the industry experienced
operations than those generally predicted by some difficulty in using the mechanical
two-dimensional (2-D) modeling. property information derived from DSI log
data for use in its fracture simulation
Fracture Stimulation Design models programs. Because of this the industry has
2-D models have been used to help generally relied upon mechanical properties
design fracture stimulation treatments for data obtained from the analysis of whole
many years. The 2-D models most frequently core data in the same or offset well(s) (e.g.,
used are those of Khristianovic and Zeltov, Roegiers and Neda, 1993). Obtaining
with later contributions by Geertsma and de mechanical properties from core data is
Klerk (1969) (KGD model) and Perkins and expensive and requires a great deal of time.
Kern (1961), and later Nordgren (1972) DSI log data, on the other hand, are
(PKN). These models are satisfactory for relatively inexpensive to acquire and are
many applications, but sometimes do not applicable to the specific well. Generally,
adequately predict the surface pressure DSI log data are processed to compute
response observed during the course of the dynamic values of Poisson’s ratio and
fracturing treatment. When this occurs, it is Young’s Modulus of elasticity. The dynamic
usually inferred that the fracture geometry values can be converted to static ones using
generated was not as planned. This may be the transform suggested by Morales (1993).
the reason that some stimulation treatments The P3D model used in this study
do not perform as we had hoped. allows height growth through multiple layers
2-D models differ somewhat in how the or zones. In this P3D model, the fracture
fracture growth and volume are calculated. In height depends on the position along the
the KGD model, the geometry has a constant fracture and time. This model is generally
and uniform height and a rectangular cross considered applicable when the fracture
section. This model is generally used when length is greater than the height.
the length-to-height ratio is less than 1.5.
Generally, this model predicts shorter fracture
lengths and greater wellbore widths than the
PKN model. These and similar 2-D models do
not require a rigorous definition of the forma-
tion’s mechanical properties.
7 24
Figure 7.33
Depth
(ft) Well 4 8 13A 15 16 22E 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 37E 49 50
= No improvement
14,000
= Loss of production
= Prop flowback
NAR-3
= Propnet
14,500
14,800
K-B KP 1) = 0.19 psi ⁄ ft

high gas
15,200
K-C NAR-3
K-D
KP K-E 2) = 0.22 psi ⁄ ft
KP medium gas
K-D
15,600 K-B, C
K-E 3) = 0.24 psi ⁄ ft
K-C low gas
K-B K-D K-D
GOC NAR-3 GOC
4) = 0.25 psi ⁄ ft
high oil
16,000
5) = 0.30 psi ⁄ ft
medium oil
16,200 NAR-5
6) = 0.34 psi ⁄ ft
low oil
16,400
KP
KP
NAR-3
17000 NAR-3
Summary of the 22 stimu-

A variant of the P3D model is the P3D formation sand production, even though
lation treatments studied.
Lateral Coupling (P3D_LAT) model. It is they were successfully executed without any
similar to the P3D model but it is generally apparent operational issues. Twenty-two
used when the length is less than the height. completions, some of which did and others
The P3D_LAT variant accounts for the fact that did not respond favorably to fracture
that the pressure at any cross section stimulation, were reviewed in an attempt to
depends on the pressure everywhere in the establish some pattern that might account for
fracture, not just at that section. This the success or lack of success (Fig. 7.33). The
correction term is small for long fractures but fracture stimulation treatments had been
significant for short ones. The P3D_LAT designed using 2-D fracturing models.
variant model is generally considered more The giant North Monagas Fields consti-
accurate than the uncoupled models. tute an area of more than 400 km2. The struc-
ture is an asymmetric anticline, with the Nari-
Fracture stimulation in cual and Cretaceous formations being the
North Monagas most important feature. It is more than 1500 ft
Fifty-one fracture stimulation treatments thick in places with depths ranging between
were performed in North Monagas in 1996. 12,000 ft and 20,000 ft (e.g. Chapter 1–38 and
Twenty-five of these fracture jobs were per- Chapter 2–35). The Santa Bárbara Field (a sec-
formed in the Santa Bárbara Field. Nine of tion of the giant North Monagas area) has
these fracture treatments did not achieve the been subdivided into six zones, each having
desired increase in productivity or eliminate different fluid and producing characteristics.
7 25
The subsea position of the 22 completions zone is more successful than another.
reviewed in these zones are shown in Fig. Therefore, it was decided to review some
7.33. Above 15,800 ft ss, production is completions in more detail, using 3-D fracture
considered to be wet gas and gas conden- design models and DSI data.
sate; below that depth, the production is
considered to be volatile oil and black oil. Mechanical properties
From the 22 completions reviewed, the from DSI log analysis
following observations were made: Seven completions that also had DSI logs
• Seventeen completions are identified as over the producing interval were selected for
gas condensate completions. further review. The DSI logs had been proces-
• Twelve completions have recorded a sed to provide dynamic values for Poisson’s
total sustained production increase of ratio (n) and Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E).
15,400 BOPD and 112 MMscf/D. Ten of The logs were reviewed, zones selected, and
these are above 15,800 ft ss. average values of porosity, n and E estimated
• Six of the completions were new and per zone. These dynamic values were
did not produce at the anticipated rates. converted to static values using the transform
Four of these completions are above suggested by Morales (1993). Static values
15,800 ft ss. were then used along with other log and
• Three completions recorded a total sus- completion data to calculate the minimum in-
tained decrease of 1800 BOPD and 500 situ stress of the formation. The contrast in
MMscf/D. Three of these are above minimum in-situ stress is an important input in
15,800 ft ss. designing a fracture stimulation treatment that
• The nine disappointing production will remain within the zone of interest and
results which were less than expected obtain the desired fracture height, width and
occurred in these formations: length for optimum production response from
the well completion. The actual fracture
Nº Formation Remarks
of wells simulation was done with the FracCADE
3 K-C, D, E avg. ss depth less than 15,330 ft program using the P3D and P3D_LAT models.
3 KP avg. ss depth less than 15,450 ft Three of the well completions reviewed
2 NAR-3 avg. ss depth less than 15,270 ft will be discussed in detail:
1 NAR-3 avg. ss depth greater than 16,800 ft
SBC 27 SC NAR-3 New Completion gas well
No Improvement (zone 1)
These observations indicate no pattern SBC 50 SL KP Increase only oil well
3.5 MMscf/D (zone 6+)
that would suggest that one formation or
SBC 27 SL K-D 2500 BOPD and gas well
19 MMscf/D increase (zone 2)
Figure 7.34 Well SBC 27 SC NAR-3.

15,000
The surface pressure measured during
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
the pumping operation is in close agreement
12,000 Treating pressure (job data)
Pressure psia
with the surface pressure simulated using the

9000
P3D model, as seen in Fig. 7.34. The pressure
6000 values track until the last three minutes of the
3000 pumping operation. At that time, the model
0
predicts that the fracture half-length growth
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
has ceased, while the measured pressure
Time (min)
indicates that it continued to grow.
Surface pressures from P3D simulation and actual job data on SBC 27 SC.
7 26
Figure 7.35 The P3Dmodel (Fig. 7.35) predicts that the

propped hydraulic fracture only propagated
14,900
3.0 – 3.5
14,950 2.5 – 3.0 in the perforated interval circa 15,175 ft MD.
2.0 – 2.5
Prop. conc. 1.5 – 2.0 The other perforated intervals in this well did
Depth (ft)
15,000
(Ib ⁄ ft3) 1.0 – 1.5
15,050 0.5 – 1.0
0.0 – 0.5
-0.5 – 0.0
not appear to be stimulated according to the
15,100
P3D model. Furthermore, the model indicates
15,150
15,200 that the width of the fracture, after closure,
14,000–0.1 0.0 0.1 0 100 200 300 400 500 would be on the order of 0.2 in. There was a
Stress ACL width Fracture half–length (ft)
(psi) at wellbore (in.)
minimal (5%) production increase after the
fracture stimulation treatment. A greater than
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SC as predicted by the P3D
normal amount of proppant was reported as
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
being returned to the surface after the stimu-
lation treatment. The production response
Figure 7.36 can be modeled using NODAL analysis with
12,000 the fracture characteristics reported by
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
FracCADE, a frac half-length of 350 ft, a
11,000 Treating pressure (job data)
height of 60 ft, and an average width of 0.07
10,000 in. (adjusted to compensate for proppant
Pressure (psia)
flow-back). This yields an incremental

9000
production of 100 BOPD and 1000 Mscf/D,
8000
which corresponds favorably to that
7000 measured after the stimulation treatment (63
BOPD and 915 Mscf/D). No proppant flow-
6000
back control agent was used in this
5000 stimulation treatment.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Elapsed time (min)

Surface pressures from P3D simulation and actual job data on SBC 50 SL. Well SBC 50 SL KP
The surface pressure measured during
the pumping operation agrees with the
Figure 7.37
surface pressure simulated using the P3D
17,650 model, as seen in Fig. 7.36. The P3D model
3.0 – 3.5
Prop. conc. (lb ⁄ ft3) 2.5 – 3.0
2.0 – 2.5
(Fig. 7.37) predicts that the propped
17,700
1.5 – 2.0
1.0 – 1.5
hydraulic fracture only propagated in the
0.5 – 1.0
17,750 perforated interval circa 17,925 to 17,950 ft
Depth (ft)
0.0 – 0.5
-0.5 – 0.0
MD, while the total fracture grew upward
17,800
(out of the zone of interest) to a height of
17,850 approximately 17,800 ft MD. The model
17,900
predicts that the lower perforated interval in
this well was not stimulated. Furthermore,
17,950
the average width of the fracture after
12,000 14,000 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0 25 50 75 100 closure is predicted to be rather large. The
ACL width Stress Fracture half-length increase in production after the stimulation
at wellbore (psi) (ft)
(in.) treatment was 3500 Mscf/D.
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 50 SL as predicted by the P3D
7 27
Figure 7.38 tubing pressure of 2800 psi. Nine months after

the stimulation treatment, the increase was
2500 BOPD, 19.4 MMscf and 3600 psi flowing
12,000
tubing pressure.
10,000
Application to a newly designed well.
These and other analyses indicated that
Pressure (psia)
8000
there may have been a significant difference
between the desired (2-D modeled) and
6000
actual fracture geometry as indicated by the
P3D model. It was therefore decided to
compare the results of a 2-D and a P3D
4000
model fracture geometry on a well requiring
Treating Pressure (P3D simulation)
Treating Pressure (Job data) stimulation with a large producing interval
2000
0 10 20 30 40 50 (greater than 150 feet) with multiple sets of
Time (min)
perforations, and which also had an open
Surface pressures from P3D
Well SBC 27 SL K-D. hole DSI log available. The well selected
simulation and actual job
The surface pressure measured during the (MUC 34 KP) was drilled and completed in
data on SBC 27 SL.
pumping operation closely agrees with the sur- 1993. The archived DSI and triple combo log
face pressure simulated using the P3D model, data were obtained and re-processed using
as seen in Fig. 7.38. The P3D model (Fig. 7.39) software (FracCADE Advisor) to calculate
predicts that the hydraulic fracture also grew automatically the requisite mechanical
above the perforated interval circa 16,495 to properties. These properties must be
16,540 ft MD. As might be expected, there was averaged over zones before inputting to
a significant increase in production after FracCADE. The selection and manipulation of
stimulation of 2200 BOPD and 8.7 MMscf/D, zones is usually done by the fracture design
with an accompanying increase in flowing engineer with the ZoneAid software after a
preliminary pass in the processing center.
Figure 7.39
16,480
Prop. conc.
(Ib ⁄ ft3)
16,500
3.0 – 3.5
2.5 – 3.0
2.0 – 2.5
16,520 1.5 – 2.0
1.0 – 1.5
0.5 – 1.0
Depth (ft)
0.0 – 0.5
16,540 -0.5 – 0.0
16,560
16,580
16,600
16,620
12,000 15,000 0 100 200
-0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 Fracture half-length (ft)
Stress ACL width
(psia) at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SL as predicted by the P3D
7 28
Sandstone Stress gradient Effective porosity

Volume clay Poisson's ratio Perm (psi / ft)
Bound water Min. horizontal stress Vp/Vs
0.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 L 0 100 0 0.5 0.01 0.5 1.0 16 0
Clay (psi / ft) 100
I
YME Static PR Dynamic RHOB Bulk modulus Toughness Young's modulus Water saturation
Depth Volumetric analysis Zoning: stress gradient
T (psi) (psi) (psi) (p.u.)
0.0 1.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.9 2.9
(ft) (V / V) (Mpsi) (g / cm3) 0.5 1.0 H 0.E+00 0.0E+12 3.8E+0 4.5E+05 2.9E+08 4.3E+08 100 0
15,900
16,000
16,100
FracCADE advisor results for MUC 34. Results of zoning with ZoneAid in MUC 34.
The number of zones for use in the frac-

Figure 7.42 ture simulation model and the in-situ stress
contrast were altered from the preliminary (2-
15,850
D) fracture stimulation treatment design. A
15,900 Datafrac was run (page 7–20) to validate the
minimum in-situ stress and to calculate the
15,950 fluid efficiency from an analysis of the fall off
Depth (ft)
data. With this data, and after refining the

16,000
Prop. conc. zoned inputs, the stimulation treatment
(Ib ⁄ ft3)
16,050 3.0 – 3.5
design was finalized on location. Figure 7.40
2.5 – 3.0
2.0 – 2.5
1.5 – 2.0
shows the FracCADE Advisor log, with a
16,100 1.0 – 1.5
0.5 – 1.0 formation evaluation and the various
0.0 – 0.5
-0.5 – 0.0
mechanical properties needed for stimulation
16,150
10,000 14,000 0 25 50 75 100 125 design. Figure 7.41 shows the ZoneAid log
-0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3 Fracture half-length (ft)
Stress ACL width
with the zones selected.
(psia) at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for MUC 34
as predicted by the PKN model and the zones shown on the left..
7 29
Table 7.4 A conventional 2-D treatment was

Name Top Class Gross Net Leak Frac YME Poisson’s designed first. Table 7.4 shows the zones
height height height Off gradient static Ratio
used and their mechanical properties. Figure
SHALE 15,828 SHALE 30 0 0 0.8180 1.32E+06 0.30
7.43 compares the predicted 2-D PKN Model
KP 15,858 ss 5 5 5 0.6530 5.92E+06 0.20
Surface Pressure values with the Measured
SHALE 15,863 SHALE 12 0 0 0.7600 1.32E+06 0.30
Surface pressure, using the treatment design
KP 15,875 ss 20 20 20 0.6530 5.92E+06 0.20
pumped into this completion. Note the PKN
SHALE 15,895 SHALE 6 0 0 0.8160 1.32E+06 0.30
model surface pressures are significantly
KP 15,901 ss 73 73 73 0.6510 5.92E+06 0.20
lower than those actually recorded.
SHALE 15,974 SHALE 11 0 0 0.8150 1.22E+06 0.30
Figure 7.42 shows the predicted fracture
KP 15,985 ss 103 103 103 0.6490 5.62E+06 0.20
profile. Note that the 2-D predicted fracture
SHALE 16,088 SHALE 24 0 0 0.8120 1.32E+06 0.30
half length is about 50 feet.
The design was then re-run using the
P3D model and mechanical properties and
Figure 7.43
zones from ZoneAid. Figure 7.43 shows the
12000 comparison, again using the treatment
Treating pressure (Final design)
11000 Treating pressure (Real data)
Treating pressure (P3D data)
design ultimately injected. Note that there is
Pressure (psia)
10000 Treating pressure (PKN design)

good agreement between the predicted
9000
8000 surface pressure of the P3D model and the
7000 Job Data recorded surface pressure.
6000
A further design was made with the
5000
4000
P3D_LAT model and the zoned properties
0 10 20 30 40 shown in Table 7.5. Figure 7.43 shows the
Elapsed time (min)
comparison, again using the treatment
Surface pressures from actual job data on MUC 34, compared to pressures
design ultimately injected. The surface
predicted by the PKN model, the P3D model and the P3D_LAT model.
pressure recorded during the treatment
compares very closely with that of the
Table 7.5 P3D_LAT model, better than the other two
Name Top Class Gross Net Leak Frac YME Poisson’s models. The P3D_LAT model predicts that
height height height Off gradient static ratio
the propped hydraulic fracture remains
KP 15,805 ss 25 25 25 0.7270 3.65E+06 0.22
within the perforated interval (about 15900 ft
SHALE 15,830 SHALE 15 15 15 0.8400 3.65E+06 0.27
to 15984 ft MD at the extremity) and
SHALE 15,845 SHALE 12.5 12.5 12.5 0.7200 3.97E+06 0.20
possesses a half length of approximately 100
SHALE 15,857.5 SHALE 14.5 14.5 14.5 0.7190 3.56E+06 0.21
feet (Fig. 7.44).
KP 15,872 ss 22 22 22 0.6930 3.38E+06 0.20
The stimulation was very successful,
KP 15,894 shaly sand 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.8000 3.30E+06 0.24
increasing the production from 2016 BOPD
KP 15,898.5 ss 48 48 48 0.7205 3.33E+06 0.20
and 3539 Mscf/D to 3054 BOPD and 3400
KP 15,946.5 ss 28.5 28.5 28.5 0.7203 3.51E+06 0.18
Mscf/D. At the same time the tubing head
SHALE 15,975 SHALE 9 9 9 0.7510 3.75E+06 0.23
pressure increased by 700 psi.
KP 15,984 ss 14 14 14 0.7201 3.20E+06 0.21
KP 15,998 ss 88 88 88 0.7201 3.38E+06 0.19
SHALE 16,086 SHALE 9 9 9 0.7770 3.64E+06 0.24
KP 16,095 ss 61 61 61 0.5980 3.68E+06 0.14
SHALE 16,156 SHALE 9.5 9.5 9.5 0.6820 3.51E+06 0.22
SHALE 16,165.5 SHALE 11.5 11.5 11.5 0.7150 3.19E+06 0.24
KP 16,177 ss 100 100 100 0.6220 3.58E+06 0.16
ss = sandstone
7 30
Figure 7.44 values for input into Dowell’s FracCADE

fracture simulation program.
15,850
4. Post-stimulation production response
15,900 appears to be easier to match with
NODAL analysis when using the pre-
Depth (ft)
15,950
dicted after-closure fracture geometry of
Prop. conc. (Ib ⁄ ft3)
16,000
3.0 – 3.5 P3D modeling.
2.5 – 3.0
16,050
2.0 – 2.5
1.5 – 2.0 5. Thick intervals can be evaluated for un-
1.0 – 1.5
0.5 – 1.0
0.0 – 0.5
restricted fracture growth or possible sec-
16,100 -0.5 – 0.0
10,000 13,000 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0 50 100
tions that will remain unstimulated by
Stress ACL width Fracture half–length (ft) using DSI log-derived mechanical pro-
(psi) at wellbore (in.) perties in a P3D model fracture simulator.
Fracture profile and proppant Conclusions 6. The methodology presented here pre-
concentration for MUC 34 as 1. Useful and accurate formation mechan- sents a better method of designing frac-
predicted by the P3D_LAT ical properties data can be obtained turing treatment pumping schedules by:
model and the stress profile from analysis of DSI log data. • providing a more precise prediction
on the left. Perforated 2. When accurate formation mechanical of pad requirement
intervals are shown in blue. property data are used in a P3D fracture • providing a better indication of un-
treatment design, the surface pressures desired screen-outs due to increased
recorded during the treatment are surface pressure
accurately matched by the simulation. • providing an improved fracture geo-
3. The FracCADE ADVISOR and Zone Aid metry definition.
logs provide convenient and accurate
CONTROLLING FINES MIGRATION
The Ceuta Field is located in the south- potential has been affected by formation
eastern part of Lake Maracaibo (Chapter 2–20). damage associated with deposition of sand,
The field has a large production potential from scales and asphaltenes, which were detected
reservoirs belonging to the Misoa Formation, after noticing a production decline in wells
Upper and Lower Eocene B and C. This and subsequently analyzing a number of
bottomhole samples. Consequently, to solve
Table 7.6
the existing formation damage, matrix
Fluids Additives Concentration
treatments with solvents and acids were
Solvent Kerosene 60%
Xylene 30% designed (Table 7.6). After applying these
Butyl 10%
Demulsifier 0.5% treatments, the production potential was
HCL - 15% HCL restored. However, after some time the
Water
Demulsifier production rate declined again. This decline is
Inhibitor
EDTA caused by fines migration, as discussed below.
RMA (12% HCL - 3% HF) HCL Figures 7.45 to 7.47 illustrate the production
Water
Ammonium bifloride performance on some wells in the field.
Demulsifier
Inhibitor
EDTA
Diverter Benzoic acid
Typical design of an RMA treatment.
7 31
Figure 7.45 Flow tests and mineralogical analyses of

cores from the area have shown that there is
6000
a relatively high clay particle content, such as
kaolinite and mixed-layer illite/smectite, both
of which have the ability to move through
pores. When this material reaches a small
Oil rate (bbl/D)
4000
pore throat, it accumulates and plugs the

conduit, resulting in reduced permeability.
2000
To control this problem and restore the
permeability of the damaged formation, matrix
treatments with Clay Acid (fluoboric acid) have
been applied in several wells located in the
0
’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94 Ceuta Field. These treatments have made it
Year possible to stabilize these migratory clays, and
Production decline caused by fines migration in well VLG-3718. production has remained stable for much
longer periods of time, as compared with the
Figure 7.46
results obtained when the traditional for-
4000 mulation was applied (12% HCl + 3% HF).
Formation fines and fines migration

3000
Fines are solid mineral particles that cling
Oil rate (bbl/D)
to pore walls in rocks. These particles are pro-

2000 duced in situ or are introduced by field opera-
tions. Fines migration takes place when these
particles are detached from the grain surface
1000
and dispersed, flowing through the porous
medium toward very small pore spaces,
0 where they collect. This results in severe
’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94
plugging and, consequently, reduction of
Year
permeability in the porous medium.
Production decline caused by fines migration in well VLG-3707.
Examples of fines include authigenic
clays, such as kaolinite, illite, smectite and
Figure 7.47
chlorite; the silicates, such as quartz, silica
6000 and feldspar; and carbonates, such as calcite,
dolomite and siderite.
Authigenic clays, which form in pore
Coiled tubing spaces, are the most common clays in reser-
clean
Oil rate (bbl/D)
4000
Matrix voirs. These minerals are extremely small,
RMA
have a layer microstructure, and large surface
areas. Therefore, they tend to react very quick-
2000 ly with the fluid entering the porous medium.
If the fluid is not compatible with the type of
clay in the reservoir, a 2% clay content will be
0 enough to plug or damage the formation.
’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94
Year
Production decline caused by fines migration in well VLG-3728.
7 32
Figure 7.48a and 7.48b
a b
SEM photograph of kaolinite plugging a pore space. SEM photograph of mixed-layer illite/smectite
plugging a pore space.
Therefore, injected fluids should have the clays fill part of the porous volume. The result
same concentration and composition as the is reduced permeability.
original formation water or, if this is not The physical effect takes place when the
possible, they should contain cations that will loosened particles are carried away by the
stabilize the fines. dragging force of flowing fluids. In this situa-
Generally, fines migration takes place in tion, the most significant influence is exerted
two consecutive stages (Thomas and Crowe, by hydrodynamic forces, which become
1978). During the first stage, particles become increasingly stronger as particle size increases.
detached because of their sensitivity to fluids The physical effect is influenced by flow rate
(chemical effect) and, during the second and the viscosity of the flowing fluid. Regard-
stage, they are carried away by the fluid less of the type of mechanism taking place,
(physical effect). the result is the reduction of formation perme-
The chemical effect takes place when an ability caused by plugging of pore throats.
incompatible fluid enters the formation,
usually introduced during drilling operations. Flow testing and core analysis
The loose particles are set into motion and/or To examine the production decline men-
clays swell. Swelling occurs when water is tioned above, mineralogical analyses and flow
absorbed between the clay layers due to the tests were performed on cores taken from
cation exchange capability, and the swollen three Ceuta wells (VLG-3727, VLG-3730, and
VLG-3716). X-ray diffraction results (Table
Table 7.7 7.7) and SEM photographs clearly identify
Average (%) Range (%) kaolinite (Fig. 7.48a) and illite with smectite
Mineralogical analysis Quartz 86 65–100 layers—a mixed-layer illite (Fig. 7.48b)—
of 10 samples from Feldspar 0.7 0–5 blocking the pore space.
Ceuta Field. Calcite 0.4 0–2
Kaolinite 6.25 2–25
Illite 0.8 0–5
Mixed-Layer 1.7 0–5
HCl Solubility 0.4 0–1.45
7 33
Figure 7.49 which is an indication of damaged caused by

clay swelling. The effect of a flow rate
140
increase on the decline in permeability was
120
also studied. This decline was evident for
Pure fluid injection rates above a critical value
water
100 6 % NaCI brine between 5 and 8 cm3/min.
Permeability (md)
These same lab observations on cores

80
taken from the Ceuta Field were demonstrated
by Krueger et al., 1967. They also showed that
60
the reduced permeability of treated cores was
40 caused by the migration of clay particles when
a certain critical flow rate was exceeded.
20
These results led to the conclusion that
production decline in the Ceuta Field wells
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 was primarily caused by fines migration near
Produced volume (cm3) the wellbore, which reduced permeability in
Changes in permeability
this region. This formation damage is in
while flowing a solution Figure 7.49 shows the result of a flow
addition to the damage caused by the
of 6% NaCl brine and pure test performed with brine (6% NaCl) on the
deposition of scales and asphaltenes.
water through a core plug surface of a core. The purpose of this test is
at 180˚F. to study the effects of migration and/or clay
Fines migration control
swelling on core permeability. To this end,
Earlier studies (Thomas and Crowe, 1978)
brine is initially injected to convert clay-inter-
showed that one of the most effective matrix
changeable cations to sodium, so that they
treatments to permanently control migratory
will be more sensitive to fresh water.
clays was a system of retarded acid based on
We can see a slight decrease in permeability
fluoboric acid (HBF4) known as Clay Acid.
as the core is saturated with brine, and then
When this acid reacts with formation water, it
a stabilization with a slight increase of perme-
produces fluoboric acid, which reacts with the
ability as the sodium cations are interchanged.
alumina layers of clays. The result is a
When flowing back with distilled water,
borosilicate film, which is capable of
permeability is abruptly reduced by 58%,
permanently stabilizing the clays.
Figure 7.50 Clay Acid reacts deep into the formation.
It tends to hydrolyze first, producing 4 moles
300
B F B HCl RMA HCl C of HF per mole of the HBF that was initially
r i r 1.5% HF l
i l i a Distilled present. This HF is capable of reacting with
250 n t n y water
e e e silicates. However, the first reaction is gener-
r A
e c
ally slow, which results in a large penetration
Permeability (md)
d i
200 d
m radius. Borate (H3BO3) results from the final
u
d reaction and it bonds and stabilizes clays in
150
the formation.
100 To prove the effectiveness of this treatment
in the Ceuta Field, flow tests were performed on
50 some cores from the area. Figure 7.50 shows a
plot of permeability versus injected volume,
0 where we can see how the core permeability
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
decreases because of the damage induced
Produced volume (cm3)
when brine is injected at high flow rates.
Simulation of the damage and treatment processes on Ceuta cores.
7 34
When the HCl injection starts, there is a slight 4. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Spacer.
recovery that increases with the HCl-HF flow, It displaces the residue from the RMA reaction
and then increases again because of the HBF4 out of the 3- to 5-ft critical zone near the well-
injection. We can see the effectiveness of this bore. It prevents the precipitation of dissolved
Clay Acid, which restores 95% of the original compounds and also prevents contact of the
sample permeability. When distilled water is RMA with the Clay Acid.
displaced, there is an almost linear increase in 5. Main fluid. Clay Acid: Normally, 100 to 150
permeability, due to the effect of the Clay Acid. gal/ft of treated sand is used. This provides a
The acid prevents dispersion of clay particles 3- to 5-ft penetration radius.
because a product of the secondary reaction To ensure that the necessary chemical
(borate) acts as a medium that helps adhere the reactions will take place in the formation,
clays to the rock framework and prevent their two other factors are taken into account: 1)
destabilization and migration. the residence time of Clay Acid in the
formation. This time is calculated taking into
Design of the matrix account the lower temperatures resulting
treatment for fines control from the injection of solvent preflush, HCl
A typical treatment applied by Maraven, and 1⁄2 RMA, and 2) well opening. Chokes
S.A. for matrix acidizing with Clay Acid is are used to control the movement of treat-
described below. This treatment was ment fluids, so that there will be enough
designed taking into account the different time for the necessary chemical reactions to
types of formation damage detected in the take place and ensure the stability of
Ceuta Field, such as deposition of scales and migratory clays.
asphaltenes, as well as fines migration.
1. Solvent. Injected at a volume of 25 to 30 Case history: VLG-3715 well
gal/ft of treated sand to dissolve any organic The matrix treatment described above
residue, such as paraffins and asphaltenes. has yielded good results in several
This solvent prepares the formation for contact stimulated wells in the Ceuta Field. These
with the acid, since it can change the results are evident from the small decline in
wettability to water wet, and it also helps to the months following stimulation.
break down emulsions. The first well where this treatment was
2.Preflush. 10% HCl injected at a volume of 25 applied was VLG-3715 in 1988. This well pro-
to 30 gal/ft of treated sand. HCl dissolves any duces from the Lower Eocene B reservoir,
calcareous material in the formation and pre- B-6.0/B-6.3 sands. Figure 7.51 shows that,
vents precipitation of calcium fluoride (CaF2). prior to the matrix treatment with Clay Acid,
Furthermore, it separates the hydrofluoric acid well production was around 2500 BOPD of
from salt water in the reservoir, thus net oil. This potential was maintained by
preventing the formation of harmful preci- means of two matrix treatments with the 12%
pitates, such as sodium or potassium fluo- HCl–3% HF (RMA) formulation, performed in
silicates (H2SiF6). June 1987 and November 1987. The
3. Half Strength Mud Acid. (6% HCl + application of this treatment was not
1.5% HF) injected at a volume of 100 effective, since production declined to 200
to 150 gal/ft of treated sand. The Regular Mud BOPD in six months. Subsequently, in
Acid (RMA) dissolves the aluminum silicates November 1988, after a workover, a matrix
near the wellbore, thus decreasing the treatment with Clay Acid was scheduled.
damage caused by drilling mud residues or
formation clays.
7 35
Figure 7.51 Case history: VLG-3693 well

The second well is VLG-3693, which
3000
penetrated the Lower Eocene B reservoir (B-
Matrix Clay Acid 6.0/B-6.3 sands) in 1981. Initial production
RMA
was between 2000 to 3000 BOPD, but it
2000 started to decline and, in January 1986, it
Oil rate (bbl/D)
Matrix was producing 400 BOPD, as shown in Fig.

RMA W-O
7.52. Cleanup was performed with a
snubbing unit and HCl, increasing produc-
1000
tion to 2000 BOPD. Then, production started
to decline and stabilized at 300 BOPD in
September 1987. During that month, a matrix
0 stimulation with RMA was performed (12%
’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94
HCl–3% HF) and production increased to
Year
700 BOPD. However, one year later,
Case history of VLG-3715 showing the short-lived improvements after RMA
production declined again to 300 BOPD. An
treatment versus a smooth production decline after Clay Acid treatment.
additional stimulation with RMA was
performed in late 1988, and the same results
The well production potential was restored to
were obtained.
more than 2500 BOPD, with a natural decline
This problem was thought to be related
to 1000 BOPD, and then it has remained
to formation damage caused by fines migra-
stable for more than four years. This demon-
tion. In early 1990, a matrix treatment with
strates the effectiveness of the treatment.
Clay Acid was performed, and production
was restored to 1000 BOPD. This level
remained stable for more than four years,
Figure 7.52
suggesting that this type of treatment perma-
4000 nently stabilizes migratory clays.
Case history: VLG-3639 well

3000
This well produces oil from the Lower
Oil rate (bbl/D)
Clean-up
Eocene B reservoir. Its production perfor-
2000
mance record shows that production was
Matrix stable from 1984 to 1986, and its average
clay acid
Matrix production rate was 1000 BOPD. From that
RMA
1000 year forward, production started to decline
and, in early 1989, it stabilized at 250 BOPD,
as shown in Fig. 7.53 (following page). A
0
’80 ’82 ’84 ’86 ’88 ’90 ’92 ’94 pressure build-up test performed in May 1989
Year indicated that the well had 76% formation
Production decline caused by fines migration and subsequent damage. This damage was thought to be
control by Clay Acid in VLG-3693. related to fines migration. A matrix treatment
with Clay Acid was scheduled in July 1990,
after which production potential was restored
to 800 BOPD, and it has remained stable since
then.
7 36
Figure 7.53 Conclusions

1. The use of Clay Acid in the design of
2000
matrix treatments for the Ceuta Field has
made it possible to minimize formation
1500 damage problems resulting from fines
Oil rate (bbl / D)
migration, and it has been possible to

Matrix
Clay Acid attain stabilized well production rates for
1000
more than four years.
2. The residence time of Clay Acid in the
500 formation, as well as the controlled
opening of the well, have a very
important role in the chemical reactions
0
'74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 taking place in the formation as far as
(Year)
stabilization of clays is concerned.
Production decline caused by fines migration and subsequent
control by Clay Acid in VLG-3639.
CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Before the oil price crash of 1986, the As a result, the variety of perforating charges
main focus of perforating technology was to and systems is very large. This chapter will
develop perforating charges with superior look at some of the customized solutions
penetration and entrance hole size, as that have been developed and the benefits
determined by the American Petroleum that they have yielded.
Institute (API) Section I specifications. While
this undoubtedly enhanced well produc- Customized solutions
tivity, it failed to recognize the significant In a cased and cemented well, holes
improvements in well performance and cost must penetrate the formation beyond the
effectiveness that can be achieved by damaged zone. Many factors affect the well
looking at the overall design of the per- productivity, and are related to the forma-
forating system (for example, the way it is tion, the perforator and the completion (see
conveyed and the operational constraints). Table 7.8). The pressure differential between
A very different approach to perforating the borehole and the formation during and
technology has been adopted in recent after perforating is considered part of the
years. This approach focuses on developing completion. It is an important consideration
customized solutions to address specific in deciding how the guns are deployed.
problems by working with customers. All reservoirs and even individual wells
present a unique set of conditions that, if
Table 7.8
taken into consideration when engineering a
Formation-related Perforator-related Completion-related gun system, can make a difference in the well
Compressive strength Penetration Borehole fluid productivity or generate significant savings
Stress distribution Entrance hole Casing wt. and grade
Presence of fractures Shot density Cement properties from operational efficiency. A special depart-
Heterogeneity Shot phasing Cement thickness
Anisotropy pb–pf while perforating ment at the Schlumberger Perforating Centre
Tendency to sand pb–pf after perforating
is dedicated to engineering customized solu-
Factors affecting well productivity in perforated completions, tions to improve performance or efficiency.
7 37
Figure 7.54 This customization has been greatly aided by jobs were run with 21⁄8-in. guns in Venezuela.
information technology. ClientLink is a data- Phased Retrievable Enerjets have also been
base of customer problems into which a cus- run with SAFE.
Mono adapter
tomer’s specific problems can be entered The detonator of a conventional gun
from anywhere in the world. With the help of system is replaced by two main components
Upper wireline head this database, development projects can be in the SAFE system. They are the Electronic
properly focused and prioritized. Secondary Initiating Cartridge (ESIC) and the
Exploding Foil Initiator (EFI) (Fig. 7.55, next
Perforating safely in the page). The ESIC performs three functions
presence of stray voltages through a series of filters, transformers and
One of the operational requirements of capacitors. It filters RF signals, blocks voltages
HSD gun
standard perforating systems has been that less than 160 volts, and transforms voltages
radio silence is maintained during perfor- greater than 160 VDC to approximately 3000
ating. The voltages generated by radio trans- volts, leading into the EFI.
missions could trigger standard detonation The EFI is a sophisticated electronic
HSD SAFE gun adapter
devices. This standard practice creates a detonator. A chain reaction must occur for the
severe operational disruption to the rig or EFI to properly detonate and to fire the
Safety pin
platform because any operation that requires booster of the gun. The ESIC must deliver a
EFI
radio communication and is being perform- precise burst of power to vaporize the bridge
ed while perforating is in progress must be element. The time period over which this
shut down. This was a case where clients energy is sent is measured in fractions of one
ESIC
were clearly inconvenienced by the neces- second. If the time is too long, only a slow
sary safety requirements, and were also burn will occur and detonation of the guns
incurring additional costs in their operations. will not be initiated. Because the bridge has a
A project was initiated to address this pro- geometry that restricts the current flowing
blem. The result was the Slapper Actuated through it, the bridge vaporizes, creating a
Firing Equipment (SAFE) perforating system. plasma beneath a polyamide foil.
The SAFE System is designed to be The vaporizing bridge causes the foil to
immune from the sources of stray voltage expand extremely fast and, after traveling
that prevent the use of conventional electric through the barrel of the spacer, “slaps” a
Short lower head
detonators. Therefore, SAFE eliminates the secondary explosive pellet (HNS explosive)
The SAFE as deployed need for radio silence and shut-down of with sufficient energy to initiate detonation.
in a gun. other vital rig equipment during perforating The pressure wave from the detonating pellet
operations. SAFE has been used successfully impacts an aluminum disk adjacent to a
to perforate a well in the Orinoco Straits. sharp-edged hole and shears a small flyer out
It was necessary to use SAFE because this of the disk. The aluminum flyer must then
strait is used by commercial shipping traffic traverse an air gap and impact the closed end
whose ships have high-power radio trans- of a special secondary-explosive booster. The
mitters. Eleven runs of 21⁄2-in. High Shot secondary explosive booster then initiates the
Density (HSD) guns were run without any conventional detonating cord and the normal
problems. SAFE has also been used in detonation train through the gun commences.
perforating jobs in Lake Maracaibo, again
because of the danger of having stray radio
frequency (RF) radiation. In 1996, 13 jobs
were run with 21⁄2-in. HSD hardware and six
7 38
Figure 7.55 SAFE also offers the option of running

EFI multiple guns on a single descent. Selectivity
HNS Pellet is accomplished by alternating the current
Spacer
Aluminum disk polarity and the input to the ESIC. SAFE/EFI
Foil
Bridge Air gap Booster hardware is available for all gun sizes. It has
ESIC
been tested and certified by two third-party
testing agencies.
Explosion-initiated TCP ancillary

devices improve system reliability
When running Tubing Conveyed
Plasma bubble Perforating (TCP) systems, there are quite
Spacer Aluminum disk Booster
often ancillary tools such as production
valves or gun release subs that are run
in conjunction with the TCP. If these ancillary
tools malfunction, then the efficiency
of the operation can be compromised.
For example, if TCP is to be shot in a zone
that is highly prone to sanding, it is common
Flyer
Booster practice to include a gun release sub to drop
the guns and prevent them from being stuck
with sand opposite the perforations.
Previously such release tools were either
slickline-operated or pressure-operated. The
disadvantage was that by the time the release
device was operated, significant amounts of
Operation of the SAFE. sand could prevent successful operation.
The air gap serves two very important
Even after a successful operation, there was a
mechanical functions: as the location for a
possibility that the guns did not drop because
detonation train interrupt and for fluid desen-
they were already stuck with produced sand
sitization. A safety barrier, in the form of a steel
or because the well was highly deviated.
pin, can be installed in the air gap. With the
A project was initiated to improve the
safety barrier in place, it is impossible for the
reliability of such TCP ancillary devices. The
flyer or any reaction from the HNS pellet
result was the X-Tools series. These tools
detonation to affect the booster and detonating
generally incorporate an activation section
cord. In fact, guns can be transported from the
that is installed below the firing head. The
gun shop (local conditions permitting) with the
mechanism is prevented from activating by a
EFI installed, reducing wellsite arming time
frangible ceramic sleeve through which the
when compared to conventional detonators.
primacord passes from the firing head to the
Fluid desensitization is an important
guns. Shortly after the firing head triggers the
feature. In the event that the hollow carrier or
detonation train, the exploding primacord
any assembly around the initiator develops a
shatters the ceramic sleeve, allowing the
leak and fills with wellbore fluid, the flyer
activation mechanism to operate the X-Tools.
cannot travel through the fluid-filled gap and
In the case of the Schlumberger Explosion-
initiate the booster, thus preventing further
activated Automatic Release (SXAR), the
detonation and the possibility of splitting the
mechanism is an automatic gun release sub.
guns and thereby damaging the well itself.
7 39
Figure 7.56 This releases the guns as soon as they that the valve opens at exactly the right time
are fired (Fig. 7.56), and, by to have the optimum underbalance and,
eliminating any time delay, prevents furthermore, the valve will only open if the
them from getting stuck. gun detonation has been initiated. The SXPV
Release X-Tools ensure efficient operation has an important role to play in the new
housing
because activation can only be initia- technique of Extreme Over-balanced
ted once the guns have started to fire. Perforating (EOP). In this technique, a well is
Another device is the Schlumberger perforated with a small fluid column in the
Explosion-activated Production Valve tubing string above which is a nitrogen
Release
(SXPV). This tool is a production valve cushion at high pressure. Before perforating,
pin
that allows underbalanced perforating the average effective pressure gradient of the
in wells that have existing open column will be more than 1.2 to 1.4 psi/ft.
Support
sleeve perforations. To do so, the TCP guns This high pressure column must be contained
Release
are run on a temporary completion in the tubing until the guns are fired. This is
mandrel
string that is kept closed by a very effectively achieved by the SXPV, which
Release production valve below the packer. only opens as the guns fire. At this point the
piston
The string contains a cushion of fluid nitrogen expands rapidly, forcing the fluid
Break that has a hydrostatic pressure that is column into the perforations at such high
plug
less than formation pressure. Once instantaneous rates that microfractures are
the string is in place, with the packer generated in the formation. This treatment is
set, the production valve must be being used to stimulate low-productivity
opened at the same time as the guns wells or as a prefrac treatment to reduce the
fire. If the production valve is opened treating pressures required in the fracing
too soon, the existing perforations will operation. The SXPV and the SXAR have both
As assembled surge and reduce the underbalance, been used in Venezuela.
The SXAR as thereby diminishing the productivity
assembled (left) of the new perforations. The previous Perforating in high compressive
Drop off
and ready to drop technique was to open the production strength formations
off (right). valve with the drop-bar that was dropped to The standard procedures developed for
activate the firing head. The disadvantage was evaluating the performance of perforating
that there was always a short time (a fraction charges are those defined by the API in the
of a second) in which the production valve RP-43 specifications, now in their fifth
was open before the guns were fired that edition. These procedures involve shooting
would effectively reduce the underbalance. charges into a concrete target of defined
This time depended on the distance between characteristics. As a result, the industry has
the valve and the firing head. On the other developed charges that are optimized when
hand, if the valve did not open, the guns fired into concrete. In terms of penetration,
would be fired overbalanced and impair the concrete is comparable to weak rocks, but
perforation performance. penetration in hard rocks is significantly less.
The SXPV is activated by the explosion In rocks having a compressive strength of
of the primacord breaking a frangible ceramic 25,000 psi, the total penetration of a shaped
sleeve that holds the production valve’s charged can be up to 75% less than the API
locking mechanism in place. Once the sleeve RP-43 Section I performance (Blosser, 1995).
is shattered, the valve can open (Fig. 7.57,
next page). The advantage of this system is
7 40
Figure 7.57 sandstone, which has an unconfined

compressive strength of around 16,000 to
Flow Flow 18,000 psi. It was decided to optimize a 34g
ports ports
closed open explosive load shaped charge in this target.
The initial tests of the standard shaped charge,
before any optimization, gave an average
Pup joint penetration of 12.6 in. compared with an API
Firing Section I performance of 34.0 in. Optimization
head
involved changing various design parameters
and evaluating the changes using numerical
Upper
adapter and analytical models that had been calibrated
Detonating and refined with actual test target shots. The
cord tube
adapter design changes can be implemented in the
Piston charge construction and real tests performed
housing
Operating
on the specially built Nugget sandstone
piston targets. After final optimization, the average
Shifting
piston penetration was increased to 15.9 in., which
Cushion represents a 26% improvement over the stan-
Release dard charge, despite the explosive load being
housing
Release reduced to 30 g in the optimization. These
pins
Support optimized charges were used to perforate a
sleeve
Break plug
gas injector well at 4 shots per foot (SPF). The
support
well is out-performing the majority of gas
Mandrel
release injectors in the field that were shot at higher
Break
plug
shot densities (up to 12 SPF). Quantitative
data in the field has yet to be collected to
verify that the superior well injectivity is attri-
butable to perforation performance, but the
The SXPV as assembled (left) Hard sandstone reservoirs are common in qualitative results certainly seem to indicate
and open to flow (right). South America. The quartzarenite sandstones this. This project serves as a very good exam-
can exhibit compressive strengths of around ple of the type of development work that is
25,000 psi. In addition, they can have high being undertaken in an effort to bring cus-
permeability and good porosity that allows tomized solutions to perforating problems
fairly deep drilling fluid invasion. Unless the (Smith, 1997).
perforation penetrates beyond this damaged
zone, well productivity is severely compro- Special gun deployment techniques
mised. One operator in South America was to prevent formation damage
experiencing disappointing well productivity Even if charge performance is optimized
in a hard sandstone reservoir, and asked if the so that the shaped charge can shoot beyond
performance of shaped charges could be opti- the damage created by drilling and com-
mized for rocks with high compressive pletion, it is important that no further
strength. The first task was to identify a con- damage is made after the well has been
venient test target that could simulate, as perforated. For example, if the well is
closely as possible, the actual reservoir rock perforated before the final well completion is
properties. After trying different materials, put in place, then it must be controlled by a
including solid steel, it was decided that the potentially damaging kill fluid while the guns
most appropriate material was Nugget are retrieved and the completion is installed.
7 41
Figure 7.58 One way to avoid this damage The development of monobore comple-
is to perforate after the final tions has presented new opportunities to
completion is installed with solve these problems. Monobore completions
Lower end of gun wireline-conveyed, through- are designed to have a uniform internal
or firing head
tubing perforating guns. The diameter such that the tubing is no longer a
well pressure is controlled by restriction to running tools into the well.
the pressure integrity of the While the choice of gun size no longer has to
completion, which eliminates be compromised, the problem still remains of
the need for a kill fluid. The how to perforate long intervals without
disadvantage is that the guns multiple runs and without killing the well to
must pass through the retrieve the guns. The trend toward highly
Stinger adapter production tubing, which gen- deviated and horizontal wells with monobore
erally limits the size of the gun completions has made this problem
and shaped charges such particularly important. The solution lies in
that the achievable penetra- new deployment techniques, of which two
tion is severely compromised. have been developed to date. The first is the
Sealed ballistic Furthermore, if long intervals Completion Insertion and Retrieval under
transfer donor
must be perforated, then mul- Pressure (CIRP) system and the second is the
tiple gun runs will have to be use of a Formation Isolation Valve (FIV) or
made due to operational limit- Liner Top Isolation Valve (LTIV) in the
Breech ations. This can be very time completion itself.
lock sleeve consuming and, in addition, The CIRP deployment system enables
only the first run can be shot long gun strings to be run on wireline or
under optimum underbal- coiled tubing under pressure. Individual gun
anced conditions. In view of lengths are limited to the available lubricator
these limitations, some oper- length; however, an unlimited number of
Sealed ballistic ators have preferred to use guns can be connected together under pres-
transfer receptor larger-diameter guns with sure. Connections or disconnections are
bigger charges before running made using specially designed snap-lock
No-go ram lock the completion, thereby connectors and a locking mechanism and
groove
trading off the advantage of actuator arm built into a BOP-like deploy-
superior penetration from ment stack. Figure 7.58 shows the snap-lock
Slick joint
larger guns against the risk of connector in its connected and disconnected
formation damage from the state. A sealed ballistic transfer is used on
Upper end of well kill fluid. Other operators both sides of the connection to prevent fluid
next gun down have chosen to run TCP guns entering the guns during assembly under
on the completion tubing. pressure. The lower half of the snap-lock
This allows the use of optimal gun size and connector has a breach lock sleeve that has
The CIRP snaplock connector avoids having to kill the well after perforating, circumferential grooves machined into it
disconnected (left) and but has the disadvantage that the gun system with vertical slots cut through the grooves.
connected (right). must remain in the well after firing. This incurs The upper half of the snap-lock connector
extra cost, either because the TCP equipment also has circumferential grooves, but vertical
left in the well must be purchased, or if the milling of 50% of the grooved surface leaves
guns are released after firing to allow future vertical grooved fingers. The upper half,
access for logging and maintenance, then extra when properly aligned vertically and
rat hole must be drilled to accommodate them. rotationally, will slot into the lower half.
7 42
Figure 7.59 A 15° rotation will then lock the two halves
Cable
together. The locking mechanism is very
Stuffing box similar to a key being fitted into a door lock.
Pick-up and
lay-down
If the key is properly aligned, it slides into the
assembly
lock. Once inserted, if the key is rotated it
Snaplock
connector cannot be removed from the lock. The
1 2 3
Snaplock rotation of the breach lock sleeve is achieved
connector
Guns–
first lift
upper half
by a robotic arm that is incorporated in the
BOP stack. A No-Go profile on the snap-lock
body allows positive positioning of the
Lubricator
Master Master
connector in the BOP so that the robotic arm
Master valves
valves open valves
closed mates correctly with the connector.
Robot ram
unlocks
BOP stack-
snaplock
connector
To deploy a complete gun string, each
combi style
(shown) Snaplock
connector gun is connected, in turn, under pressure. The
lower half
locked in
Wellhead
no-go ram initial step is to install the special CIRP BOP
stack on the well with a master valve above it.
Even if the guns are to be run in the well on
coiled tubing, it is preferable to deploy the
guns into the wellhead on wireline as this is
Nine steps in running
much quicker, but if necessary it can be done
the CIRP system
4 5 6 with coiled tubing. The first gun is placed in a
in the hole. Steps 4
lubricator and connected above the master
to 7 are repeated
valve (see Fig. 7.59 for the following
until the entire
Snaplock explanation). The lubricator pressure is raised
connector string is deployed.
upper half
Master
to the same pressure as the well and then the
valves
opens master valve is opened and the gun lowered
Robot ram unlocks until the snap-lock is in the BOP. The BOP is
snaplocks
Connectors breech closed and the robotic arm in the BOP is used
lock sleeve
to rotate the snap-lock connector to release
the cable head. The cable head is pulled into
the lubricator, the master valve closed, and the
pressure bled down. The next gun section is
then introduced into the lubricator and the
Coiled tubing
pressure raised to the wellhead pressure. The
master valve is then opened and the gun
7 8 9 lowered to connect into the snap-lock con-
nector of the previous gun. The robotic arm
Firing head
again makes the appropriate rotation to
ensure the locking of the connector. The BOP
Snaplock is then opened and the gun lowered to the
connector
upper half top snap-lock connector. The BOP is closed to
Master
valves
closed
Master valves
open support the gun-string weight and the robotic
arm disconnects the snap-lock to release the
cable head. The process continues in this way
until all the guns have been deployed and the
After opening the robot
ram and the no-go rams the
string can be run in the well.
firing head has been connected. Then, either
the guns are run in hole on wireline or the
7 43
Figure 7.60 wireline is rigged down and down to retrieve the guns. For extra safety, kill
replaced by coiled tubing. fluid can be circulated above the valve. After
An entire gun string can be the guns have been retrieved, coiled tubing
deployed in this way and run in can be used to circulate the tubing to a lighter
hole and fired underbalanced. The fluid, such as water or diesel, before opening
Nitrogen gun string can then be retrieved the Isolation Valve for production. The valve
spring from the well under pressure, in the is reopened by applying cycles of tubing
reverse of the operation required to pressure that reciprocrate an indexed sleeve
deploy it, without killing the well. If against a nitrogen cushion. The valve opens
the well has not been previously after a preset number of pressure and bleed-
perforated, then the guns can be off cycles. The valve is a multicycling valve
Counter Centralizer deployed without pressure control, that can be opened or closed at any time by a
using the CIRP technique only to shifting tool run on slickline or coiled tubing.
retrieve them under pressure.
Detent The CIRP system can be run in Conclusions
Latch Knuckle any well. An alternative system, the Recent developments in perforating have
profile joint Formation Isolation Valve (FIV) or focused on customized solutions for the full
Ball Liner-Top Isolation Valve (LTIV), range of factors that affect well productivity
valve
Shifting requires installation in the com- from perforations. This includes much more
collet pletion, so it can only be run in new than the shaped charge penetration and en-
wells or at the time of workover. trance hole, which were the main focus in the
The FIV is a monobore multicycle past. We have shown examples of solutions
Centralizer completion valve normally run for a variety of customer problems, such as
Closed Shifting below a permanent packer (Fig. perforating without shutting down radios and
position tool
7.60). The LTIV is the liner-top other electrical devices; how to release gun
The FIV is run in the closed version. Both valves operate in the same way strings or activate production valves at the
position and can be opened and act as a downhole lubricator valve that instant of firing; designing shaped charges for
with a special shifting tool. can be closed or opened by a shifting tool run particularly high compressive strength rocks;
below long gun strings or on slick-line. and designing deployment systems that allow
Long gun strings can be run in the hole very long gun strings to be run in and
on wireline or coiled tubing and fired under- retrieved under pressure.
balanced. The gun string can then be pulled The focus on customized solutions has
back through the Isolation Valve that is closed resulted in many new and innovative
by a special shifting tool run on the bottom of techniques being developed to greatly
the guns. This isolates the newly perforated improve the performance and efficiency of
formation and allows the tubing to be bled perforating systems.
This chapter was written by F.Paz (Intevep), S.López, F.Portillo, M.Martínez, J.Mayol, A.
Sánchez (Maraven), L.Ortega, (Corpoven), F.J.Colmenares (Maraven), T. Ceccarelli,
E.Nordmeyer, J.Haskell, K.Bennaceur, J.J.Gutiérrez, F.Montoya.
with contributions from F.González (Lagoven), C.Economides, and M.Ardila,
and the permission of Lagoven, Maraven and Corpoven to publish data from their wells.
7 44
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Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R., 1961, Widths of hydraulic fractures, Journal of
Roscoe, B.A., Stoller, C., Adolph, R.A., Boutemy, Y., Cheeseborough, J.C., Petroleum Technology, pp 937-949.
Hall, J.S., McKeon, D.C., Pittman, D., Seeman, B., and Thomas, S.R., 1991,
Roegiers, J.C. and Neda, J., 1993, Summary of Joint Geomechanical Study—
A new through-tubing oil-saturation measurement system. SPE 21413.
North of Monagas Field, U. Oklahoma-Intevep Report.
Newey, J.J., Meadows, D., and Baumbach, T., 1996, Applications of the
Controlling fines migration
Reservoir Saturation Tool in the Poui Field, Offshore Trinidad. SPE 36152.
Latin American Petroleum Engineering Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad, Gabriel, G.A. and Inamdar, G.R., 1983, An experimental investigation of fines
April. migration in porous media. Paper SPE 12168, 58th Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts, 1995, pp 7-1 to 7-3.
Krueger , R.F., Vogel, L.C., and Fischer, P.W., 1967, Effect of pressure draw-
Controlling water production
down on clean-up clay or silt blocked sandstone. Journal of Petroleum
F. Paz, E. Anez, 1996, Evaluaci¤n de Sistemas Gelificantes para Control de Technology, pp 397-403.
Agua en Maraven, S.A. Enero.
Muecke, T.W., 1979, Formation fines and factors controlling their movement
Chan, K.S., 1995, Water control diagnostic plots, SPE 30775 presented at the in porous media. Journal of Petroleum Technology 31, pp 114-150.
70th Annual Technical Conference.
Neasham, J.W., 1977, The morphology of dispersed clay in sandstone reser-
Perez, O., Fragachan, F.E., Ramirez, A., Feraud, J.P., 1997, Applications of voirs and its effect on sandstone shaliness, pore space and fluid flow prop-
polymer gel for establishment of zonal isolations and water shut-off in car- erties. Paper SPE 6858, 52th Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition
bonate formations, SPE/IADC 37622, presented at the SPE/IADC drilling con- of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Denver, CO.
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Maximizing fracture conductivity to del Campo Ceuta, Lago de Maracaibo.
Martins, J.P. et al, 1989, Tip Screen-Out fracturing applied to the Ravenspurn Laboratorios Dowell, Estudio de Acidificación Matricial. Pozo VLG-3727,
South Gas Field Development, SPE 19766, San Antonio, TX. Campo Ceuta, Maraven, S.A.
Morales, R.H., Norman, W.D. and Park, E.I., 1996, Why fracture unconsoli- Sharma, M.M., Yortsos, Y.C. and Handy, L.L., 1985, Release and deposition
dated high permeability formations, SPE 35031, Lafayette, LA. of clays in sandstone. Paper SPE 13562, International Symposium on Oilfield
and Geothermal Chemistry, Phoenix, Arizona. April 9-11.
Nolte, K.G., 1986, Determination of proppant and fluid schedules from frac-
turing pressure declines, SPE Production Engineering, pp 255-265. Thomas, R.L. and Crowe C.W., 1978, Matrix Treatment Employs New Acid
System for Stimulation and Control of Fines Migration in Sandstone
Boggio, C. E., Montoya, F.F., 1996, Técnica de arenamiento controlado, INGP-
Formations, Dowell Division, Journal of Petroleum Technology, August, pp
2-22, Ingepet, Perú.
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Mathur, A.K., Ning, X., Marcinew, R.B., Economides, C.E., and Economides,
Inteverp, 1989, Estimulación del Pozo VLG-3715, Campo Ceuta. August.
M.J., 1995, Hydraulic fracture stimulation of highly permeable formations:
the effect of critical fracture parameters on oilwell production and pressure, Customized perforating
SPE 30652, Dallas, TX.
American Petroleum Institute, 1991, RP-43 Fifth Edition Procedures.
Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G., 1987, Post-treatment evaluation and frac-
Halleck, P. M. and Behrman, L. A., 1990, Penetration of shaped charges in
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Cinco Ley, H. and Samaniego, F., 1981, Transient pressure analysis, Finite Netherlands,
conductivity fracture case versus damaged fracture case, SPE 10179, San
Blosser, W.R., 1995, An assessment of perforating performance of high com-
Antonio, TX.
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Fracture optimization the European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, May 15-16.
Geertsma, J. and de Klerk, F., 1969, A rapid method of predicting width and Smith, P.S., Behrmann, L.A., Wenbo Yang, 1997, Improvements in perforat-
extent of hydraulically induced fractures, Journal of Petroleum Technology, ing performance in high compressive strength rocks, SPE 38141, presented
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Morales, R.H. and Marcinew, R.P., 1993, Fracturing of high-permeability for-
mations: Mechanical properties correlations, SPE Paper 26561, Presented at Pelling, R., Scott, P., Huber, K., and Edwards, G., 1995, TCP perforating on
the 68th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of coiled tubing utilising a deployment system, 3rd World Oil Coiled Tubing con-
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Nordgren, R.P., 1972, Propagation of a vertical hydraulic fracture, Journal of Schlumberger Oilfield Services, 1995, Perforating Services.
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7 45

Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Chapter overview
Sedimentary analysis of sandstone reservoirs
Evaluation of fractured carbonates
A multioffset seismic profile in an old well
Complementing a poor surface seismic
A multiazimuth walkaway seismic profile
Reservoir description around a horizontal well
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Characterizing a reservoir requires a The three subsequent sections describe

description of the reservoir structure and applications of borehole seismic. In the first
geometry, and a definition of its static and one, a multioffset seismic profile (OSP) in an
dynamic properties. The principal source of old well was the key to deciding whether to
information on the static and dynamic drill a horizontal kick-off, or whether to drill
properties is well data, while the reservoir a new vertical well. As it happened, the
structure and geometry are usually defined vertical well was preferred since the OSP
by surface seismic data, geological studies detected a fault near the well while also
and the correlation of features between showing deeper seismic events, which could
wells. Another important factor is the link be interesting to explore. In the second
between the fine scale reservoir properties example, a multioffset seismic profile
available from the well and the large scale provided structural information in an area
information used to define reservoir where the surface seismic was uninter-
structure and geometry. This book is pretable because of the surface terrain. At
concerned essentially with well data, so the same time the vertical seismic profile
reservoir structure and geometry are (VSP) gave information ahead of the bit,
generally beyond its scope. However, the which helped overcome major drilling
link can be provided by certain types of well problems in an overpressured zone. The
data, in particular borehole seismic and third example is of a very large multiazimuth
geological studies. This chapter discusses a walkaway survey that was recorded even
variety of ways in which this link can be though a good-quality, modern, 3-D surface
made. seismic was available. The VSP provided
The first two sections are based on higher-frequency, multiple-free data for
borehole imagery, one in clastics and the reservoir definition.
other in carbonates. Previously the shapes of Finally, the advent of horizontal wells
log curves, in particular GR and SP, were has opened up new opportunities for
used to help define sedimentary environ- detailed reservoir description. Different
ments in clastics. Today, borehole images measurements, in particular resistivity, have
are a key factor in improving this definition. been used to determine the proximity of
The four cases shown are all examples from overlying or underlying beds and to draw an
a fluvial coastal marine setting. The direction improved cross section of the geology near
of sedimentation and the position in the the well.
channel are deduced mainly from the
images. In thick fractured carbonates,
borehole images are ideal for detecting and
characterizing the attributes of fractures.
With a good characterization it is possible to
define much about the reservoir in between
the wells.
8 1
S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
Many different techniques have been in their overall coarsening-upward pattern

introduced to extract, synthesize and analyze on the GR curve, but they are generally
the various subsurface sedimentologic data thinner. The nature of the overlying and
that are needed for constructing depositional underlying sediments often helps distinguish
models. Oriented cores are the best source between these two facies. Mouth bars are
of accurate sedimentological information, usually underlain by prodelta shales, which
but they are expensive and sometimes characteristically show a strong resistivity
unobtainable. drop. This drop in resistivity is not often
The concept of interpreting facies from seen below crevasse sandstones (Saxena,
openhole log curve motifs was introduced 1976).
by Shell in 1956, and has been used by the Recently, Borehole Electrical Imagery
industry ever since. Three principal GR and has been used in subsurface facies studies.
SP log shapes frequently serve as a basis for High-resolution electrical borehole images
identifying depositional facies, especially for are obtained from the FMI by scanning the
sandstones. They are: borehole wall with arrays of small electrodes
• the bell shape or fining upward (192) pressed against the borehole surface.
• the funnel shape or coarsening upward These buttons examine successive, small
• the cylindrical or blocky shape. vertical increments of the formation (every
This technique is largely restricted to sili- 0.1 in.). The FMI provides better borehole
ciclastic sediments, and must be applied coverage (e.g., 80% in a 8.5-in. borehole
cautiously because similar motifs can be pro- diameter) than the Formation MicroScanner*
duced by different environments of deposition. (40% in 8.5-in. borehole) or the SHDT*
The presence or absence of glauconite Stratigraphic High Resolution Dipmeter Tool
and carbonaceous detritus was found to be (3% in 8.5-in. borehole) tools. A triaxial
useful in limiting log motifs to marine or accelerometer helps determine tool position
non-marine depositional settings. For and three magnetometers help determine
example, glauconite reflects normal marine tool orientation. The current intensity
salinity and reducing conditions. Authigenic measurements, which reflect microresistivity
clays may reflect the salinity at the time of variations, are converted to variable-intensity
deposition. Typically, illite is associated with color images. Black indicates the lowest
marine sediments, and kaolinite with non- microresistivity and white the highest
marine sediments. The carbonate minerals microresistivity. Other microresistivity values
found in sandstones can be both detrital and are presented using various color coding.
authigenic (chemically precipitated), the The images provide detailed sedimento-
latter being far more predominant (Pettijohn logical information for clastic rocks, which is
et al., 1990). of great value for geological and reservoir
Minerals such as siderite, pyrite, magne- modeling. Interactive analysis of the images
tite and chlorite reflect the stagnant, reducing on the Image Examiner workstation further
conditions of swamps, restricted bays, and enhances the information we can extract.
overbank environments (Visher, 1990). The The interactive dips we pick have the
large amount of organic material in tidal highest possible accuracy, since they are
flats/coastal plains and swamps is often manually selected from the images and can
preserved in these reducing environments. be verified and categorized by bedding type.
Subtle differences in the resistivity and They are color-coded as follows: erosional
velocity of shales give excellent clues for surfaces (cyan), faults (blue), fractures
recognizing subdelta facies. Crevasse (yellow), cross-bedding (red), bedding
sandstones resemble distributary mouth bars (green), and others (magenta). This is a
8 2
significant conceptual step forward from the Beach ridges are composed mainly of
machine-processed conventional dipmeter sandstones, gravels and shell debris and
processing, where some of the dips may be form parallel to coastlines. Beach ridges that
spurious or of unknown origin. The data are deposited under storm influences
ensemble has been a great help in contain the coarsest sands on the beach
recognizing the various types of depositional (Reineck and Singh, 1980). Sediments near
environments. the base of beach ridges are mainly
laminated and separated from the
The coastal marine setting: underlying tidal flats by an erosional surface
An overview (Psuty, 1966). The subsequent section
After a delta is abandoned, the seaward contains cross-laminations of moderate to
edge of the delta is subjected to marine high dipping magnitude in a landward
processes that result in reworking and direction. The width of beach ridges is
redepositing the sediments landward at a determined by the duration of flood seasons
relatively slow rate. Sands are normally and the magnitude of marine processes.
deposited within the coastal area and fine- Cheniers may form over prograding
grained sediments are dispersed further shores. These are sandy, linear ridges that
offshore. This area contains numerous, stand above high-water line and are
related sandstones that were deposited by separated from the shore by mud flats that

,,,,,
a complex interplay of tides, waves, long- accumulated on their seaward side. These
shore currents and wind-driven currents. sands are rich in fossil shells and may form
Beach ridge, barrier island, tidal inlet, and distinct layers.
tidal delta sandstones are the main reservoirs Barrier islands are elongated sand
within this setting (see Fig. 8.1). bodies parallel to the shoreline. Conditions

,,,,,,,

,,,,,,

,,,,,

Figure 8.1
Mainland
Marsh

,,,,,,,

,
,,,,,,

Marsh
Washover fan
Lagoon
Flood-tidal
delta

,,,,,,,

Grassflat and
l
nne marsh
cha
et
Inl
Beach-dunes
ridges Storm
channel
Beach
Shoreface
Ebb-tidal
delta
Offshore
or shelf
Textbook example of coastal marine setting (from McCubbin, 1982).
8 3
that favor the development of these direction of lateral drift (Elliott, 1978). The
sediment bodies include a: 1) steady supply upstream side of the inlet relative to the
of sands to the shoreline, 2) hydrodynamic longshore current acts as depositional bank
setting that is dominated by wave energy, 3) and merges with the tidal flats and spits,
limited tidal range, and 4) low-gradient whereas the opposite side of the inlet
coastal plain (Reinson, 1984). develops an erosive margin against the
Theories regarding the origin of barrier barrier. In a mesotidal setting, tidal inlets are
islands are numerous. However, they are numerous and repeatedly cut the barrier
normally formed by: 1) the building-up of islands into small segments in which the
submarine bars, 2) spit progradation parallel thicker portion is composed of beach spits.
to the coast and segmentation by inlets, and Tidal channel sand bodies are elongated
3) submergence of coastal beach ridges perpendicular to the barrier complex and
(Reinson, 1984). their thickness is mainly related to the depth
Barrier islands that were deposited of the channel.
under a microtidal range are long and linear. The deepest parts of most inlets are
Tidal inlets and deltas are of minor dominated by ebb currents that flowed over
importance. Mesotidal barriers are short and deeply eroded channel floors where
characterized by large tidal inlets and deltas relatively coarser sands, patches of gravel
(Elliott, 1978). Barrier islands are normally and shell debris accumulated. Seaward-
subdivided into lower, middle and upper oriented, large-scale cross-laminations are
shoreface. Boundaries between these units commonly produced by the migration of
are not often sharply defined. From the sand waves (transitional bed forms between
bottom upward, the lower shoreface consists ripples and dunes). Some inlets are
mainly of highly bioturbated fine sandstones completely characterized by ebb-dominated
and siltstones. The middle shoreface sand- unimodal cross-laminations (Oomkens,
stones contain different cross-lamination 1974). At slackwater phase, suspension silts
sets, including hummocky cross-laminations. and clays settle out and drape the cross-
The upper shoreface sandstones are com- lamination sets. During the following current
posed of several units of multidirectional stage, clay drapes may be partly eroded to
cross-laminations. They produce a typical produce gently erosive reactivation surfaces
coarsening-upward pattern on GR and SP (Reading and Collinson, 1996). These low-
logs. A barrier grows seaward by a beach- angle erosion surfaces provide internal
shoreface accretion process to produce a evidence of water stage fluctuation and are
typical coarsening-upward sequence. common in tidal settings.
The foreshore is the zone of the wave Because they migrate laterally, tidal
swash and backswash mechanism that inlets fill by complex lateral accretion. The
generates the distinct subparallel to low- sediments dip toward the channel thalweg
angle, seaward-dipping cross-lamination and reflect the former position of the
sets. The backshore area is characterized by depositional bank. Smaller, flood-oriented
subaerial wind processes. The sediments bed forms are present over the shallower
encompass subhorizontal to landward- margins of the inlet. Bidirectional flow
dipping beds. orientations may exist at intermediate depths
Tidal inlets cut the barrier and act as a (Galloway and Hobday, 1996).
passageway for tidal waters in and out of the
lagoon. They are asymmetrical in cross
section as they migrate laterally in the
8 4

,,,,,
,,,,,

Figure 8.2 The lagoon is a low-energy zone that is
located behind the barrier on the landward
side. The silty shale sediments of the lagoon
are highly bioturbated and rich in organic con-
tent. However, the lagoon may contain highly
,,,,,

laminated sandstones deposited by washover
fans. Dominant sedimentary structures are
Dips toward channel
subhorizontal stratification and small-scale
foresets where the fan enters the lagoon
(McCubbin, 1982). Tidal flood deltas are devel-
oped in the lagoon as the tidal flow loses its
velocity. On the seaward side of the barrier
another tidal-related delta is developed by ebb
processes.
Lateral accretion bedding, showing dips towards channel (from Elliot, 1987). In addition to lagoons, tides move great
volumes of sea water landward through
rivers, estuaries and delta distributary
Figure 8.3
channels. Tidal currents dominate the lower
reach of channels and estuaries and form
RXOZ
AHF90
tidal flats within interdistributary areas.
AHF60 Ebb currents, when associated with flu-
CALI
6 (in.)10 AHF30 vial discharge, develop unidirectional cross-
SP BS RHOZ
–100 (mV) 0 6 (in.)10
AHF20
1.95 (g / cm3) 2.95
laminations dipping seaward. Sedimentary
GR Depth AHF10 NPHI sequences that were deposited under these
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 0.45 (V ⁄ V) –0.15
conditions might only be distinguished from
fluvial deposits by the associated facies and
Sand 1 the presence of marine fauna and fossil shells
(Van Beek and Koster, 1972).
In mesotidal coasts, tidally influenced flu-
vial channels are sinuous and their point bars
are characterized by lateral accretion surfaces
X200
that dip steeply toward the channel thalweg
(Smith, 1987; Woodroffe et al., 1989), (Fig 8.2).
Bidirectional cross-lamination sets or herring-
bone stratification reflect the complex interplay
of tidal and fluvial processes. The thickness of
a point bar is related to the channel scour, and
stacked sand bodies are common. Sedimentary
sequences consist of coarse- to medium-
X250
grained sandstones at the base that grade
upward to finer-grained, horizontally
Sand 2 laminated sandstones at the top (Pettijohn et
al., 1990). The migratory nature of the channel
produces numerous erosional and truncation
surfaces and increases the magnitude of the
heterogeneity within sandstone units. These
Openhole logs over Sands 1 and 2.
depositional processes produce a fining-
8 5
Figure 8.4 Well A, Guárico sub-basin
Azimuth of cross-bedding Sand 1 (X158 to X182 ft)

N E S W 0˚ 40˚ and accretion surfaces
X155.0 ft (X158 to X182 ft) Sidewall cores and ditch cuttings show
Tidal flat deposits the sandstone in this interval to be light to
Top Sand 1
medium brown, very fine- to medium-
0
330 20% 30 grained, subangular to subrounded grains,
15%
300 60 poorly sorted, friable, moderately argilla-
10%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the WSW 5%
ceous, and slightly to non-calcareous.
10% 20% 90
270 5% 15% The GR over the interval illustrates stack-
Erosional surfaces (blue) ed, fining-upward sequences with a sharp,
120
Current beds are dipping 240 erosional base and gradational top (Fig. 8.3).
to the NW and reflect the ebb
processes 210 150 Over the interval X158 to X160 ft, the GR
180
Ebb cross-laminations shows a minor coarsening upward pattern.
dipping to the NNW Azimuth of bedding planes The underlying sediments, in the interval
(X158 to X182 ft)
X184-X186 ft, are very rich in carbonaceous
0
60%
detritus and are possibly back-barrier flats
330 30
40% (Fig. 8.3). The tidal flat sediments that overlie
Accretion surfaces 300 60
dipping to the SW 20%
and underlie this interval dip to the N
270 20%
40%
60% 90
(i.e., seaward).
The Borehole Electrical Imagery over the
Erosional base of a tidal
channel
240 120 sandstones (Fig. 8.4) shows a basal erosional
Resistive lag surface floored by a resistive lag due to a
210 150
Rich in carbonaceous
180 high content of shell debris. It also shows
that the sediments contain several sets of
cross-laminations dipping to the NNW. Such
X187.0 ft
sedimentary structures were possibly caused
upward pattern on the GR and SP curves.
FMI image over Sand 1 with by migrating asymmetrical sandwaves under
Soft-sediment deformation and clay
azimuth rosettes of cross- a dominating ebb process. Fluctuations in
clasts are also present in these channels. The
bedding accretion surfaces flow directions cause truncation and reacti-
sediments are calcareous because of the
and bed boundaries (in the vation surfaces to develop. Severe drops in
high fossil shell content that is brought in by
depth track of this and the velocity of the tidal current and/or
tidal currents. In high concentration, shell
subsequent images, small sudden changes in flow directions have
debris may form thin resistive layers.
tick marks represent 1-ft allowed fine-grained sediments to settle over
The channels are normally subjected to
increments and large tick cross-lamination sets and develop clay
extensive overbank crevassing. Seaward, the
marks 5-ft increments). drapes. The numerous erosional surfaces are
channel mouth is modified into a funnel
interpreted as scours that reflect exceptional
shape where sandy tidal ridges are
discharge conditions.
developed perpendicular to the shoreline
The data indicate lateral accretion
(Coleman and Wright, 1975). Flood tides
surfaces dipping to the WSW and SW, which
transport fine-grained sediments into the
reflect the former position of the depositional
floodplain areas where silty and highly
flank as well as the thalweg of the channel.
carbonaceous sediments are accumulated.
This also suggests that the tidal channel is
The following examples will discuss
striking NNW-SSE, since accretion surfaces
reservoirs deposited under coastal marine
dip perpendicular to the channel orientation.
influence. Many of the foregoing features are
recognized in these reservoir sandstones, as
well as the non-reservoir bounding facies.
8 6
Figure 8.5 Based on these observations, the facies

has been interpreted as deposited by a meso-
Tide - dominated
N N tidal channel with a NNW-SSE orientation
estuary
Barrier flat
(Fig. 8.5). The channel possibly dissects a
Tidal Tidal
Barrier
flat Lagoon NE-SW-oriented barrier bar.
Bayhead Well A
delta
Drowned Sand # 2 (X250 to X275 ft)
river
valley Tidal power Sidewall cores and cuttings indicate that
VLC-1184
Wave power
Tidal power Wave power
the sandstone in this interval is light gray,
very fine- to fine-grained, locally of medium
grained, subangular grains, moderately
Coastal marine environment and The interval from 6158 to 6160 ft shows
sorted, friable, slightly argillaceous, and
depositional changes due to the sandstones with low-dipping, wavy lamina-
calcareous.
relative variation of wave and tidal tions. This section was possibly deposited as
The GR over this interval indicates a
processes. The probable locations interlaminated sands and clays within a tidal
fining-upward sequence with a sharp ero-
of Well A and VLC-1184 are flat setting.
sional base and gradational top (Fig. 8.3). The
indicated.
shales below the facies are carbonaceous and
Figure 8.6 pyritic. The overlying sediments are com-
posed of interlaminated sandstones and shales
N E S W 0˚ 40˚ with a thin coal streak at X238 ft (Fig. 8.3).
X246.0 ft
Throughout the facies, the image data
Azimuth of cross-bedding
and accretion surfaces shows the presence of numerous lateral ac-
(X250 to X275 ft)
Top Sand 2 0
cretion surfaces that dip from the NE to the W
330 20% 30 (Fig. 8.6). The variability in these dip dir-
Accretion surfaces 15%
dipping to the S
300 60 ections indicates the sinuosity of the channel
10%
5%
and the lateral migration processes. The
270 10% 20% 90
5% 15% reduction in energy following channel
Cross-laminations migration has caused clays to be draped over
dipping NW. They 240 120
are formed by the accretion surfaces (X262 ft and X256.3 ft).
sandwaves migrating
to the NW by ebb
210
180
150 Fluctuations in the discharge rates have
processes
caused reactivation and truncation surfaces to
develop (e.g., X264.6 ft).
The depositional system in the channel
Possible accretion surfaces Azimuth of bed boundaries was dominated by ebb processes that result-
dipping to the W (X250 to X275 ft)
ed in the seaward migration of sand waves.
0
330 30% 30 The process generated several cross-lamina-
20%
tion sets dipping to the NW, as evidenced by
300 60
the image data. These sediments are amal-
Accretion surfaces 10%
dipping to the NE
270 20% 90 gamated with point bar deposits (e.g., X266
10% 30%
ft) and stacked vertically to form a highly
Accretion surfaces 240
dipping to the WSW
120 compartmentalized reservoir sequence.
Erosional surface 210 150
180
X279.0 ft
FMI image over Sand 2 with azimuth rosettes.
8 7
Figure 8.7 VLC-1184 Well, VLC-948-100 Area,

Block III, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela
LLHR
B-52 sandstones (9479.5 to 9502.8 ft)
GR LLD NPHI
The GR over the interval shows an
0 (gAPI) 150 LLS .45 (V ⁄ V) –.15
erosional base and sharp top, and indicates
CALI Depth MSFL RHOB
8 (in.) 18 (ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.95 g⁄ cm3 2.95 that the sandstone is made up of a series of
stacked, fining-upward sediments (Fig. 8.7).
B52 The image data from 9500 to 9502.8 ft (Fig.
9500 8.8) show that chaotic sediments occur just
above the erosional base and channel lag.
Internally, the sandstones contain numerous
erosional and truncation surfaces that
possibly relate to channel migration; e.g.,
9488.5, 9489.2 and 9497.2 ft. These surfaces
divide the sandstones into several deposi-
tional units and reservoir compartments.
The image data also display several
accretion surfaces dipping toward the E and
SE (9487 to 9489 ft). The variability of these
9600
dip directions emphasizes the sinuous
nature of the channel, since accretion sur-
B6
faces normally dip perpendicular to the
channel orientation.
Cross-lamination sets dip mainly to the
NE and have been confirmed on the core
(9495 to 9497 ft). They may reflect the
orientation of the channel and may be
generated by the migration of sand waves.
Conversely, cross-laminations dipping to the
Openhole logs over the The dip directions of the cross-lamination SW reflect minor tidal influences during the
B-52 and B-6 sands. sets and lateral accretion surfaces suggest that deposition of this unit.
the tidal channel was trending in a NNW-SSE Patchy calcite cementation occurs at
orientation. At X251 ft., cross-laminations are 9491 ft and 9494 ft, as indicated by the
dipping to the S (i.e., landward) and reflect density log (tight streaks) and image data
the tidal-flood influence. (lenticular red-yellow patches). This
The Borehole Electrical Imagery also cementation may be present as a result of
illustrates the presence of high-resistivity dissolution of shell debris and subsequent
shell debris within the sandstones along reprecipitation of calcium carbonate into
certain intervals (e.g., X267.1 ft). Clay clasts open pore spaces.
are locally present at the base of the facies.
The channel contains numerous resistive lag
deposits (e.g., X275.2 ft), due to the high
content of fossil shells, which create
permeability barriers and add to the
heterogeneity of the reservoir.
8 8
Figure 8.8 This interval is interpreted to be deposit- The underlying sediments from 9610.5
ed by a NNE-SSW-oriented channel that has to 9630 ft are highly laminated tidal flats that
N E S W N been influenced by a complex interplay of were subjected to only limited biogenic
9486.0 ft
fluvial and tidal systems (Fig. 8.5). The activity, which has been confirmed on the
provenance of these sandstones was possibly core (Fig. 8.9e).
located to the SSW of this well. The top part
B-6 sandstones (9630-9680 ft)
of the facies consists of laminated sediments.
The GR over the interval displays
B-6 sandstones (9567.8 to 9610.5 ft) stacked, fining-upward sediments. The inter-
The GR over this interval shows several val has a highly dipping erosional base and
stacked, fining-upward units with a sharp an associated cemented lag. At the base of
erosional base and gradational top. The the channel, sediments are rich in clay clasts.
E
individual units are separated by levee and The facies contains accretion surfaces
floodplain/tidal flat deposits. and cross-lamination sets that indicate the
The facies contains lateral accretion complex interplay of fluvial and tidal
surfaces that dip to the SE systems. Point bars contain accretion surfaces
and NW, which reflect that dip toward the NW and SE. The
E the sinuosity of the variability in the dip directions reflects the
channel (Fig.8.9d). The migratory nature of the channel. This
dip directions of these meandering channel is trending in a NE-SW
accretion surfaces suggest orientation, as suggested by the dip direction
D
that the channel has a NE- of the accretion surfaces.
SW orientation (i.e., they Cross-laminations dip to the NE and
are oriented perpen- SSE. The dominant NE-dipping cross-
dicular to the channel laminations at 9649 ft possibly reflect the
orientation). migration of sand waves under fluvial
Large-scale cross-lami- influences (Fig. 8.9f). The sets that dip to the
B
nation sets mainly dip to SW at 9631 ft (Fig. 8.9e) and SSE at 9658 ft
the SSW, which reflect (Fig. 8.9f) reflects a limited tidal influence.
A
the migration of sand waves under tidal The sandstone can be subdivided into
influences (Fig. 8.9a). However, minor several stacked depositional and flow units
cross-lamination sets at 9600 ft dip to the that are separated by channel levee and tidal
NE, which is related to limited fluvial flat deposits. These units are bounded by
influence (Fig. 8.9c). Possible compactional erosional and truncation surfaces. The image
effects have oversteepened the dipping data show clay clasts within the sediments
9504.0 ft magnitude of a cross-lamination set at 9603 (e.g., Fig 8.9f). These sandstones are
ft (Fig. 8.9c). These units are bounded by interpreted to be deposited by a fluvial
FMI image over the B-52
truncation surfaces and clay drapes (e.g., channel with a NE-SW orientation that was
sand showing:
9605, 9599.2, 9584, 9581 ft). Soft-sediment locally subjected to limited tidal influence
A= Chaotic sediments
deformation and clay clasts are locally (Fig. 8.5).
B= Truncation surfaces
present within channel lag deposits (e.g.,
C= Accretion surfaces
9592.5 ft), (Fig.8.9b).
D= Cross-lamination sets on
This facies appears to be deposited as
image and core
stacked point bars within a NE-SW-oriented
E= Patchy cementation.
channel under a dominating tidal influence
and a minor fluvial influence (Fig. 8.5).
8 9
Figure 8.9a-f
a N
9581.0 ft
E S W N
FMI images over
N E S W N e
9625.0 ft
A the B-6 sand.
A= Truncation surfaces
B= Large scale cross-
A lamination sets.
9586.0 ft
9590.5 ft
b
Soft sediment
deformation and A
clay drapes. 9632.0 ft
FMI image and core photograph of the sediments underlying the B-6
9593.0 ft
sand showing dense laminations. A=cross-laminations.
c 9598.5 ft
f
C
A= Truncation surfaces
A
and clay drapes
C= Minor cross-
lamination sets
D= Oversteeped cross-
laminations.
D
FMI image of the
sediments underlying
9604.0 ft the B-6 sand.
9605.0 ft
d
A=cross-laminations
B=truncation surfaces
Lateral accretion
C=clay clasts.
surfaces dipping to
9648.0ft
the SE (above) and
NW (below).
9611.0 ft
8 10
E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Borehole electrical images can provide Evaluating fractured reservoirs requires

essential data for the description of fractured a lot of data in order to properly develop
reservoirs. These data include the detection and optimally drain them. The data provided
of fractures, their frequency, orientation, by cores, Borehole Electrical Imagery, open-
morphology, origin and attributes. These hole logs, and well testing must be inte-
results can then be used to understand the grated to better understand and model the
fracture processes in the field and help pre- fracture system.
dict the optimum locations and orientations Other than oriented cores and Borehole
for new wells. Electrical Imagery, most other logging
The examples below show the interpre- approaches are only fracture indicators with
tation of a fractured carbonate in two no capability for any geometrical analysis.
deviated wells from the West Mara Field. Even then, the detection of fractures depends
Borehole electrical images were recorded by on the vertical resolution of the logging tool.
an FMI tool over several thousand feet of The technique of measuring the gain or loss
reservoir, containing a wide sampling of the of mud depends on a difference between
fracture type and characteristics. The FMI mud hydrostatic pressure and formation
images were analyzed on a workstation pressure.
using Geoframe Image Examiner software to Among such a variety of tools, the FMI
give interpreted images, fracture and can detect fractures of a wide range of width,
bedding orientations and various fracture from hairline to large open fractures. In the
attribute plots. Different features of the FMI processing and display scheme, the most
fracture processes in the field are deduced resistive features are plotted as white, and the
from these results. most conductive are plotted as black. All
The following sections include an other resistivity values are scaled and plotted
overview of fracturing and fractured reser- using various color codings. Open fractures
voirs, an evaluation of fractured reservoirs in that have been invaded by mud will appear
the West Mara Field, and a discussion of the as black, highly dipping planes. Cemented
response of the FMI to fractures. A general fractures cutting across the rock fabric are
summary of the West Mara Field was given normally seen as white dipping planes,
in Chapter 2–22. because fracture-filling minerals are generally
more resistive than the surrounding matrix.
Fractured reservoirs: An overview In certain cases, fracture traces can only
Fractured reservoirs are a special type of be seen on the two images from opposing
hydrocarbon reservoir. They are commonly pads or appear wider along that direction
thick, porosity is mainly secondary, the because of drilling enhancement of natural
distribution of porosity and permeability is fractures within the principal stress orienta-
irregular, production varies greatly, and they tion. These fractures may also be connected
may or may not have a common by drilling-induced fractures and appear as a
hydrocarbon content. Fractured reservoirs series of zigzag fractures on the Borehole
show a great deal of difference in terms of: Electrical Imagery.
1) the pores of the host rock may or may not
contain hydrocarbons, and 2) reservoir
potential may or may not be evaluated by
conventional openhole logs. It appears that
the complex interaction of fracture, matrix,
and fluids is sufficiently variable to render
each fractured reservoir unique (Watts, 1983).
8 11
Figure 8.10 two dimensions or plan view, the ellipses

0˚ 90˚ 180˚ 270˚ 360˚ will turn into sine waves. The Image
Borehole N E S W N
Examiner Workstation is a new technique
that can interactively measure the dip and
orientation of these sine waves to the highest
degree of accuracy.
E
Defining the dip and orientation of frac-
tures is of prime importance in recognizing
N the stress regime of the fracture systems.
E N
Knowing the dip direction of fractures is very
S
W
valuable when setting the well trajectory in
order to intersect the maximum number of
N
fractures and increase the productivity of
wells. Moreover, studies evidence that well
W
performance is highly affected by the dip
For straight hole: TD: 53˚ / 270˚
E S • Dip magnitude proportional magnitude of fractures, especially near the
Dip azimuth
to amplitude of sine wave
• Dip azimuth located at
Dip magnitude hydrocarbon/water contact.
N W True dip
minimum of sine wave
Fracturing processes
Planar features, which are
Brittle rocks contain more fractures than Different sources of stress often create
not vertical or horizontal, and
ductile rocks. There are a number of proper- different types and distributions of fractures.
which are intersected by bore-
ties that may affect rock brittleness, which Fold-related fractures are different from fault-
holes, are expressed by ellip-
include rock type, grain size, type of related fractures regarding their relation to the
ses on the borehole walls.
cementing mineral, porosity, temperature, original structural setting, orientation, and dis-
clay percentage, effective confining pressure, tribution. Fault and wrench-fault related-
and strain rate (Stearns and Friedman, 1972). fractures are discussed in more detail below,
Increasing effective confining pressure and since they are of concern in the West Mara
Figure 8.11 temperature or reducing strain rate tend to Field.
increase rock ductility. Ductile and thicker Fractures have been classified into several
s1
Conjugated shear
fracture planes
layers have relatively larger and wider genetic types (Stearns, 1967; Stearns and
fractures with greater spacing under the same Friedman, 1972; and Nelson, 1985). These
structural situation. classifications are based on two main
30˚ The proper study of fractured reservoirs assumptions: 1) natural fracture patterns faith-
q q begins with a thorough analysis of the frac- fully reflect the local state of stress at the time
s3 s3 tures in terms of geometry, origin, morpho- of fracturing, and 2) subsurface rocks fracture
s2 logy, density, width, and porosity. The Image in a manner qualitatively similar to equivalent
Examiner has enhanced our capability of rocks in the lab under analogous conditions.
tackling these areas. Generally, for any triaxial stress state in
which s1>s2>s3, there are two shear-fracture
Geometrical analysis orientations and one extensional-fracture
3-D View Sedimentary and structural features that orientation (Fig. 8.11). The two shear fractures
(Planes of rupture)
are not strictly vertical or horizontal, when form a dihedral angle of about 60°. The axis
For triaxial stress in which s1 are intersected by the borehole, appear as an of s1 is the bisector of the acute angle, while
> s2 > s3, two shear frac- ellipse on the borehole walls (Fig. 8.10). The s3 bisects the obtuse angle. s2 acts in a plane
tures and one extensional steepness of ellipses in vertical wells reflect perpendicular to the plane that contains s1
fracture (// to s1 and perp. to the dip magnitude and orientation of these and s3. The extension fracture orientation is
s3) tend to develop. features. When the images are presented in parallel to s1 and perpendicular to s3.
8 12
Figure 8.12 Fault-related fractures in porous or

Q1
plastic rocks are impermeable as a result of
Q2
crushing and smearing of rocks along the
Q3
fracture planes. It is very difficult to predict
Normal the number of fractures that will be
fault Extensional
basin (divergent) generated by a specific fault. Some major
Q3
faults may generate a narrow zone of
fractured reservoirs. Some minor faults,
Q1 Q1
however, may develop an extended area of
Q2 small-scale fractures (Sterns and Friedman,
Thrust fault Compressional basin (convergent)
Q2
1972).
Q1
Wrench fault-related fractures

Q3
Shortening (folds and thrust faults),
extension (normal faults and dikes) structural
Wrench
Pull–apart
fault
basin (shearing) elements, and horizontal shear on nearly
vertical surfaces are normally developed
Fault-related fractures form within wrench fault domains. Prominent
However, for extension fractures to form, s3
by the same state of stress wrench faults have a long history and
must be reduced to the tensile strength of the
as the fault. encompass basement rocks as well as the
rock (Nelson, 1985).
overlying sedimentary cover (Sylvester, 1988).
Determining the regional stress regime
In 1974, Harding introduced a general
can be complicated by the local variation in
model incorporating the structural elements
stress, and the reactivation of older structural
associated with wrench faulting (Fig. 8.13).
elements (Willis, 1994).
A classic case involves blocks moving side-
by-side, parallel to their mutual boundaries,
Fault-related fractures
and in-line with the regional movement
Fault planes are, by definition, planes of
vector.
Figure 8.13 shear. Fault-related fractures are created by
Harding indicated that an expected
Extension the same stress regime that originated the
angle between the conjugate fractures is Figure 8.15
Compression fault. Therefore, their orientation can be
between 60° and 70°. The main fracture
predicted by knowing the fault strike (Fig.
ts
ul
population is normally developed within the

fa
N
se
or
8.12). The converse is also true: fracture
r
ve
m
al
on
Re
fa synthetic orientation of the fault and form, in

si
ul
es
ts
orientation reveals the strike of a fault and its
pr
m
a simple wrench fault model, a small acute

Co
Strike- sense of shear (Stearns and Friedman, 1972).

slip faul
angle with the main wrench fault. The other
lts
ts
au
Normally, these fractures cover small

es
f
0
st
ax
-7
ru
60
orientation is the antithetical orientation

ld
Th
Fo
areas along the fault plane but significantly

N
where the fracture population is minor.

or
m
increase the productivity of wells that are

al
fa
ul
Folds and thrust faults initially form

ts
drilled in these areas. The proper deflection

Wrench fault model (after Harding, 1974)
perpendicular to the maximum stress com-
of a hole to intersect the greater number of
ponent. Folds, however, are typically
The strain ellipsoid of a fractures depends on the behavior and types
arranged in en-echelon pattern, oblique (10
convergent wrench fault, of faults (Stearns and Friedman, 1972). For
to 35°) to the principal displacement zone.
showing the strike of low-dipping fault planes (30°) no deviation
The direction of horizontal movement of the
different fault fracture types. would theoretically increase the number of
wrench fault can be revealed by the stepping
intersected fractures.
direction of the folds; that is, right-stepping
folds form by right-lateral movement.
8 13
Figure 8.14 Fracture morphology

The morphology of fracture planes can
N E S W N be defined by core or Borehole Electrical
Imagery data. Four types of morphology are
recognized (Fig. 8.14). They are: 1) open
N
W E Open
fractures, 2) deformed fractures, 3)
S
cemented fractures, and 4) vuggy fractures.
Deformed fractures may form during
Partially
mineral–filled the fracturing process or slightly after. The
movement along fracture planes may
increase or decrease the fracture attributes,
Mineral–filled
depending on the ductility of the rocks.
Vuggy Vuggy fractures develop when circul-
Mineral–filled Vuggy ating underground fluids cause dissolution
Partially
on the fracture walls. They are normally
mineral–filled associated with unconformities and karst
Open topography in carbonates (Nelson, 1985).
Normal faults and extensional fractures
The different types of
develop parallel to the main compressional Number, width and
fracture morphology.
forces and at about 45° to the principal dis- porosity of fractures
placement zone. The style of structural assem- Fracture density, length and width are
bly varies between convergent and divergent the main inputs for computing the porosity
types of wrench faults (Wilcox et al., 1973). and/or the storage capacity of fracture
In general, the intensity and morphology systems. Fracture density is the number of
of fault-related fractures appear to be related fractures per foot or meter computed per-
to lithology, distance from fault planes, types pendicular to the fracture planes. It is
of faults, amount of displacement along controlled by the thickness of bedding,
shear planes, depth of burial, and rock strain. ductility, grain size and the porosity of
(Nelson, 1985). the formation.
Figure 8.15 The segment of a fracture displayed on
a borehole image is the trace length of the
fracture. Long fractures appear to have a
0'
0'
0'
wider aperture at the borehole wall and are

90
U D
0'
10
10
–8
90
–6
–8
D
–6
N
'
U
D
U normally spaced far apart. The numerous
0 D U
10
–8900
–7300
U
D
–4 smaller fractures that exhibit the same
'
'
orientation as the large ones are generally

'
D
0
10
'
0'
–2900 0' U
–6
0'
' 0
–770
00 37 narrow, shorter, and more closely spaced

–930
D
1 D – U
–4 U
156 '
00
' 30
0 (Nelson, 1985).
0'
1 –5
90
–1 0'
–4
D U
90
–6
0'
116
70
0'
–890
–5
0'
0'
70
D D 30 0'
50
–5
U
' U –7 D
00'
00 0 ' U –8 D
49 50 U
–41
– D U
U –6
0'
0'
D
0'
70
0' 10 90
–5
–730 –8 –8
0'
Structural
50
0'
50
–4
D U D
–6
Fault
0'
90
U U
–4
U D Well
D
0 0.5 1.0 km
Location map of the West Mara Field.
8 14
Figures 8.16 and 8.17 Fracture porosity is computed from the

mean aperture of each fracture in an average
Top : 5540.0 ft N Top : 5540.0 ft N
window (usually 1 ft) taking into consid-
eration the well diameter and borehole
coverage of the FMI.
W E W E Fractured reservoirs in DM-116

This well was drilled on the hanging wall
of the West Mara Field, and has been deviated
about 60° through the reservoir to test the
Bottom : 9240.0 ft S S footwall of the field (Figs. 8.15, previous page
Bottom : 9240.0 ft
and 8.19). The well was drilled under-
: A Fracture (opened) Strike Histogram
: B Fracture (partially opened) : A Fracture (opened) balanced and numerous oil shows were
: C Fracture (cemented) : B Fracture (partially opened)
: C Fracture (cemented) reported while drilling. The Borehole
Dip magnitude and azimuth of the Electrical Imagery over the fractured
various sets of fractures. Fracture aperture is the fracture width carbonates was interpreted on the Image
measured perpendicular to the fracture Examiner using Fracview. The results indicate
Figure 8.18 plane. It tends to decrease with depth three major groups of fractures, classified as
because the fractures are either further away open, partially open, and cemented fractures
0 Tadpole 90
Depth
(ft) DEG. from continental enhancement processes or (Fig. 8.16). Induced fractures were identified
nearer to slow circulation of underground and excluded from the computation. The
fluids that are rich in secondary filling latter are generally vertical and strike NE-SW,
material. Overburden pressure also has an indicating this to be the direction of minimum
6000
effect on the fracture aperture. stress.
The fracture aperture seen by a The main population of open and
Borehole Electrical Image is proportional to partially open fractures dip to the NE. A
the conductivity of the mud inside the minor population of partially open fractures
fracture and is slightly influenced by the dips to the SW. Cemented fractures, how-
resistivity of the surrounding rocks. The ever, mainly dip to the ENE and strike in a
7000 Fracview (Luthi and Souhaite, 1990) NNW-SSE orientation. Generally, the frac-
computation accounts for this effect and tures strike N20°W and N80°W, and form a
allows for an accurate determination of the dihedral angle of 60° between them (Fig.
fracture aperture. Two calculations of 8.17).
fracture aperture are available in Fracview. The well crossed several faults as shown
The mean aperture is simply the average by the drastic changes of structural dip which
width of the fracture along its length. The were extracted from the image data (Fig.
8000
hydraulic aperture is the cubic mean of the 8.18). This is consistent with the structural
fracture width. setting of the well, as shown in the NW-SE
geologic cross-section (Fig. 8.19). In addition,
the fault zone through the 6175 to 6940 ft
interval shows a high GR reading, that is
possibly related to the high content of
9000 uranium within residual hydrocarbons over
fault planes. This may also suggest that the
Fault zone faults were not originally sealed and allowed
Dip magnitude and azimuth hydrocarbon migration to occur before they
of bed boundaries in DM-116. were clogged by heavy oil and tar.
8 15
Figure 8.19 The study illustrates that fracture aperture

DM - 116 tends to decrease with depth, possibly
NW SE because the fractures are further away from
1000
continental enhancement processes, or be-
2000
cause they are nearer to slower-circulating
3000
Post-Eocene underground fluids where secondary minerals
4000 tend to readily precipitate into the fractures.
The sediments within the foot wall of the
Depth (ft)
Mito Juan/Colón
5000
Mito Juan/Colón Marac

fault are of poor reservoir potential and con-
6000 a
Socuy Socuy
Lisure La Luna tain few minor fractures. The high over-
Maraca La Luna
7000
Lisure burden pressure related to the thrusting of the
Río Negro Apón
8000 S.T P.T-8200 hanging wall possibly inhibited the develop-
0 0.5 1 km TD=8506 ft
9000 ment of fractures. With depth, rock tempera-
Basement Basement
Scale
ture increases as well as the rock ductility,
which results in reducing the number of
NW-SE geological cross-
fractures and limiting their potential.
section through DM-116.
Wrench fault-related fractures

Fracture trends and structural elements
of the West Mara Field are best explained by
convergent wrench fault tectonics (see above
and Fig. 8.13, page 8–13). The angle between
Figures 8.20 and 8.21 the conjugate sets is about 60°. The main
fracture populations are striking within the
N E S W N N E S W N synthetic orientation; i.e., NW-SE. In a simple
5932.0 ft 5766.0 ft
wrench fault model, this orientation should
be at small acute angle (15-20°) with the main
wrench fault. Lesser fracture populations are
striking in a NNW-SSE direction and parallel
A to the antithetical orientation (Fig. 8.17).
It appears that these fractures were
originated by the same convergent wrench
tectonics that shaped the structural configura-
tion of the West Mara Field, which is located
perpendicular to the main compressional
stress of NW-SE orientation. The field is
bisected by several normal faults that are
trending in NW-SE orientation and parallel to
A
the main compressional forces. West Mara Field
is bounded on the west by a major NE-SW
5772.0 ft
thrust fault (Fig. 8.15, previous page).
A
Stylolites with tension gashes (A)

Fracture attributes
Fractures enhanced by dissolution effect (A). (In Over the upper section of the Creta-
the depth track of these and subsequent images, ceous carbonates, the image data illustrates
small tick marks represent 1-ft increments and dissolution effects (Fig. 8.20). Open fractures
5940.0 ft
large tick marks 5-ft increments). exhibit high dipping angles (78° to 82°)
8 16
Figure 8.22 porosity are evident and have enhanced the

reservoir characteristics along certain parts of
10 Fracture density 0
this section.
(# ⁄ ft) Over the interval from 5768 to 5772 ft,
Depth 0.0010 Mean aperture 10 0 Fracture aperture 0.30 stylolites with tensional gashes were devel-
(ft)
(mm) (mm) oped (Fig. 8.21, previous page). Fractures
within the interval from 5772 to 6160 ft have
fracture apertures that range between 0.015
and 0.03 mm (Fig. 8.22). The fracture
porosity within this zone varies from 0.01 to
0.05%.
Within the interval from 6110 to 6120 ft,
Fracview detects porosity values as high as
0.2%. The fracture density varies from 1 to 3
F/ft, the fracture dips are high, and the
6050 fractures exhibit long traces and large
apertures. The presence of such fractures just
above the main bounding thrust fault may
explain the gradual increase in water cut
within this well. Water may migrate along the
fault plane from deeper water-bearing
horizons such as the Río Negro Formation
(see Fig. 8.19, previous page) through the
high-dipping fractures into the hydrocarbon-
bearing zones. The interval from 6058 to
6100
8470 ft (MD) was tested barefoot and the
well recovered 115 BOPD of 15°API with
12% water cut.
Fractured reservoirs in DM-156

This well was drilled near a NW-SE-
trending normal fault (Fig. 8.15, page 8–14).
Several oil shows were encountered during
the drilling of the well, which was drilled
underbalanced.
The upper sedimentary section is highly
: A Fracture (opened) Fracture aperture and density in DM-116.
: B Fracture (partially opened) laminated and exhibits a dipping magnitude
: C Fracture (cemented)
of 10° to the SSE (Fig. 8.23). The carbonate
mainly to the NE. Apparent fracture aperture rocks are highly fossiliferous, and developed
within this interval averages 0.01 mm. The vuggy and moldic porosity by dissolution
fracture density ranges from 2 to 3 F/ft. processes. Dissolution processes have
Vuggy morphology can be observed in further enhanced reservoir quality by
places along the fracture walls, indicating opening the communication between sever-
that the width of some of these fractures has al zones. Secondary porosity created by
been enhanced by dissolution processes. dolomitization has also enhanced the reser-
The fracture porosity averages 0.05%. voir quality in this well (Fig. 8.24). A minor
Dolomitization processes and moldic fault is clearly seen at 6075 ft (Fig. 8.25).
8 17
Figures 8.23, 8.24 and 8.25
N E S W N
5889.0 ft N E S W N N E S W N
5988.0 ft 6064.0 ft
5997.0 ft
Dolomitization in DM-156 (shown by

white nodules).
B
5901.0 ft Induced fractures (A)

Laminated sequence dipping to the SE. and a minor fault (B). 6077.0 ft
The image data illustrates the different

types of fractures. Cemented and open
fractures were recognized throughout the
reservoir section. Fractures were enhanced
by dissolution and drilling effects over
N E S W N N E S W N
6928.5 ft 6562.5 ft several zones (Fig. 8.26). The well recovered
2850 BOPD of 14.4°API with 0.5% water
from the 6195 to 7150 ft interval (MD),
which was tested barefoot.
A
Induced fractures were identified in the
intervals from 6064 to 6072 ft and 6665 to
6667 ft, and have been excluded from the
computation (Fig. 8.25). Syneresis fractures
and stylolites were observed in several
zones (Fig. 8.27).
The fractures strike to the NW-SE and
6572.0 ft
NE-SW (Fig. 8.28, next page), and they form
B
an acute angle of 70° between them. Natural
Possible syneresis fractures that
fractures are controlled by thin shale streaks
6940.0 ft were developed by body forces,
(Fig. 8.29, next page). The results illustrate
Open fractures (A) and fractures and formed by compaction and
that the cemented fractures are striking
enhanced by dissolution( B). de-watering.
within open-fracture orientations.
8 18
Figure 8.28 Conclusions Wellsite fracture imaging

Two dominating fracture orientations
Fracture images can also be
0
10% were defined within the Cretaceous carbon-
330 30
obtained while drilling with the RAB
8%
ates in DM-116 and DM-156 wells. They strike
6% tool in the drill string (Chapter 4–4). The
300 60
in NW-SE and ENE-WSW orientations and
4%
RAB makes an azimuthal resistivity mea-
2% form a 60° to 70° dihedral angle between
270 90
surement, so that when the drillstring is
2%
2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
them. The fracture orientation in these wells
rotated it can record an image of the
suggests that convergent wrench fault-related
240 120
resistivity around the well. The image
stresses initiated the development of these
below shows fractures detected by the
210 150 fractures. The wrench fault is possibly
180 RAB in well DM-157. The fracture dip
trending in a WNW-ESE orientation.
and inclination are shown on the right.
Fracture orientation The maximum stress component has a
The dip has been computed
in DM-156. NW-SE orientation. The least stress component
interactively on a workstation. Wellsite
is located in the NE-SW orientation and paral-
computations and display are also
lel to the elongation of the West Mara anticline.
possible. The green stripe indicates the
M-116 crossed the bounding thrust zone
direction of the top of the well as
that is located to the NW of the well. The fault
measured by the inclinometer tool in the
zone consisting of several fault slivers has
drill string.
been demonstrated by high values on the GR
curve. N E S W 0˚ 90˚
The wells closest to major faults encoun-

tered a higher number of fractures with better
attributes. However, open, partially open, and
Figure 8.29
cemented fractures within the studied wells
exhibit no preferential orientation. Apparent
N E S W N
6433.0 ft fracture aperture within these wells ranges
between 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm. The fractured
rocks have an average porosity of 0.1%.
A
Formation damage that occurred during
drilling and testing operations is most likely
affecting the reservoir quality in these wells.
Induced fractures are present within the
main stress orientation. They may connect the
natural fractures and enhance the fracture
network over borehole walls.
A The image data show several zones of
intergranular and vuggy porosity within these
wells. Dissolution processes enhanced the
A
effective porosity in these zones and occa-
sionally created a permeability network.
Dolomitization processes played an
additional role in enhancing the porosity and
A
permeability of certain zones. These processes
6447.5 ft and the detrimental distribution of fractures
Highly fractured zone where created numerous compartments within the
fracture extensions were con- reservoir section, which has variable net pay
trolled by thin shale beds (A). zone thicknesses.
8 19
A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
Four offset VSPs were acquired in an Geological setting

old producing well in a complex geologic The reservoir is located at an average
area. Surface seismic data were not depth of 1300 ft, is Pliocene in age, and has
available, so the geological interpretation already produced oil extensively from wells
was only based on previously existing well drilled to the SW. The sedimentary environ-
log information. The purpose of this ment is a deltaic channel fan, trending SW to
borehole seismic acquisition was to: a) NE, with the source of the sediments from
provide a final VSP image with enough the SW (Fig. 8.30). This trend is expected to
vertical and lateral resolution to identify any continue to the NE, and the operator will
NE-oriented faults, b) determine the NE explore the reservoir until the sandstone
continuation of the objective, and c) identify either shales-out or becomes totally wet.
further sandstone development below the The reservoir is faulted, and each fault
known area of investigation. has a different oil-water contact. Shallower
The resulting analysis of the final sandstones are also oil-bearing but are not
migrated VSP image provides information as productive as the objective sandstone.
about a reverse fault approximately 300 ft Deeper sandstones are also present but may
from the wellbore. This fault shows that the be wet.
area is divided in two main blocks that are
most probably disconnected at the reservoir VSP ray-trace modeling
level. Moreover, deeper reflections are too To determine the proper number of
weak to delineate sandstone bodies with source locations and receiver depth stations,
enough porosity to qualify as additional oil ray-trace modeling is performed. Prior to
reserves. any modeling attempt, a structural model is
extracted using the existing structural inter-
pretation. Interpretation shows a large
Figure 8.30
anticlinal structure oriented NE to SW. The
100 m
VSP profiles should be oriented NE (the
Faulted out
22
direction of investigation) to study the

18
09
97
39
presence of faults and the lateral continuity

9
12
'
3
50 of the sandstone-shale sequence in the

' '
interval of interest.
25 75
57 28
0'
8
7
10 Ray-trace modeling tells us that the best

lateral coverage is obtained if four single-
"Some sands faulted out" source offset locations are selected. Basically,
Well
a single zero-offset VSP is needed for velocity
and correlation studies at the well site (200 ft
of offset), and a non-zero-offset (2000 ft of
0'
25'
0
10 offset) is needed to study the lateral con-

50'
75'
'
75
tinuity of the sandstone/shale sequence.

'
100
N
t
en ion Gross sand thickness
im ect
'
50
d r Net oil thickness

Se di
w Fault
flo Oil
Water
Well locations, gross sand and net oil thicknesses, as mapped

before running the multioffset VSP.
8 20
Figure 8.31 The sensor module consists of a triaxial

Well
mutually orthogonal array in a gimbals
NE mounted system. A fourth geophone and a
0
Source-1 Source-2 Source-3 Source-4 shaker, also available in the sensor module,
allow extensive in-situ data quality control
500 during the acquisition.
Depth (ft)
1000
VSP data acquisition
Dynamite was chosen as the source.
1500
This type of source allows the highest-
2000
frequency content with the highest signal-to-
1 2 3 4 noise ratio possible. Also, this source is
2500 easily operated in adverse or irregular
–500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
surface conditions (marsh and lagoon
Offset (ft)
topography). However, for each VSP offset,
However, at this last offset the subsurface
Results of ray-trace a proper cluster source array has to be
fold at each reflector is poor in areas near the
modeling, showing the designed. One dynamite charge (1 Kg each)
wellsite because of refraction; therefore, two
coverage from each offset is located 18 ft deep in each shot hole. There
more intermediate-offset VSPs are recom-
at different levels. are 30 holes, 3 m apart, in a regular 5 x 6
mended to improve the subsurface fold, such
grid, allowing 30 shots for each offset.
as at 750 ft and 1500 ft. The final lateral
The well conditions did not allow the
coverage and subsurface fold provided by
downhole seismic tool go deeper than 1010
the recommended acquisition geometry is
ft, so the actual VSP stations range from 1010
displayed in Fig. 8.31.
ft up to 200 ft at 40-ft sampling intervals.
Figure 8.32
Downhole tool
Processing
The downhole seismic tool
Field Field A standard VSP processing chain for
tape tape used in this acquisition is the
non-zero offset VSP geometry was applied
CSAT* Combinable Seismic
Demultiplex to each source offset location VSP data. (Fig.
and editing
Sonic log Acquisition Tool that digital-
8.32). During data acquisition, the downhole
ly transmits the signal
SEG-Y Stack
tool rotates and, therefore, randomly orients
tape recorded at the geophone to
the horizontal components at each station.
Signal based
the surface. This tool has a
polarization
Because of this and for further processing,
modular architecture, which
the first step after data loading should be to
allows the use of a small,
True amplitude properly orient these horizontal components
recovery and
light-weight sensor that
bandpass filter
to a fixed reference coordinate system by
Velocity makes the tool (seismically
Model using a signal-based polarization method.
speaking) more sensitive to
Median velocity The coordinate system of the vertical and
filter the wanted signal and less
horizontal planes is shown in Fig. 8.33. After
sensitive to unwanted sig-
Predictive and reorienting to the reference coordinate
waveshape
nals, such as the tube wave.
deconvolution
system, the data from source position 2 are
This sensor module is
shown in Fig. 8.34.
decoupled from the tool
SEG-Y Kirchoff Compressional P waves are the
tape migration body and strongly coupled
dominant seismic events in the VSP total
against the wellbore.
Standard processing chain for wavefield. The first 500 msec after the first
non-zero-offset VSP. compressional arrival are not contaminated
by mode conversion. This allows at least 1.0
8 21
Figure 8.33 account the source offset distance. A nine-

trace coherence window is used to help the
program differentiate between upgoing
Vertical plane
Plane: well-source-sensor
energy and downgoing energy. VSP data
after velocity separation in the case of
Horizontal plane
source position 2 are shown in Fig. 8.35,
Y
next page.
HMN
HMX
a Predictive and waveshape
deconvolutions
a
Sensor X It is assumed that the downgoing
wavetrain recorded at the geophone, at a
certain depth in the well, is the seismic
source that generates the upgoing wavetrain.
Once the upgoing energy is separated from
Reorientation of the sec of data (two-way time index) free of any the downgoing energy, a Wiener-Levinson
measured signals (X and Y) mode conversion. This means at least 3000 ft deconvolution filter can be designed to
to the reference coordinate of VSP data that are free from any mode- remove any multiples generated between
system (HMX and HMN). converted event. Therefore, P to S wave the seismic source and the geophone
separation, which might distort the data, is located in the well. Thus, the deconvolution
not needed. filter is designed trace by trace from the
Velocity filtering, the next step in the downgoing wavetrain and is later applied to
VSP processing chain, is dedicated to both the traces containing the upgoing and
separating the upgoing waves from the the downgoing wavetrain. In the same way,
downgoing waves. This separation is a Wiener-Levinson deconvolution filter is
performed in the time domain, taking into designed to reshape the remaining trace into
a symmetric zero phase wavelet.
Figure 8.34 After the deconvolution processing, the
upgoing wavetrain contains the effective
reflections caused by a deconvolved signal
260.0
propagating down through the formation
(Fig. 8.36, next page).
Vertical axis
650.5
Migration
Measured depth (ft)
The Kirchoff integral is used to get a

970.5 simultaneous migrated picture of all the VSP
traces for each source offset location.
260.0
Horizontal projection
According to the Kirchoff integral, for a given

geometry (the relative position of the sources
650.5
and receivers for all the source offset loca-
tions) and for a given velocity model (simple
structure is taken into account inside the
970.5 velocity model), each point of the subsurface
is imaged by sending a ray from a particular
0.000 0.500 1.000
source point (X, Y) and receiving it back later
Time (sec)
(reflected) at a particular receiver point (X',
Data from source location 2 in the vertical axis, and the horizontal projection.
Y') that corresponds to the well location.
8 22
Figure 8.35 For each dip angle, if the actual migrated

point corresponds to a real reflector (i.e., the
260.0
imaged point describes a hyperbola), then
the sum of the amplitudes will give a
Vertical axis
significant coherent energy. If there was no
650.5 reflector at the imaged point, the sum should
be zero. The migrated image in real
Measured depth (ft)

amplitude and referred to the seismic datum
970.5 (mean sea level), is displayed in Fig. 8.37
Horizontal projection 260.0 with SEG normal polarity.
Results
650.5 Each offset VSP data set shows good
frequency content and signal-to-noise ratio.
These two factors are a result of the high
970.5 quality of the seismic source used in data ac-
0.000 0.500 1.000 quisition and the relatively shallow depth of
Time (sec) the sandstone-shale sequence being studied.
Data from source location 2 after velocity separation. Compared to the ray-trace modeling,
refraction from the far source offset location
This ray propagates down through the
was not as large as expected, because of a
velocity model, applying Snell’s law and
high velocity layer found near the surface.
Huygen’s principle. The trajectory of the
The first 1500 ft of formation (Fig. 8.37)
actual ray, going from the source point to
can be characterized as a relatively parallel
the receiver point, besides being computed
stratigraphic sequence, divided into two
for the actual velocity model, is also
blocks by a reverse fault (almost vertical)
computed for a wide range of dip values.
located approximately 300 ft away from the
well. The fault throw is relatively small, so at
Figure 8.36
the reservoir level (1300 ft) this fault might not
interrupt the lateral continuity of the
260.0 sandstone body.
Vertical axis
The relatively small amplitude values

below 1500 ft suggest that this stratigraphic
650.5
sequence does not go deeper. The log data
Measured depth (ft)
also show little character and confirm this

result. However, further away from the
970.5
borehole we start to see reflectors, suggest-
Horizontal projection
260.0
ing there may be more sandstone-shale
sequences in this direction.
650.5
970.5
0.000 0.500 1.000

Time (sec)
Data from source location 2 after velocity separation and deconvolution.
8 23
Figure 8.37 Conclusions

A multioffset VSP was successfully
Migrated image of data from all offsets, recorded in an old producing well. The
alongside the well logs. good quality of the depth-indexed migrated
version of the VSP results allows us to
GR ILD 1500 ft conclude that:
0
• the vertical and horizontal resolutions of
the migrated image are sufficient to
clearly identify the top and bottom of
the sandstone objective. This sandstone
body can also be correlated laterally on
500 both sides of the fault plane.
• a reverse fault can be defined following
lateral body changes. This fault plane
may or may not be causing abrupt
lateral permeability changes, as a small
throw is observed.
1000
• the sandstone objective continues on
the other side of the fault plane and
shows important amplitude variations.
A horizontal reentry was considered
risky because of the fault being so close to
the well. A vertical well penetrating the
1500
block to the right of the fault was considered
a safer way to look for additional oil
reserves. This well could also investigate the
deeper seismic events (below 1500 ft).
2000
(ft)
COMPLEMENTING A POOR SURFACE SEISMIC
An important application of multioffset eroded during the rainy season, leaving

VSPs is the acquisition of data in areas where enormous holes several kilometers in
surface seismic has not given good results. diameter and as much as 200 m deep. These
One such case is the Orocual Field in depressions are generally covered by wild
Maturín Basin. The main reservoir is the forest which, in combination with the
Pliocene Las Piedras Formation, which topography, makes surface seismic acqui-
produces oil (12 to 29°API) from sandstones sition extremely difficult (Fig. 8.38, next
that lie between 2000 and 8000 ft. page). The surface seismic line shown in Fig.
The surface topography above the 8.39, also in next page, illustrates the
Orocual Field is very rough. In the problem. For example, the coverage between
Quaternary, laterite-rich soils developed in shot points 300 and 600 is particularly poor
this area as a result of intensive weathering and reflectors cannot be picked with any
in the warm climate. This mineral is easily certainty.
8 24
Figure 8.38 At the same time, there is a large col-

lapsed zone within the surface formations. It
has been suggested that the Carapita collapsed
as the result of a deep strike-slip fault that left
a large valley in the Carapita, but not in the
basement, after the blocks were pulled apart.
The valley was subsequently filled with
sediments from the north.
A multioffset VSP recorded in a suitably
chosen well offered the best chance of
overcoming the uncertainties in the surface
seismic. It was hoped that it would show
reflectors in the area around the well, verify
the existence and extension of the faults,
and detect the presence of certain sand-
stones of interest in the Las Piedras
Formation.
Typical terrain in the Orocual area, showing a 35-m depression with difficult access.
(Note small white-roofed house in the left-center).
Planning and acquisition
Figure 8.39 The well ORS-65 was planned as a deep
wildcat to explore the sandstones of the
792 Cretaceous San Juan Formation (see Fig. 8.40
1000 and Chapter 1–38). The location was carefully
selected so as to encounter a high in the San
1250
Juan, to avoid faults that were obvious on the
surface seismic, and also to avoid the
1500
uncertain structures in the center of the
1750
collapsed zone. It was also necessary to
minimize the interval over the Carapita
2000 Formation and avoid the surface troughs. The
Carapita is known to be difficult to drill
Time (msec)
2250
because of the presence of strongly
overpressured zones.
2500
This well presented a good opportunity
2750 for recording a VSP to help clarify inter-
pretation in the collapsed zone. However,
3000 because of the surface topography, careful
planning was required. First, the area was
3250
thoroughly scouted to find accessible loca-
tions for a vibrator of 25 tons. Then, for each
3500
possible source location and downhole
3750 geophone station, the target illumination was
4000
23 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Trace number
Surface seismic line through the well location.
8 25
Figure 8.40 These offsets and a zero-offset VSP

were recorded after the 133⁄8-in. casing was
set at 5260 ft. The best equipment available
was used for the operation:
• a MERTZ M18/616, 46,000-lb peak force
vibrator monitored by a Pelton
Las Piedras
Advance2 software programmed system
• a five-level downhole array of three-axis
Carapita superior geophones, spaced 15 m apart (ASI)
with downhole digitization of 16 bits
dynamic range, in situ calibration, and
102 dB downhole amplification
Carapita inferior
• a Maxis surface acquisition unit with a
Areo preprogrammed well seismic acquisition
San Juan module supporting a surface amplifi-
cation of 60 dB.
Because of the careful pre-job planning,
Ray trace modeling showing the data were acquired in 28 hr, very fast
checked using ray-trace modeling (Fig. 8.40).
the target illumination with considering the terrain. The quality of the
The parabolic shape of the Las Piedras and
four offset source locations. data can be seen in Fig. 8.41, which shows
Mesa Formations helps give a wider image of
the vertical data for offset C. The frequency
the target. After many tries, it was found that
content of the data is between 10 and 80 Hz.
the optimum coverage from feasible locations
Note the refraction signals observed within
was with four offsets on a single NE-SW line at
the first arrivals at certain offsets (these had
+1000 m, +2000 m, -2000 m and -800 m.
already been noted on the ray tracing).
Figure 8.41 These signals are caused by vertical fault
planes passing close to the well.
Processing and interpretation

1.0 The data were processed using the
standard BORSEIS offset VSP chain (page
8–21). The direction of polarization of the
refracted signals was reconstructed from the
Refractions
three components, and the refracted signals
Time (sec)
1.2 minimized by taking signals perpendicular

to this direction. The residuals were
eliminated by median filtering. P and S
separation was obtained by parametric
inversion of the wave fields. The data from
1.4
all five source positions (four offsets and one
vertical) were migrated simultaneously using
a Kirchoff migration algorithm that preserves
enough frequency content to give the
1.6 direction and continuity of the fault planes.
20 40 60 80
Trace number
Vertical data for offset C showing effects of refraction at wide angle.
8 26
Figure 8.42 2000 ft and 5000 ft (0.9 to 1.5 secs) and shows
their lateral extent. Therefore, the objectives
of the VSP were
Time
Mesa
sec
Acoustic impedance Time achieved. This
4000 (ft/ sec•g/ cm ) 9000 (secs)
3
1.0 extra information

3
13 / " 8
3
11 / "
will help plan
4
1.2 further wells in the

Las Piedras and
Las Piedras
1.4
will help select the
1.5
location of any
5260 ft future deep explo-
1.6 5349 ft
ration well.
5700 ft
1.8
2.0
Overpressured zones
Determining the
Carapita
overpressured zones
As an added and unexpected bonus, the
2.5 VSP helped determine the extent of a highly
overpressured zone. Before setting the
133⁄8-in. casing, the well had been drilled
through the Carapita to 5301 ft with a 81⁄2-in.
pilot hole. Drilling was very difficult over the
last 20 ft because of a high-pressure zone that
3.0
produced asphalt. The asphalt acted similarly
to salt, closing in each time a few hours after
s
ta
Fault plane
ra
it had been drilled. This shallow, high-

Ca
200 500 400 500
Trace number pressure asphalt zone is believed to be

created by communication through the
Processed and migrated
Fig. 8.42 shows the final migrated VSP, vertical fault planes (already seen on the VSP
results from all four offsets
the surface seismic section, and the acoustic migrated image) of a deeper high-pressure
and vertical VSP (center);
impedance from VSP (see below). Below the reservoir.
acoustic impedance from
collapsed zone, in the lower Carapita, VSP The hole was eventually reamed out to
VSP inversion (right); the
and surface seismic data correspond closely, 5260 ft and casing set at this depth. The
surface seismic line along
giving confidence in both. Within the Integrated Project Management Team (who
the same trajectory as the
collapsed zone, reflectors can now be were responsible for drilling the well)
VSP (background). The San
mapped—see, for example, the reflectors in decided to place a cement plug in openhole
Juan Formation is below the
the Las Piedras and Carapita Formations. over the highly overpressured zone, and if
Caratas.
Numerous vertical faults can be observed this did not solve the problem, to run an
within 100 ft of the well, which was more 113⁄4-in. liner. However, it was not clear how
than were expected. Finally, the VSP detects far this zone extended or how far to go
the Las Piedras reservoir sandstones between before setting the plug. The VSP could solve
this problem by providing a log of
impedance below the casing shoe.
8 27
The zero-offset VSP data were inverted cemented. Since problems continued, a liner
using the Grivelet method of iterative model- was run to 5349 ft. Note that the interval
ing. This method detects the major events in covered by the liner corresponds to the first
the corridor stack of the zero-offset VSP, and overpressured zone, and that the bottom of
makes a first estimate of the time and ampli- the cemented zone corresponds approxi-
tude of reflections. The reflection series is mately to the bottom of the second over-
convolved with the downgoing wavelet to pressured zone. Having closed these off, the
give a modeled trace that is compared with well was drilled through the rest of the
the actual trace. From the difference, a Carapita without much difficulty. Thus, know-
gradient method is used to refine the reflec- ledge of the pressure zone length and the fault
tion series in successive iterations until there plane geometry from the VSP helped prepare
is a satisfactory match with the actual trace. a good plan for setting the liner and covering
To avoid instabilities, it is important to limit the high-pressure, asphalt-producing interval.
the number of reflections and to use reason-
able geophysical constraints. Conclusions
The result (Fig. 8.42, right) is a log of A multioffset VSP showed reflectors,
acoustic impedance versus time from the top faults and sandstone bodies in an area where
of the VSP to approximately 0.4 sec below the the surface seismic was very unclear because
well at the time of recording (5260 ft). There of surface topography and a large, faulted,
is a strong drop in impedance between 1.53 collapsed zone at the reservoir level and
sec (estimated to be at 5200 ft) and 1.59 sec above. The results will help determine
(5340 ft) with another drop until 1.75 sec (5700 locations for further development wells, and
ft). These are interpreted as overpressured also help plan future deep exploration wells.
zones. A further drop is observed at 1.90 sec. As an added bonus, the extent of an
This could indicate another high-pressure zone overpressured asphalt zone was predicted by
(very common within the Carapita). However, calculating the acoustic impedance below the
it could also be because the limit of reliable well from the zero-offset VSP. This information
inversion of the VSP has been reached. was essential in deciding the proper intervals
With the confidence given by these pre- over which to place a cement plug and an
dictions, drilling continued, with difficulty, to intermediate liner. Once this was done, the
5623 ft and the entire openhole section well was drilled without major difficulty.
A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
A multiazimuth walkaway seismic profile good reservoir locations. Other objectives

was acquired in the Urdaneta West area in an included:
attempt to resolve remaining subsurface • calibrating the existing 3-D seismic data
uncertainties in the Icotea Formation. The • gaining information on the stratigraphy
proposed expenditure was justified by the of the Misoa Formation, an additional
intensive Icotea development program objective below the Icotea Formation
planned by Shell Venezuela. The primary • calibrating expected amplitude variation
technical objective of the walkaway VSP was with offset (AVO) behavior within the
to improve the understanding of the internal Icotea and Cogollo Formations
stratigraphic structure of the Icotea Formation
and thus to eventually improve prediction of
8 28
Figure 8.43 Maracaibo was simulated by a 33-ft thick

horizontal layer at the top.
The synthetic VSP created by the 2-D
model was migrated to evaluate the migration
stretch and its influence on the preservation of
the signal frequency content. After migrating
the ray paths with the synthetic, it was found
that the Icotea and Misoa events would not be
separated for source offsets bigger than 16,000
ft. It was also seen that for the long offset lines,
designed to image the Cogollo Group, some
refractions would be created at the top of the
Laguna, Icotea and Cogollo Formations. Some
shear conversions were predicted from the
bottom of Lake Maracaibo and at 2800 ft
where there is a significant increase in
formation velocity. However, the water depth
of 33 ft was too small to create guide waves or
Results of 3-D ray tracing, • improving local structural control surface reverberations.
showing that the locus of • providing further information on the La The 3-D modeling shows that the locus
reflection lines are beneath Rosa/Icotea Formation contact of reflection lines are in a vertical plane
the shooting lines. • evaluating the applicability of the walk- beneath the shooting lines to within a few
away VSP technique to development of degrees (Fig. 8.43).
the Icotea Formation reservoir.
The resolution of the existing surface 3-D Data acquisition
seismic data in the northeast of the Urdaneta The lines were acquired in a rosette-
West area is insufficient to resolve much of the shaped pattern centered on well A and
intra-Icotea stratigraphic detail. The walkaway along tie lines to facilitate correlation with
VSP was intended to increase the vertical and the 3-D surface seismic. The data was
lateral resolution along selected azimuths, acquired with an Array Seismic Imager (ASI)
chosen so as to tie the central well to other that has five three-component downhole
development wells. geophones spaced 45 ft apart. The bottom of
the ASI was set near 4500 ft in intervals
Pre-job modeling where the hole was most closely in gauge,
The objective of a walkaway VSP is to so as to have the optimum coupling with the
image the area in the vicinity of the borehole formation. Coupling with the formation was
using a receiver that is placed in a well and a tested by analysis of the frequency spectra of
source that is shot at several offsets from the test shots acquired with two Sodera type G
well (the source “walks away” from the well). air guns in cluster array.
In this case, several walkaways were planned The source was a Compact Sleeve Source
in different directions, but centered around (CSS) composed of two arrays of eight air
well A, in which the receiver was to be placed. guns, supplied by Western Geophysical and
The 2-D and 3-D raypaths resulting from this mounted on the Western Shore vessel. The
configuration were modeled using data from source has a frequency band of 5 to 198 Hz at
well A, other wells intersected by the lines and 72 dB. The acquisition was controlled by a
the Urdaneta structural maps at the top Icotea Macha master/slave system specially modified
and Cogollo levels. The acoustic effect of Lake for the survey and executing in “External Fire
8 29
Figure 8.44 of 5 to 250 Hz at 72 dB. The data were

acquired with the geophone set at 4500 ft, and
have a frequency band of 5 to 120 Hz at 6 dB
for a peak/bubble amplitude ratio of 18.
20 The signal-to-noise ratio was excellent
(Fig. 8.44), and only two shots were lost in
40 2450. However, there was a loss of high
Trace number
frequency in some places. This effect has
60
been related to obstacles (well locations,
80 boats) located on the walkaway lines. The
change in boat trajectory changed the air gun
100
array lobe directivity and the global
120
interaction of the air guns. All the lines were
affected by this phenomenon. A late
140 conversion shear arrival can also be seen on
the raw stack data of all the lines.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Time (sec)
Processing
Typical stack of raw data (vertical component, line 1).
The processing of this very large VSP
mode,” the airguns being shot by the vessel data set was executed on a Ultra Sparc II Sun
and the Schlumberger Maxis unit acting in station, using the latest GeoFrame VSP
“Slave mode.” The navigation system was a D- processing software. The following steps
GPS Sercel system. The source was fired every were involved:
50 m along each line out to a maximum offset a) Data editing. An inventory of bad shots
of 6502 m on lines 6 and 8. was made and, as noted above, only two were
Five lines, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8, were discarded. In line 6 at 12,500 ft, the vertical
acquired four times. Lines 2 and 5 were axis data were sometimes affected by power
discarded due to lack of time. The source was supply multiples (120 Hz and 180 Hz). The
shifted 25 m between runs so as to obtain a low-frequency shots mentioned above were
final spacing of 25 m on each line. Each line not discarded as they had good coherency.
was acquired twice with the ASI set at two b) Navigation data. The UTM navigation
depths 22.5 ft apart so as to have a final data were recorded using the WSG-84 coor-
geophone interval of 22.5 ft. This geophone dinate protocol, and subsequently shifted to
interval was designed to prevent aliasing at be in agreement with the La Canoa reference.
high frequencies during the downgoing and Various shot line discontinuities were
upgoing wavefield separation. Line 6 was observed, especially in line 1 (due to the
acquired four times at the same ASI depths as obstacles as noted above).
the other lines, and in addition, two times c) Sorting. The data were preprocessed to
with the source shifted 25 m and with the ASI obtain a walkaway configuration; i.e., they
at 12,500 ft. These last two settings were were sorted using first the trace header with
intended to provide a deconvolution operator geophone depth and then with shot offset.
for the shallower lines. Shots located within 1 m of each other are
A total of 2450 shots were acquired along stacked together. The Sercel Telemetry allowed
a combined total of 125 km of walkaway a maximum error of 5 m in the in-line direction
lines. A vertical VSP was also acquired with and 20 m perpendicular to the line, far above
two Sodera air guns in a parallel cluster array, the precision required for the sorting.
shot at 3000 psi, which has a frequency band
8 30
Figure 8.45 e) Data polarization. The horizontal data

were reoriented in the direction of the source
by measuring the direction of the maximum
horizontal amplitude. Quality control was
40
based on the continuity and coherence of the
Frequency (Hz)
40 required vertical and horizontal rotation
angle. The polarity of the vertical and HMX
40
Amplitude
data has been compared and matched
40
manually. A change of polarity was observed
on lines 6 and 8 at large offsets. This effect is
40 believed to be caused by refraction within the
shallow formations.
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 f) P and S decomposition. The P/S para-
Trace number meter decomposition was executed in VSP
configuration, offset by offset, using a six-
Frequency spectrum d) Signal preprocessing. As suggested by parameter model fitting the acquisition geo-
before predictive Kramer (1994), the ringing in the first 200 metry and the local geology. In this method,
deconvolution. msec, caused by the shallow formations, has the P and S wave fields are separated by look-
been controlled by a short predictive operator ing for coherent amplitude trends and their
(200 msec window on the second zero angles of propagation down and up (Leaney
crossing that produced a working window of and Esmersoy, 1989). To take care of large
approximately 18 msec). As a bonus, the fre- offsets, the data have been split into two
quency content has been enhanced and there windows of 2 seconds each, vertically and
is now significant 10 to 80 Hz at 6 dB out to horizontally. The results were considered suc-
trace number 200. Figures 8.45 and 8.46 show cessful in spite of large refraction effects at
the frequency spectrum before and after this large offsets.
deconvolution. The results were evaluated to g) Signal shaping. The resulting compres-
make sure there was no amplitude distortion sional downgoing and upgoing wave fields
by examining the main reflections after have been zero phase wave-shaped by a short
applying an AGC with a 500-msec window. deconvolution operator (200 msec window on
Figure 8.46 a second zero crossing that produced a work-
ing window of approximately 18 msec, start-
ing 10 msec before the first arrival). This pro-
cedure is intended to overcome the changing
20
signal shape versus offset. Then, the data
Frequency (Hz)
40 acquired in line 6 at 12,500 ft were used to

build a convolution operator that was applied
60 to the shallower (4500 ft) walkaway line
Amplitude
(Meiners, 1993). This procedure provides a
80
better control of the signal shape for the large
100 offset and is the best way to eliminate the peg-
leg multiples from deeper horizons.
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 h) Migration. A Kirchoff model was run in
Trace number walkaway mode at the depth in the center of
the ASI array. The 2-D model was generated
from the log data in well A and nearby wells.
Frequency spectrum after predictive deconvolution.
Layer dips were obtained from the Urdaneta
8 31
Figure 8.47 structural map at Icotea and Cogollo Formation

tops. Several adjustments were needed to
improve the continuity and frequency band
of events.
The log data show large velocity
inversions at the Misoa and Colón tops. These
inversions produced large refractions (blind
zones) for the large offset migration. This
effect was partially controlled by a velocity
model with a horizontal velocity gradient of
0.05 percent. Misoa and Colon velocities had
to be increased by 5% relative to sonic log
velocity. The layer dip was adjusted by small
amounts of 1 to 2° according to the depth.
Spectral whitening was tried, but created
discontinuity in the migrated events. The
frequency content was improved more
effectively by the predictive operator during
preprocessing.
Finally, static shifts between the lines
were controlled by a velocity model
inversion on transit time, using the shallow
walkaway from 0 to 4500 ft and the vertical
VSP from 4500 to 13,200 ft.
Results
The comparison between the walkaway
lines 3 and 4 and the corresponding line in
the 3-D surface seismic data (Figs. 8.47, and
8.48, next page) can be summarized as
follows:
• enhanced frequency content in the VSP
for shorter offsets, with bandwidth
decreasing with offset
• good correspondence of events at
Cogollo, Colón, and Misoa levels
• confirmation of the known fault planes.
A pseudo 3-D image was built with the
Charisma seismic interpretation software to
help visualize the results (Fig. 8.49, page
8–34). A good correlation in time is observed
between the three lines in the foreground.
Some tectonic events such as faults are easily
seen on line 3 (in front) and on line 4 (on
Comparison of the walkaway line 3 and the corresponding 3-D seismic
the right).
tie line (both after migration).
8 32
Figure 8.48 Summary

A large multiazimuth walkaway with
2450 shots was acquired in the Urdaneta
Field. Six lines were recorded out to 6500 m
offset, each four times at two adjacent
source positions and two adjacent geophone
positions to minimize aliasing. One line was
also recorded at a deeper horizon to provide
a convolution operator for the shallower
lines. A VSP was also recorded to enable the
walkaway events to be correlated with the
well data. The following aspects of the
processing were noted:
• refractions due to the large offsets and
formation velocity inversions in the La
Rosa, Misoa and Colón Formations.
These were seen by a change in the
polarity of the first arrival
• excellent performance of the short
predictive deconvolution operator,
reducing ringing on each component
and flattening the spectrum
• excellent performance of the P/S
parametric inversion on all the lines in
spite of the large offset
• preservation of the continuity of events
by carefully optimizing the migration
model
• decontamination of shallow multiples
and residual ringings by using the deep
walkaway convolution operator
• only average behavior of the spectral
whitening on the migrated data.
Interpretation and data analysis is in the
initial stages at the time of going to press.
However the following conclusions can be
drawn:
• the bandwidth of the walkaway VSP data
is superior to that of the 3-D surface seis-
mic data at near offsets, thus achieving
the primary objective of the survey. Band-
width degrades at higher offsets to be-
come the same as, and eventually poorer
than the 3-D surface seismic data due to
migration stretch and refraction effects
Comparison of the walkaway line 4 and the corresponding
3-D seismic tie line (both after migration).
8 33
Figure 8.49 • lithological boundaries and faults are

properly imaged and show good overall
correlation to 3-D surface seismic data,
increasing confidence in the quality of
the latter.
Further use of the multiazimuth walk-
away VSP technique as a development tool
for the Urdaneta West area is dependent on a
thorough interpretation of the current data
set. Further interpretation work will focus on
inversion of the VSP lines, utilization of the
three component data to generate S-wave
sections and to quantify azimuthal anisotropy,
and the calibration of the AVO effects seen on
3-D surface seismic data at both Icotea and
Cogollo Formation levels. It is expected that
significant further additions will be made to
the understanding of the subsurface in the
Pseudo-3-D walkaway image (after migration). Urdaneta West area by this analysis.
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND A HORIZONTAL WELL
When the first horizontal wells were which the well is entering the shale, while
drilled, there was a general expectation that the sharp changes in gamma ray (GR) and
the logs would be quite featureless and neutron porosity (NPHI) at B suggest the
would look like railroad tracks. Most of the well is crossing a fault. The separation in
early horizontal wells were drilled in thick, resistivity from different measurements in
vertically fractured carbonates far from any the shale at C indicates the presence of an
fluid contact, so that away from the underlying or overlying sandstone and/or
fractures, the logs were indeed quite flat. anisotropy. At the time, all these factors
However, in sandstone channels and other were combined with resistivity modeling to
reservoirs, many unexpected variations can produce one of the first cross sections
be observed. The wireline logs in Fig. 8.50, around a horizontal well (Fig. 8.51, page
next page, are from the first horizontal well 8–36).
drilled in the Maracaibo Basin in 1989, and Today, these procedures are signifi-
look very similar to logs in a vertical well. cantly refined. Resistivity measurements still
These logs illustrate many of the features provide most of the information. Their
seen when a horizontal well moves in and response has been analyzed extensively and
out of a sandstone-shale sequence, and is modeled routinely with the INFORM
show how these features can be used to software (Chapter 3–23). Currently only 2-D
describe the reservoir around the well. For models are supported, but 3-D models
example, the crossover from sandstone to
shale at A allows us to calculate the angle at
8 34
Figure 8.50 the description. Acoustic techniques, using

borehole seismic tools or sonic logging
Resistivity techniques, can provide information much
2 (ohm-m) 20000
further away from the borehole, but so far
CALI Density
4 in. 14 1.65 g ⁄ cm3 2.65
have not been used extensively. Nuclear
GR Depth Neutron porosity measurements necessarily read close to the
(ft)
0 (gAPI) 150 60 p.u.. (ss) 0 borehole, but their proper understanding
can help distinguish thin reservoir zones.
7100 The example below illustrates the appli-
cation of resistivity modeling to describe the
reservoir around the well.
7200
ILM
Post-job modeling
Post-modeling evaluation can help
SFL NPHI RHOB
7300
ILD define the final placement of the well within
a sequence of beds. It can also answer
questions about actual petrophysical proper-
A
ties of beds and anisotropy effects. This, in
7400
turn, can give a better understanding of log
responses seen in future wells and allow for
C clearer geosteering decisions. The example
7500
discussed is the same well that was used to
illustrate pre-planning and geosteering in
Chapter 3–22. One of the main features
7600 noticed on the logs in this well was a signi-
ficantly higher resistivity in the sandstones as
compared to the pre-well models (800 versus
7700 100 ohm-m). These models were created by
INFORM for geosteering, and were based on
logs from a nearby vertical well. Such differ-
ences could be caused by four factors: aniso-
7800
tropy, invasion, the effect of surrounding
B beds, or an R t that is actually much higher in
the horizontal well.
7900
Anisotropy is observed in shales and
laminated sandstones, causing resistivity
perpendicular to the bedding (Rv) to be
8000 higher, in general, than parallel to it (Rh).
Large values of Rv/Rh (> 10) have been
Example of the logs recorded are starting to be applied (Anderson, 1996). observed, such as in clean sandstones with
in the first horizontal well Most horizontal wells are logged with LWD layers of rapidly changing grain size. These
that was drilled in the tools (Chapter 4–2), which generally do not changes cause strong contrasts in water
Maracaibo Basin in1989. see as far from the borehole as the induction saturation and hence resistivity, and give
tools shown in Fig. 8.50. However, the very different results when averaged
multiple depths of investigation available vertically or horizontally (Klein et al., 1995).
with the ARC5 and RAB tool help improve In the traditional case of vertical wells with
8 35

,,,

,,,,

Figure 8.51 horizontal bedding, the induction-type
logs—LWD phase shift and attenuation
6200 7060 Computed distance from borehole to boundary.
resistivity, wireline induction—read Rh,

Presumed extensions of other boundaries.
while the resistivity logs—LWD RAB and
6210 7110 wireline laterolog—respond principally to
Sand 1 25 ½

7160 Shale 1 10 ½ Rh, but with a component of up to 20% from
6220
Sand 2 40 ½
Vertical depth (ft)

7210 Rv. In horizontal wells with horizontal
6230
7260 Shale 2 5 ½ bedding, they are all more sensitive to Rv,
but in widely varying amounts. In particular,
6240 True vertical Sand 3 25 ½
depth logs (ft) the LWD phase shift reads much higher than
6250 Shale 3 the attenuation, so that if all other effects are
ignored the two can be inverted to give Rh
Measured depth (ft)
6260
and Rv.
7200 7300 7400 7500 7600 7700 7800 7900 8000 8100
In this well the resistivity of 1000 ohm-m
in the sandstone is beyond the limits of
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
accuracy for the attenuation curves, so we
Horizontal displacement from wellhead (ft)
must rely solely on the phase shift. Invasion
The cross section interpreted from the logs shown in Fig. 8.50.
is ruled out because both wells were drilled
with normal, moderately salty muds and
should not show any strange invasion effects.
Figure 8.52 In the horizontal well the surrounding beds
are shales with lower resistivity, so this
ILD Modeled cannot be the cause of the higher resistivity.
GR Measured NPHI Measured
0.0 150 ILD Measured 0.45 –0.15
However, the pre-well model was based on
(gAPI) (V / V)
SP Measured RT (Horizontal) RHOB Measured
a dual induction log recorded in the early
Depth
–100
(mv)
0 (ft) 0.2
(ohm-m)
2000 1.9
(g / cm3)
2.9 1980s. By using the deep induction curve for
the model, the authors were making the
assumption that this was a fairly good
approximation of R t. The fact is, however,
that a shoulder bed effect on a 6FF40-type
3450
coil arrangement can be quite significant
when dealing with the levels of resistivity
contrast apparent in this field. Figure 8.52
shows the U1 sandstone as logged in the
nearby vertical well. Modeling the dual
induction response shows that a good match
between ILD modeled and ILD measured is
obtained when R t approaches 800 ohm–m in
the target zone. Using this R t curve as input
3500 to the post-modeling horizontal well
evaluation shows a much better match in the
level of resistivity, and suggests that the U1
sandstone does not have a significant
anisotropy or change in resistivity.
Measured logs and modeled resistivity log from the nearby vertical well.
The measured log is strongly affected by shoulder effect. To explain this effect,
the true resistivity must be much higher.
8 36
Figure 8.53 The next step in the post-modeling

exercise is to determine the placement of the
Section Xsect-1: N 36˚ E - Rh formation property
well within the geologic sequence. The well
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m)

1000 1.67
2.20
trajectory itself is quite precise, so INFORM
Measured
100 2.22
2.89
2.99
10 3.33
10.20
can be used to iteratively manipulate the
17.01
1 19.29
118.79
geologic layers until a good match is
122.91
1000 900.00 obtained between modeled and measured
Trajectory
Modeled
100 PS 10" logs. Figures 8.53, 8.54 and 8.55 show
Modeled
PS 22"
PS 16"
10 Measured modeled log responses compared to actual
PS 16"
1 PS 22"
PS 10" logs. A good fit is a good indication that the
3575
geological model is accurate.
3579
The polarization horn at -1600 ft drift is
TVD (ft)
3583 best explained by the well approaching to

Sand
3587 within 6 in. of the boundary between the U1
3591 sandstone and the underlying shale but not
Shale
3595 actually crossing it (Fig. 8.53). This precise
–1700 –1640 –1580 –1520 –1460 –1400
Drift along the section (ft) distance was established after examining the
effect of different standoffs on the modeled
Measured logs (top), modeled logs (middle) and model (bottom) from the horizontal well.
response (see Boundary Modeling box, page
The measured logs are best explained if the borehole approaches within 6 in. of the
8-39). As the BHA crossed into the U1
boundary. In the model at the bottom, the resistivity scale is indicated by the color code.
sandstone, it was difficult to build angle
because of the softness of the sandstone.
Figure 8.54 This post-modeling has shown that the BHA
practically scraped the surface of the shale
Section Xsect-1: N 36˚ E - GR formation property
150
before building angle and coming back up
120
into the sandstone.
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m) (gAPI)
90
GR
60
30
A similar polarization effect is seen on
0 the measured logs at -3000 ft drift. The
1000
15.00
modeled logs in Fig. 8.54 show that these
PS28
100 45.00
50.00
62.00
horns would not occur if we were actually
10 67.00
1
75.00 passing through the top of the objective,
94.00
Polarization horns 120.00
135.00
assuming the geological model is consistent.
Trajectory
1000 GR Modeled
Measured
The best explanation for the horns is that we
100 PS-28 Modeled
Measured are again scraping along the lower
PS10
10 PS-10 Modeled
1
Measured
sandstone-shale boundary, which is
3500
continuing to rise at about 10° dip in the
direction of the well (Fig. 8.55). This is
3530
consistent with regional trends and with the
3560
U1 top
pre-well modeling (Chapter 3–22), which
TVD (ft)
U1
also showed that significant polarization
3590
objective
effects would only be produced by the lower
3620 sandstone-shale boundary.
3650
–3250 –2850 –2450 –2050 –1650 –1250
Drift along the section (ft)
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with GR assuming the well leaves the
sandstone by the top at -3000 ft drift. The GR scale is indicated by the color code.
8 37
Figure 8.55 As with most model-based inversion

Section Xsect-1: N 36˚ E - Rh formation property techniques, the answers may not be unique.
150
However, when combined with the many
120
other sources of information about the local
(gAPI)
90
GR
60 geology, they can be very useful in
30
0
eliminating some possibilities and reinf-
orcing others. In this case, resistivity
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m)

1000 1.67
2.20
2.22 modeling has helped reconcile the measure-
Measured
100
2.89
2.99
10 3.33
10.20
ments recorded in the horizontal and nearby
17.01
1 19.29
118.79
vertical wells, and allowed a reasonable
122.91
774.99
2000
cross section to be drawn around the
1000
Trajectory
Modeled horizontal well.
Modeled
100 GR
PS 10"
PS 22"
10 PS 34"
Measured
1 GR
PS 34"
PS 22"
3500 PS 10"
3530
TVD (ft)
3560
U1 top
3590
U1
3620
objective
3650
–3250 –2860 –2470 –2080 –1690 –1300
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with resistivity (scale in color) assuming
the well approaches the bottom of the sandstone at -3000 ft drift.
CONCLUSIONS
Modern high-resolution borehole imagery valuable help in the development phase of a

not only detects fractures, but also defines reservoir, by providing information not avail-
fracture characteristics such as dip, strike and able from surface seismic or by correlating
width, from which the fracture regime can be well data. Recent improvements that have
deduced. This has been demonstrated with significantly improved VSP quality include the
two wells from a carbonate field in Western use of 2-D and 3-D models for pre-job
Venezuela. Likewise, imagery can help iden- planning; the use of downhole arrays with
tify sedimentary features in clastic reservoirs, three component geophones; and improved
and hence be a key factor in defining the sedi- processing techniques, especially for decon-
mentary environment. Cross-laminations and volution and migration.
accretion surfaces could be identified on the Logs in horizontal wells often show many
images, and used to define the direction of more features and changes than are expected.
channels. Cores from one of the wells con- These features can be explained by different
firmed these results and helped to build effects such as invasion and anisotropy but, in
confidence in the images. many cases, they are simply the effect of sur-
VSPs have been used for many years to rounding beds. They can then be interpreted
calibrate and improve surface seismic inter- in terms of the reservoir geometry and used to
pretation. The examples shown demonstrate give an improved cross section of the reservoir
how multioffset and walkaway VSPs can be a around the borehole.
8 38
BOUNDARY MODELING
resistivity (ohm-m)
1000 1.67
2.20 These diagrams show the effects on ARC5 phase mea-
Modeled
100 2.22
2.89
10
2.99
3.33 surements of varying depths of investigation, as a boundary
10.20
17.01
1 19.29
118.79
of high resistivity is approached by a curving well
3570 122.91
800.00
Well
trajectory. The 34-in. ARC5 curve is the first to react to the
3576 Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10" boundary. At a distance of 2 ft (left) the shallower 10-in.
Modeled
TVD (ft)
3582 PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
and 22-in. curves are dropping in resistivity because of the
3588
2 ft
U1 Sand approach of the conductive shale, but the 34-in. curve is
3594
Shale
already starting to show some polarization effects.
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300

At 1 ft from the boundary,
resistivity (ohm-m)
1000
1.67
2.20
the polarization effect on
Modeled
100 2.22
2.89
2.99
the 34-in. and 22-in. 10 3.33
10.20
17.01
curves is quite pro- 1
19.29
118.79
3570 122.91
nounced (right). 800.00
Trajectory
3576 Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
TVD (ft)
3582 PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
3588 1 ft
U1 Sand
3594
Shale
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300

The polarization effect on
resistivity (ohm-m)
1000 1.67
2.20
the 10-in. curve is apparent
Modeled
100 2.22
2.89
10 2.99
3.33
when the borehole is at the
1 10.20
17.01
19.29
boundary (left).
3570
118.79
122.91
3576 800.00
Well
Trajectory
TVD (ft)
3582
Modeled
PS-10"
3588 U1 Sand Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
3594 PS-34"
Shale
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300

resistivity (ohm-m)
More detailed modeling 1000 1.67

Modeled
2.20
shows the effect only 100 2.22
2.89
10 2.99
appears once the borehole 1
3.33
10.20
17.01
is within 6 in. of the 3570 19.29
118.79
boundary. If the boundary 3576 122.91
800.00
TVD (ft)
Well
is crossed, split polari- 3582 Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
3588
zation horns are observed U1 Sand Modeled
PS-22"
3594 Modeled
PS-34"
(right). Shale
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300
8 39
The authors of this chapter are H.Acuna (Lagoven), J. Gil, D. Riegstra (Shell Venezuela), M.Taha,
C.Barrientos, M.Menier, S.Low and J.Singer
with contributions from T.Takimoto (Teikoku), J.García (Maraven), M.Bhimull (Premier Consolidated
Oilfield), V.Carneiro (Lagoven), L.Gaetano (Corpoven), C.Contreras, H.Gamero, E.Rodríguez and
A.Sánchez
and the permission of Teikoku Oil de Venezuela, Corpoven, Maraven, Lagoven, Premier
Consolidated and Shell Venezuela to publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Sedimentary analysis of sandstone reservoirs Sylvester, A.G., 1988, Strike-slip faults, Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 100, pp. 1666-1703.
Coleman, J.M., and Wright, L.D., 1975, Modern river deltas: Variability of
process and sand bodies, in Broussard, M.l. (ed.), Deltas, Houston Geological Watts, N.L., 1983, Microfractures in chalks of Albuskell field, Norweigan sec-
Society, Houston, Texas, pp. 99-150. tor, North Sea, possible origin and distribution, AAPG bulletin, v.67, No. 2, p
201-234.
Elliott, T., 1978, Clastic shorelines, in Reading, H.G. (ed.), Sedimentary envi-
ronments and facies, Blackwell Scientific Publications, New York, pp. 147-160. Wilcox, R.E., Harding, T.P., and Seely, D.R., 1973, Basic wrench tectonics,
AAPG Bulletin, v. 57, p. 74-96.
Galloway, W.E, and Hobday, D.K., 1996, Terrigenous clastic depositional sys-
tems, Springer, New York, p. 500. Willis, J.J., 1994, laramide basement deformation in an evolving stress field,
Bighorn Mountain front, Five springs area.
Oomkens, E., 1974, Lithofacies relations in the Late Quaternary Niger Delta
complex, Sedimentology 21, pp. 195-222. Complementing a surface seismic and general VSP
Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., and Siever, R., Sand and sandstone, Springer- Acunia, Henry, and Viaje, Ezequiel, 1997 Application de la tecnica Perfil
Verlag, New York, p. 618. Sismico Vertical Multioffset en el yacimento Las Piedras campo Orocual,
monagas, Venezuela, Lagoven S.A.
Psuty, N.P., 1966, The geomorphology of beach ridges in Tabasco, México.
Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State Univ. Technical Report 30. Esmersoy, C., 1988, Velocity estimation from offsest VSPs using direct P and
converted SV waves, SEG expanded abstracts, Anaheim meeting, Vol. I, p. 538.
Reading, H.G., and Collinson, J.D., 1996, Clastic coasts, in Reading, H.G. (ed.),
Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy, Blackwell Esmersoy, C. 1990: Inversion of P+SV waves from multi-component offset
Science Ltd, pp. 154-231. vertical seismic profiles, Geophysics, vol. 55, p. 39.
Reineck, H.E., and Singh, I.B., 1980, Depositional sedimentary environments, Leaney, S. and Esmersoy, C., 1989, Parametric decomposition of offset VSP
Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 551 wave fields, SEG expanded abstracts, Dallas meeting, Vol, I, p. 26.
Reinson, G.E., 1984, Barrier-Island and Associated Strand-Plain Systems, in Leaney, S., 1990: Parametric wavefield decomposition and applications, SEG
Walker, R. (ed.) Facies Models, Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 1, p. 317. expanded abstracts, San Francisco meeting, SE2.4.
Saxena, R.S., 1976, Modern Mississippi delta depositional environments and Reust, D. K., 1995, Vibrator force control: how simple can it get, The Leading
process, AAPG-SEPM, field trip guidebook, New Orleans, May 23-26, p. 125. Edge, Ponca City, Oklahoma, November, pp 1129-1133.
Smith, D.G., 1987, Meandering river point bar lithofacies models: Modern and A multiazimuth walkaway seismic profile
ancient examples compared, in Ethridge et al., Recent developments in flu-
Molyneux, J., 1996, Identification of multiples contaminating surface seismic
vial sedimentology, SEPM Special Publication 39, pp. 83-91.
data using a VSP analysis technique, SEG expanded abstract, Houston meet-
Van Beek, J.L., and Koster, E.A., 1972, Fluvial and estuarine sediments ing, BG 4.7.
exposed along the Oude Maastrichtian., Sedimentology 19: pp. 237-256.
Doll, W. E., 1996, Spectral whitening of impulsive and swept-source shallows
Visher, G.S., 1990. Exploration stratigraphy, Pennwell Publishing Co., Tulsa, seismic data, SEG expanded abstract, NS2.2.
Okalhoma, p. 433.
Kramer, D., 1996, Multicomponent multioffset VSP processing, SEG expand-
Woodroffe, C.D., Chappell, J., Thom, B.G., and Wallensky, E., 1989, ed abstract, Houston meeting, BG2.2.
Depositional model of a macrotidal estuary and flood plain, South Alligator
Meiners C., and Barrientos, C., 1992, Delineacion de estructuras mediante per-
River, Northern Australia, Sedimentology 36: pp. 737-756.
fil seismico walkaway - dual, VI Congreso Venezolano de geofisica, pp 395-402.
Evaluation of fractured carbonates
Reservoir description around a horizontal well
Harding, T.P, 1974, Major hydrocarbon plays resulting from wrench deforma-
Anderson, B., Barber, T., Druskin, V., Lee, P., Dussan, V.E., Knizhnerman, L.,
tion, AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, pp. 1290-1304.
and Davydycheva, S., 1996, The response of multiarray induction tools in high-
Luthi, S.M., and Souhaite, P., 1990, Fracture aperture from electrical borehole ly dipping formations with invasion and in arbitrary 3-D geometries, paper A,
scans, Geophysics, v. 55, no. 7, pp.1-13. Transactions of the SPWLA annual meeting, New Orleans, June.
Nelson, R.A., 1985, Geologic analysis of naturally fractured reservoirs, Klein, J.D., Martin, P.R., and Allen, D.F., 1995, The petrophysics of electrically
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, p. 320. anisotropic reservoirs, paper HH, Transactions of the SPWLA annual meeting,
June.
Stearns, D.W., 1967, Certain aspects of fracture in naturally deformed rocks,
in NSF Advanced Science Seminar in Rock Mechanics, pp. 97-118. Singer, J.M., 1992, An example of log interpretation in horizontal wells,
The Log Analyst, March-April 1992.
Stearns, D.W., and Friedman, M., 1972, Reservoirs in fractured rocks, in Robert
King, ed., Stratiraphic Oil and Gas fields, AAPG Memoir 16, Tulsa, pp. 82-118.
8 40
U N I T S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
°API degrees American Petroleum Institute C (crude) condensates

°C degrees Centigrade c.u. capture units
°F degrees Fahrenheit Ca calcium
m micron CBL Cement Bond Log
% percent CCL casing collar locator
f porosity CDR* Compensated Dual Resistivity tool
2-D two-dimensional CEC cation exchange capacity
3-D three-dimensional CFS in-line spinner
A10H Attenuation Resistivity, 10 in. CHRT* Cased Hole Resistivity Tool
A16H Attenuation Resistivity, 16 in. CIRP Completion Insertion and Retrieval under
A22H Attenuation Resistivity, 22 in. Pressure system
A28H Attenuation Resistivity, 28 in. cm3 cubic centimeter
A34H Attenuation Resistivity, 34 in. CMFF CMR Free-Fluid Volume
AAA Acoustic Anisotropy Analysis CMR* Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool
ADN* Azimuthal Density Neutron CMRP CMR Porosity
AIT* Array Induction Imager Tool CMT Cement Mapping Tool
Al aluminum CNL Compensated Neutron Log
ARC5* Array Resistivity Compensated, 5 depths of COR carbon-oxygen ratio

investigation cp centipoise
ASI Array Seismic Imager CQG Crystal Quartz Gauge
ASR Anelastic Strain Recovery CSAT* Combinable Seismic Acquisition Tool
ATR Attenuation Resistivity CSI cyclic steam injection
AVO amplitude variation with offset CSS Compact Sleeve Source
B billion D day
B bitumen DataFRAC* Fracture Data Determination Service
B, S, & W Basic sediment, and water DEFT Digital Entry and Fluid Imaging Tool
bbl barrel DSA Differential Stress Analysis
BCF Bolívar Coastal Fields DSI* Dipole Shear Sonic Imager
BCR Both Cross Dipole (or Receiver) Mode DST drill stem test
BFV bound fluid volume DTCO compressional slowness
BHA bottomhole apparatus ECGR Environmentally Corrected Gamma Ray
BHFP bottomhole flowing pressure EFI Exploding Foil Initiator
BHT bottomhole temperature ELAN Elemental Log Analysis
BLR Basal La Rosa reservoir EOP extreme overbalanced perforating
BOL Break-out Orientation Log ESIC Electronic Secondary Initiating Cartridge
BOPD barrels of oil per day FBS fullbore spinner
BPM barrels per minute Fe iron
BS Back Scatter Detector FFI free fluid
BTN RA button resistivity FIV formation isolation valve
BWPD barrels of water per day FLT* Fluorescence Logging Tool
C carbon FMI* Fullbore Formation MicroImager
A 1
UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ft foot, feet m meter

FT-IR Fourier Transform Infrared M thousand
FVF formation volume factor Ma million years before present
g gram MCFL Micro-Cylindrical Focused Log
G/O gas-oil contact MD measured depth
gal gallon md millidarcy
GBR gas-bitumen ratio MDT* Modular Formation Dynamics Tester tool
Gd gadolinium METT* Multifrequency Electromagnetic Thickness Tool
GOR gas-oil ratio Mg magnesium
GR gamma ray ML Microlog
GRazi Azimuthal GR MM million
GST* GeoSteering Tool MMH mixed-metal hydroxide
H (crude) heavy msec millisecond
HALS* High-Resolution Azimuthal Laterolog Sonde MSFL Micro-Spherical Focused Log
HCl hydrochloric acid MWD Measurement While Drilling
HF hydrofluoric acid NaCl sodium chloride
HGNS Highly Integrated Gamma Ray Neutron Sonde NBS near-bit sub
HI hydrogen index NCS net condensate sand
HIMAT zero porosity formation hydrogen index NGS Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
HORD Horizontal hole diameter NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
hr hour NODAL* production system analysis
HSD high shot density NOL net oil limestone
HSE health, safety and environment NOS net oil sand
HyPerSTIM* high-permeability stimulation technique NPHI neutron porosity
in. inch NPHIMAT zero porosity formation response to thermal
Inc. Inclination at the Bit neutron
INFORM Integrated Forward Modeling NPV net present value
IOBM Invert Oil Emulsion OBM NRS Non-Reactive Reservoir Sampler
IPR Inflow Performance Relationship O oxygen
IS Inelastic Scattering O/W oil/water [contact]
K potassium OBIP original bitumen in place
KCl potassium chloride OBM oil-based mud
kHz kiloHertz OFA* Optical Fluid Analyzer
lb pound ohm-m ohm-meter
LDT* LithoDensity Tool OOIP original oil in place
LLS Laterolog Shallow p.u. porosity units
LQC Log Quality Control P10H Phase Shift Resistivity, 10 in.
LRT Layered Reservoir Test P16H Phase Shift Resistivity, 16 in.
LS long spacing detector P22H Phase Shift Resistivity, 22 in.
LTIV liner top isolation valve P28H Phase Shift Resistivity, 28 in.
LWD Logging While Drilling P34H Phase Shift Resistivity, 34 in.
A 2
APPENDIX
P3D Pseudo 3-Dimensional Rmf mud filtrate resistivity

P3D_LAT P3D Lateral Coupling Model ROBB Bulk density of the formation, Bottom quadrant
PAL* Pipe Analysis Log ROBL Bulk density of the formation, Left quadrant
Pb bubble point pressure ROBR Bulk density of the formation, Right quadrant
PCAL Phase Caliper ROBU Bulk density of the formation, Upper quadrant
PEB Photoelectric factor of the formation, Bottom Rps Resistivity Phase Shallow
quadrant RST* Reservoir Saturation Tool
PEF formation photoelectric factor Rt true resistivity
PEG Production Enhancement Group Rw resistivity of the water
PEL Photoelectric factor of the formation, Left quad- Rwa apparent resistivity of the water
rant
Rxo flushed zone resistivity
PER Photoelectric factor of the formation, Right
quadrant S sulfur
PEU Photoelectric factor of the formation, Upper s.u. saturation units

quadrant SAFE Slapper Actuated Firing Equipment
PEX* Platform Express SBNA near borehole sigma
PI productivity index Sc compressional slowness
PNC Pulsed Neutron Capture SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
PPA pound proppant added scf standard cubic feet
ppm parts per million SCR Schlumberger Cambridge Research
psi pounds per square inch SDI steam drive injection
psia pounds per square inch absolute SDRC Schlumberger Doll Research Center
psig pounds per square inch gauge sec second
PSR Phase Shift Resistivity SFFA far formation sigma
PVL Phase Velocity Log Si silica, silicon
PVS tracer ejector tool SIGMAT sigma matrix
PVT pressure-volume-temperature SIP Selective Inflow Performance test
RAB* Resistivity-at-the-Bit Tool SLIM1 Slim and Retrievable MWD
Rad Resistivity Attenuation Deep system
RANGDB Relative Angle Table SLSR UNIGAGE-Sapphire pressure gauge
RAZI Azimuthal resistivity SNUPAR Schlumberger Nuclear Parameter program
RB reservoir barrel SOS Sand Oil Squeeze
RBD Resistivity from the Button, Deep SP spontaneous potential
RBit Resistivity from the Bit SPAN Schlumberger Perforation Analysis software
RBM Resistivity from the Button, Medium SPF shots per foot
RBS Resistivity from the Button, Shallow SRS* Single Phase Reservoir Sampler
RF radio frequency Ss shear slowness
RFT* Repeat Formation Tester SS short spacing detector
RHOB Bulk density of the formation ss subsea
RRing Resistivity from the Ring STB stock-tank barrels
Rm mud resistivity STC Slowness Time Coherence
RMA regular mud acid Sw water saturation
3
UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
SWAA Shear Wave Amplitude Anisotropy

Swi irreducible water saturation
SXAR Schlumberger Explosion-
activated Automatic Release
SXPV Schlumberger Explosion-
activated Production Valve
TCP tubing-conveyed perforating system
Th thorium
Ti titanium
TLC* Tough Logging Conditions System
TLD* Three-Detector Lithology Density tool
TNPH Borehole corrected Thermal Neutron Porosity
of the
formation
TOC total organic content
TRAT near-to-far capture ratio
TSO tip screen-out
TVD true vertical depth
U uranium
UCI* Ultrasonic Corrosion Imager
USIT* Ultrasonic Imaging Tool
VDL Variable Density Log
VERD Vertical hole diameter
Vsh shale volume
VSP vertical seismic profile
W&S water and sediment
WBM water-based mud
WCQR UNIGAGE-CQG pressure gauge
WFL Water Flow Logging
WOR water-oil ratio
WTQR UNIGAGE-Quartz pressure gauge
WTSR UNIGAGE-HSapphire pressure gauge
XH (crude) extra-heavy
4
INDEX
A Clay Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir, 2.18

AAA, 3.17 % vs. chemical elements, 6.19 Eocene B and C, Ceuta, 7.31, 7.35, 7.36
Accretion surface, 8.8–8.10 acid, 7.1, 7.32, 7.34–7.37 Eocene, 1.10–1.12, Chapter 2
Activation mode, 6.11 determination algorithm, 6,19, 6.22, 6.23 Exploration, 1.18–1.22
ADN, 4.3, 4.6, 4.8 authigenic, 7.32, 8.2 drilling, 1.19
AIT, 4.12, 4.15, 5.44 volume prediction, 5.41 history, 1.18–1.22
Alpha processing, 4.13, 6.4, 6.5, 6.14 ClientLink, 7.8–7.38 Exploratory
Alpuf Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 CMR (see also NMR) activity, 1.18
Ambrosio Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 bound fluid, 4.29, 5.38, 5.42 success, 1.22
API gravity, classification, 2.1 carbonates, 5.36 EOP, 7.40
Apure, 2.3, 6.44 gas response, 5.12–5.17
ARC5, 3.20, 3.27, 4.3, 4.6, 4.7, 8.35, 8.39 heavy oils, 5.14, 5.29–5.34, 5.48 F
ASI, 8.26, 8.29 Job Planning, 4.27 Falcón Basin, 1.31, 2.3
ASR, 3.17 OBM, 5.44 FBS, 6.34
AVO, 8.28, 8.34 CMT, 6.41 FFI, 5.3, 5.4, 5.6
Azimuthal resistivity, 3.20, 4.5 Compaction, 2.10, 2.46 Fines
Compressional slowness, 6.16 content, 7.35
B Condensate formation of, 6.37, 7.37
B-6 reservoir, 3.13 gas cap, 2.30, 2.33 migration of, 7.1, 7.32–7.37
B-6-X.03 reservoir, 2.14 retrograde, 5.18, 5.19 FIV, 7.42, 7.44
Bachaquero, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 COR, 6.2, 6.4–6.10, 6.14–6.17, 6.33, 6.35 Flagship, Integrated Production Logging String,
Barinas, 2.3, 5.37, 6.40 Corrosion, 6.39 6.32, 6.34–6.36
Barinas-Apure Basin, 1.28, 1.29, 2.3 CQG quartz gauge, 5.30 FloView, see DEFT
Barúa Field, 1.1, 2.1, 4.29 Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir, 2.22 Flow Watcher, 6.42
BCF, 2.1, see Eastern Coast Cretaceous, 1.7–1.10, Chapter 2, 5.8, 7.25, 8.25 FLT, 5.47–5.49
BFV, 5.4, 5.6, 5.43 Cross-lamination sets, 8.8–8.10 Fluid density, 6.25, 6.29
BHA, 3.22, 3.24, 8.37 Crossed Dipole, 4.33 Fluid mobility, 5.8
Bit resistivity, 4.4, 4.5 CSAT, 8.21 Fluid properties
Bitor Area, 2.43 CSS, 8.29 by typical reservoir, see Reservoir
BOL, 3.16 Cumarebo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 variation with depth, 2.36, 2.38
Bolívar District Coast, 2.1, see Eastern Coast Fluorescence, 5.46–5.49
Borburata Field, 5.37 D FMI, 3.15, 5.34–5.36, 8.2, 8.9–8.11
Borehole Electric Imaging, 8.2, 8.8, 8.11, 8.15 Dación Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 Formation damage
Boscán Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 Data FRAC, 7.20, 7.22, 7.29 by drilling fluids, 3.7–3.13, 8.19
Bound Fluid Logging, 4.29 Decision tree analysis, 3.2–3.6 by perforating, 7.41–7.43
Bubble count, 6.28, 6.38 Deconvolution, 8.22 flow reduction due to, 7.12
Budare Field, 1.1, 2.3, 4.10 DEFT, 6.28–6.30, 6.35, 7.13 FracCADE, 7.26–7.29, 7.31
Bypassed zone, 6.2, 6,6–6.8, 7.6–7.10, 7.13 Depositional environment, see Sedimentary Fracture (induced)
analysis conductivity, 7.19, 7.23
C by typical reservoir, see Reservoir models, 7.24–7.31
Cabimas Field, 1.1, 2.2 Diffusion effects, 5.16 optimization, 7.24–7.31
Capture cross section, 6.17, 6.33 Dip magnitude, 8.12, 8.15, 8.17, 8.19 (fracture) stimulation, 7.24–7.26
Carbonates, 5.36, 5.38, 6.19, 6.22, 7.32, 8.2 Dolomitization, 8.19 TSO, 7.20–7.22
Carito Central Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.33 Drilling fluids, 3.7–3.13 Fracture (natural)
Caverns, 7.12 Drilling optimization, 4.10 carbonates, 8.11–8.19, 8.34
CBL, 7.38 Drive mechanism, 2.2 density, width and porosity, 8.14
CDR, 4.3, 4.9 by typical reservoir, see Reservoir geometry, 8.12
CEC, 5.40–5.42 DSI images, 8.16–8.19
Cement anisotropy, 3.15 morphology, 8.14
bond, 6.16, 6.38, 7.11, 7.17 Job Planning, 4.31 processes, 8.12–8.14
squeeze, 7.3 mechanical properties, 7.24–7.31 wrench-fault-related, 8.13, 8.16
Cenozoic, 1.10 porosity through casing, 6.15–6.17 FracView, 8.15
Center Lake, 2.2, 4.17, 6.46 principle, 4.33 FT-IR, 5.38–5.41, 6.22
Centro field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 Stoneley mobility, 5.8, 5.34
Cerro Negro, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43 G
Ceuta Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.18, 7.31–7.34 E Gel injection, 6.30
CFS, 6.34 Eastern Basin, 1.32 Geochronological unit, 1.42
Chemical elements, 5.40, 5.41, 6.19 Eastern Coast, 2.2 GeoFrame (see also ELAN, Fracview)
Chemostratigraphy, 6.25 EFI, 7.38 VSP processing, 8.21, 8.26, 8.30
CIRP, 7.42–7.44 El Furrial Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.37, 6.2, 6.8 Geological glossary, 1.41, 1.42
El Mene Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 Geology by reservoir, see Reservoir
El Roble Field, 1.1, 2.1 Geosteering, 3.19–3.28, 4.10, 8.35
ELAN, 3.14, 3.17, 4.30, 5.10, 5.29–5.32, GR
5.37, 5.48 limitations of, 6.18
End-point parameters, 5.41 spectroscopy, 6.19, 6.20
5
INDEX
Gravel pack, 6.6, 7.3, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8 Low-resistivity sand, 5.38–5.44 Oil/water contact, 6.6–6.8
Greater Anaco Area, 1.1, 2.4 Lower Lagunillas-04, 7.6, 7.7, 7.10, 7.21, 7.22 Oligocene, 1.13, 1.14, Chapter 2, 5.8, 6.46
Greater Las Mercedes Area, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5 Lower Lagunillas-05, 6.6, 7.21, 7.22 Orimulsión, 2.5, 2.43
Greater Oficina Area, 1.1, 2.3 Lower Lagunillas-07 reservoir, 2.11 Orinoco Belt, 2.5, 2.43, 5.18, 6.19
GST, 3.20, 4.5, 4.10 LQC, 4.14 Orinoco Belt evaluation, 5.28–5.36
Guafita Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 LRT, 6.24 Oritupano Field, 1.1, 2.1
Guárico Sub-Basin, 1.1, 1.32, 2.5 LTIV, 7.42, 7.44 Orocual Field, 8.24
LWD, 3.20, 3.22, 4.1–4.10, 4.15, 8.35, 8.36 Orthoclase, 5.41
H Oveja Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 2.28
HALS, 4.12, 4.14 M Overpressured zone, 8.27, 8.28
Hamaca , 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43 Machete, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
HGNS, 4.13 Mara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.22 P
HI, 5.5, 5.6, 5.12, 5.17 Maracaibo Basin, 1.23, 1.24, 2.1, 6.5, 8.8, 8.34, P & S mode, 4.33, 6.15
HNS pellet, 7.38, 7.39 8.35 P1/2 sand reservoir, 2.25, see Silvestre
Hold-up, 6.27, 6.28, 6.30, 6.32, 6.34, 6.35 Center Lake, 2.2 P2 sand reservoir, 2.40, see Pedernales
Hombre Pintado Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 Eastern Coast, 2.2 Paez-Mingo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Horizontal well (see also Geosteering) Western Coast, 2.2 PAL, 6.39
production logging of, 6.32–6.36 Mata Field, 1.1, 2.1 Paleocene, 1.10–1.12, Chapter 2
reservoir description around, 8.34–8.40 Maturín Sub-Basin, 1.37, 1.38, 2.3, 8.24 Paleogene, 1.10, 1.42
target selection of, 3.14 Greater Anaco Area , 2.4 Paleozoic, 1.5, 1.42
HSD, 7.38 Greater Oficina Area, 2.3 Pedernales Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.40, 6.44
Hydrocarbon classification, 5.8 North Monagas, 2.4 PEF, 4.7, 4.13, 4.14, 5.48
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela, Chapter 2 Orinoco Belt, 2.5 PEG, 6.6, 7.1, 7.6
HyPerSTIM, 7.19–7.23 South Monagas, 2.5 Perforating, 7.1, 7.37–7.44
MCFL, 4.13, 4.14, 5.32–5.34, 5.48, 5.49 standard procedures, 7.40, 7.41
MDT Permeability
I pressure profile, 3.15, 5.15, 5.30, 5.36, 6.25 build-up, 4.20–4.22
Image Examiner Workstation technique, 8.12 sampling, 5.20–5.24 evaluation, Chapter 6
IMPACT, 3.17, 3.18 Melones Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 4.13 K-L method, 6.24, 6.25
Inelastic Capture Mode, 6.10, 6.20 Mesozoic, 1.6, 1.42 NMR, 5.4, 5.5, 5.42
INFORM, 3.20, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 4.10, 8.34, METT, 6.39 SDR, 5.4
8.35, 8.38 Mineralogy, 5.39, 6.24, 6.25, Timur/Coates, 5.4, 5.13
Injection Miocene, Chapter 1 and 2, 7.4, 7.21, 7.23 with gas, 5.6
gas, 2.5, 2.16, 2.29, 2.32, 2.36, 7.6, 7.10 Monitoring with oil and water, 5.5
polymer gel, 6.9, 6.30, 7.13, 7.14, 7.16, 7.17 existing wells, Chapter 6 Petroleum Geology, Chapter 1
steam, 2.9 permanent, 6.41 Petrophysical properties by reservoir, see
water, 2.5, 2.16, 2.39, 6.6, 6.8, 6.37, 7.6, Morichal Member reservoir, 2.43 Reservoir
7.10, 7.11 Mud weight prediction, 3.17, 3.18 Pilón Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
water effluent, 2.13 MWD/LWD, 3.23, 3.25, 4.5 Plagioclase, 5.41
IPR, 6.44 Planning
IS, 6.2, 6.3, 6.10 N CMR job, 4.27
“Naricual Sands” reservoir, 2.33, DSI job, 4.31–4.32
J see Carito Central geosteering, 3.22
J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, 2.28 “Naricual Sands” reservoir, 2.37, RST job, 6.5
Jobo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.45 see El Furrial, 6.8 VSP job, 8.26
Jurassic, 1.6 NBS, 4.5 well, Chapter 3
Jusepín Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4 Neogene, 1.42, 2.14 well evaluation, 4.32, 4.34
NGS, 5.41 wireline job, 4.28–4.35
K
NMR (see also CMR) with INFORM, 3.24
Kaki Field, 1.1, 2.3 laboratory measurements, 5.3–5.6, 5.41 PLATFORM EXPRESS, 4.1, 4.11–4.18, 4.27, 4.30,
Kirchoff integral, 8.22, 8.26, 8.31 principles and petrophysics, 5.2–5.6 4.32, 5.36, 5.47, 5.48
NODAL, 6.7, 6.8, 7.1–7.4, 7.10, 7.27, 7.31 Pleistocene, Chapter 1 and 2
L
North Monagas, 2.4, 5.8, 5.12, 5.18, 5.26, 5.27, Pliocene, Chapter 1 and 2, 8.20, 8.24
La Concepción Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
6.46, 7.5, 7.25 PNC, 6.2, 6.3, 6.12
La Ensenada Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
NRS, 5.26 Polarization horn, 3.26
La Paz Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
La Vela Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 Porosity
O
La Victoria Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 buoyancy, 5.3, 5.43
OBM, 3.11, 3.12, 4.28, 5.5, 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.20,
Lagunillas Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.11 CMR, 5.12–5.14, 5.32, 5.37, 5.42, 5.48
5.44, 6.40
Lama Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 Neutron, 4.2, 4.7, 4.13, 5.41, 6.12
OFA, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, 5.47
Lamar Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 NMR, 5.3, 5.36, 5.42, 5.43
Oficina Central Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Lithology through casing, 6.12, 6.17
Oil field
independent porosity, 5.36–5.38 PosiSet plug, 7.17, 7.18
geographical location, 2.1
through casing, 6.17–6.23 Precambrian, 1.4, 1.42, 5.28
map of, 1.2
Oil saturation behind casing, 7.8–7.10
6
INDEX
Pressure evaluation, Chapter 6 S T

Pressure gauge SAFE, 7.38 Tar, 5.28, 5.10–5.17
metrology, 4.19 Sampling Tarra Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
performance, 4.19–4.26 North Monagas, 5.27 TCP, 7.39, 7.42
PressureWatcher, 6.42 reservoir fluid, 5.18–5.28 Tía Juana (lake) reservoir, 2.14
Production San Joaquín Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4 Tía Juana (onshore) reservoir, 2.8
by typical reservoir, see Reservoir Sand production, 7.5, 7.12 Tía Juana Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.7, 6.2, 6.6, 7.6
Venezuela, 2.6 Santa Ana Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4 TLC, 4.5, 4.6, 4.15
Production Santa Bárbara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 5.12, 7.25 TLD, 4.13
enhancement, Chapter 7 Santa Rosa Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4 Transient pressure, gauge metrology effect on,
gap, 7.3 Saturation through casing, 6.2–6.11, 4.20–4.22
logging, 6.27–6.36 7.8–7.10, 7.13 Triassic, 1.6
optimization, 6.46 Sedimentary analysis, 8.2–8.10 Truncation surface, 8.8–8.10
Proppant, 7.21, 7.23 Seismic profile TSO fracturing, 7.20, 7.21
PumpWatcher, 6.42 multiazimuth walkaway, 8.28–8.34
PVL, 6.33, 6.35 multioffset, 8.20–8.33 U
PVT, 4.1, 5.19, 5.20, 5.22, 5.24, 5.26, 5.28 vertical, see VSP UCI, 6.39
Sensors, permanent downhole, 6.47 UNIGAGE, 4.23- 4.26
Q Shoulder effect, 8.36 Universal Pressure Platform, 4.21–4.26
Quartz-feldspar-mica, 6.20, 6.22 Sigma/porosity database, 6.13 Urdaneta Field, 1.1, 2.2, 8.28 (West)
Quiriquire Field, 1.1, 2.1 Sigma, 5.41, 6.2, 6.9–6.13, 6.34 USIT, 6.38, 6.39, 6.40, 7.9
Silvestre Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 2.25
R V
SIP, 6.24
RAB, 4.4, 4.6, 4.7, 8.19, 8.35, 8.36 Viscosity determination, 5.30–5.32
SLIM1, 3.27
Relaxation, 5.2, 5.3, 5.5 VDL, 6.41
SNUPAR, 5.40
Reserves VSP
SOS, 7.19, 7.21–7.23
by typical reservoir, see Reservoir data acquisition, 8.21, 8.25, 8.29
South Monagas, 2.5
history, 1.20 GeoFrame software, 8.30
SPAN, 7.10
recoverable, 5.19 interpretation, 8.23, 8.27
Spectrolith, 5.41, 6.19–6.25
Venezuela, 2.6 overpressured zone, 8.27
Spinner measurements, 6.34
Reservoir processing, 8.21, 8.26, 8.30
SRS, 5.25
B-6-X.03, Tía Juana, 2.14 ray-trace modeling, 8.20, 8.26, 8.29
STC, 4.34, 6.15
C-5, Lagocinco, 7.14, 7.15
Stimulation (see Fracture, Induced)
Cretaceous, DM-115, West Mara, 2.22 W
Stoneley (see DSI)
description around the well, Chapter 8 Water cut prediction, 5.38–5.44
Stratigraphic column
Eocene “C”/VLG-3676, Ceuta, 2.18 Water front monitoring, 6.8
Barinas-Apure, 1.28,
fluid sampling, 5.18–5.28 Water production, 7.1, 7.11–7.18
Lake Maracaibo, 1.23
fractured, 8.11–8.19 problems, 7.12
Maracaibo Basin, 1.23
J-03 (OM-100), Oveja, 2.28 Water saturation, 5.30, 5.38, 5.43, 5.44, 6.2–6.9,
Maturín, 1.38
LL-07, Lagunillas, 2.11 7.8–7.10
Stratigraphic nomenclature
management, 6.42, 6.45 WBM, 3.11, 5.10, 5.20
Greater Oficina Area, 2.3
Morichal Member, Bitor Area, 2.43 Well construction, 3.2, 3.4
Miocene, 2.2
“Naricual Sands,” Carito Central, 2.33 Well performance, 7.2, 7.3
Stress direction, 3.15–3.17
“Naricual Sands,” El Furrial, 2.37 repair, 7.9, 7.10
Subsidence, 2.10
P1/2, Silvestre, 2.25 Well planning, Chapter 3
SWAA, 3.17
P2, Pedernales, 2.40 Wellbore geometry, 3.5
Swelling effect, 7.33
permanent monitoring, 6.41–6.47 Wellbore stability, 3.15–3.18
SXAR, 7.39
R-14-COEF, Santa Rosa, 2.30 WellWatcher, 6.42
SXPV, 7.39
Tía Juana, 2.8 West Mara Field, 2.2, 2.22, 8.12, 8.14–8.16
typical, map, 2.7 Western Coast, 2.2
Resistivity modeling (see INFORM) Wettability, 5.5
Rigless workover, 7.17 WFL, 6.30, 6.31–6.34, 7.13
Risk analysis, 3.3–3.6 WOR, 7.12, 7.14
RMA, 7.35, 7.36
RST Y
flow measurements, Yield to element, 6.21
gas, 6.33, 6.35 Yopales Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Job Planning, 6.5
Z
lithology, 6.17–6.23
Zone Aid, 7.28–7.31
porosity, 6.12–6.17
Zuata, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2,43, 5.29, 5.35
principle, 6.10
saturation, 6.2–6.9, 7.8–7.10
water flow, 6.30, 6.35
7


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© 2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

CARACAS, DECEMBER 1997

© 2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

© 2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

Venezuelan hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Schlumberger Oilfield Services

© 2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

The preparation of this book

with the assistance of:

and the support of:

© 2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

© 2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

Petroleum Geology of Venezuela

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

100,000 m 200,000 m 300,000 m 400,000 m 500,000 m 600,000 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000

Gulf of Venezuela La Vela

W.Mara Las Palmas FALCON

b Dakoa Copa Macoya

Oil + Condensate field River

Location map of oil fields in Venezuela.

00 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000 m 1,000,000 m 1,100,000 m 1,200,000 m 1,300,000 m 1,400,000 m

Margarita Island Patao

Los Teques Tu MONAGAS

ver Aguasay Casma

Budare Elotes Oficina Dación Lobo Adas

00 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000 m

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

GENERAL GEOLOGY PRECAMBRIAN

Figure 1.2 Precambrian terranes

ult of these terranes; those located north of the

Paleozoic and Cenozoic Cuchivero

Basement Guayana Shield Province

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Figure 1.3 Distribution

Lower Reclamation actual Andes and Maracaibo Basin.

Colombia Guayana Shield Paleozoic allochthonous terranes include

Figure 1.4 In Venezuela, the Pangean continent

73˚ Guajira 63˚ N

Distribution of Jurassic rocks: 1) in Perijá Range; 2) as part of the economic

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Figure 1.6 Cretaceous

Guayana near the south of Machiques Trough, to only

Shield a few meters thick in some places of the

Perijá and Eastern

Carbonate Reservoir Sand / Seal Pairs Source Rock

Sand / Sandstone Reservoir Seal The Querecual Formation

GENERAL GEOLOGY MESOZOIC

Figure 1.8 Late Cretaceous. The distribution of

moving from east to west and invading the

south of Venezuela, which had been

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Figure 1.9 The Guayuta Group is thickest in North-

Perijá and North-Andean South-Andean North of Southern Flank Eastern

Y "Río Chávez" , Querecual,

Reservoir (Carbonate) Sand / Seal Pairs Source Rock

Reservoir (Sandy) Seal

GENERAL GEOLOGY CENOZOIC

Orocue/Mirador = Barco-Los Cuervos-Mirador-Carbonera Fms. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)

= Direction of sediment supply = Exposed areas

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Figure 1.12 On the other hand, during the

Antilles Atlantic the transitional and coastal-marine sediments