GENERAL INORGANIC

CHEMISTRY
UPLB ChE Alumni Association Review
CHEMISTRY

• Study of matter and its composition,

properties and transformations including
the energy changes accompanying it.
• Matter
• Anything that has mass and occupies
space.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

A. Intrinsic/intensive Properties
•Independent on the amount of
material
•Ex: freezing point, density, hardness
B. Extrinsic/extensive Properties
•Dependent on the amount of material
•Ex: mass, length, volume
QUESTION

Identify whether the given properties are

intrinsic or extrinsic.
1. Color
2. Viscosity
3. Number of moles
4. Specific volume
5. Mass
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

A. Physical Properties
• Do not involve a change on the type of
substance present
• Ex: malleability, solubility, hardness
B. Chemical Properties
• Involve a change on the type of substance
present (chemical reaction)
• Ex: corrosion, combustion
QUESTION

• Identify whether the following phenomena

involves physical change or chemical change
1. Rusting of iron
2. Dissolving sugar in water
3. Burning of wood
4. Rebonding of hair
5. Flattening of copper wires
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

• Based on Physical states

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

• Based on Physical states

4. Plasma – ionized gas (due to
high energy)
5. Bose-Einstein Condensate –
bosons cooled to near absolute
zero
6. Fermionic Condensate –
fermions cooled to near
absolute zero
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

• Based on Composition
 PURE SUBSTANCE

• Consists of one type of atom, molecule or

fixed set of atoms (ions).
1. Elements – consist only of one type of
atom (e.g. Na, H2)
2. Compounds- chemical combination of
two or more different atoms (e.g.
NaOH, H2O)
MIXTURE

• Consists of physically combined

elements and/or compounds
1. Homogeneous Mixture (Solution)
Has a uniform appearance
2. Heterogeneous Mixture
Phase boundaries are clearly seen
Colloids and Suspensions
QUESTION

Identify the following if they are element,

compound, solution, colloid or suspension
1. River water
2. Stainless steel
3. Copper wire
4. Alum
5. Mayonnaise
6. Emulsions
CHEMICAL LAWS
Law of Conservation of Mass

• The total mass of substances present after a chemical

reaction is the same as the total mass of substances
before the reaction.
Sample Problem:
A 0.455 g sample of magnesium is allowed to burn in
2.315 g of oxygen gas. The sole product is magnesium
oxide. After the reaction, no magnesium remains and
the mass of unreacted oxygen is 2.015 g. What mass of
magnesium oxide is produced?
Answer:
 Law of Constant Composition

• All samples of a compound have the same composition – the

same proportion by mass of the constituent elements.
Empirical Formula
 Indicates only the ratios of atoms in a compound; may also be
the molecular formula.

Example:
Analysis showed that a liquid sample contains 84.1% C and
15.9% H. What is the empirical formula of the compound? If
the actual molar mass is 114.2 g/mol, what is its molecular
formula?
Answer:
 Law of Multiple Proportion

• If two elements form more than a single compound, the

masses of one element combined with a fixed mass of
the second are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ENERGY EMISSION OF MATTER

𝑐 𝜆 = wavelength
𝜆= c = speed of light (2.998 x108 𝑚 𝑠 )
𝜈 𝜈 = frequency
ENERGY EMISSION OF MATTER

• Some atoms emit light when exposed to high energy.

This is a result of the movement of electrons from a
higher to lower energy level which is accompanied
by the release of energy.
• Rydberg Equation:
1 1 1
= 𝑅( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑦𝑑𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (0.01097 𝑛𝑚−1 )

𝑛𝑖 = initial or higher energy level
𝑛𝑓 = final or lower energy level
 ENERGY EMISSION OF MATTER

• For hydrogen

n1 n2 Name Converge toward

1 2 → ∞ Lyman series 91.13 nm (UV)
Balmer 364.51 nm
2 3→∞
series (Visible)
Paschen
3 4→∞ 820.14 nm (IR)
series
Brackett 1458.03 nm (Far
4 5→∞
series IR)
2278.17 nm (Far
5 6 → ∞ Pfund series
IR)
Humphreys 3280.56 nm (Far
6 7→∞
series IR)
ENERGY EMISSION OF MATTER

• Max Planck – blackbody radiation; energy

emitted by matter is quantized (discreet
amount) and directly proportional to
frequency.

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆

ℎ = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (6.626 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)

ENERGY EMISSION OF MATTER

• Albert Einstein – photoelectric effect

(irradiating a metal surface causes ejection
of electron).

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜙 + 𝐾𝐸

𝜙 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝜈0

−minimum energy required to knock out an electron
ℎ𝜈0 = threshold frequency
– minimum energy required to knock out an electron
KE = kinetic energy of the electron = 0.5𝑚𝑣 2
QUESTION

What is the maximum wavelength of light

that can remove an electron from the
surface of a metal if its work function is
279.7 kJ/mol e- ?

Answer:
QUESTION

What is the maximum kinetic energy

released an electron of rubidium have if
the metal needs 208.4 kJ to remove one
mole of electrons? The metal is irradiated
by 279 nm light.

Answer:
ENERGY EMISSION OF MATTER

• Louie de Broglie – wave-like property of

matter
𝐸 ℎ𝑐 ℎ
𝑚= 2= 2=
𝑐 𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑐
• Replacing c with v to represent matter
instead of light
ℎ
𝑚=
𝜆v
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
OF THE ATOM

• Electrons in an atom are not exactly located

i.e. it does no follow a definite orbit.
• Only the probability of finding it in a position
in space can be determined, which is called
an orbital.
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

• Mode of “identification” of each electron in an

atom
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
main shell/energy level
allowable values: 1, 2, 3, …
Orbital
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
subshell/sub-energy level
allowable values: 0, 1, 2, … (n-1)
QUANTUM NUMBERS

• Example: For the fifth main energy

level, what are the orbitals present?
n value l value orbital
5 0 5s
1 5p
2 5d
3 5f
4 5g
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

3. Spin Quantum Number (ms)

 allowable values: +1/2 and -1/2
 led to Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
4. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
 dictates the spatial orientation of orbital
 basis for the number of electrons
 allowable values: -l to +l
l value ml Maximum number of Total number of
electrons electrons
-1 2
1 0 2 6
(p subshell)
+1 2
QUESTION

1. Determine of the following sets of quantum

numbers are possible or not.
a. n = 3, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = -1/2
b. n = 1, l = 1, ml = +1, ms = -1/2

2. What is the maximum electron capacity of

the fourth main energy level?
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

• Describe the arrangement of electrons in an

element or ion
• Aufbau principle
• The (n+l) rule
the lower n+l is filled; if the same the one
with lower n is filled.
• Hund’s rule
Applies in degenerate orbitals
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Example: C (6e)
Condensed EC: 1s2 2s2 2p2
Expanded EC: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
Noble Gas Core EC: [He] 2s2 2p2
Valence Electron EC: 2s2 2p2
Orbital diagram:
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Example: Na ion (10 e)

Condensed EC: 1s2 2s2 2p6
Expanded EC: 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p2
Noble Gas Core EC: [He] 2s2 2p6
Orbital diagram:
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Example: Cl- (18 e)

Condensed EC: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Expanded EC: 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p2 3s2
3p2 3p2 3p2
Noble Gas Core EC: [Ne] 3s2 3p6
Orbital diagram:
 PERIODIC TABLE

• Dobereiner – triads
• Newlands – every
eight elements has
similar properties
(octaves)
• Meyer and Mendeleev
– recurring properties
PERIODIC TABLE

• Groups
columns in a periodic table
elements that have similar properties

• Periods
rows in periodic table
elements that have similar energy
level
ATOMIC PROPERTIES

1. Atomic size – measured by atomic

radius
2. Ionization energy - energy required to
remove an electron from a gaseous
atom
3. Electronegativity – ability of an atom to
attract electrons in a covalent bond
4. Affinity for electron – likelihood of an
atom to attract electrons
 ATOMIC PROPERTIES

General Trend
Property Across a period Down a group
M (Metallic property)
A (Atomic size)
Decreasing Increasing
R (Reactivity)
C (Tendency to form a cation)
A (tendency to form anion)
E (affinity for electrons)
Increasing Decreasing
E (electronegativity)
I (ionization energy)
QUESTION

Arrange the following elements:

Ne, K, O, Si

1. Increasing atomic radius

2. In decreasing tendency to form anion
CHEMICAL BONDING
CHEMICAL BONDING

1. Metallic bond – the force of attraction

between the delocalized free
electrons and metal ions
CHEMICAL BONDING

2. Ionic bond – electrostatic attraction of

cations and anions which are formed
due to transfer of electrons
CHEMICAL BONDING

3. Covalent bond – sharing of electrons;

formed by the overlap of the orbitals
of atoms
CHEMICAL BONDING

4. Network covalent bond – repeating

lattices of covalent bonds
 CHEMICAL BONDING

5. Coordinate covalent bond –formed

between a transition metal and ligand; only
one atom provides the two electrons
required for bonding
Symbol: [Cu(H2O)6]2+
Ligand: H2O
Primary Valence (oxid’n state of metal): 2
Secondary Valence/Coordination number: 6
Name of Complex:
Stock system: hexaaquacopper(II)
Ewing-Basset: hexaaquacopper(2+)
 CHEMICAL BONDING

Common Ligands
Symbol Name Ligand name Charge
H 2O Water Aqua 0
NH3 Ammonia Ammine 0
NO Nitrogen monoxide Nitrosyl 0
H3N(CH2)2NH3 Ethylenediamine Ethylenediamine 0
NO2- Nitrite Nitro -1
ONO- Nitrite Nitroso -1
NO2- Nitrate Nitrato -1
X- halide Halo/Halido -1
 NAMING COORDINATE COMPLEX

1. Ligands that act as anions which end in "-ide" are replaced with an
ending "-o" (e.g., Chloride → Chloro). Anions ending with "-ite" and "-
ate" are replaced with endings "-ito" and "-ato" respectively (e.g., Nitrite
→ Nitrito, Nitrate → Nitrato).
2. Most neutral molecules that are ligands carry their normal name. The
few exceptions are the first four on the chart: ammine, aqua, carbonyl,
and nitrosyl.
3. The number of ligands present in the complex is indicated with the
prefixes di, tri, etc. The exceptions are polydentates that have a prefix
already in their name (en and EDTA4- are the most common). When
indicating how many of these are present in a coordination complex,
put the ligand's name in parentheses and use bis, tris, and tetrakis.
Prefixes always go before the ligand name; they are not taken into
account when putting ligands in alphabetical order. Note that "mono"
often is not used.
 NAMING COORDINATE COMPLEX

4. When naming the metal center, you must know the formal metal
name and the oxidation state. To show the oxidation state, we use
Roman numerals inside parenthesis.
5. If the overall coordination complex is an anion, the ending "-ate" is
attached to the metal center. Some metals also change to their Latin
names in this situation. Ex. Copper +2 will change into
cuprate(II). The rest of the metals simply have -ate added to the end
(cobaltate, nickelate, zincate, osmate, cadmate, platinate, mercurate,
etc. Note that the -ate tends to replace -um or -ium, if present).
6. Finally, when a complex has an overall charge, "ion" is written after it.
This is not necessary if it is neutral or part of a coordination
compound.
7. When naming a coordination compound, it is important that you name
the cation first, then the anion.
 NAMING COORDINATE COMPLEX

4. When naming the metal center, you must know the formal metal
name and the oxidation state. To show the oxidation state, we use
Roman numerals inside parenthesis.
5. If the overall coordination complex is an anion, the ending "-ate" is
attached to the metal center. Some metals also change to their Latin
names in this situation. Ex. Copper +2 will change into
cuprate(II). The rest of the metals simply have -ate added to the end
(cobaltate, nickelate, zincate, osmate, cadmate, platinate, mercurate,
etc. Note that the -ate tends to replace -um or -ium, if present).
6. Finally, when a complex has an overall charge, "ion" is written after it.
This is not necessary if it is neutral or part of a coordination
compound.
7. When naming a coordination compound, it is important that you name
the cation first, then the anion.
NAMING COORDINATE COMPLEX

1. The Stock system puts the calculated oxidation

number of the metal ion as a Roman numeral in
parentheses after the name of the metal. This is the
more common convention, although there are
cases in which it is difficult to assign oxidation
numbers.
2. The Ewing-Bassett system puts the charge on the
coordination sphere in parentheses after the name
of the metal. In either case, if the charge is
negative, the suffix -ate is added to the name of the
coordination sphere. Examples:
WRITING FORMULA OF
COORDINATE COMPLEX
QUESTION

1. Symbol: [CoCl4]2-
Ligand:
Primary Valence (oxid’n state of metal):
Secondary Valence/Coordination number:
Name of Complex:
Stock system:
Ewing-Basset:

2. Symbol:
Ligand:
Primary Valence (oxid’n state of metal):
Secondary Valence/Coordination number:
Name of Complex:
Stock system:
Ewing-Basset: potassium hexanitrocobaltate(3-)
THE MOLECULE
AND ITS INTERACTIONS
GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES

• Arises from the Valence Shell Electron Pair

Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory which states that
the spaces between the electron clouds
should be maximized in order to minimize the
repulsion
Note:
lone pair–lone pair repulsion > lone pair–bonding
pair > bonding pair–bonding pair
GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES

LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP

GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES
GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES
POLARITY OF MOLECULES

• Arises from the unequal sharing of electrons

in a covalent bond
• The extent of unequal sharing is measured
by the electronegativity difference.
POLARITY OF MOLECULES

Example:

nonpolar polar
Note: Presence of polar bond/s and
geometry of molecule
QUESTION

Determine if the following molecules are polar

or nonpolar.
1. HCl
2. BF3
3. CCl4
4. NH3
5. CH3Cl
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

Van Der Waals Forces

 The collective term for the London Dispersion
Forces (LDF) and dipole-dipole interaction
(DDI).

A. London Dispersion
Forces (LDF)
 temporary/instantaneous
dipole
 exist in all molecules and
the atoms of noble gases
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

LDF is dependent on two factors:

1. Molar mass – higher MM, higher LDF
2. Arrangement – more linear, higher LDF

Example: Arrange the following in increasing IMFA.

butane, 2-methylpropane, Cl2, CH4, H2, Xe
Answer:
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

B. Dipole-dipole Interaction
exhibited by polar molecules only
permanent dipole (not instantaneous)
strength is dependent on the polarity of the
molecule
generally stronger than LDF
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

Ion-dipole Interaction
 technically not an IMFA
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

C. Hydrogen bonding
 Special type of DDI, present if
the hydrogen atom is bonded to
a highly electronegative atom
(O, N, F)
 Attraction between H atom in a
one molecule an atom of O, N,
F in a another molecule
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

General Guidelines for Assessment

1. If the difference in the molar masses are
significantly large (>10 g/mol), LDF will
dominate.
2. If the difference in the molar masses are
not significantly large, DDI will dominate.
3. If there is hydrogen bonding, it will
dominate.
QUESTION

Arrange the following molecules in

increasing IMFA.

N2, F2, NOCl, Cl2, CCl4, H2O

Answer:
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

Some properties that are affected by IMFA

• Directly proportional
Boiling/melting point
Heat of vaporization/fusion
Viscosity
Surface tension
• Inversely proportional
Vapor pressure
MOLE CONCEPT
QUESTION

• Allows the quantification of the number of

particles a pure substance has.
• Conversions:

NA = 6.02x1023 particles/mole
QUESTIONS

How many oxygen atoms are there in

80.93 grams of C3H5(NO3) 3?

Answer:
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTION

• Homogeneous mixture
• Consists of a solute and a solvent

Solute – usually present in small amount

Solvent – does not change its phase in
the formation of solution
SOLUTION

How it is formed?
interaction of solute-solvent particles is stronger
than the solute-solute and solvent-solvent
particles.
SOLUTION

Expressions of Concentration
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
1. 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
2. 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
3. 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑛𝑀

𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝐻 + , 𝑂𝐻 − , 𝑒 −
SOLUTION

Expressions of Concentration
𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
4. % 𝑤 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
x 100

𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)

5. % 𝑣 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑙)
x 100
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
6. 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
=
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝜇𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
7. 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
=
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
QUESTION

Convert 0.9331 M Mg(OH)2 (density of

solution is 1.12 g/mL) to the following units of
concentration.
1. Normality
2. %w/v
3. ppm
4. Molality
TYPES OF SOLUTION

Solubility (s) – maximum amount of solute that

can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
at specific temperature.

1. Unsaturated solution: c < s

2. Saturated solution: c = s
3. Supersaturated solution: c > s
TYPES OF SOLUTION
 QUESTION
3.00 g solute X

Determine the type of -add 20 mL dH20 at 20°C

solution. The solubility Clear, colorless sol’n (1)

of X is 0.194 and -add more 1.10 g then filter

0.453 g/mL at 20°C

Filtrate Residue
and 60°C respectively. Clear, colorless sol’n (2)

-add 4.08 g X and heat to 60°C

Answer: (1.0 mL H20 was vaporized)

1. Clear, colorless sol’n (3)

2. -cool to 20°C

3. Clear, colorless sol’n (4)

4. -add 0.20 g seed X then filter

5.
Filtrate Residue
Clear, colorless sol’n (5)
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

• Properties of solutions that depend on the amount

of solute but not its nature.

1. Boiling point elevation

𝜟𝑻𝒃 = 𝑻𝒃 − 𝑻𝒐𝒃 = 𝒌𝒃 𝒎
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑏𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑏 = 𝑒𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2. Freezing point depression

𝜟𝑻𝒇 = 𝑻𝒐𝒇 − 𝑻𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇 𝒎
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑏𝑜 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑓 = 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

3. Vapor pressure lowering

𝜟𝑷 = 𝒙𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑜
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

4. Osmotic pressure
𝝅 = 𝑪𝑹𝑻
𝜋 = 𝑜𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
QUESTION

1. A 75.00 g sample of a compound is dissolved in 750.00

g benzene (kf = 5.12 °C/molal). The freezing point of the
solution is 1.00°C below that of pure benzene. What is
the molar mass of the compound?
Answer:
2. How many kilograms of anti-freeze (MM=68.3 g/mol)
must be added to a radiator containing 7.00 L of water
if the winter temperature in the area is -20°C? What is
the boiling point of the antifreeze solution?
Answers:
REDOX REACTIONS
 REDOX REACTONS

• Reactions wherein electrons are transferred.

 Reduction – gain of electron/s
 Oxidation – loss of electron/s
 Oxidizing agent – species that causes oxidation; being
reduced
 Reducing agent – species that causes reduction; being
oxidized
GEROA - LEORA
 OXIDATION STATES

1. The OS of a free/elemental state is zero. (O2, P4, Na, Ca)

2. Monoatomic ions have OS equal to their charges. (Na+:+1, Cl-: -1)

3. The OS of F is always -1.

4. The OS of Group I is always +1 and Group II is always +2.

5. Halogens have OS of -1 if in binary anionic form.

6. Oxygen is mostly -2 except for peroxide (-1), superoxide (-1/2) and

OF2 (+2)

7. Hydrogen is always +1 except as hydrides (-1).

8. The sum of the OS is equal to the overall sum of the a polyatomic

ion or molecule.
QUESTION

Identify the oxidation states of each atom.

1. NaOH – Na: ; O: ; H:
2. K2O2 – K: ; O:
3. Cr3+ - Cr:
4. MnO4 – Mn: ; O:
5. K2Cr2O7 – K: ; O: ; Cr:
QUESTION

Identify whether the following reactions are

redox reactions.
1. NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
2. 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
3. Na2SO4 + CaCl2  2NaCl + CaSO4
4. CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
5. Cu + 2AgNO3  2Ag + Cu(NO3) 2
 VOLTAIC CELL

• Uses the electron transfer to produce electrical energy

• Runs on a spontaneous reaction (the cell potential is
positive)

Oxidation Reduction
Cu  Cu2+ + 2e- 2Ag+ + 2e -  2Ag

Overall cell reaction: Cu + 2Ag+  Cu2+ + 2Ag

 ELECTROLYTIC CELL

• Uses electricity to drive a non-spontaneous reaction

(the cell potential is negative).

Cathode: Anode:
Reduction oxidation

Zn2+ + 2e -  Zn Cu  Cu2+ + 2e-

Overall cell reaction: Cu + Zn2+  Cu2+ + Zn

REDUCTION POTENTIAL TABLE

Note:

• If the potential of
a reaction is more
positive, its
reaction is more
probable to occur
than the opposite
reaction.

• The oxidation
potential is just
the opposite sign
of the reduction
potential
CORROSION

• A spontaneous reaction
wherein a metal is
converted to its
ionic/oxidized form.

• Which metals can be

used as a protective
coating to prevent the
rusting of iron?
Answer:
CHEMICAL
STOICHIOMETRY
CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY

• Shows the quantitative molar relationship between

the reactants and products.
Consider the reaction:

2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂

• It can be said that 2 moles of H2 will react with 1

mole of O2 to form 2 moles of H2O.
CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY

• Limiting reactant (LR)

• Dictates/limits the amount of product formed
• Consumed entirely in the reaction
• Excess Reactant (ER)
• Does not get entirely consumed in the
reaction
• Percent Yield
• Ratio of the actual product formed to the
theoretical product
CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY

Example:

𝐶𝐻3 𝑁𝑂2 + 3𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐶𝑙3 𝑁𝑂2 + 3 𝐻𝐶𝑙

1. At least how many grams of each reactant must be
used to produce 9.70 moles of HCl.
Answer:
 CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY

Example:
𝐶𝐻3 𝑁𝑂2 + 3𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐶𝑙3 𝑁𝑂2 + 3 𝐻𝐶𝑙
2. If 50.00 g of each reactant are made to react,
a. Which is the LR?
b. How many grams of CCl3NO2 will be produced?
c. How many grams of the ER will remain unreacted?
d. What is the percent yield if the actual yield is 36.83 g?
Answers:
a. 1
b. 1
c. 1
d. d
CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

• Some chemical reactions do not proceed completely.

• The state of a chemical reaction in which its forward and
reverse reactions occur at equal rates so that the
concentration of the reactants and products does not
change with time.
• Consider the equilibrium reaction:
𝑎𝐴 𝑔 + 𝑏𝐵(𝑔) ↔ 𝑐𝐶 𝑔 + 𝑑𝐷(𝑔)

• Law of Mass action - the rate of any chemical reaction is

proportional to the product of the masses of the reacting
substances, with each mass raised to a power equal to
the coefficient that occurs in the chemical equation.
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Chemical Equilibrium Constant (Keq)

• Can be expressed in terms of concentration or partial
pressure.
For the previous reaction:

[𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑 𝑃𝐶𝑐 𝑃𝐷

𝑑
𝐾𝑐 = 𝐾𝑝 =
[𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏 𝑃𝐴𝑎 𝑃𝐵𝑏

𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾𝑐 (𝑅𝑇)Δ𝑛
Δ𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 − 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
Note: Only gases and aqueous states are included in the equilibrium
expression.
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Example:
1. A 1.0 L vessel initially contains 2.0 moles of NO2
and SO2. What are the concentrations of all the
species at equilibrium? Keq = 5.4

𝑆𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝑁𝑂2 𝑔 ↔ 𝑆𝑂3(𝑔) + 𝑁𝑂(𝑔)

Answer:
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Example:
2. The equilibrium constant, Kp, of the decomposition
of CaCO3 (solid limestone) into solid quicklime
(CaO) and CO2 at 1200 K is 1. What must be the
partial pressure of CO2 ? Find Kc for the reaction.

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) ↔ 𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Answer:
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE

If a system in equilibrium is disturbed by stress, the

system will readjust itself to achieve a new equilibrium.
Factors:
1. Concentration – shift toward the removed component,
or away from the added component
2. Temperature – depends if endothermic or exothermic;
treat the temperature change as chemical species
3. Pressure – shift towards the side where there is more
moles of gas (decrease in pressure), or less moles of
gas (increase in pressure)
 QUESTION

Predict the effect of the different stresses on the

species concerned.

2𝐴(𝑔) + 3𝐵(𝑔) ↔ 4𝐶(𝑔) ∆𝐻 = (−)

Stress applied Shift Species affected Effect

Removal of A C
Increase in temperature B
Addition of neon gas B
Decreasing the volume of A
system
Addition of catalyst C
 ACIDS AND BASES

Produces Bronsted-Lowry Lewis

Acid H3O+ Proton donor Electron-pair
acceptor
Base OH- Proton acceptor Electron-pair donor

Strong electrolytes – fully dissociate into ions in aqueous solutions.

Strong acids – HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4
Strong bases – hydroxides of groups I and II elements

Weak electrolytes – do not fully dissociate into ions in aqueous

solutions.
Weak acids – common: organic acids
Weak bases – common: amines
QUESTION

1. What is the pH of a 0.040 M HCl?

Answer:

2. What is the pH of 0.10 M acetic acid? (pKa

= 4.74)
Answer:
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
CONSTANT
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
CONSTANT

• Describes systems of solutions that contain solutes

with relatively low solubility

𝑦+ 𝑥−
𝑀𝑥 𝐴𝑦 (𝑠) ↔ 𝑥𝑀 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑦𝐴 (𝑎𝑞)

𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝑀 𝑦+ ]𝑥 [𝐴𝑥− ]𝑦
QUESTION

1. Which salt is more soluble in water? Silver chloride

(Ksp = 1.77x10-10) or plumbous chloride (Ksp =
1.70x10-5)?
Answer:

2. Calculate the solubility of RaSO4 (Ksp = 4.0x10-11)

in water and in 0.10 M Na2SO4?
Answer:
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Nuclide Notation
𝐴
𝑍𝑋
𝐴 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑍 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
Particles involving decay

1. Alpha particle ( 42𝛼 ) 4. Gamma ray ( 00𝛾 )

2. Beta particle ( −10𝛽 ) 5. Neutron ( 10𝑛 )

3. Positron particle ( +10𝛽 ) 6. Proton ( 11𝑝 )

 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Nuclear Stability
1. More than 84 protons –
unstable
2. Neutron to proton ratio > 1 –
unstable
3. Even number protons and
neutrons – stable
4. Magic numbers of protons
and neutrons (2, 8, 20, 28
,50, 82, 126) – stable
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
BALANCING NUCLEAR
REACTIONS

The mass number and atomic number of both

sides should be equal.
132
1. 254
98𝐶𝑓 →
118
46𝑃𝑑 + 52𝑇𝑒 + ____ 10𝑛

2. 73𝐿𝑖 + 10𝑛 → 31𝐻 + 10𝑛 + ____

3. Positron emission from K-37

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Types of Radioactive decay

1. Alpha emission
2. Beta emission
3. Positron emission
4. Electron capture
5. Gamma emission
RADIOACTIVE DECAY

• All radioactive decays follow the 1st order

kinetics
𝑁𝑡
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘𝑁𝑡 𝑙𝑛 = −𝑘𝑡
𝑁𝑜

𝑁𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

𝑁𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
𝑘 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
HALF-LIFE

• The time it takes for the original amount to be

reduced to half.

𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
QUESTION

1. The half-life of I-131 is 8.1 days. How long

will it take for the three-fourths of sample to
decay?
Answer:
2. Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.47 billion
years. What percentage of it will remain
after 13.4 billion years?
Answer: