SCIENCE 9 – 2nd QUARTER

9A – St. Agatha Reviewer

Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics

Phenotype – the physical make up or observable traits by which one can be recognized
– actual set of genes carried by an organism’s genotype
Genotype – genetic or allelic composition of an organism
Traits – observable characteristics determined by specific segments of DNA
Heredity – the transfer of characteristics or traits from parents to offspring
Homozygous – a genotype that consists of two identical genes for a given character
Heterozygous – two inherited alleles are different for a particular trait
Dominant Allele – an allele that prevents the expression of alternative alleles
Recessive Allele – An allele that is masked by the dominant allele
Mutation – a process that causes a permanent change in the DNA sequence
Crossing Over – the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a
mixture of parental characteristics in offspring
Gene Splicing Technique – the process of taking genes from one organism and combining
them into the genes of another
Inbreeding – a breeding strategy that mates closely related individual for the purpose of
producing offspring with pure traits
Epistasis – interaction between two or more genes to control a single phenotype result in an
inheritance pattern

NON-MENDELIAN PATTERN OF HEREDITY

1. Complete Dominance – one allele completely masks the other.

2. Incomplete Dominance – the other appearance that is intermediate between the
Phenotypes of the parental varieties
Example: Red (R)+ White (r) = Pink (Rr)
3. Codominance – situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of
the organism
4. Multiple Allele – more than two alleles control the inheritance of a character
Example:

Phenotype (Blood type) A B AB O

A A A B B B A B
Genotype I I /I i I I /I i I I ii
What are the possible genotypes of the children born by a father with heterozygous type A and
a mother with heterozygous type B?

Genotype of Parents
Mother – IBi / Father – Iai
Genotype of Children: IAIB , IAi , IBi , ii
Phenotype of Children: AB, A, B, O
 5. Polygenic Traits – more than 2 genes control the traits
6. Sex – Inherited Traits – traits controlled by the genes on the sex chromosomes,
Particularly in the X-chromosomes
Holandric traits – Y-linked traits

Law of Dominance
Ø When the gene pair of individual is homozygous, only one of the two genes is physically
expressed
Law of Segregation
Ø Two genes of a pair segregate or separate during gamete formation, so that only one pair
is received by its gamete
Law of Independent Assortment of Genes – the genes of different characters are transmitted
independently from one generation to the next

Sex determination
• Males – 44 body chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes: 44XY
• Females – 44 body chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes: 44 XX
After Meiosis (Meiosis – process by which sex cells divide and shuffle their generic material)
• Female – 22X egg cells
• Male – 22X and 22Y sperm cells
• Zygote – 44XY : male
– 44 XX : female

Non-disjunction – failure of chromosomes to separate

CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS
1. Turner Syndrome
o 44 XO (46)
o Female, short, stock with broad but flat chest, undeveloped ovaries, oviducts
and uterus, low normal intelligence weakness in math and space perception, can
live fairly normal life with hormone supplements
2. Poly-X Female
o 44XXX (47)
o Female with 3 or more X-chromosomes, those with more than 3Xs are severely
mentally retarded, has regular menstruation, fertile
3. Klinefelter
o 44XXY (47)
o Male, tall, thin, long arms and legs, large hands and feet, undeveloped testes,
developed breast, no facial hairs, slow learner, but not mentally retarded, sterile
but not impotent, fairly normal life with hormone supplements
4. Jacob’s Syndrome
o 44 XYY
o Male, tall, persistent acne, with speech and reading problems, below average
intelligence
 5. Lethal
o 44 YO
o No human can survive

Sex-related Characters – are inherited characters whose expressions are determined by sex
Sex-limited Traits – are autosomal genes that are expressed exclusively in one sex of the
Species
Sex-influenced Traits – autosomal traits that is expressed in both sexes but more frequently
in one than the other sex
Sex-linked Traits – controlled by genes located on the X-chromosome
• X-linked : mother to son
• Y-linked : father to daughter

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity – originally derived from the terms biological diversity.
– refers to the variety of life forms that thrive on Earth
– describes the differences and relationships within various ecosystems, including
all living organisms and their habitats.
Ecology – study of ecosystem and its population
Diversity – composed of all the living things in our environment

THREE LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Ecosystem Diversity – community of plants, animals, and other living things in a
particular physical and chemical environment.
• Species Diversity – the number of different species living in an area.
Species – a group of plants or animals that are similar and able to breed and
produce viable offspring under natural conditions
• Genetic Diversity – the variation of genes that exists within a species.

World Wide Fund (WWF) For Nature – international nongovernmental organization

dedicated to protecting the environment
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – oldest and largest global
Environmental organization, defines
Biodiversity as “foundation life on Earth”

NATURAL SERVICES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY

1. Basic Needs and Economic Benefits
o 50% of the medicine available today is sourced from natural products
o Many of most important drugs are composed of chemical compounds derived from
90 plants species
o WWF reports that we harvest 50,000-70,000 plant species for traditional and
modern medicine worldwide
2. Cultural, Spiritual, and Aesthetic Benefits
 3. Health Benefits
4. Education/Information
5. Regulating and Supporting Ecosystem Services
o Ecosystem Services – natural processes that provide benefits
o Sequestration –a process of absorbing the excess carbon dioxide in the air
o Trees – serve as filters that take out the harmful pollutants in the air
6. Flood Control and Prevention of Soil Erosion
o Rainforests – are like sponges that absorb and soak up rainwater and moisture
o Mangrove Forests – provide a barrier along the coastline from the crashing waves
7. Agriculture, Crop Pollination, and Soil Fertility
o Nereistoxin – a powerful insecticide derived from the marine worm Lumbrineris
Brivicirra.

EXTINCTION
Mass Extinction: Ordovician - Silurian
Year Happened: 439 million years ago
% of Species Lost: 85%
Types of Species: Marine Families, Marine Genera
Cause: dropping and rising of sea levels due to the formation of glaciers
Extra info: mostly affected were trilobites, brachiopods, and graptolites

Mass Extinction: Late Devonian

Year Happened: 375 – 359 million years ago
% of Species Lost: 79%-80%
Types of Species: all species
Cause: unknown — but according to some theories it is cause by Global Cooling

Mass Extinction: Permian-Triassic

Year Happened: 251 million years ago
% of Species Lost: 96%
Types of Species: Marine Families, Marine Genera, Land Species (Plants, Vertebrates, Insects)
Cause: Impact of a Comet / asteroid crashing into earth

Mass Extinction: Triassic-Jurassic / End Triassic

Year Happened: 199-214 million years ago
% of Species Lost: -
Types of Species: large vertebrate animals
Cause: climate change
Extra Info: break-up of Pangaea ; Form of Atlantic Ocean

Mass Extinction: Cretaceous-Tertiary

Year Happened: 65 million years ago
% of Species Lost: 81%
Types of Species: Marine Families, Marine Genera, Land Vertebrates
Cause: impact of a huge asteroid
Extra Info: Chicxulub Crater in Mexico was created
MAJOR CAUSES OF EXTINCTION
- Natural
o Volcanic Eruption
o Asteroid / comets explosion
o Climate change – the alternate heating and cooling of earth
o Changes in Sea Levels or Currents
- Anthropological
o Overexploitation – using & getting more than what nature is capable of
Replenishing
o Pollution – introduction of harmful chemicals and compounds to the environment
o Invasive Species
o Diseases / parasitism
o Habitat Destruction

Anthony Barnosky – a palaeobiologist at the University of California, reported that humans

are now creating a mass extinction through a combination of habitat
encroachment and fragmentation, hunting, climate change, pollution and
the spread of disease and introduction of new species.

MATERIAL AND ENERGY CYCLE IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Sun – ultimate source of energy for life
Producers – plants are producers because they are able to make their own food
Consumers – are the living things that depend on plants for food
Photosynthesis – food making process of plants

SUNLIGHT AND CHLOROPHYLL

Catalyst – substance that starts a chemical reaction
Carotenoids – are pigments responsible for the red, orange or yellow color of the leaves
Chloroplast – tiny structures where in the light-trapping and carbohydrate-building process of
Photosynthesis takes place
– contains the green pigment, chlorophyll made up of magnesium and nitrogen
– membrane bound organelles
Stroma – folded inner membrane enclosing a space with watery solution
Thylakoids – are stacked disk-like sacs formed by another membrane with the stroma
– where chlorophyll and other pigments are found
– also where the light trapping reactions of photosynthesis take place

LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION (Light-Trapping Phase)

• Sunlight – excites the green pigment
• Reduction – hydrogen ion is attatched to NADP
• Stomata – tiny pores on the leaf surface ; where carbon dioxide enters
 • The first major set of processes in photosynthesis, in which light energy is initially
converted into chemical energy as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH
takes place across the chloroplast thylakoid membranes, between the chloroplast stroma
and the thylakoid space.

LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION (Sugar-Building Phase)

Calvin Cycle – the term that is also used to refer to this stage
Ribulose Phosphate (RuBP) – five-carbon sugar
Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) – two three-carbon molecule / versatile molecule
– 80% of this is use to synthesize more ribulose and the
remaining 20% is used to produce other organic compounds
– products of PGAL: lipids, proteins and glucose
Cellulose – makes up dry wood and the bulk of plant material
Carbon Fixation – entering of carbon dioxide in RuBP

PHOTOSYNTHESIS DIAGRAM CALVIN CYCLE

THREE PROCESS
1. Chlorophyll Photo-Activation – magnesium + nitrogen = green pigment
2. Photolysis – water splits to H+ and OH
3. Photophospholyration – NADP to NADPH ; ADP to ATP

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular Respiration – a process that breaks down food molecules to produce energy
– occurs in mitochondrion
Respiration – a biological process that helps keep the organism alive by breaking the food
molecules to produce ATP
– opposite of photosynthesis
 CO2 + H2O to O2 + C6H12O6
C6H12O6 + O2 to CO2 + H2O

Glucose – the sugar produced by the breakdown of starch

Aerobic – process where oxygen is present
Anaerobic – process where oxygen is absent

Glycolysis – initial step of respiration that takes place in the cytoplasm

– during glycolysis, glucose (a six-carbon sugar), is broken down into two
Three-carbon compound called pyruvate

Fermentation – a form of respiration that releases energy from glucose when oxygen is
Insufficient or absent
Kreb’s Cycle
Ø Enzymes like phosphate help bond together with ADP in the cell to create another 2
ATPs.
Ø Other enzymes also help Acetyl CoA to bond with a 4 carbon compound to make Citric
Acid.
Ø The Citric Acid is then oxidized over a bunch of intricate steps, cutting carbons left and
right eventually going back to the 4 carbon compound to restart the Kreb’s Cycle.

All the NADH and FADH2 we made will now be converted to ATP.
For every NADH, = 3 ATPs.
For every FADH2, = 2 ATPs.

Glycolysis = 2 NADH
CAC = 8 NADH, 2 FADH2

10 NADH x 3 = 30 ATP
2 FADH2 x 2 = 4 ATP
Glycolysis and CAC = 4 ATP
= 38 ATP in total
CELLULAR RESPIRATION DIAGRAM