Engineering Students' Guide to Complex Numbers

PREFACE
This book was published to provide knowledge and understanding to engineering students in different
areas such as Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering with the topics involve in Advance Engineering
Mathematics. This is a workbook that would help to students in familiarizing and enhancing their problem
solving skills.
The first chapter of this book includes all about complex numbers and its application. It tackles topics
such as its different forms, graphing methods, operation, its trigonometric and logarithmic functions and
solving for its powers and roots.
The second chapter discusses topics about Laplace and Inverse Laplace transform including the
theorems, derivation of its formulas and practice problems.
The third chapter is generally about Power Series. It includes topics in Series and Sequences,
summation notation, Taylor and Maclaurin series and problems involving the Maclaurin’s Series.
The final chapter of this book deals with Fourier Series. It contains lessons about the theorems and
application of Fourier series.
Every topic of this book contains examples for students to quickly relate and understand the concepts
and methods used. The supplementary problems would challenge the students of their learning and if they
really understand each topic. It also comes with a solution manual so that the students will be able to check
their answers.
The book’s goal is to help engineering students in solving problems involving topics in Advance
Engineering Mathematics in preparation for the board examination.
The authors of the book acknowledge Engr. Katherine M. Bachiller and our professor, Engr. Leo
Agustin P. Vela for his unending support and without him this book would not be possible.
i
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
BERTILLO, CHRIZELLE MARIE S., currently taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.
MUYCO, SARAH MAE N., currently taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.
ROQUID, SHAYNE O., currently taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.
RUILES, MARY JOY D., currently taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE 1
CHAPTER 1: COMPLEX NUMBERS 2
1.1 Forms of Complex Numbers

1.1a. Rectangular Form
1.1b. Polar Form
1.1c. Trigonometric Form
1.1d. Euler Form
1.2 Operations of Complex Numbers
1.2a. Addition and Subtraction of Complex Number
1.2b. Multiplication and Division of Complex Number
1.3 Graphing of Complex Numbers
1.3a Graphical Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers.
1.4 Trigonometric Functions of Complex Numbers
1.5 Logarithmic Functions of Complex Numbers
1.6 Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers
CHAPTER 2: LAPLACE AND INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 35
2.1 Theorems in Laplace Transform

2.2 Derivations of Some Laplace Transform
2.3 Problems in Laplace Transform
2.4 Problems in Inverse Laplace Transform
CHAPTER 3: POWER SERIES 61
3.1 Series and Sequence

3.2 Summation Notation
3.3 Taylor Series and Maclaurin’s Series
3.4 Solutions Using Maclaurin’s Series
3.5 Series Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations
CHAPTER 4: FOURIER SERIES 89
4.1 Theorems in Fourier Series

4.2 Problems in Fourier Series
iii
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Retrieved on February 23, 2018 from https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/advance-engineering-
mathematics
Retrieved on February 23, 2018 from https://www. Intmath.com/complex-numbers/7-powers-roots-

demoivre.php
Retrieved on February 25, 2018 from www2.clarku.edu/~djoyce/complex/powers.html
Retrieved on February 26, 2018 from https://www.tkiryl.com/Calculus/Section_8.7--

Taylor_and_Maclaurin_Series/Taylor_and_Maclaurin_Series.html
Retrieved on February 28, 2018 from http://www.chemistrylearning.com/logarithm-of-complex-number/
Retrieved on February 28, 2018 from http://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/panel-

building/introduction-to-laplace-transform.html
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/others/theorems-of-

laplace-transform.html
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.mathalino.com/reviewer/advance-engineering-mathematics
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.math.psu.edu/tseng/class/Math251/Notes-LT1.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from

https://sites.math.washington.edu/~aloveles/Math307Spring2015/m307InverseLaplacePractice.pdf

https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra2/ComplexNumbers/CPGraphs.html
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://www.milefoot.com/math/complex/functionsofi.htm
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/trigonometric_functions
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Logarithmic_functions
iv
www.stewartcalculus.com/data/ESSENTIAL%20CALCULUS/.../ess_at_12_cn_stu.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.math.montana.edu/pernarow/m472/notes/Notes_9.pdf

www.math.ncu.edu.tw/~tshieh/teaching/.../Complex_Numbers_5_6_7_Handout.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.cosmicriver.net/uploads/5/3/0/7/5307578/algebra8.pdf

www.stewartcalculus.com/data/.../upfiles/3c3-UseSeries-SolveDEs_Stu.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://amsi.org.au/ESA_Senior_Years/PDF/Sequences1d.pdf

https://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/documents/maths_learning_centre/sigma.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.math.ttu.edu/~drager/Classes/04Spring/anspract4.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.stewartcalculus.com/data/.../upfiles/FourierSeries5ET.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.math.unl.edu/~scohn1/EngRevf08/ilaplace.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.math.psu.edu/tseng/class/Math251/Notes-LT1.pdf
Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.scribd.com/.../24-2-props-fourier-trnfm-pdf
v
ADVANCE
ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
WORKBOOK
1
Chapter 1 – Complex Numbers
CHAPTER 1
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Introduction:
A Complex number z is an ordered pair of ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers x and
y, written in:
𝒛 = (𝒙, 𝒚)
Where x is called the real part and y the imaginary part of z, written in:
𝒙 = 𝑹𝒆 (𝒛) 𝒚 = 𝑰𝒎 (𝒛)
By definition, two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and
their imaginary parts are equal. (0, 1) is called the imaginary unit and is denoted by i,
* The term “complex number” was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss, who also paved the
way for a general use of complex numbers.
1.1 Forms of Complex Numbers
In order to work and have a better understanding with complex numbers, we first need to know its forms.
There are two basic forms of complex number notation: the rectangular and polar. Other forms are
trigonometric and Euler.
1.1a Rectangular Form
When a complex number is denoted by its respective horizontal and vertical

components, it is in its rectangular form. The rectangular form of a complex number is written
as
𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒚𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒋𝒊
Where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit with the property i2 = -1.
Example 1:
Express Re (z) = 5 & Im (z) = 2 in rectangular form.
Solution:
(a) Based on the definition of complex numbers written as x = Re (z) and y = Im (z), where it can also
be written as an ordered pair (x, y). Then,
Re (z) = 5 & Im (z) = 2 or (5,2)
(b) Substitute the values into the expression x+ yi or x + ji then the rectangular form is
5 + 2i or 5 + 2j
2
1.1b Polar Form

Another way of representing a complex number is through its polar form.
Fig. 1.1 Polar form of a complex number
As shown in Fig. 1.1, the horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis is the imaginary axis.
We find the real and complex components in terms of r and θ where r is the length of the vector and θ is
the angle made with the real axis. Then, from Pythagorean theorem:
= +
and by using trigonometric functions;
= ( )
Thus, we can write any complex number z in the form
𝒛=𝒓 < 𝜽
Where, the angle θ is called the argument of z and we write θ = arg (z).
Example 2:
Write 5 + 2i in polar form.
Solution:
(a) We have = √ + =√ and θ = arctan (2/5) = 21.80141 therefore the polar form is
z=r<θ
z = 5.38516 < 21.80141
3
1.1c Trigonometric Form

We know that any complex number z = x + yi can be considered as a point (x,y) and can be
represented by its polar coordinates (r, θ) (See fig. 1.1). Hence,
= =
Therefore, we have
= + =( )+( )
Thus, we can write the trigonometric form of a complex number 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒚𝒊 as
𝒛 = 𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)
It can also be express as
𝒛 = 𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒔 𝜽
Example 3:
Express 6 + 3i in trigonometric form.
Solution:
(a) To write the number in trigonometric form, we need r and θ. We can find the value of r and θ using
the trigonometric functions.
= √ + = √
=
√
=
(b) Then substitute the values in the equation = ( + )

= √ ( + ) or
= √
Example 4:
Express 15 + 12i in trigonometric form.
Solution:
(a) To write the number in trigonometric form, we need r and θ. We can find the value of r and θ using
the trigonometric functions.
= √ + = √
=
√
=
4
(b) Then substitute the values in the equation = ( + )

= √ ( + )
or
= √
1.1eEuler Form
The Euler Form of Complex Numbers is also known as the exponential form. The form
was derived from the Euler’s relations which states that
𝒆𝒊𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒆 𝒊𝜽

= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
These link the exponential function and trigonometric functions by replacing the polar or
trigonometric form of a complex number 𝒛 = 𝒓 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 )
𝒛 = 𝒓 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 )
𝒛 = 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝜽
Example 5:
Express = ( + ) in Euler form.
Solution:
(a) To write the number in Euler form, just copy the value of r and θ (in radians) from the original
equation and then substitute it in the equation =
= = =
=
=
Supplementary Problems:
CONVERT THE FOLLOWING COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.) 6 + 2i
5
2.) 13 + 9i
3.) 25 < 12.24°
4.) 8 < 3.60°
6
5.) °+ °
6.) + °
7.) z= 28+9i
7
8.) z= 110+20i
9. ( )
10. ( )
8
1.2 Operations of Complex Numbers
1.2a Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The addition and subtraction of complex numbers z1 and z2 also gives another complex number. The
real components and the imaginary components are added or subtracted separately and in a manner like
of adding or subtracting real
numbers.
𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏 ) + (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟐 ) = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝒊(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 )
𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏 ) − (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟐 ) = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) − 𝒊(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 )
Fig. 1.2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Number

or in component notation
+ =( , )+( , )= ( + , + )
− =( , )−( , )= ( + , + )
By the application of the commutative property and associative property to the real and imaginary parts
separately, we can show that the addition of complex numbers itself is commutative and associative.
Example:
+ = +
+( + )=( + )+
Thus, it is irrelevant in what order complex numbers are added.
Example 1:
Find the sum of z1 = (21 + 40i), z2 = (60 + 28i) and z3 = (10 – 5i)
Solution:
(a) Summing the real numbers, we obtain
21 60 + 10 = 91
(b) And summing the imaginary terms we obtain

40 + 28 – 5 = 63
9
Hence
(21 + 40i) + (60 + 28i) + (10 – 5i) = 91 + 63i
Example 2:
Find the difference of z1 = (6 - 20i), z2 = (-35 + 8i) and z3 = (9 – 16i)
Solution:
(a) Subtracting the real numbers, we obtain
6 - (-35) - 9 = 32
(b) And subtracting the imaginary terms we obtain

-20 - 8 – (-16) = -12
Hence
(6 - 20i) – (35 + 8i) – (9 – 16i) = 32 - 12i
1.2b Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers may be multiplied together and in general give complex number as a result. The
product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is found by multiplying them out and remembering that i2 = -1.
𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏 )(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟐 )
𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝟐 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐
𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒊(𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 𝒙𝟐 )
The product of two complex numbers has its simple properties. From the polar or trigonometric form of
complex numbers, we can get the value of z1z2 by multiplying the values of r1 and r2 and adding θ1 and θ2.
Thus
= < +
The multiplication of complex numbers is also both commutative and associative

Example:
=
( ) = ( )
10
Example 3:
Find the product of z1 = (7 + 33i) and z2 = (55 – 67i).
Solution:
(a) Using the “FOIL” method we obtain
z = (7 + 33i)(55 – 67i).
z = (385 – 468 + 1815i – 2211i2)
z = (-83 + 1815i – 2211(-1))
z = (-83 + 1815i + 2211)
z = 2128 + 1815i
Example 4:
Find the product of z1 = 18 < 25 and z2 = 80 < 60
Solution:
(a) Using the formula z1z2 = r1 r2 < θ1 + θ2 , we get
= < +
= < +
= <
1.2c Division of Complex Numbers

Division of Complex numbers have some similarity to their multiplication. Writing the quotient in the
component form we get
𝒛𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏
=
𝒛𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟐
(1.1)
In order to separate the real and imaginary components of the quotient, we multiply both the numerator
and the denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. We can get the complex conjugate by
simply changing the sign of the imaginary part, i.e if z = x1 + iy1 then z* = x1 - iy1. Then, when multiplied by z will
only leave a real result. Thus, this process will leave the denominator its real component. Equation (1.1) gives
( + )( + ) ( + )+ ( + )
= =
( + )( + ) +
The quotient of two complex numbers also has its simple properties. From the polar or trigonometric
form of complex numbers, we can also get the value of z1/z2 by dividing the values of r1 from r2 and subtracting
θ1 to θ2.
11
Thus:
= < −
Example 5:
Find the quotient of
Solution: (using the first method)

(a) Multiply both the numerator and denominator to the complex conjugate of the denominator we
obtain
+ ( + )(− − ) − −
= = = − −
− + (− + )(− − )
Solution: (using the second method)

(a) Change it first into its polar form then,
= √ <
= √ <
(b) Using the formula z1z2 = r1 r2 < θ1 + θ2 , we get
+ √ < √
= = < −
− + √ < √
= < −
=− −
1. [4 + 6i] + [1 + 2i]
12
2. [5 < 4.24 ] + [6 < 2.63 ]
3. ( )–( )
4. ( + )−( + )
13
5. , ( )+ ( )- , ( )+ ( )-
6. [ ] , -
7.
14
8.
9.
10.
15
1.3 Graphing of Complex Numbers
The method for displaying complex numbers graphically as a point in

a special coordinate plane called the Argand diagram or complex plane
was developed in 1806 by a J. R. Argand. It establishes a relationship
between the x-axis (real axis) with real numbers and the y-axis
(imaginary axis) with imaginary numbers.
In this diagram, a complex number x + yi is represented by the point

(x,y), as shown in Fig. 1.3
Fig. 1.3 Complex number x + yi represented by point P(x,y)

A complex number can be represented by a point, or by a vector from the origin to the point. When thinking
of a complex number as a vector, the absolute value of the complex number is simply the length of the vector,
called the magnitude.
Example 1 & 2:
Graph the following complex numbers:
a. -4 + 2i
b. 2 – 3i
c. 3 + 2
16
1.3a Graphical addition and subtraction of complex numbers.
Example 4: Add 3 + 2i and -4 + 2i graphically.
Solution:
• Graph the two complex numbers as vectors.

• Create a parallelogram using these two vectors as
adjacent sides.
• The answer to the addition is the vector forming the
diagonal of the parallelogram (start from the origin).
• The new vector is called the resultant vector.
Example 5: Subtract 3 + 2i and -4 + 2i graphically
• The process is same with example 4.
1.4 Trigonometric Functions of Complex Numbers
The following complex trigonometric and hyperbolic function definitions agree with their real
counterparts when y= 0 and z = x + yi. They are based on the establish complex exponential
= = ( + )
 The complex sine and cosine functions are defined in a way similar to their counterparts:
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑖𝑧
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑖𝑧
(𝑧) = (𝑧) =
𝑖
17
 The tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant are defined like the standard.
(𝑧) (𝑧)
ta (𝑧) = t(𝑧) =
(𝑧) (𝑧)
e (𝑧) = e (𝑧) =
(𝑧) (𝑧)
 The complex hyperbolic sine and cosine functions are also defined similar to their counterparts:
𝑒𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧
𝑒𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧
(𝑧) = (𝑧) =
 The hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant are also defined like the standard.
(𝑧) (𝑧)
ta (𝑧) = t(𝑧) =
(𝑧) (𝑧)
e (𝑧) = e (𝑧) =
(𝑧) (𝑧)
Thus, we have the following relations:
(𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 (𝑧) (𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 (𝑧)
(𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 (𝑧) (𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 (𝑧)
ta (𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 ta (𝑧) ta (𝑖𝑧) = 𝑖 ta (𝑧)
Example 1:
Find ( )
Solution:
( )= ( )
18
Example 2:
Evaluate ( )
Solution:
. /= . /
Example 3:
Evaluate ( )
Solution:
( )= ( )
=
Example 4:
Evaluate e ( )
Solution:
. /
ta ( )=
( )
. /
=
( )
=
Example 5:
Evaluate ( )
Solution:
. /= . /
19
Evaluate the following:
1. ( )
2. ( )
3. ( )
20
4. . /
5. ta . /
6.cos (j60°)
21
( + )
8. sinh (j10°)
( + )
22
( + )
1.5 Logarithmic Functions of Complex Numbers
The Logarithmic functions of complex numbers are defined as solutions w = log (z) of
Since the exponential is 2πi (periodic), the complex logarithm is multi-valued.
We let = + and = then

=
By equating real and imaginary parts
=
=
From these we deduce
= ( )
= +
Where n = 0, 1, 2 …
Then
= ( )= ( )+ a ( )
1. =
23
2. Evaluate (− )
3. =
4. =
24
5. =
6. ( )
7. =
25
8. ( )
9. =
10. =
26
1.6 Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers
To raise a complex number to a power, consider a complex number z in polar form or trigonometric form
= ( + )
2
Calculate z by squaring both sides
=( ( + ))
Expand the equation and simplify
= ( + + )
= ( − + )
Since − = =
Therefore
= ( + )
Then repeating the pattern, we will get
= ( + )
= ( + )
This will leads us to a theorem, which is named after the French mathematician Abraham DeMoivre (1667 -
1754).
THEOREM 1.1 DeMoivre’s Theorem
If 𝒛 = 𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽) is a complex number and n is a positive integer, then
𝒛𝒏 = ,𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)-𝒏 = 𝒓𝒏 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝜽)
De Moivre’s theorem is a relationship between complex numbers and trigonometry. De Moivre’s

theorem also makes it possible to quickly evaluate powers and nth roots of complex numbers.
Note: This is also applicable to other forms of complex number such as:
=( + ) = < =
Example 1:
√
Use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find . + /
Solution:
(a) First, convert the complex number to trigonometric form
√
+ = ( + )
(b) Then by DeMoivre’s Theorem, we have

27
√
+ = 0 . + /1
= 0( + )1
= 0 ( )+ ( )1
= [ + ]
= +
Example 2:
Evaluate: ( + )
Solution:
(a) Use DeMoivre’s Theorem, we have
( + )
=, ( + )-
= , ( )+ ( )-
= + )
−√ + √ √ +√
= +
Example 3:
Evaluate: ( < )
Solution:
(a) Use DeMoivre’s Theorem in polar form, we have
( < ) = < ( )
= <
Nth Root of a Complex Number

A complex number = + is an nth root of complex number z when
= =( + )
28
To find a formula for an nth root of a complex number, let v be an nth root of z where
= ( + ) = ( + )
By DeMoivre’s Theorem and the fact that = , we have
( + )= ( + )
Taking the absolute value of each side of this equation, it follows that un = r.
Substituting r for un in the previous equation and dividing by r, we get
+ = +
Then,
= =
Because both sine and cosine have a period of , these last two equations have solutions if
and only if the angles differ by a multiple of . Consequently, there must exist an integer
such that
= + = +
+ +
= =
Note: The angle should be in radian when working in =
By substituting this value for into the trigonometric form of you get the result stated in the next theorem.
THEOREM 1.2 nth Roots of a Complex Number
For a positive integer n, the complex number 𝒛 = 𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽) has

exactly n distinct nth roots given by
𝒏 𝜽 𝟐𝝅𝒌 𝜽 𝟐𝝅𝒌
√𝒛 = 𝒏√𝒓 .𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏
+ 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏
/
Note: This is also applicable to other forms of complex number such as:
+ + . /
√ =( + ) = < = ( )=
29
Example 4:
Evaluate the roots of − =
Solution:
(a) Simplify and use the equation in polar form
− =
=
=
+
= <
+
= <
(b) Let = , = = , , , , Then
= =
( ) ( )
< = < = < = ( + )= −
= =
+ ( ) + ( )
< = < < = < = ( + )=−
= ( + )=
Therefore the roots of − = are − , −
Example 5:
Evaluate the square roots of ( + )
Solution:
(a) Use the formula for nth roots, the square roots have the form,
+ +
√ =√ ( + )
(c) Let = , , , Then

( + )= + √
( + )=− + √
Therefore the roots of ( + ) are + √ − + √
30
Evaluate:
1. ( + )
2. ( + )
31
3. ( < )
4. ( e )
5. * , ( )+ ( )-+
32
6. Find the roots of + = .
7. Find the roots of - = .
8. Find the first 2 fourth roots of

, ( + ( )-.
33
9. Find the 2 square roots of √- +

, ( )+ ( )-
34
CHAPTER 2
LAPLACE AND INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Introduction:
Laplace Transform is an integral transform named after a French Mathematician,

Pierre-Simon Laplace. It is a method of transforming differential equations into algebraic
equations and can also be used to compute integrals and sum series.
For a given function 𝑓(𝑡) such that 𝑡 ≥ 0 then the Laplace transformation of 𝑓(𝑡) is
written as:
𝒔𝒕
𝑭(𝒔) 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) (𝒔) ∫ 𝒆 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
The 𝓛 notation identifies that integration always proceeds over t = 0 to t = 1 and that the
integral involved an integrator 𝒆 𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕 where s is a parameter which may be real or complex.
The symbol 𝓛 which transform 𝒇(𝒕) into 𝑭(𝒔) is called the Laplace transform operator.
2.1 Theorems in Laplace Transform

As we go through the properties and functions of Laplace transform, we will encounter theorems that do
relate on Laplace transform and will make it easier to solve. Some theorems on Laplace transform are also
considered as its properties and we will also know how we can use these theorems on Laplace transform
THEOREM 2.11 Existing Theorem
For a piecewise continuous function 𝒇(𝒕), 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) exists if and only

if 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 and𝒔 > 𝒕
THEOREM 2.12 Constant Multiple

If a is constant and 𝒇(𝒕) is a function of t, then
, 𝓛*𝒂𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝒂𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+
THEOREM 2.13 Linearity Theorem

If a and b are constants while f(t) and g(t) are functions of t whose Laplace
transform exists, then
𝓛*𝒂𝒇(𝒕) 𝒃𝒈(𝒕)+ 𝒂𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝒃𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+
Proof of Linearity Theorem:
* ( ) ( )+ ∫ , ( ) ( -
35
Chapter 2 – Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transform
* ( ) ( )+ ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
* ( ) ( )+ * ( )+ * ( )+
With this theorem, Laplace transform can also be called as linear operator. This theorem can also be
extended up to more than two functions.
THEOREM 2.14 First Shifting Theorem

If *𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) , then 𝓛*𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔 𝒂)
Proof of First Shifting Theorem:
( ) ∫ ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
∫
( ) ∫ ( )
( ) ∫ ( )
( ) * ( )+
Example 1:
Find the Laplace transform of ( )
Solution:
( )
Thus,
( )
36
THEOREM 2.15 Second Shifting Theorem

𝒇(𝒕 𝒂) 𝒕>𝒂
If *𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) , and 𝒈(𝒕) * then,
𝟎 𝒕>𝒂
𝒂𝒔
𝓛* 𝒈(𝒕)+ 𝒆 𝑭(𝒔)
Proof of Second Shifting Theorem:

( ) >
( ) *
>
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
* ( )+ ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
Let , , When , 0 & When ,
* ( )+ ( ) ( )
∫
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
* ( )+ * ( )+
* ( )+ * ( )+
* ( )+ ( )
Example 2:
Find the Laplace transform of
( ) { ( ) > }
>
Solution:
* ( )+ ( )
( )
( )
37
Thus,
* ( )+ ( )
* ( )+
THEOREM 2.16 Change of Scale Property

𝟏 𝒔
If 𝓛 *𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) then, 𝓛* 𝒇(𝒂𝒕)+ 𝒂
𝑭 .𝒂/
Proof of Change of Scale Property:
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
Let , , When 0, 0 & When ,
( )
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
Hence,
* ( )+ . /
Example 3:
Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = cos 4t using the change of scale property.
Solution:
* ( )+ . /
( )
Thus,
( ) [ ]
. /
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( )
38
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( )
THEOREM 2.17 Multiplication by Power of t

If 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) then,
𝒅𝒏
𝓛* 𝒕𝒏 𝒇(𝒕)+ ( 𝟏)𝒏 𝑭(𝒔) ( 𝟏)𝒏 𝑭(𝒏) (𝒔)
𝒅𝒔𝒏
Where n = 1, 2, 3,…
Proof of Multiplication by Power of t:

( ) * ( )+
( ) ∫ ( )
Differentiate both sides in s,
∫ ( )
From Leibniz rule of differentiation under integral sign,
∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ( )
∫ , ( )-
* ( )+
Thus,
* ( )+ ( )
Which proves the theorem for
39
Assuming the theorem is true for then,
( )
{ ( )} ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
∫ [ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( )
Differentiate both sides in s,
( )
∫ [ ( )] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ( )]
( )
( )
∫ [ ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
∫ ( )[ ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
∫ [ ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
∫ [ ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
This shows that the theorem is true for n = k from Equation (2), for n = k+1 from Equation (3) and n=1
for Equation (1). Therefore, it is true for all positive integer values of n.
THEOREM 2.18 Division of t

If 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) then
𝒇(𝒕)
𝓛{ } ∫ 𝑭(𝒖)𝒅𝒖
𝒕 𝒔
𝒇(𝒕)
Provided 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒕 𝟎0 𝒕 1 exists.
Proof of Division by t:
( )
Let ( ) , then ( ) ( ) * ( )+ * ( )+
From Theorem 2.17
* ( )+ ( ) * ( )+
( ) * ( )+
( ) , * ( )+-
, * ( )+- ( )
40
Integrate both sides
∫ , * ( )+- ∫ ( )
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
( )
{ } ∫ ( )
THEOREM 2.19 Laplace Transform of Derivatives

The Laplace transform of first-order derivative is in the form:
𝓛*𝒇 (𝒕)+ 𝒔 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝒇(𝟎)
The Laplace transform of second-order derivative is in the form:
𝓛*𝒇 (𝒕)+ 𝒔𝟐 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝒔 𝒇(𝟎) 𝒇 (𝟎)

And for nth order derivative:
𝒏 𝒏
𝓛*𝒇 (𝒕)+ 𝒔 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝒔𝒏 𝟏
𝒇(𝟎) 𝒔𝒏 𝟐
𝒇 (𝟎) ⋯ 𝒇𝒏 𝟏
(𝟎)
Proof of Laplace Transform of Derivatives:
* ( )+ ∫ ( )
Using integration by parts: , , ( ) , ( )

Thus,
* ( )+ , ( )- ∫ ( )( )
( )
* ( )+ [ ] ∫ ( )
( )
* ( )+ [ ] * ( )+
Applying the limits from 0 :

( ) ( )
* ( )+ [ ] * ( )+
* ( )+ * ( )+ ( )
41
THEOREM 2.20 Laplace Transform of Integrals

If 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) then
𝒕
𝑭(𝒔)
𝓛 [∫ 𝒇(𝒖)𝒅𝒖]
𝟎 𝒔
Proof of Laplace Transform of Integrals:

Let ( ) ∫ ( ) , then ( ) ( ) (0) 0
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides,
* ( )+ * ( )+
From Laplace transform of derivative and the above theorem:
* ( )+ * ( )+ ( )
* ( )+ ( )
Thus,
* ( )+ ( ) ( )
* ( )+ ( )
* ( )+ ( )
( )
* ( )+
( )
[∫ ( ) ]
42
1. Find the Laplace transform of ( ) .
2. By using the linearity theorem, show that h = 2- 2 .
43
3. Find the Laplace transform of ( ) ( )
4. Find the Laplace transform of ( )=e nh 2 .
44
2
5. Find the Laplace Transform of ( )= { -1 1.
1
2- 1
6. Supposed that the Laplace transform of a certain function f(t) is (2 , find the Laplace transform of
1)2 1
2 .
45
2
7. Find the Laplace transform of ( )= 3 .
(4 )- 5
8. Find the Laplace transform of ( )= .
46
9. Find the Laplace transform of ( )= n using the transform of derivatives.
e- -1
10. Find the Laplace transform of ∫ .
47
2.2 Derivations of Some Laplace Transform

Here is the table of some functions and their Laplace transform.
( ) ( ) * ( )+
a
( ) ( )
2.3 Problems in Laplace Transform

Laplace transform have variety of applications especially in the field of Engineering. It is a helpful tool
for engineering students because it makes solving linear ordinary differential equations and systems of linear
ordinary differential equations, as well as initial value problems much easier. Some of its applications is in
electrical networks, signal processing, springs, mixing problems and physics.
Since we know the properties and theorems in Laplace transform as well as the derivation of its
formulas. We can know solve for other problems in Laplace transform.
48
1. ( )
2. ( )
49
3. ( )
4. ( ) 0
50
5. ( )
6. ( )
51
7. ( )
8. ( )
52
9. ( )
10. ( )
53
2.4 Problems in Inverse Laplace Transform
If 𝓛*𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝑭(𝒔) then the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑭(𝒔) is

𝟏 *𝒇(𝒕)+
𝓛 𝑭(𝒔)
And can also be express as a linear operator:
𝟏 *𝑭(𝒔) 𝟏 *𝑭(𝒔)+ 𝟏 *𝑮(𝒔+
𝓛 𝑮(𝒔)+ 𝓛 𝓛
Example 1:
Solution:
Example 2:
Solution:
Example 3:
Solution:
54
Example 4:
Solution:
Example 5:
Solution:
55
1. ( )
2. ( )
56
3. ( ) ( )( )( )
4. ( )
57
5. ( )
6. ( )
58
7. ( )
8. ( )
59
9. ( ) ( )
( )
10. ( )
( ) ( )
60
CHAPTER 3
POWER SERIES

3.1a Sequence
Sequence is a succession of numbers formed according to some fixed rules.

Example is 𝟏 𝟖 𝟐𝟕 𝟔𝟒 𝟏𝟐𝟓
Which is a sequence so that nth term is given by n3.
Introduction:
A much better way to describe a sequence is to give a formula for the nth term an. This is also called a
formula for the general term.
For example, an = 2n −1 is a formula for the general term in the sequence of odd numbers 1,3,5,....
From the formula, we can, for example, write down the 10th term, since a10 = 2×10−1 = 19.
In some cases it is not easy, or even possible, to give an explicit formula for an. In such cases, it may
be possible to determine a particular term in the sequence in terms of some of the preceding terms. This
relationship is often referred to as a recurrence. For example, the sequence of positive odd numbers may be
defined by
a1 = 1 and an+1 = an + 2, for n ≥ 1.
The initial term is a1 = 1, and the recurrence tells us that we need to add two to each term to obtain the
next term.
Sequences can also be used to approximate real numbers. Thus, for example, the terms in the
sequence 1, 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142,... give approximations to the real number √ .
Arithmetic sequences
We will limit our attention for the moment to one particular type of sequence, known as an arithmetic
sequence (or arithmetic progression). This is a sequence of the form
Where each term is obtained from the preceding one by adding a constant, called the common
difference and often represented by the symbol d. Note that d can be positive, negative or zero.
Thus, the sequence of even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,... is an arithmetic sequence in which the common
difference is d = 2.
It is easy to see that the formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is
( )
Examples:
Find the formula for the nth term of the arithmetic sequence
1. 2, 5, 8, . . .
Solution:
Here a = 2 and d = 3, so
61
Chapter 3 – Power Series
( )
2. 107, 98, 89, . . . .
Solution:
Here a = 107 and d = -9, so
( )
Geometric sequences
A geometric sequence has the form
In which each term is obtained from the preceding one by multiplying by a constant, called the
common ratio and often represented by the symbol r. Note that r can be positive, negative or zero. The terms
in a geometric sequence with negative r will oscillate between positive and negative.
The doubling sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,... is an example of a geometric sequence with first term 1
and common ratio r = 2, while 3, −6, 12, −24, 48, −96, ... is an example of a geometric sequence with first term
3 and common ratio r = −2.
It is easy to see that the formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence is
Example 2:
Find the formula for the nth term of the geometric sequence
3. 2, 6, 18, . . .
Solution:
Here a = 2 and r = 3, so
4. 486, 162, 54, . . . .
Solution:
( )
62
3.1b Series
Introduction:
Series is the indicated sum of a sequence of numbers, Thus,

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏 ⋯
is a series corresponding to the sequence 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝒏
Finite and Infinite Series
A series is said to be finite if the number of terms is limited It is an infinite series if the
number of terms is unlimited.
Arithmetic series
An arithmetic series is a series in which the terms form an arithmetic sequence. That is each term is
obtained from the preceding one by adding a constant.
This gives a formula for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series with first term and
last term The formula is
( )
Geometric series
A geometric series is a series in which the terms form a geometric sequence. That is, each term is
obtained from the preceding one by multiplying by a constant.
For example, 2+8+32+128+··· is a geometric series with first term 2 and common ratio 4.
The nth term is an = 2×4n−1
This gives a formula for the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series with first term a and
common ratio r. The formula is
( ) ( )
Example 5:
Find the formula for the sum of the first n terms of the geometric series 2, 6, 18 . . .
Solution:
Here a = 2 and r = 3
( )
Series is the indicated sum of a sequence of numbers, Thus,

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏 ⋯
is a series corresponding to the sequence 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝒏
Finite and Infinite Series
A series is said to be finite if the number of terms is limited It is an infinite series if the
number of terms is unlimited.
63
1. Find the formula for the nth term of the arithmetic sequence 2, 4, 6, . . .
2. Find the formula for the nth term of the geometric sequence 10, 20, 40, …
3. Find the 4th term of an arithmetic sequence 4n-1
4. Find the formula for the sum of the first n terms of the geometric series 2, 10, 50 . . .
5. Find the formula for the sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic series 2, 7, 12 . . .
64
6. Give the 20 terms of Fibonacci numbers.
7. 30th term of Fibonacci number.
8. 5 terms of Lucas Numbers.
9. 10th terms of Lucas Numbers.
10. Give the 10 terms of Gnomons
65
3.2 Summation Notation
The symbol Σ (capital sigma) is often used as shorthand notation to indicate the sum
of a number of similar terms. Sigma notation provides a useful way of writing long sums and
is used extensively in statistics
For example, suppose we get the weight of five men. We will indicate their weights by
x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5. The sum of their weights x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 is written more compactly as
5
∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑖
The symbol Σ means ‘add up’. Underneath Σ we see i = 1 and on top of it 5. This
means that j is replaced by whole numbers starting at the bottom number, 1, until the top
number 5 is reached.
Thus
5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑖
Now take the weights of the five men to ben x1 = 50 kg., x2 = 65 kg., x3 = 48 kg., x4 =
72 kg. and x5 = 53 kg. Then the total weight (in kilograms) is
5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑖
50 65 48 72 53 288
Introduction:
Rules of summation
We will prove three rules of summation. These rules will allow us to evaluate formulae containing sigma
notation more easily and allow us to derive equivalent formulae.
Rule 1: If c is a constant, then
∑ ∑
Proof: To check if Rule 1 is true, start with the left side of the equation,
∑ ⋯
∑ ( ⋯ )
∑ ∑
66
Rule 2: If c is a constant, then
Rule 3:
∑( ) ∑ ∑
Proof: To check if Rule 3 is true, start with the left side of the equation,
∑( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ⋯ ( )
∑( ) ( ⋯ ) ( ⋯ )
∑( ) ∑ ∑
Example 1:
Write in full
5
Solution:
5
4 5
∑
Example 2:
Evaluate:
5
∑4
Solution:
5
∑4 4 4 4 44 45
67
5
∑4 364
Example 3:
Evaluate:
6
∑(3 5)
Solution:
6
∑(3 5) [3 5( )] [3 5(2)] [3 5(3)] [3 5(4)] [3 5(5)] [3 5(6)]
∑(3 5) 23
Example 4:
Evaluate:
4
∑(3 )
Solution:
5
∑(3 5) [3( )] [3(2)] [3(3)] [3(4)]
∑(3 ) 30
Example 5:
Evaluate:
5
∑( )
2
Solution:
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
∑( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2( ) 2(2) 2(3) 2(4) 2(5) 2(6) 2(7) 2(8) 2(9) 2( 0)
5
5 738
∑( )
2 008
68
Evaluate the following:
1. ∑5 2
2. ∑5 2 5
3. ∑4
3
4. 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35
5. 0, 3, 0, 3, 0, 3
69
6. -1, 0, -1, 8, -81
7. 7 26 63 24 2 5
, ....
8. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, …
2
9. ∑ 0 (3 ) (- )
10. ∑
70
3.3 Taylor Series and Maclaurin’s Series

Introduction:
Consider a function f defined by a power series of the form
( ) ∑ ( )
With radius of convergence R > 0 if we write out the expansion of ( ) as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 4( )4 ⋯
We observe that ( ) . Moreover
( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 4( ) ⋯
( ) 2 (2)(3) ( ) (3)(4) 4 ( ) ⋯
( ) (2)(3) (2)(3)(4) 4 ( ) ⋯
After computing the above derivatives we observe that

( ) ,
( )
( ) 2
2
( )
( ) (2)(3)
3
In general we have
( )
( )
( )
( )
Theorem 3.31 Taylor- Maclaurin Series

Suppose that f(x) has a power series expansion at x = a with radius of convergence R
> 0, then the series expansion of f(x) takes the form
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) ∑ (𝑥 𝑎)𝑛 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑎)(𝑥 𝑎) (𝑥 𝑎) ⋯
𝑛 2
𝑛
The expansion is called Taylor Series.
If a = 0, the expansion is called Maclaurin Series
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ( )
𝑓(𝑥) ∑ 𝑥 𝑓(0) 𝑓 (0)(𝑥) 𝑥 ⋯
𝑛 2
𝑛
Therefore,
71
Example 1
0.25
Find the value of e using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series.
Solution
x
The first five terms of the Maclaurin series for e is
x2 x3 x4
ex  1 x   
2! 3! 4!
0.25 2 0.253 0.25 4

e 0.25  1  0.25   
2! 3! 4!
 1.2840
0.25
The exact value of e up to 5 significant digits is also 1.2840.
But the above discussion and example do not answer our question of what a Taylor series is.
Here it is, for a function f x 
f x  2 f x  3
f x  h   f x   f x h  h  h  (4)
2! 3!
provided all derivatives of f x  exist and are continuous between x and x  h .
Example 2
   
Take f x  sin x , we all know the value of sin    1 . We also know the f x   cosx  and cos   0 .
2 2
 
Similarly f x   sin( x) and sin    1 . In a way, we know the value of sin x and all its derivatives at
2

x . We do not need to use any calculators, just plain differential calculus and trigonometry would do. Can
2
you use Taylor series and this information to find the value of sin 2 ?
Solution

x
2
xh2
h  2 x

 2
2
 0.42920
72
So
h2 h3 h4
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   f ( x)  
2! 3! 4!

x
2
h  0.42920
   
f x  sin x , f    sin    1
2 2
 
f x  cosx , f    0
2

f x   sin x , f    1
2
 
f x   cos(x) , f    0
2
 
f x  sin( x) , f    1
2
Hence
        h   h   h
2 3 4
f   h   f    f  h  f    f    f   
2  2 2  2  2!  2  3!  2  4!
 
f   0.42920   1  00.42920  1
0.42920  0 0.42920  1 0.42920  
2 3 4
2  2! 3! 4!
 1  0  0.092106  0  0.00141393  
 0.90931
The value of sin 2 I get from my calculator is 0.90930 which is very close to the value I just obtained. Now
you can get a better value by using more terms of the series. In addition, you can now use the value
calculated for sin 2 coupled with the value of cos2 (which can be calculated by Taylor series just like this
example or by using the sin x  cos x  1 identity) to find value of sin x at some other point. In this way, we
2 2
can find the value of sin x for any value from x  0 to 2 and then can use the periodicity of sin x , that is
sin x  sin x  2n , n  1,2, to calculate the value of sin x at any other point.
73
Example 3:
Find the value of f 6 given that f 4  125 , f 4  74 , f 4  30 , f 4  6 and all other higher
derivatives of f x  at x  4 are zero.
Solution
h2 h3
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   
2! 3!
x4
h  64
2
Since fourth and higher derivatives of f x  are zero at x  4 .
22 23
f 4  2  f 4  f 42  f 4  f 4
2! 3!
 2 2   23 
f 6  125  742  30   6 
 2!   3! 
 125  148  60  8
 341
Note that to find f 6 exactly, we only needed the value of the function and all its derivatives at some
other point, in this case, x  4 . We did not need the expression for the function and all its derivatives. Taylor
series application would be redundant if we needed to know the expression for the function, as we could just
substitute x  6 in it to get the value of f 6 .
Actually the problem posed above was obtained from a known function f x   x 3  3x 2  2 x  5
where f 4  125 , f 4  74 , f 4  30 , f 4  6 , and all other higher derivatives are zero.
Error in Taylor Series
As you have noticed, the Taylor series has infinite terms. Only in special cases such as a finite polynomial
does it have a finite number of terms. So whenever you are using a Taylor series to calculate the value of a
function, it is being calculated approximately.
74
The Taylor polynomial of order n of a function f (x ) with ( n  1) continuous derivatives in the domain
[ x, x  h] is given by
h2 hn
f x  h   f x   f x h  f ' ' x     f n  x   Rn x  h 
2! n!
where the remainder is given by
Rn  x  h  
hn1 f n1 c  .
(n  1)!
where
x c  xh
that is, c is some point in the domain x, x  h .
Example 4
The Taylor series for e at point x  0 is given by

x
x2 x3 x4 x5
ex  1 x     
2! 3! 4! 5!
1
a) What is the truncation (true) error in the representation of e if only four terms of the series are used?
b) Use the remainder theorem to find the bounds of the truncation error.
Solution
a) If only four terms of the series are used, then
x2 x3
ex  1 x  
2! 3!
12 13
e1  1  1  
2! 3!
 2.66667
The truncation (true) error would be the unused terms of the Taylor series, which then are
x4 x5
Et   
4! 5!
14 15
  
4! 5!
75
 0.0516152
b) But is there any way to know the bounds of this error other than calculating it directly? Yes,
hn
f x  h   f x   f x h    f n  x   Rn  x  h 
n!
where
Rn  x  h  
h
n 1
f n 1 c  , x  c  x  h , and
n  1!
c is some point in the domain x, x  h . So in this case, if we are using four terms of the Taylor series, the
remainder is given by x  0, n  3
R3 0  1 
1
31
f 31 c 
3  1!
f c 
1 4 

4!
ec

24
Since
xc xh
0  c  0 1
0  c 1
The error is bound between
e0 e1
 R3 1 
24 24
 R3 1 
1 e
24 24
0.041667  R3 1  0.113261
So the bound of the error is less than 0.113261 which does concur with the calculated error of 0.0516152 .
76
Example 5
The Taylor series for e at point x  0 is given by
x
x2 x3 x4 x5
ex  1 x     
2! 3! 4! 5!
As you can see in the previous example that by taking more terms, the error bounds decrease and hence you have a
1 1
better estimate of e . How many terms it would require to get an approximation of e within a magnitude of true error
6
of less than 10 ?
Solution
Using n  1 terms of the Taylor series gives an error bound of
Rn  x  h  
h
n 1
f n 1 c 
n  1!
x  0, h  1, f ( x)  e x
Rn 1 
1n1 f n1 c 
n  1!

1n1 e c
n  1!
Since
x c  xh
0  c  0 1
0  c 1
 Rn 1 
1 e
(n  1)! (n  1)!
1
So if we want to find out how many terms it would require to get an approximation of e within a magnitude of true
6
error of less than 10 ,
e
 10 6
(n  1)!
(n  1)!  10 6 e
(n  1)! 10 6  3 (as we do not know the value of e but it is less than 3).
n9
1 6
So 9 terms or more will get e within an error of 10 in its value.
77
2 .5
1. Find the value of e using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series.
 
2. Find the value of sin   using the first four terms of the Maclaurin series.
3
 2 
3. Find the value of cos  using the first six terms of the Maclaurin series.
 3 
4. Find the value of f 7 given that f 3  45 , f 2  16 , f 3  27 , f 3  8 , and all other higher
5. Find the value of f 5 given that f 2  32 , f 2  16 , f 2  24 , f 2  24 , f ( 4)
2  12 and all
other higher derivatives of f x  at x  2 are zero.
78
Find the Taylor Series of the following:

1
1. f(x)= x3
centered at x = 1.
2. f(x) = 2x6 8 ; x = 2
2x
3. f(x)= 1 x
; x=4
4. Find the 2nd term of f(x)= 20x5 at x=1.
5. f(x) = e3x 1
;x=2
79

From the previous topic, we get to know that Maclaurin Series is also a Taylor Series but with a = 0.
And we will further understand the derivation of some MacLaurin series through the examples below.
Example 1
x3 x5 x7
Derive the Maclaurin series of sin x   x    
3! 5! 7!
Solution
Maclaurin series is simply a Taylor series for the point x  0 .
f x  sin x , f 0  0
f x  cosx , f 0  1
f x   sin x , f 0  0
f x   cosx , f 0  1
f x  sin x , f 0  0
f x  cos(x) , f 0  1
Using the Taylor series now,
h2 h3 h4 h5
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   f x   f x   

  
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h3 h4 h5
f 0  h   f 0  f 0h  f 0  f 0  f 0  f 0  
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h3 h4 h5
f h   f 0  f 0h  f 0  f 0  f 0  f 0  
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h3 h4 h5
 0  1h   0 1  0 1 
2! 3! 4 5
h3 h5
 h  
3! 5!
So
x3 x5
f x   x   
3! 5!
80
x3 x5
sin x   x   
3! 5!
Example 2
x2 x4
Derive the Maclaurin series of cosx   1   
2! 4!
Solution
f x  cosx , f 0  1
f x   sin x , f 0  0
f x   cosx , f 0  1
f x  sin x , f 0  0
f x  cosx , f 0  1
f x  cos(x) , f 0  1
h2 h3 h4 h5
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   f x   f x   
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h3 h4 h5
f 0  h   f 0  f 0h  f 0  f 0  f 0  f 0  
  
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h3 h4 h5
f h   f 0  f 0h  f 0  f 0  f 0  f 0  
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h3 h4 h5
 1  0h   1  0 1  0 
2! 3! 4 5
h2 h4
1  
2! 4!
So
x2 x4
f x   1   
2! 4!
x2 x4
cosx   1   
2! 4!
81
Example 3
Derive the Maclaurin series of e  1  x  x  x  
x 2 2
Solution
f x   e x , f 0  1
f ' x   e x , f ' 0  1
f ' ' x   e x , f ' ' 0  1
f ' ' ' x   e x , f ' ' ' 0  1
h2 h3
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   
2! 3!
h2 h3
f 0  h   f 0  f 0h  f 0  f 0  
2! 3!
h2 h3
f h   f 0  f 0h  f 0  f 0  
2! 3!
h2 h3 h4
 1  1h   1  1  1  
2! 3! 4!
So
x 2 x3 x 4
f x   1  x    
2! 3! 4!
x 2 x3 x 4
ex  1  x    
2! 3! 4!
Example 4
Find the Maclaurin series of f ( x)  1 /(1  x 2 )
Solution
 
1 1
  
(1  x 2 ) 1  ( x 2 ) n0
( x 2 n
)  
n 0
(1) n x 2 n  1  x 2  x 4  x 6  ...
82
Example 5
2
Find the Maclaurin series of sin x
Solution
f x   sin x
x3 x5
f x   x   
3! 5!
Because sin x 2  f ( x 2 ) , you can substitute x2 for x in series for sin x to obtain
sin x 2  f ( x 2 )
x 6 x10
 x2   
3! 5!
3
 4 
 3 
3. Find the value of cos3  using the first six terms of the Maclaurin series.
83
4. Find the value of sinh   using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series
5. Find the value of cosh   using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series
Find the Maclaurin’s series of the following:
1. f(x)= e4x
2. ( )
( )
84
3. (8 )
4. (8 )
5. ( )
85
3.5 Series Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations

Introduction:
Many differential equations can’t be solve using the simple familiar functions. This is true even for a
simple looking equation
3 0
In such a case we use the method of power series; that is, we look for a solution of the form
( ) ∑ ⋯
The method is to substitute this expression into the differential equation and determine the values of the
coefficients
We explain the method in Example 1:
Example 1: Use power series to solve for y” + y = 0
Solution:
(a) We can differentiate power series term by term so
𝑦 𝑐 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 ⋯ ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝑛
𝑦 𝑐 2𝑐 𝑥 3𝑐 𝑥 ⋯ ∑ 𝑛𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛
𝑦 2𝑐 2 ∙ 3𝑐 𝑥 ⋯ ∑ 𝑛(𝑛 )𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3

𝑛
(b) We rewrite y” as
𝑦 ∑(𝑛 2)(𝑛 )𝑐𝑛 𝑥𝑛 0 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4

𝑛
(c) Substituting the expressions in Expressions in Equations 2 and 4 into the

differential equation, we
obtain
∑(𝑛 2)(𝑛 )𝑐𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 0

𝑛 𝑛
Or
∑[(𝑛 2)(𝑛 )𝑐𝑛 𝑐𝑛 ]𝑥 𝑛 0 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4

𝑛
86
(d) If two power series are equal, then the corresponding coefficients must be equal.
Therefore the coefficients of 𝑥 𝑛 in Equation 5 must be 0:
(𝑛 2)(𝑛 )𝑐𝑛 𝑐𝑛 0
𝑐𝑛
𝑐𝑛 𝑛 0 23
(𝑛 )(𝑛 2)
(e) Equation 6 is called a recursion relation. If and are known, this equation allows us
to determine the remaining coefficients recursively by putting in succession.
𝑐
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑛 0: 𝑐
∙2
𝑐
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑛 : 𝑐
2∙3
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑛 2: 𝑐4
3∙4 ∙2∙3∙4 4
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
4∙5 2∙3∙4∙5 5
𝑐4 𝑐 𝑐
5∙6 4 5∙6 6
𝑐5 𝑐 𝑐
6∙7 4 5∙6 7
𝑐0
(f) For even coefficients, 𝑐 𝑛 ( )𝑛
𝑐0
(g) For odd coefficients, 𝑐 𝑛 ( )𝑛
( 𝑛 )
(h) Putting the values back into Equation 2, we write the solution as
𝑦 𝑐 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 ⋯
𝑥 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥 𝑛
𝑐 ( ⋯ ( )𝑛 ⋯)
2 4 6 (2𝑛)
𝑥 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥 𝑛
𝑐 (𝑥 ⋯ ( )𝑛 ⋯)
3 5 7 (2𝑛 )
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑐 ∑( )𝑛 𝑐 ∑( )𝑛
(2𝑛) (2𝑛 )
𝑛 𝑛
(i) Notice that there are two constants, 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
We identify that the series obtained as Maclaurin’s series for 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥. Therefor we
could write the solution as
𝑦(𝑥) 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥
Example 2: Use power series to solve for y’ - y = 0
Solution:
(a) We can differentiate power series term by term so
87
⋯ ∑ 2
2 3 ⋯ ∑( ) 3
(b) Substituting the expressions in Expressions in Equations 2 and 3 into the differential equation, we
obtain
∑( ) ∑ 0
Or
∑[( ) ] 0 4
(c) If two power series are equal, then the corresponding coefficients must be equal. Therefore the
coefficients of in Equation 5 must be 0:
( ) 0
0 23
( )
(d) Equation 6 is called a recursion relation. If and are known, this equation allows us to determine the
remaining coefficients recursively by putting in succession.
0:
:
2
2:
3 ∙2∙3 3
3: 4
4 2∙3∙4 4
4
4: 5
5 5 5
5
5: 6
6 6 6
(e) Putting the values back into Equation 2, we write the solution as
⋯
4 4
( ⋯
2 3 4
(f) Notice that there are two constants,

Therefor we could write the solution as
( )
88
CHAPTER 4
FOURIER SERIES
Introduction
It was well-known in the late late eighteenth century, that Complicated functions could sometimes be
approximated by a sequence of polynomials. Some of the leading mathematicians at that time such as Daniel
Bernoulli, Euler and d’Alembert began studying the possibility of using sequences of trigonometric functions for
approximation.
In 1807, this idea opened into a huge area of research when a French mathematician, Joseph Fourier
used series of sines and cosines to solve several outstanding partial differential equations of physics.1 In
particular, he used series of the form
to approximate his solutions. Series of this form are called trigonometric series, and the ones derived
from Fourier’s methods are called Fourier series. Much of the mathematical research done in the nineteenth
and early twentieth century was devoted to understanding the convergence of Fourier series.
Definition
Let f be a piecewise continuous function on [−𝜋, 𝜋] . Then the Fourier series of f is
the series
𝑎 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥
𝑛
where the coefficients and in this series are defined by

𝜋
1
𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 −𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 −𝜋 2𝜋 −𝜋
and are called the Fourier coefficients of f
4.1 Theorems in Fourier Series

Linearity Theorem
(i) If f(t), g(t) are functions with transforms F(ω),G (ω), respectively, then
• F{ f(t)+g(t)} = F(ω)+G(ω)
i.e. if we add 2 functions then the Fourier Transform of the resulting function is simply the sum of the
individual Fourier Transforms.
(ii) If k is any constant,
• F{ kf(t)} = kF(ω)
i.e. if we multiply a function by any constant then we must multiply the Fourier Transform by the same
constant. These properties follow from the definition of the Fourier Transform and properties of integrals.
89
Chapter 4 – Fourier Series
Example 1:
4 −3 3
If f(t) = ,
Then f(t) = 4 (t)

and so F(ω) = 4 (ω) = sin 3
Shift Theorem
There are two basic shift properties of the Fourier Transform:
(i) Time shift property:

F{f (t− ) } = − F(ω)
(ii) Frequency shift property:
F{ f(t)} = F(ω− ).
Here , are constants. In words, shifting (or translating) a function in one domain corresponds to a
multiplication by a complex exponential function in the other domain. We omit the proofs of these
properties which follow from the definition of the Fourier Transform.
Example 2:
Use the time-shifting property to find the Fourier Transform of the function.
1 3 5
,
g(t) is a pulse of width 2 and can be obtained by shifting the symmetrical rectangular pulse
1 −1 1
,
by 4 units to the right.

Hence by putting = 4 in the time shift theorem
[ ] −
sin
The Fourier Convergence Theorem

Here is a theorem that states a sufficient condition for the convergence of a given Fourier series. It also
tells us to what value does the Fourier series converge to at each point on the real line.
Theorem: Suppose f and f J are piecewise continuous on the interval −𝐿 𝑥 𝐿. Further,

suppose that f is defined elsewhere so that it is periodic with period 2L. Then f has a Fourier
series as stated previously whose coefficients are given by the Euler-Fourier formulas. The
Fourier series converge to f (x) at all points where f is continuous, and to
* lim− 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 + /2
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 +
At every point c where f is discontinuous.
90
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION OF FOURIER SERIES
Theorem. The Fourier series corresponding to f(x) may be integrated term by term from a to x
𝑥
and the resulting series will converge uniformly to ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 provided that f(x) is piecewise
continuous in −𝐿 𝑥 𝐿 and both a and x are in this interval.
4.2 Problems in Fourier Series
Example 3:
Let f(x) be the function of period 2L = 4 which is given on the interval (−2,2) by
, −2
,
2− , 2
Find the Fourier Series of f(x).
Answer:
The function is neither even nor odd. The Fourier coefficients are calculated as follows.
For a0, we have
∫−
∫−
∫ 2− , since f(x) = 0 on (-2, 0)
For ∫− cos ( )
= ∫− cos ( )
= ∫ 2− cos ( )
=− [1 − −1 ]
= {− ,
91
Finally, for we get
∫− sin ( )
= ∫− sin ( )
= ∫ 2− sin ( )
For the cosine terms in the series, we use 2k + 1 to run over the odd integers.
Thus, the Fourier Series of f(x) is
− ∑ cos ( ) ∑ sin ( )
Example 4:
Let f(x) be the function of period 2L = 2 which is given on the interval (-1, 1) by 1− .
Find the Fourier Series of f(x).
Answer:
The function is even.
Using the fact the function is even, we get
∫−
= ∫− 1 −
=∫ 1−
Again using the fact that the function is even, we get
∫− cos ( )
= ∫− 1 − cos
=2 ∫ 1− cos
− +
=
92
For the ’s, we have
∫− sin ( )
= ∫− 1 − sin
= 0,
Because the integrand is an odd function.
Thus, the Fourier Series of f(x) is
− +
V ∑ cos
93
SOLUTION MANUAL
CHAPTER 1 – COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.1
CONVERT THE FOLLOWING COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.) 6 + 2i = √ = 2√ = = 18.43495
2√ < 18.43°
2.) 13 + 9i = √ = 250 = 54.7

r < θ = 250 < 34.70°
3.) 25 < 12.24°

x= = ° = 24.43 z= +
y= = = 5.30
24.43 + 5.30 i = 25 < 12.24° = + °
4.) 8 < 3.60°

x = 7.98
y = 0.50
7.98 + 0.50 i = 8 < 3.60° = 8 +i8
5.) °+ °
z = r cjs
2 cjs 1.32°
6.) + °
= 2 cjs 5.42°
7.) z= 28+9i
Polar Form:
=
√
= 17.82°
z=r< z=√ or 29.41
z=√ < 17.82°
TRIGO 1: z = +
z = 29.41° + i 29.41
8.) z= 110+20i
Polar Form:
=
√
= 10.30
z = 50√ < 10.30
Euler Form:
z=r
= 50√
9. ( )
=
10. ( )
=
1.2
OPERATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. [4 + 6i] + [1 + 2i ]
=(5 + 8i)
2. [5 < 4.24 ] + [6 < 2.63 ]
5 < 4.24 = 4.99 + 0.37 i x = = 4.99
y= = 0.37
6 < 2.63 = 5.99 + 0.28 i x = = 5.99
y= = 0.28
[ 4.99 + 0.37 i ] + 5.99 + 0.28 i ]
= 10.98 + 0.65 i
= 11 < 3.39
3. ( )–( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) √
( ) ( √ )
=( )
=
4. ( ) ( )
= -13 – 2i
5. [ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )]
[ ( ) ( )]
= 3 + j4
[ ( ) ( )]
= 6.43 + j7.66
(3+j4)(6.43+(j 7.66)
= -11.35+j 48.7
=
= ( ) ( )
6. [ ] [ ]
[ ]
= 7.30 + j3.27
[ ]
= 2.72+j1.27
(7.30+j3.27) x (2.72+j 3.27)
= 15.71+j18.16
=
7.
( )( )
=
( )( )
= 1.32 - i1.62
8.
( )( )
=( )( )
= 0.44+0.08i
CHAPTER 2 – LAPLACE AND INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
1. ( )
* +
* + * + * + * +
( ) ( )
2. ( )
* +
* + * +
( ) ( )
3. ( )
* +
* + * + * +
( ) ( ) ( )
4. ( )
* +
* + * + * + * +
5. ( )
* +
* ( )+
* + * +
( ) ( )
6. ( )
* +
, ( )-
, - , -
( )
* (
+
)
7. ( )
( )
, -
, - , -
* +
8. ( )
( )
, -
9. ( )
* ( ( ))+
, -
, - , -
( )
* ( )
+
10. ( )
CHAPTER 2 – LAPLACE AND INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
2.3
1. ( )
, -
, - , - , - , -
2. ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
,( ) ( )
- ,( ) ( )
-
3. ( ) ( )( )( )
By partial fraction:
( )( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( ( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
:
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Inverse transform:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
, ( ) ( ) ( )
-
, ( )
- , ( )
- , ( )
-
4. ( )
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( )
{ } { }
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
5. ( )
( )( )
( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
:
:
:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
Inverse transform:
( ) , -
( ) ( )
, - ,( )
- ,( )
-
6. ( )
( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )(( ) ) ( )(( ) ) ( )( )
( )(( ) ) ( )(( ) ) ( )( )
( )(( ) ) ( )(( ) ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Inverse transform:
( ) , -
( ) ( ) ( )
, ( )
- , ( )
- , ( )
-
( )
7. ( )
( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( ( ) )( )( )
( ) ( )(( ) ) ( )(( ) ) ( ( ) )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )( )
: ( ) ( )
:
:
( )( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Inverse transform:
( ) , -
( ) ( ) ( )
, ( )
- , ( )
- , ( )
-
8. ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )
( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ( ) )( )( ) ( ( ) )( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ( ) )( )( ) ( ( ) )( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )
:
:
:
:
( )
( )
Inverse transform:
( ) , -
( )
, - , - ,( )
-
, - , - , - ,( )
-
, - , - , - ,( )
-
9. ( ) ( )
,( )
-
( ) ( )
( )
, -
( ) ( )
,( )
-
( )
10. ( )
( ) ( )
( )
,( ) ( )
-
( )
,( )
- ,( )
-
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
, -
( )
( ) ( )
( )
,( )
-
( ) ( )
( )
, -
( )
( )
,( )
-
1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. 7.
= =
= j 0.87
=
= - 0. 4288+j 0.5708
2.
=
8.
= j 11.55
=
=
3.
=
9.
= 11.59
=
=
4. ( )
= ( ) 10.
= 1.60 = )
5. ( ) =
=
=
= j 0.92
6.
= 0.5
1.5 POWERS AND ROOTS OF COMPLEX
NUMBERS
1.
6. Find the roots of .
=
√ √- -
=
= (- ) If k =0;
= - =
=
=
=
2.
If k =1;
-
r=√
=
-
r=√
=
r=√
=-
√
=-
√
=- -
- =
If k =2;
-
=-
3.
= =
=
=-
4. =-
= =
=
5.
=
=
7. Find the roots of - . =
=-
√ √
If k =0; First 2 fourth roots:
1) 2.07 + j 0.55
= 2) -0.55 + j 2.07
=
9. Find the 2 square roots of √- .
If k =1;
= r=√ - √
= For the angle:
-
= a=
= -
a=
=
a=
If k =2;
The complex number - is in the second
= quadrant.
-
=
= -
= In Polar Form:
(- ) √
8. Find the first 2 fourth roots of Using DEMOIVRE’S Theorem:

.
First root:
√
= ( ) ( )
=
=
First root:
=
x= x = 2.55
Second root:
y= y= 3.54
=
=
Second root:
x=
x=
x = -2.55
y=
y=
y = -3.54
=- -
* ( ) ( )+
First root:
= 1.998 + j 0.087
Second root:
=-
First 2 fourth roots:
1) 1.998 + j 0.998
2) -0.087 + j 1.998
3.2 SUMMATION NOTATION
Evaluate:
1. ∑
When x = 0; x = 5;
x = 1; = 2 + 7 + 12 + 17 + 22 + 27
= 87
x=2
3. ∑
x=3 When i = 1;
x=4
i = 2;
x=5
i = 3;
= 0 + 3 + 16 + 45 + 96 + 175
= 335 i = 4;
2. ∑ =
When x = 0;
=
x = 1;
4. 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35
=∑
x = 2;
5. 0, 3, 0, 3, 0, 3
x = 3;
=∑ -(- )
x=4
6. -1, 0, -1, 8, -81 i = 4;
=∑ - -
7. , .... =
=∑ -
8. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, ….
=∑
9. ∑ -
When i = 0;
[ ] -
i = 1;
[ ] -
i = 2;
[ ] -
i = 3;
[ ] -
= -3, 4, -7, 12, -+….
10. ∑
When i = 1;
i = 2;
i = 3;
3.3
TAYLOR SERIES & MACLAURIN’S SERIES
1. centered at x = 1.
-
- -
3.
- -
=
-
=- -
-
- -
- -
=
-
=
-
-
1+ 2 - 2 2 1+
- f
1+ 4
- 4 1+
=
- 1+ 4
( - ) - ( - ) ( - )
-4
=
= - ( - ) ( - ) - ( - ) ( - ) 1+ 3
1+ 3 + 2 2 1+ 2
f
1+ 6
2.
12 1+ 2
=
1+ 6
12
=
1+ 4
1+ 4 - 12 4 1+ 3
f4
1+ 8
-48 1+ 3
=
1+ 8
= =
-48
1+ 5
= 2 . 32 2 . 192 3 . 1536
1+
1.6 + . 8( -4) - 2
( -4) + 3
( -4) - 4
2 -3 3
= 1.6 + . 8( -4) – . 16( -4) + 3.2 1 ( -4) 7.
-4 4
- 6.4 1 -4 …
5
4. Find the 2nd term of f 2 t 1. =
5
f 2 f 1 2 -2
4 =
f 1 f 1 1 1+ 3
3
f 4 f 1 4
2
f 12 f 1 12
=
5 4 2 12 3
2 2 +1 ( -1) + 2 -1 + 3 -1 +…
=
First term: 20
Second term: 20 +100(x-1)
=
5. f e3 +1
; 2
f e3 +1
f 2 1 96.63 =
f 3 e3 +1
f 2 3289.9
3 +1
f e f 2 9869.7
=
= 9 e3 +1
f 2 296 9.1
f 9 3 e3 +1 =
= 27 e3 +1
9869.7 2
e3 +1
1 96.63 + 3289.9 ( -2)+ -2 +
2
296 9.1
-2 3 +… =
3
2
= 1 96.63 + 3289.9 ( -2)+4934.85 -2 +
8.
0
Find the M cl urin’s series of the following:
6. f e4 =
4
f e f 1
4
f 4e f 4 =
4
f 16e f 16
f 64e4 f 64 =
4
f 256e4 f4 256
2 3 4
e4 1+ 4 + 2 16 + 3 64 + 4 256 +…
=
1 2 3 4
1+
1+ 1 (-1)+ 2 3 + 3 (-12)+ 4 6 +…
9.
=
2 3 4
sin 8 + 1
8 +2 + 3 (-512)+ 4 +…
3
=8 - 512 …
3
10.
=
2.1
THEOREMS OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM
1. Find the Laplace transform of

.
( - ) -
-
( - ) -
( - ) – 3. Find the Laplace transform of
( - )
3
sin 3t
2. By using the linearity theorem, show that s2 +32
.
-
Thus,
∫ -
* +
∫
-
* +
But
-
- * +
Thus,
4. Find the Laplace transform of
∫ .
-
∫ ∫ -
-
-
From the table of Laplace transform,
-
-
( ) Thus,
Hence, - -
)
5. Find the Laplace Transform of
{ - .
[ ] -
-
[ ]
( )
[ ]
Thus, [ ]
-
(- ) - - ( )
[ ]
-
- ( ) - -
[ ]
- ( ) -
[ ]
6. Supposed that the Laplace transform of a
-
certain function f(t) is , find the - -
[ ]
Laplace transform of .
If , then by change of scale [ ]

theorem,
[ ]
-
-
⁄ -⁄
(⁄ ) ⁄ - 8. Find the Laplace transform of
-
.
( ⁄ )- ⁄
⁄ - -
( ⁄ )
⁄ -
-
-
- Since,
7. Find the Laplace transform of Then,

.
∫ -∫
(- )
∫ -
∫ - - t sin t + 2 cos t s2 t sin t
2 cos t s2 t sin t + t sin t

( )- ( )
s2 t sin t + t sin t 2 cos t
(s2 +1) t sin t 2 cos t

2u 2u
f t ∫s - du s
u2 +16 u2 +25 (s2 +1) t sin t 2
s2 +12
1
f t ln(u2 +16) - ln(u2 +25) s 2s 2s
2 (s2 +1) t sin t s2 +1
t sin t s2 +1 s2 +1
1 u2 +16
f t 2
ln u2 +25 s 2s
t sin t 2
s2 +1
u2 16
1 +
u2 u2
f t 2
ln u2 25 s
+
u2 u2
t e-u -1
1+ 2
16 10. Find the Laplace transform of ∫ u
du.
1 u
f t ln 25
2 1+ 2 s t Fs
u
∫ f u du s
16 16
1 1+ 2 1+ 2
s
f t ln 25 - ln 25 t e-u -1 1 e-t - 1
2 1+ 2 1+ 2
s
∫ u
du s t
s2 +16 t e-u -1 1 e-t 1

f t
1 1+
ln 1+ - ln s2 ∫ u
du s t
- t
2 s2 +25
s2
1 1
(e-t ) 1
s+1 s
1 s2 +16
f t ln1 - ln
2 s2 +25
From division by t:
1
f t -[ln(s2 +16) - ln(s2 +25)]
2 t e-u - 1 1 du du
[∫ u
du] s
∫ u+1
- ∫ u
1
f t
2
[ln(s2 +25) - ln(s2 +16)]
t e-u -1 1
∫ u
du s
ln u+1 - ln u s
1 s2 +25
f t 2
ln s2 +16
t e-u -1 1 u+1
∫ u
du s
ln u s
t e-u - 1 1 +1 s+1
9. Find the Laplace transform of f t t sin t ∫ du ln - ln
u s s
using the transform of derivatives.
t e-u - 1 1 s+1
f t t sin t …………… f ∫ u
du s
- ln s
f t t cos t + sin t ………… f t e-u - 1 1

∫ u
du - s
ln s+1 - ln s
f t [-t sin t + cos t ]+ cos t - t sin t + 2cos t
t e-u - 1 1
∫ u
du s
ln s - ln s
[f t ] s2 f t - s f -f
t e-u - 1 1 s
[- t sin t + 2 cos t ] s 2
t sin t - s - ∫ u
du s
ln s+1
1. Find the formula for the nth term of the arithmetic sequence 2, 4, 6, . . .
Solution:
Here a = 2 and d =2, so
( )
2. Find the formula for the nth term of the geometric sequence 10, 20, 40, …
Solution:
3. Find the 4th term of an arithmetic sequence 4n-1
Solution:
Here n = 4, so
( )
Solution:
( )
Solution:
( ) ( )
3.3 Taylor and Maclaurin’s Series
2 .5
Solution:
x
x2 x3 x4
e  1 x 
x
 
2! 3! 4!
2.5 2 2.53 2.5 4

e 2.5  1  2.5   
2! 3! 4!
 10.8568
 
3
Solution:
The first five terms of the Maclaurin series for sin x is
  x3 x5 x7
sin    x   
3 3! 5! 7!
     
3 5 7
     
     3   3
 
3
sin       
3 3 3! 5! 7!
 0.8660
 2 
3. Find the value of cos  using the first three terms of the Maclaurin series.
 3 
Solution:
The first five terms of the Maclaurin series for cos x is
 2  x2 x4
cos   1  
 3  2! 4!
 2   2 
2 4
   
 2   3 
 
3
cos   1 
 3  2! 4!
 0.39152
4. Find the value of f 7 given that f 3  45 , f 2  16 , f 3  27 , f 3  8 , and all other higher
Solution
h2 h3
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   
2! 3!
x3
h  73
4
42 43
f 3  4  f 3  f 34  f 3  f 3
2! 3!
 4 2   43 
f 7   45  164  27   8 
 2!   3! 
256
 45  64  216 
3
 410.3333
5. Find the value of f 5 given that f 2  32 , f 2  16 , f 2  24 , f 2  24 , f
( 4)
2  12 and all
other higher derivatives of f x  at x  2 are zero.
Solution
h2 h3
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   
2! 3!
x2
h  52
3
32 33 34
f 2  3  f 2  f 23  f 2  f 2  f ' 2
2! 3! 4!
 42   43   44 
f 5  32  164  24   24   12 
 2!   3!   4! 
 32  64  192  256  128
 672
3
x
x2 x3 x4
ex  1 x   
2! 3! 4!
32 33 34
e3  1  3   
2! 3! 4!
 16.375
 4 
 3 
Solution:
The first four terms of the Maclaurin series for sin x is
 4  x3 x5 x7
sin    x   
 3  3! 5! 7!
 4   4   4 
3 5 7
     
 4   4   3   3   3 
sin     
 3   3  3! 5! 7!
 1.8036
3. Find the value of cos3  using the first six terms of the Maclaurin series.
Solution:
The first six terms of the Maclaurin series for cos x is
x 2 x 4 x 6 x 8 x10
cos3   1     
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
cos3   1 
3  2

3  3  3  3 
4

6

8

10
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
 2379.81
4. Find the value of sinh   using the first four terms of the Maclaurin series
Solution:
The first four terms of the Maclaurin series for sinh x is
x3 x5 x7
sinh    x   
3! 5! 7!
sin      
 3   5   7
3! 5! 7!
 11.4587
5. Find the value of cosh   using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series
Solution:
The first five terms of the Maclaurin series for cosh x is
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cosh    1    
2! 4! 6! 8!
cos   1 
 2   4   6   8
2! 4! 6! 8!
 11.5641
Find the Maclaurin’s series of the following:

1. f( ) e4
( ) e4 (0) 1
( ) 4e 4 (0) 4
( ) 16e4 (0) 16
( ) 64e4 (0) 64
4
f ( ) 256e4 f 4 (0) 256
2 3 4
e4 1 4 2
(16)
3
(64)
4
(256) …
2. ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
= ( )
-2
= 3
1
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
= ( )
=
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
=
( )
=( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
=
( )
=( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3. ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= ( )
( ) ( )
= ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
4. ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4
sin(8 ) 0 1
(8)
2
(0)
3
(-512) 4
(0) …
3
= - (512) …
3
5. ( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
= ( )
( )
( )
=( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
=
( )
=
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
= ( )
=( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
= ( )
=( )
1 2 3 4
1
1 1
(-1) 2
(3)
3
(-12) 4
(60) …
=
1. ( ) centered at x = 1.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) - ( )- -
( )
-
= ( ) ( )-
-
=- ( ) - ( )- -
-
( ) ( ) ( )-
( ) -
-
( ) -
- ( ) ( - ) - ( - ) ( - )
= - ( - ) ( - ) - ( - ) ( - )
2. ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=
3. ( )
( )
( )( )- ( )
( )
( )
-
= ( )
=( )
(1 )2 (0) - 2 2 1
f ( ) 4
1
-4 1
= 4
1
-4
= 3
1
2
(1 )3 (0) 22 1
f ( ) 6
1
2
12 1
= 6
1
12
= 4
1
3
(1 )4 (0) - 12 4 1
f4 8
1
3
-48 1
= 8
1
-48
= 5
1
2 0 032 2 0 0192 3 0 01536 4

1
1 6 0 08( -4) - 2
( -4) 3
( -4) - 4
( -4) …
2 3
=16 0 08( -4) – 0 016( -4) 3 2 10-3 ( -4)
6 4 10 4 ( 4)4 …
5
4. Find the 2nd term of ( ) 20 at 1.
5
( ) 20 (1) 20
4
( ) 100 (1) 100
3
( ) 400 f (1) 400
2
( ) 1200 f (1) 1200
5 400 2 1200 3
20 20 100( -1) 2
-1 3
-1 …
First term: 20
Second term: 20 +100(x-1)
5. f( ) e3 1
; 2
( ) e3 1 (2) 1096 63
3 1
( ) 3e (2) 3289 90
( ) ( )e3 1 (2) 9869 70
= e3 1 (2) 29609 10
( ) 9 3 e3 1
= e3 1
9869 70 2
e3 1
1096 63 3289 90( -2) 2
-2
29609 10 3
2 …
3
2
= ( -2) 4934 85 -2
( )

Engineering Students' Guide to Complex Numbers

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Engineering Students' Guide to Complex Numbers

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

PREFACE

ROQUID, SHAYNE O., currently taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.

1.1 Forms of Complex Numbers

CHAPTER 2: LAPLACE AND INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 35

2.1 Theorems in Laplace Transform

CHAPTER 3: POWER SERIES 61

3.1 Series and Sequence

CHAPTER 4: FOURIER SERIES 89

4.1 Theorems in Fourier Series

Retrieved on February 23, 2018 from https://www. Intmath.com/complex-numbers/7-powers-roots-

Retrieved on February 25, 2018 from www2.clarku.edu/~djoyce/complex/powers.html

Retrieved on February 26, 2018 from https://www.tkiryl.com/Calculus/Section_8.7--

Retrieved on February 28, 2018 from http://www.chemistrylearning.com/logarithm-of-complex-number/

Retrieved on February 28, 2018 from http://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/panel-

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/others/theorems-of-

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.mathalino.com/reviewer/advance-engineering-mathematics

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.math.psu.edu/tseng/class/Math251/Notes-LT1.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://www.milefoot.com/math/complex/functionsofi.htm

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/trigonometric_functions

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Logarithmic_functions

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.math.montana.edu/pernarow/m472/notes/Notes_9.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.cosmicriver.net/uploads/5/3/0/7/5307578/algebra8.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://amsi.org.au/ESA_Senior_Years/PDF/Sequences1d.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.math.ttu.edu/~drager/Classes/04Spring/anspract4.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from www.stewartcalculus.com/data/.../upfiles/FourierSeries5ET.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.math.unl.edu/~scohn1/EngRevf08/ilaplace.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.math.psu.edu/tseng/class/Math251/Notes-LT1.pdf

Retrieved on February 30, 2018 from https://www.scribd.com/.../24-2-props-fourier-trnfm-pdf

1.1 Forms of Complex Numbers

1.1a Rectangular Form

When a complex number is denoted by its respective horizontal and vertical

1.1b Polar Form

Fig. 1.1 Polar form of a complex number

Thus, we can write any complex number z in the form

1.1c Trigonometric Form

Thus, we can write the trigonometric form of a complex number 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒚𝒊 as

It can also be express as

(b) Then substitute the values in the equation = ( + )

(b) Then substitute the values in the equation = ( + )

𝒆𝒊𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒆 𝒊𝜽

CONVERT THE FOLLOWING COMPLEX NUMBERS

3.) 25 < 12.24°

4.) 8 < 3.60°

1.2 Operations of Complex Numbers

1.2a Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏 ) − (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟐 ) = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) − 𝒊(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 )

Fig. 1.2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Number

Thus, it is irrelevant in what order complex numbers are added.

(b) And summing the imaginary terms we obtain

(b) And subtracting the imaginary terms we obtain

1.2b Multiplication of Complex Numbers

𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚𝟏 )(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊𝒚𝟐 )

The multiplication of complex numbers is also both commutative and associative

1.2c Division of Complex Numbers

Solution: (using the first method)

Solution: (using the second method)

(b) Using the formula z1z2 = r1 r2 < θ1 + θ2 , we get

𝓛𝒇 (𝒕)+ 𝒔𝟐 𝓛𝒇(𝒕)+ 𝒔 𝒇(𝟎) 𝒇 (𝟎)