PLANNING ASPECTS OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1- DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF A TRANSMISSION PROJECT

2- TRANSMISSION PLANNING

2.1- Objective
2.2- Planning Stages
2.3- Planning Aspects Regarding Transmission Lines

3- METHODOLOGIES OF PLANNING

3.1- Data acquisition and preparation

3.2- Formulation and Pre-selection of Alternatives
3.3- Electrical Studies
3.4- Economical Studies and Final Evaluation

4- PLANNING CRITERIA

4.1- Criteria for steady-state conditions

4.2- Criteria for temporary and transient conditions

5 - EVOLUTION AND SELECTION OF VOLTAGES LEVELS

6 - CONDUCTOR SELECTION

7- AC versus DC TRANSMISSION

8 - THE TRANSMISSION LINE AS A SYSTEM COMPONENT

8.1- Electrical characteristics

8.2- Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading (Natural Power)
8.3- Power transmitted versus right of way width
8.4- Stability
8.5- Thermal limit and voltage drop
8.6- Capability of a line
8.7- Reliability and availability
8.8- Reactive power compensation
8.9- Transposition
8.10- Losses
8.11- Evaluation of electric and magnetic fields
8.12- Use of new technologies

a) Poly-phase lines

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 b) No-loss lines - Superconductors
c) Half-wave transmission
d) High SIL Lines
e) Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS)

9- FINAL RESULTS OF PLANNING

a) Work schedule
b) Studies performed and complementary evaluations

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1- DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF A TRANSMISSION PROJECT

Overhead transmission of electric power has been along the years and is still one
of the most important elements of today’s electric power system. The fundamental
purpose of the transmission systems is to transmit power from generating stations
to industrial sites and to substations, from which the distribution systems supply
residential and commercial services. This objective is accomplished by overhead
transmission lines that connect the power plants into the transmission network,
interconnect various areas of transmission networks, interconnect one electric
utility with another, or deliver the electric power from various areas within the
transmission network to the distribution substations.
The planning studies have a major role in the definition of an electric system or in
its expansion.
Due to the various variables involved in the process, the planning activities must
start several years before a new installation or an expansion of an existing one is
implemented.
So, a transmission line project may be considered as being initiated with some
planning activities long before its execution is defined. Several stages are usually
necessary inside a power utility before a new transmission system since its
conception until its completion is energized. The first conception of a transmission
line and of the associated substations starts in the long term planning with the
initial system evaluations and continues with further steps of medium term
planning and finally with the real definition of the line and then the granting of
operation license and approval.
For ending the preliminary studies of a new line, some complementary studies of
performance evaluation are carried out such as:
- Reactive compensation needs
- Load flows and stability
- Transposition needs
- Switching surge overvoltages
- Reliability evaluation
Finally, the line owner proceeds to the line basic design and then the detailed
design, with all associated activities. The last stages consist in easing the rights of
way, performing and approving environmental impact studies and providing
indemnification to the land owners affected by the new line. Only then the
construction can legally be started. The commissioning of the line and startup of
operation ends the process.

2- TRANSMISSION PLANNING

2.1- Objective

The transmission planning is purposed to define a transmission system or its

expansions so as to supply the electrical energy demand at specified quality
and reliability criteria at a minimum cost. The characteristics of the planning
process should be continuous as every plan represents a set of existing
perspectives at the moment as far as future evolution is concerned.

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 Beside that the process must have an interactive structure because the
medium term needs of a system must be fulfilled so as to make an optimized
future evolution possible.

2.2- Planning Stages

Table 2.3-1 shows a summary of the different kinds of planning and the main
variables that are defined in each of them.

a) Long term planning

Long term planning is an important tool inside a Power Utility as it defines

the basic future structure of an electric system, including transmission
links. It comprises a long term horizon for the system planning in the range
of 15 to 30 years.

The long term planning allows identifying the main variables of system
development, the expected composition of the generating plants and the
needs of introducing new transmissions backbones and of developing new
technologies.
This planning should be dynamic and should be subjected to revisions
when significant changes occur in the strategic or macroeconomic
variables.

b) Medium term planning

This kind of planning comprising a target horizon in the range of 10 to 15

years usually defines basic characteristics of a system such as voltages,
main transmission lines and substations.
A reference expansion program is established, depending upon
complimentary studies for some areas or specified links.

As in the preceding cases, such planning should be continuously revised

depending on the variations that can occur on the energy market or on the
generation program .

c) Operation or short term planning

It is practically a continuous operational tool that an Utility or any system

owner should manage in order to keep the quality of the energy supply
inside the requirements of the consumers or according to the contract of
public or private service. Therefore the horizon to be analyzed is usually
below 3 years and urgent requirements of the system are established,
such as anticipation of operation dates of new facilities, needs to uprate or
upgrade existing lines etc.

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 Table 2.3-1: Classification of Transmission Planning

Long term Medium term Operation(short term

planning planning planning}
Horizon (years) 15 10 3
• Required power • Required • Required power
• Overloads power • Overloads
Problems to be • Stability • Overloads • Stability
considered • Environmental • Stability • Voltage levels
Impact policy • Voltage levels • Short-circuit
• Short-circuit
• Capacity • Capacity -List of Operational
(ratings) (ratings) Constrains
• Voltages • Losses -Needs to uprate or
Parameters to be • Terminal areas • Operative upgrade lines or to
defined • Approximate voltages anticipate programmed
years • Terminal facilities
substations
• Years of
operation
Model Size Area or supply Interconnected Interconnected System
region System

2.3- Planning aspects regarding transmission lines

Answers should be obtained from planning studies to the following questions:

a) When a new transmission line or the uprating or upgrading of existing lines

will be required?
b) Where is it required and what quality of supply or reliability is required?
c) What normal and emergency ratings are required?
d) What type of transmission should be used?
- Overhead lines x cables
- DC x AC lines

3. METHODOLOGIES OF PLANNING

3.1- Data acquisition and preparation

a) Market
The time required to obtain sites for design and for constructing new power
plants as well as new substations and overhead lines varies from 3 to 10 or
more years. These long dead times require that decisions be made based
on long term load forecasts. The welfare and progress of a modern society
depend so heavily on the availability of electrical energy that a Utility must
make certain that sufficient generating capacity will be available at the
required sites when the clients need it.
So a good market forecast should establish:

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 • Total energy market and load distribution at busbars.
• Reactive power requirements (except in long term studies).

b) Generation

Regarding the generating capacity of a Utility, long and medium term

studies should establish:
• List of power plants considered inside the study horizon.
• Number of generating units, their ratings and operational limits.
• Active power supplied by every machine.
• Rotating reserves and units at maintenance or at still stand.
• Power interchange among companies or regions.

c) Others

• Configuration and general characteristics of the existing system.

• Preferential line routes, considering availability costs and environmental
impacts.
• Preferential standards: Voltages, frequencies, type of transmission,
parameters.

3.2- Formulation and pre-selection of alternatives

Alternatives for expansion of the transmission system inside the horizon of the
study under consideration are brought about as far as boosting or
reinforcement of the existing system is concerned.
A simplified technical and economical evaluation of the alternatives for
the horizon covered by the investigation is carried out in order to reduce the
number of alternatives to be detailed.

3.3- Electrical studies

The basic electric design of an AC system involves:

• Power flow requirements

• System stability and dynamic performance
• Selection of voltage level
• Voltage and reactive power flow control
• Conductor selection
• Losses
• Corona-related performance (Radio, audible and television noise)
• Electromagnetic field effects
• Reliability evaluation
• Insulation and overvoltage design
• Switching arrangements
• Circuit-breakers duties
• Short-circuit and protective relaying

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 3.4- Economical studies and final evaluation

The pre-selected alternatives that satisfied the electrical criteria are

evaluated in cost and the present worth of investment and annual losses is
determined in order to obtain the most economical alternatives.
A final analysis of economical feasibility and a sensitivity analysis are
carried out on the pre-selected alternatives, taking into account a cost-benefit
evaluation comprising:
• Investment
• Maintenance
• Availability of energy
• Load market and revenues
• Losses and reliability benefits
Finally the optimum alternative is selected based not only in technical and
economical analysis but often considering also subjective points such as
experience of the Utility, local standards, facility of spare parts etc.

4. PLANNING CRITERIA

One of the basic criteria that should be established in a system planning is that no
load can be lost under occurrence of a simple contingency in the system being
studied or in another neighboring interconnected system. We should differentiate
between steady-state and transient conditions of a system, when designing it.

4.1- Criteria for steady-state conditions

The system should be tested for heavy load and light load conditions and
should support the non-simultaneous outage of any one of its components
(criterion N-1).
The first and more important study to be carried out is the execution of load
flow runs are performed to evaluate voltage on the bus-bars, loads in
transmission lines and transformers and losses. The usual ranges of the
relevant parameters are:
• Voltage range: between 0.95 and 1.05 p.u.
• Transformer loads
- Normal conditions: no overload
- Loss of a TL or generator unit: 20% overload
- Loss of a transformer: 40% overload

4.2- Criteria for temporary and transient conditions

a) Stability

Under any load condition, the system should be stable for phase to ground
short-circuit, without reclosing, considering the loss of one of its
components.

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 b) Overvoltages

The following cases are analyzed: load rejection, unbalanced faults, and
closing operations, line dropping and load switching.

The maximum allowable temporary overvoltages are in the ranges below:

- 140% in points with saturable equipment

- 150% in other points

The temporary overvoltages should not cause damage to any system

equipment.

c) Short Circuit

Short circuit powers and currents have to be accurately assessed in order

to prevent exceeding the equipment of system and installations.

5 - EVOLUTION AND SELECTION OF VOLTAGES LEVELS

Standard transmission and subtransmission AC voltages are established by the

national standards. As general guide IEC-71(Ref. 9) recommends some voltage
levels, but there is no clear delineation of what is transmission, subtransmission and
distribution. For instance, 33kV may be classified as distribution in some areas
while in other areas it may be transmission or subtransmission, depending on
function.
The voltage levels established by IEC are 52, 72.5, 145, 170, 245, 300, 362, 525
and 750 kV. Such voltages are named as the Highest Voltage for Equipment.
The rated voltage levels preferred in USA are 110, 220, 345, 500 and 750kV, while
the European practice prefers the voltage levels 60, 110, 220 and 380kV.

6 - CONDUCTOR SELECTION

In the initial decades of the electric transmission industry, the first overhead lines
were built with copper conductors. Due to copper mechanical properties, short spans
could be overcome. Besides, as time went by copper prices began to increase more
and more, forcing the introduction of other conductors. The use of aluminum instead
of copper conductors proved to be economical, so that progressively copper
conductors were excluded in overhead line constructions due to financial reasons.
However, Al-conductors, in view of their light weight and lower tension, were also not
convenient for overcoming big spans. That was the reason why Aluminum
Conductors Steel Reinforced (ACSR) were developed and have nowadays a
widespread use. Other composite conductors, combining Aluminum with Al-Alloys or
with Steel and so on have been developed and used.
Beside ACSR conductors, the following composite conductors are progressively
being considered in technical and economic evaluation for overhead transmission
lines:

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 All - Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAAC) – Aluminum Alloy 6201
Such kind of conductors are usually made up the ASTM 6201 - T81 alloy. In
France, the so-called ALMELEC conductors are made up of a similar alloy. It is a
homogeneous conductor with a good electric and mechanical behaviour, the
economic factor being decisive for the final choice.

• All - Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAAC) – Aluminum Alloy 1120 (Australian Alloy):
This conductor type has become recently more advantageous under technical and
economical points of view.

• Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced (ACAR)

It is a good alternative for ACSR conductors as far as corrosion of the core is
concerned, as the steel of the core is replaced by the Aluminum Alloy.

• Conductor ACSR / AW
It is another option for replacing normal ACSR conductor, when risks of core
corrosion are intense. An Aluminum-clad core is substituted for the steel
core.

6.1 - Optimization studies

The selection of the conductors for an overhead line is based on several electric
and mechanical parameters, the most important of which are described in Item
8. However, the economic factors, together with the reliability aspects, is
actually the main parameter that governs the conductor selection.
The costs of an overhead transmission line represent a significant amount of
the total costs of an electric system. This is specially true for long lines, where
the load centers are often faraway from big hydroelectric generating plants.
Long EHV transmission lines are therefore required. Even for shorter and lower
voltage lines that should carry big power amounts, their cost is considerable.
The need of designing economic lines is therefore apparent.

The optimization concept is connected with the idea of looking for the best
technical-economical solution or most effective solution. For the transmission
lines the concept of optimization can be fully applied, as they have a lot of
components and conditions that effect their behaviour, losses, efficiency and
costs and there is a great deal of interdependence among line components or
conditions, such as:

• Conductors depend on power transmitted, on the transmission line lifetime,

on the tower type, on the terrain profile, on the power and energy costs of
losses etc;
• Towers are a function of terrain profile, of weather model, especially of the
wind or ice, of the material type, of the insulation levels, of the line length
etc;
• Insulators depend on insulation levels, on the environmental conditions, on
the towers, on the conductors, on the wind etc.

An advantage that makes easier the optimization of transmission lines is their

suitability to be fully treated by computer models in all their design and layout
stages.

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 Simulated designs are carried out for a wide combination of component
alternatives; the cost of every alternative comprising investment and losses
along a certain period is determined and reduced to the present worth for
comparison purposes; finally a set of some of the better alternatives is selected.
The economic criteria recommended for analyzing the alternatives consists in
calculating the present worth of revenue required (PWRR), that can be
determined as:

n
PWRR = (1 + i / 100) -n (IC * F / 100 + CAD + CAE + CAM) where:
i =1

PWRR = present worth of revenue required

i = interest rate (%)
n = number of years of evaluation
IC = Investment costs
F = Annual charge of investments
CAD = Annual demand cost
CAE = Annual energy cost
CAM = Annual maintenance cost

Sensitivity analysis

The best alternatives, selected in terms of minimum PWRR compose a range of

conductor sections. The solutions situated in the range of minimum values are
then carefully and precisely examined finely refined until there is one “best-
choice” solution. This is done through a sensitivity analysis, consisting basically
in varying cost of different materials, labor, losses, as well considering
alternative options for transmitted power, number of years etc and determining
the influence of such variations into the selected alternatives.
This detailed analysis, together with eventual subjective factors, like experience
with some kind of solution, ease of maintenance, standardization and so on
lead finally to the “best-choice” alternative.
An example of optimization study is shown is Figure 6.1-1 for a 230 kV line with
a self-supporting structure type for twin bundles. The investment costs and the
PWRR ( or investment + cost of losses reduced to present value) are
plotted against the total phase conductor section. In the figure the Line Costs
are indicated in US$/km of line while the Present Worth is evaluated in terms
of percent. It should be noted that the Present Worth has only a relative
meaning for economically comparing different alternatives.
Changing the structure type will usually only cause a displacement of the curves
up-wards or down-wards without altering the relative values of the most
economical conductor sections.
From Figure 6.1-1 it can be concluded that theoretically the option of lowest cost
would be the point of tangency of the curves either for single, or for twin, triple
or quad-bundles. In the practice, sections in the range near the tangent should
be investigated and a sensitivity analysis is proceeded for the conductors
situated on that range.

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7 - AC versus DC TRANSMISSION

Since the beginning of the electric power industry DC Lines have been more
economical than the corresponding three-phase AC lines for transmitting the
same power. However alternating current offers a series of advantages toward
DC especially for generation, low-voltage distribution and electric power
consumption.
Therefore for utilizing the savings offered by DC transmission, AC produced
power must be transformed into DC power in a converter station, then the power
is transmitted to the load terminal, where the power is converted back into AC. So
DC transmission is only economically advantageous when the distance is big
enough to offset the cost of the converter stations.
The introduction of DC transmission has been processed in higher scale during
the last 20 years especially due to the development of new converter stations with
the use of solid state semiconductor technology.

A simple comparison between power transmitted per conductor and per circuit in
AC and DC lines can be carried out as follows:

The ratio of powers transmitted per conductor by a DC line (PD) and an AC three-
phase line (PA) can be equated as
PD V D .ID 2 .V A . I A 2
= = =
P A V A . I A . cos ϕ V A . IA . cos ϕ cos ϕ

PD
≅ 1.5
PA

If we take cosϕ = 0.945

Therefore, the ratio of power transmitted by a bipole DC link (two conductors) and
a three-phase single AC line (three conductors) :

PD( D) 2PD
= =1
PA(T ) 3PA

Thus, a DC and AC line of the same voltage level can transport about the same
power; it can therefore be concluded that the DC line is more economical than the
corresponding AC line as it requires two instead of three conductors, lighter towers
and foundations, beside lower construction costs. So the decision factor will
depend on other parameters, especially line length versus costs of terminals.

Other important advantages of DC lines as compared with AC lines are:

• DC systems present lower switching overvoltages;
• They need lower insulation of the cables for the same voltages;
• DC links introduce no problems of stability (as interconnected systems don’t

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 operate in synchronism);
• DC lines have the great ability to interconnected systems of different
frequencies
through back-to-back converter stations;
• DC systems present reduced short – circuit levels.

However DC lines present certain disadvantages toward AC systems in what

concerns the need of big amount of reactive powers to supply the DC/AC
converters and also regarding the high cost of the converter stations and
associated equipment.

The main applications of DC links are nowadays the following ones:

• EHV submarine cables for relatively long distances;

• Interconnections of systems having different frequencies;
• Transmission of large powers at long distances through overhead lines;
• For limitations of short-circuit powers;
• For increasing transmitting capacity of existing AC lines;
• Use of back-to-back interconnection of two AC System through AC/DC/AC
terminals, for improving stability, load flow control and loss reduction.

7 - THE TRANSMISSION LINE AS A SYSTEM COMPONENT

8.1- Electrical characteristics

The exact representation of a transmission line is usually made through the

use of hyperbolic functions, that can treat the line with distributed electric
parameters of resistance, inductance and capacitance. However equivalent
circuits of transmission lines have been simplified by calculating equivalent
series resistance and reactance, which are shown as concentrated or lumped
parameters and not distributed along the line. The distributed capacitances are
also represented by one or two lumped parameters. Such equivalent
parameters are deduced so that the voltages and currents at the sending end
and at the receiving end terminals are kept the same.

In view of that the true line representation that is really a hyperbolic function
can be replaced by a simplified Line Representation having the shape of the
so called Equivalent Π or Equivalent Y ), as shown below:

For short lines and low voltage lines, capacitance C is neglected and a
simplified model neglecting the capacitance can be used instead. Such
simplification could be applied to lines below 72.5kV and for lengths below 30
to 40km.

8.2- Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading (Natural Power)

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 The energy stored in the electric field of an overhead line can be equated as

Ee = ½ x CV2

At a similar way, the energy stored in the magnetic field is:

Em = ½ x Li2

At the threshold condition of having electric energy equal to the magnetic

energy stored in both fields, that is if Ee = Em, it results from the equations
above:

V L
= = Zo
I C

The ratio above has dimensions of an impedance and is called surge

impedance of the line. It can further be deduced
L
Z0= = XL ⋅ XC
C

The surge impedance of a transmission line is also called the characteristics

impedance with resistance set equal to zero (i.e. R is assumed small
compared with the inductive reactance

Z = L
C

The power which flows in a lossless transmission line terminated in a

resistive load equal to line’s surge impedance is denoted as the surge
impedance loading (SIL) of the line.
Under these conditions, the receiving end voltage ES by an angle δ
corresponding to the travel time of the line. For a three-phase line

Eφφ 2
SIL =
Zc
Where Eφφ is the phase-to-phase voltage and Zc is the surge impedance of
the line
Since Zc has no reactive component, there is no reactive power in the line,
Qs= Qs= 0. This indicates that for SIL the reactive losses in the line
inductance are exactly offset by the reactive power supplied by the shunt
capacitance, or

I2 ωL = E2*ωC.

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 SIL is a useful measure of transmission line capability even for practical
lines with resistance, as it indicates a loading when the line reactive
requirements are small. For power transfer significantly above SIL, shunt
capacitors may be needed to minimize voltage drop along the line, while for
transfer significantly below SIL, shunt reactors may be needed.

An effort that has been made by electric industry nowadays has been directed
toward the goal of increasing the SIL of the overhead lines, especially
considering the growing difficulties to acquire rights of way for new lines. For
increasing the Surge Impedance Loading of an overhead lines, the following
ways are possible
- Voltage increase
- Reduction of Z0 through one of one of the measures:

• Reducing phase spacing (compaction)

• Increasing number of conductors per phase bundle
• Increasing conductor diameter
• Increasing bundle radius
• Introducing bundle expansion along the span

Table 7.2-1 show the surge impedance loading of typical overhead lines

Table 7.2-1: Surge Impedance Loading of Typical Overhead Lines (MW)

Nº of Z0 (Ω ) Operating voltages (kV)

Conductors per
phase bundle
69 138 230 345 500 765
1 400 12 48 132 298
2 320 60 165 372 781
3 280 893
4 240 1042 2438
6 179 1400

Table 7.3-1 is only illustrative of loading limits and is useful as an estimating

tool. Long lines tend to be stability-limited and give a lower loading limit than
shorter lines which tend to be voltage-drop or conductor ampacity-limited.

8.3- Power transmitted versus right of way width

The need to transmit the highest possible power in a line corridor makes it
important to try to increase more and more the power carried by the lines inside it.
That originates the concept of Efficient Ratio of a line corridor:

Power transmitted
Effcient ratio =
ROWwidth

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 The power transmitted is proportional to the square of the voltage, while the
ROW width is nearly proportional to the voltage. Table 8.3-1 shows typical
values

Table 8.3-1: Typical values of Efficient Ratios

Voltage (kV) 230 500 765

Power (MVA) 165 1000 2500
ROW width (m) 45 65 95
ER(MVA/m) 3.7 15.4 26.3

There are several ways to increase the efficiency ratio, what is basically to
increase the power transmitted in a same corridor, such as:

• Use of higher voltage compatible with the forecasted loads

• Use of double/multiple circuit towers where acceptable by reliability or
visual impact considerations
• Line compaction
• Upgrading of transmission lines (series compensation, reconductoring,
uprating)
• Use of D.C. transmission

8.4- Stability

A power system made up of interconnected dynamic elements may be said to

have stability if it will regain stable operation following a system disturbance.

• Steady-state stability is associated with small perturbations such as slow

variation on loads or generation, line dropping. It depends fundamentally
on the state of the system, on the operating conditions at the instant of the
perturbation.

• Transient stability is associated with great perturbations (periodic

disturbances), such as line faults, loss of a generating unit, sudden
application of a big load, fault in equipment.

It strongly depends on the magnitude and site of the perturbation and less
on the initial state of the system.

The stability limit is defined as:

V 1 ⋅V 2
P= sinδ
XL

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 Where P is the power in MW, Vs and VR are the voltages at sending end
and receiving end terminals respectively; δ is the power angle of stability.

As far as dynamic stability is concerned the power angle δ is limited to the

range 30 – 45º, instead of a theoretical higher value near 90º, to allow
stability to be kept following power oscillations resulting from perturbations.
The transient stability criterion usually requires lower limits to the power
angle.
The reduction of the series reactance XL is therefore considered by
planning engineers as a convenient alternative to increase the power
transmitted by the line.

8.5- Thermal limit and voltage drop

a) As the conductor temperature increases, the following effects take place:

• The ohmic resistance and therefore the losses increase.

• The sags increase, reducing conductor-to-ground clearances or,
conversely, requiring higher towers.
• As the conductor temperature reaches values higher than 90ºC, there is
a loss of its mechanical strength. The mechanical strength reduction is
cumulative with time and can cause sag increases and the consequent
reduction of conductor to ground clearances; due to safety reasons a
maximum value of 10% reduction in conductor UTS is usually accepted
along the line life.

Design temperature of a conductor is defined as the highest steady-state

temperature it can undergo under standard meteorological conditions
(temperature, wind, solar radiation) and current.
It is usually a deterministic value.

The recommended highest conductor temperatures for line design and

spotting are 75 to 85ºC for steady-state operation and 100 to 150ºC for
emergency operation. The line should be spotted considering such
temperatures and the relevant clearances to prevent the occurrence of
safety problems.

It should be observed that new conductors recently developed or under

development stage can be operated continuously at temperatures around
150ºC.
The attached table 8.5-1 shows an example of thermal limits adopted by
some utilities, for steady-state and emergency conditions in lines using
ACSR conductors of more widespread use.

b) Voltage drop: Radial lines, especially medium and long lines up-to 138 kV
have often their transmitted powers limited by voltage drop or regulation.
The highest limit practically recommended for the line regulation is around
10%. Shunt reactive compensation (capacitors) are frequently required to
reduce the voltage drop in such cases.

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 Table 8.5-1: Example of Maximum Current Ratings of Main ACSR
Conductors recommended for Overhead Lines

Conditions Steady – State Emergency

Conductor Winter Summer Summer
NxSection Code Day Night Day Night Day
(mm2)
170 / 26 Linnet 420 482 346 449 551
242 / 40 Hawk 527 603 418 560 675
322 / 52 Grosbeak 637 733 502 680 826
403 / 66 Drake 729 844 568 783 948
564 / 39 Bluejay 827 1021 673 948 1138
2 x 403/66 Drake 1453 1684 1130 1563 1790
2 x 483/33 Rail 1592 1850 1232 1718 1957
4 x 322/52 Grosbeak 2540 2923 1997 2714 3122
3 x 456/32 Ruddy 2312 2683 1794 2491 2853
3 x 483/33 Rail 2388 2775 1847 2577 2935

Parameters adopted in Table above:

• Ambient temperature: winter: 25ºC

summer: 30ºC
• Wind speed: 0.61 m/s
• Latitude: 20ºC
• Solar radiation: winter: 800 W/m2
summer: 1000 W/m2
• Conductor temperature: steady-state: 60ºC
emergency: 100ºC

8.6- Capability of a line

It is the degree of power that can be transmitted by a line as a function of its

length, considering the limitations imposed by voltage drop, stability and
conductor temperature, as well as limitations inherent to substation terminal
equipment, such as circuit-breakers, Current Transformers etc.

The main factors determining the line capability in EHV lines are:

Line Length (km) Governing condition

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 0 – 80 --------------------- Thermal limit
80 – 320 --------------------- Voltage drop
> 320 --------------------- Stability

8.7- Reliability and availability

Consideration of the two important aspects of continuity and quality of supply,

together with other relevant elements in the planning, design, control,
operation and maintenance of an electric power system network, is usually
designated as reliability assessment.
Generally the past performance of a system is calculated according to some
performance indices, such as the Customer Average Interruption Frequency
Index and the Customer Average Interruption Duration Index.
For the transmission lines, the unavailability is measured in terms of hours per
year or percent of time while the lines have been out.
Two considerations are more usual, namely:

• Mechanical unavailability of the weakest component (towers), equal to the

inverse of twice the Return Period of the Design Wind Velocity, as per
Reference (7) The unavailability of all other components together usually
doesn’t exceed 25% of the one for the towers.

• Electrical Unaivaibility, considered equal to the unsuccessful reclosing

operation when a lightning flashover occurs. Generally 65 to 70% of the
reclosing operations are successful. Such faults are usually caused by
lightning strokes that reach the conductors or shield wires.
An index that is generally used for measuring an overhead line
performance in the last case is the number of outages/100km/year

• Additionally adverse weather conditions can add about for instance 0.3
events per year with an average duration below 10 hours in general.

8.8- Reactive power compensation

There are two basic types of compensation required by an electric system as a

consequence of the reactive power requirements, namely:

a) Series Compensation, made up of capacitor banks connected in series

with the line, offsetting part of the inductive reactance (reduction of
electrical length). Its main advantages are following:

• It improves the steady-state (dynamic) and transient stability

• It allows a more economical power loading
• It reduces the voltage drop
• A better load distribution between circuits is made possible.

18
 When using series compensation, especial attention should be given to
other factors affecting technically and economically the system such as,
capacitor protection, line protection and sub-syncronous resonance.

b) Shunt compensation

The main shunt compensation schemes used in electric systems are:

• Reactors, for long EHV lines for compensating capacitive powers in

hours of light load (Ferranti Effect)
• Capacitors, for voltage control and power factor correction during hours
of higher demand load
• Synchronous condensers that can perform the both functions of reactors
or of capacitors, depending on the instantaneous system needs.
• Static compensators that perform the same function of the above
synchronous condensers, but have no moving parts.

8.9- Transposition

Transpositions are made for the purpose of reducing the electrostatic and
electromagnetic unbalance among the phases which can result in unequal
phase voltages for long lines.
Untransposed lines can cause the following undesirable effects:

• Inductive interference with paralleling wire communication lines.

• Negative sequence currents that heat generator rotors.
• Zero sequence currents that can cause erroneous operation of protection
relays.

For carrying out physically the phase transposition of the conductors, some
alternatives can be used such as making them in intermediate substations or near
dead-end towers through especial conductor and insulator string arrangements or
through the utilization of especial structures that allow changing phase positions
by keeping the necessary clearances to the towers and to earth.
Instead of performing phase transpositions, it is possible to adopt alternatives that
preclude them, such as
• Use of delta or triangular phase configurations
• Use of series compensation, that introduce a “ negative line length” so
as to correct the unbalance introduced by the line itself.

8.10- Losses

The following types of losses have to be considered in overhead

transmission lines:

a) Losses by “Joule heat” in the conductors.

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 Those are the main losses that occur in the overhead conductors and their
correct selection and design are decisive for obtaining an economical line.
We have to consider that the losses are like power and energy thrown in
the basket as they represent consumption of fuels or lowering of water
reservoirs without the corresponding generation of useful work.
The power RI2 spent in the conductors and joints reduce the efficiency of
the electric system and its ability to supply new loads while the heat RI2 *∆t
is given off and represents burnt fuel or loss of useful water.

b) Dielectric losses: corona losses, insulator and hardware losses.

At a careful design and specifications of single or bundle conductors and
accessories, maximum conductor gradients have to be limited so as to
generate neglectable corona losses under fair weather conditions. On the
other hand a careful design of accessories and insulators can reduce to
negligible values the amount of leakage currents and the resulting losses.

c) Losses by induced currents

The shield wires of the line are metallic conductors subjected to induced
currents by the line conductors and therefore producing losses. There are
usually three alternatives for reducing the shield wire losses , consiting
basically in insulating them from the towers so that only negligible currents
can circulate through them:

- By insulating the shield wires and earthing them on every tower

- By insulating sections of the shield wires and just earthing an
intermediate point
- By insulating totally Insulating the shield wires

The Utility practice has shown that the shield wire insulation has
sometimes caused flashovers between the respective insulator, usually a
low flashover insulator as it must offer a free conductive path for lightning
stroke currents.
So, in the case the Utility decides to evaluate the economic feasibility of
insulating the shield wires for reducing line losses, a compromise must
be found among the savings in losses and the additional cost of
insulating and maintaining the shield wires.

8.11 Evaluation of electric and magnetic fields

Ground level electric and magnetic field effects of overhead power lines have
become of increasing concern as transmission voltages are increased. The electric
fields are especially important because their effects on human beings and animals
have been under severe doubts in the last decades. Serious suspicious still exist that
prolonged exposure to electric and magnetic fields could be associated with adverse
health effects or with increased risks. However, it is not appropriate to consider
unlikely conditions when setting and applying electric field safety criteria because of
possible consequences, thus statistical considerations are necessary.

20
The resultant electric and magnetic fields in proximity to a transmission line are the
superposition of the fields due to the three-phase conductors. Usually some
limitations, originated from the practice or researches are imposed to the maximum
electric field at the edge of the right-of-way.

The evaluation of the electric and magnetic fields across the right-of-way of and
overhead transmission line can nowadays be made with high accuracy so that the
possible health effects of such fields over humans, animals and plants can be
evaluated.

Although there is no evidence of harmful effects of the magnetic fields over humans
or animals, there are certain limitations imposed by the practice and by the good
sense. International organisations like CIGRÉ have undertaken extensive
investigations on such issue, as it can be seen in Ref (8).
The resultant electric and magnetic fields in proximity to an overhead line are the
superposition of the fields due to the three-phase conductors.
The range of maximum values accepted by different regulations as well as the usual
field intensities of electric and magnetic fields are shown is Table 8.11-1 below:

Table 8.11-1: Range of Maximum Electric and Magnetic Fields

below Overhead Lines

TL voltage Electric Field at Magnetic Field at

(kV) Ground Level Ground Level
(kV/m) (µT)
765 8 - 13 5
500 5-9 3
345 4-6 3
230 2 – 3.5 2
161 2-3 2
138 2-3 2
115 1-2 1.5
69 1 – 1.5 1

Although medical examinations in linemen, performed in some various countries,

have so far failed to scientifically prove health problems ascribable to electric and
magnetic fields produced by overhead lines, some conventional limit values have
been established for exposures, from which the numbers given in Table 8.11-2
below gives an indication.

Table 8.11-2: Range of Maximum Allowable Electric and Magnetic Fields below
Overhead Lines

Exposure Type ElectricField Magnetic Field

Limit(kV/M) Limit(µT)
Difficult Terrain 20 125
Non-populated 15 – 20 100 - 125
Areas

21
 Road Crossings 10 – 12 50 - 100
Frequent Ped. 5 50
Circulation

Regarding the maximum acceptable limits for the magnetic fields, there are no
universally definitive numbers as some controversy is still worldwide existent
especially about their real effects on the health of human beings and animals.
While in some countries the regulations are more permissible, in others severe
rules have been established.

Other two types of unwanted disturbances caused by overhead transmission lines on

the environment are also of importance, namely:
Radio Noise or Radio Interference (RI) that is a disturbance within the radio
frequency band, such as undesired electric waves in any transmission channel or
device. The generality of the term becomes even more evident in the frequency band
of 500 kHz to 1500 kHz (AM band). The frequency of 1000 kHz (1 MHz) is usually
taken as reference for RI calculation.
Audible Noise (AN) produced by corona of transmission line conductors has emerged
as a matter of concern of late. In dry-conditions the conductors usually operate below
the corona-inception level and very few corona sources are present. Audible noise
from transmission lines occurs primarily in foul weather. However, in general, it can
be said that transmission systems contribute very little as compared with the audible
noises produced by other sources. In the case of rural lines, the importance of the
Audible Noise (AN) as well as of the Radio-Interference (RI) may be still lower, as the
population density beside the line is generally too small.

8.12- Use of new technologies

System planners should be aware of new technologies and components

actually at development or under experience stages. Such novelties can turn
out technically and economically advantageous and their use can eventually
be introduced. Among new technologies presently under development stage,
we could mention:

a) Poly-phase lines

Difficulties in siting new transmission lines and the need for increased
transmission capacity have created the need to maximize power density in
transmission corridors. One of the ways to get this increased capacity is
the use of more than three phases, presently under a stage of research
and testing. Theoretical and experimental studies have considered up to
36 phase-systems.

- Preferred options:

The six phase and twelve-phase system have been the presumably
more attractive alternatives to substitute for the three-phase systems.

22
 If we name: N = number of phases
θ = angle between phases
Epp = phase-to-phase voltage
Epg = phase-to-ground voltage

It results:

360 θ
θ= Epp = 2 ⋅ Epg ⋅ sin
N 2

Table 8.12-1 shows values of Epp and Epg for polyphase systems up to
36 phases.

Table 8.12-1: Values of phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground voltages

for polyphase system (in kV)

Epg Phase-to-phase Voltage - Epp

N 3 6 12 24 36
80 138 80 41 21 14
133 230 133 69 35 23
199 345 199 103 52 35
289 500 289 149 75 50
433 750 433 224 113 75

Form the table above it can be observed that:

a) In hexaphase system, phase-to-phase are equal to phase-to-ground

voltages.
b) For phase orders higher than six, phase-to-phase voltages (between
adjacent phases) are lower than phase-to-ground voltages. That is
the reason why in polyphase systems, phase-to-ground voltages are
taken as reference.
c) Where as in three-phase system, phase-to-phase voltages are
always equal (Vab = Vbc = Vca), phase-to-phase voltages in
polyphase systems depend on the selected conductors. For
instance in a hexaphase (six-phase) system, where the phases are
ABCDEF, in this rotating sequence, ratios of Figure 7.13-1 will be
obtained.

- Advantages and disadvantages of polyphase systems.

Comparing polyphase systems with conventional three-phase system, it

can be reported:

Advantages:

• Lower voltages for the same power transmitted, resulting in lower

phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground clearances and therefore in
lower towers and narrower rights-of-way.

23
 • Lower voltage gradients, allowing smaller conductors to be used, as
far other electric limits (RI, AN etc) are attained.

Disadvantages:

• Higher values of electric fields at soil level;

• Eventual need of phase-to-phase spacers at the midspan;
• Difficult protection (relaying), when interconnected with three-phase
lines, so that its use is presently restricted to isolated lines.
• For insulation design, phase-to-phase surges are progressively
more important as the number of phases increases. It results
that the phase-to-phase surges may govern the insulation design,
contrarily to the practice in three-phase systems.

b) No-loss lines - Superconductors

The cooling of cables by a liquefied gas, at temperature close to

absolute 0º (0º K), reduces their ohmic resistance to negligible values.
Those are named cry-cables or superconductors and have negligible
losses.
Experiences with superconductors have been performed since longtime
and end up all ways in the difficulties and costs of getting temperatures
close to absolute 0º (-273º C). This obtention has been only feasible
through the liquefaction of helium, at high costs.
However, as far as superconductivity is concerned, a new hope
appeared of late, in 1987, when scientists found out a ceramic paste,
that presented superconductivity at much higher temperatures, raging
from (-230º C) up to a not – confirmed (-33º C). Any way, that opened
another door of hope to get the superconductivity at ambient
temperatures. The scientific world changed its mood after that discovery
and the world community hopes to bring new superconductive materials
at higher temperatures into commercial use in the next two or three
decades at latest.
One of the main objects of the actual research is toward the obtention
of ductility of the new superconductive material (ceramics). However,
thousand of other researches are in prospective stage nowadays, not
only about ductility of the ceramics, but seeking other materials, trying
to explain scientifically the new superconductivity phenomenon and
studying possible commercial use of the new materials.
Concerning power transmission, the big advantages of using
superconductors would be the drastic reduction of losses. In an electric
system, since the generation, through the transmission and distribution
until the house or industrial consumer, losses can reach about 20%.
That parcel could be imagined to be cancelled through the use of
superconductors.
We could therefore figure out power being generated hundreds or
thousand of kilometers from the load and being transmitted directly by
superconducting lines or cables until reaching the consumer without
losses. Use of DC cables that have no reactance and therefore cause
no voltage drops would then preclude the need of step-up and step-

24
 down substations, simplifying enormously the transmission, beside
eliminating power and energy losses.
Whether and when that prospect can become a reality, if so, only the
future will be able to answer us...

c) Half-wave transmission

The transmission of large power blocks at big distances (1500 km or

more) is possible to be carried out through the so-called half-wave
transmission, in AC.
In contrast with the conventional transmission line philosophy, the half-
wave transmission requires series reactors and shunt capacitors.
The use of half-wave transmission has been researched and will
naturally be justified only if technically and economically advantageous
when compared with other alternatives.

d) High SIL Lines

The power transfer of an overhead transmission line is directly

proportional to the square of the voltage and inversely proportional to
the surge impedance, i.e., the so called Surge Impedance Loading
(SIL), also named as natural power, of a line is:

V2 V2
SIL = =
Z L/C

Where: SIL ...... MW

V ......... phase to phase voltage (kV)

Z = L/C = surge impedance(Ω)

L ... Inductance in Henry

C ... Capacitance in Farad

Designing special conductor configurations and varying them along the

spans, it is possible to distribute the electric charges and fields so that
the resulting surge impedance is inversely proportional to the number of
subconductors per phase. Thus it turns out feasible to obtain much
higher than usual capacities of the overhead lines.
Under the standpoint of structures and conductor accessories at the
tower and along the spans, the HSIL line require special and non-
standard designs, that may arise questions on their feasibility. Such
type of lines was first developed by the Russians and some
experimental installations have been constructed in Russia, Cuba and
Brazil
Similar solutions are in stage of development in Sweden, Japan and
Brazil through the use of expanded bundles. Such bundles have normal

25
 cross-sections near the towers and expanded sections in the middle of
the span.

e) Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS)

The recent development of new semiconducting materials with higher

voltage and current capacity gave rise to a new a branch in the industry
of power systems, known as Power Electronics. This technology
develops new converters that make it possible the transformation of the
energy from AC to DC or even from to AC with different wave shapes or
frequencies.
The good experience of HVDC systems as well as of static
compensatory led the industry to research more in new Power
Electronics devices aimed at improving the static and dynamic
performance of the power systems. These new devices constitute the
so-called FACTS (Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems).
The FACTS devices use the Power Electronics to improve the control
and to increase the transfer capacity of the electric systems.
The equipment involved in the transmission system are changed into
active elements that simultaneously coordinate the static and dynamic
performance of the interconnected systems. The increase of the power
system capacity is a challenge that is economically overcome by the
FACTS elements.
The main FACTS components are the Static Var Compensatory (SVC),
used so far for dynamic control of voltage fluctuations and the Thyristor
Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC), used as controlled series
compensation for long lines.
New generation of more powerful equipment, base on voltage inverters
by forced commutation starts to be used, such as:

• STATCOM for shunt control of reactive power

• UPFC (Universal Power Flow Control), simultaneously applied for
both compensations and shunt compensation of reactive power.

9 - FINAL RESULTS OF PLANNING

Regarding transmission line construction, the planning stages usually established

inside the Power Utilities, either public or independent suppliers, should define the
following characteristics for a new transmission line or for an existing line to be
refurbished, uprated or upgraded.

a) Work schedule

• Required operation date

• Terminal substations / length
• Power to be transmitted (normal/emergency conditions)
• Type of Transmission (AC versus DC)
• Conductors, voltage, existence of shield wires

26
 • Tower type, phase configuration, conductor bundle
• Use of special shield-wires as Optical Ground Wires (OPGW) for
communication purpose.
• Maximum allowable losses

b) Studies performed and complementary evaluations

• Overvoltages (for defining insulation and clearances and therefore tower

dimensions)
• Short circuit levels (shield wires and grounding schemes)
• Transposition needs
• Compensation needs/where
• Eventual future intermediate switching stations
• Future lines on the same corridor
• Required electrical performance
• Stability (static and dynamic)

REFERENCES:

(1) Planning a Transmission Line – Rulemar P. Silva (1988)

(2) CEMIG’s Panning Criteria – Internal documents

(3) Transmission Line Reference Book 345 kV and above (EPRI)

(4) Elektrische Koraftwerk und Netze – H. Happoldt & D. Oeding – Springer Verlag
Berlin-Hudebert - New York (1978)

(5) Analytical Development of Loadability characteristics for EHV and UHV

Transmission Lines – IEEE – PAS 98 nº 2 – March/April 1979. R.D. Dunlop

(6) Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers – Fink & Beaty - 12th Edition -
1987

(7) IEC-826 : Loading and Strength of Overhead Lines

(8) CIGRÉ – Session 1996 : Panel 4 – EMF ISSUE MANAGEMENT

(9) IEC - 71

27
 Figure 6.1-1 : Example of Transmission Line Optimization
230kV Line – Twin Bundle

160,0 110,0

150,0
108,0
107,7 107,9
140,0
106,8
106,0
Cost(1000*US$/km)

130,0

PresWorth(%)
105,5

120,0 104,0

110,0 103,1
102,5 102,0
102,3 102,1
100,0
100,9
100,6 100,0
90,0 100,0

80,0 98,0
336,4 397,5 477 556,5 605 636 715,5 795 875 900 954
2*Al Section ( MCM)

Basic Conditions for the table above : Conductors:ACSR - Basic line length L = 120 km:
Metallic structures Interest rate : 12% per year - Power loss cost: US$100/kw/year
Evaluation period : 20 years -
Energy loss cost: US$20/MWh
Cost(US$/km)
LEGEND
P.Worth (%) -------

28
29