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2. Mitigation strategies:
• Overview
• Case study: environmental and health benefits of designating the
Marmara Sea (Turkey) as an ECA
3. Conclusions
(1)
Impact of international shipping
on European air quality
Rationale
PM2.5 3
Pandolfi et al.
(2011)
Tracers may be used in source
apportionment models, BUT:
Europe PM10 3-4 Viana et al. (2014)
changing fuels result in changing tracers
Europe PM2.5 3-4 Viana et al. (2014)
Alastuey et al.
Europe PM10 2.3-2.5 (2016)
Other tracers
Shipping emissions correlate with:
NO, NOx, SO2 and VOCs
Particle number concentration (N): nucleation episodes (SO2) (Reche et al., 2011)
Particle size distribution (80-500 nm; e,.g., Masiol et al., 2016)
25000 25
Reche et al. (2011)
N
20000 SO2 20
SO2 (µg/m3)
15000 15
N (#/cm3)
10000 10
5000 5
0 0
Particle size distribution
Knowledge gap!
o Difficult to discriminate from background
o Depends on measurement location (distance)
• Direct plume: bimodal N size distribution (40 nm, 70 nm) (Isakson et al., 2001)
• In ambient air:
- Stronger contribution to fine than coarse aerosols (Viana et al., 2009)
- Primary particles predominantly submicron (<1 µm) (Petzold et al., 2008;
Healy et al., 2009); modes at <250nm & 350nm (Merico et al., 2016)
- Impact on N, thus ultrafine particles (UFPs, <0.1 µm) (Saxe and Larsen,
- 2004; Reche et al., 2011)
- Particle number or toxicity better metrics than mass?
In Southern-Europe:
2%
2% 1%
13-17% PM2.5 in China
Shanghai; Pearl River Delta 20%
Zhao et al. (2013); Tao et al. (2017)
5-10%
14%
2-4% 4% 8% 11%
Impact on gaseous pollutants
Gaseous pollutants
Shipping
Reference Species Location
contribution
Isakson et al. 106%* NO2 Gothenburg (SE)
(2001) 281%* SO2 Gothenburg (SE)
Keuken et al.
5-7 ppb NO2 Rotterdam (NL)
(2005)
North Sea coastal
7-24% NO2
countries
24% NO2 The Netherlands
19% NO2 Denmark
17% NO2 UK
Hammingh et al. 15% NO2 Belgium
(2012)
13% NO2 Norway
9% NO2 Sweden
8% NO2 France
7% NO2 Germany
7% NO2 Ireland
References:
- Sweden: Isakson et al. (2001)
- Netherlands, Denmark, Germany,
France, Ireland: Hammingh et al. (2012)
NO2
SO2
9%
13%
280% increase with respect
to background levels
7-24% NO2 106% increase with respect
to background levels
19%
Comparability? 7%
17% 24%
7%
15%
8%
Contributions to gases (NO, NO2, SO2) > PM, N
Hotelling: contribution to SO2 < NO & NO2 due to low-S fuels at berth
Technological measures:
• low sulphur fuels
• sulphur scrubbers
• NOx mitigation measures
• liquid natural gas (LNG)
• slow steaming
National regulations • soot particle filters…
Mitigation strategies
Directive 2005/33/EC:
• SO2 concentrations in 3 out of 4
harbours decreased (>2010)
• No decrease was observed in Tunis
• Average decrease SO2 = 66% (daily)
• No significant changes for NOx & BC
Schembari et al. (2012)
23 million inhabitants
(and growing)
Istanbul Strait
Marmara Sea
50.000 vessels/year
Canakkale
Strait
Rationale
Total PMx
Ship-sourced PMx
46% 4.6%
Total SO2
Ship-sourced SO2
Results: Health benefits
• What we know:
o Number of studies on the impact of shipping emissions on air
quality is not large, but increasing
o Impact on PMx, NOx, SO2, and new particle formation (N)
o Ultrafine particles and toxicity, better tracers than mass (?)
o Tracers are available: most commonly, V/Ni =3-5±1 in PM10 and
PM2.5
o Contribution to PMx: 1-20% PMx, with large spatial variability
• Limitations:
o Uncertainties in emissions modelling & AQ measurements
o Need for regionally-specific health impact functions
Thank you for your attention
mar.viana@idaea.csic.es