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1 Stratigraphic Overview of Palaeogene Tuffs in the Faroe-Shetland Basin, NE

2 Atlantic Margin.
3 Douglas Watson1*, Nick Schofield1, David Jolley1, Stuart Archer2, Alexander J. Finlay3, Niall Mark1,
4 Jonathon Hardman1, Timothy Watton4
5 1 Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, King’s College, Aberdeen AB24

6 3UE, UK
7 2Maersk Olie og Gas AS, Esplanaden 50, DK-1263 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark

8 3Chemostrat Ltd. 1 Ravenscroft Court, Buttington Enterprise Park, Welshpool, SY21 8SL UK

9 4Statoil (UK) Limited, One Kingdom Street, London, W2 6BD, UK

10 *Corresponding author (e-mail: douglas.watson@abdn.ac.uk)

11
12

13 Abstract: Tuffs form key stratigraphic markers which assist with determining the timing of
14 volcanic margin development. A number of laterally extensive tuffs are preserved along the
15 North Atlantic Margin in the offshore Faroe-Shetland Basin (FSB), a product of early
16 Palaeogene volcanism associated with the break-up and seafloor spreading between Greenland
17 and northwest Europe. These tuffs, which are dominantly basaltic in composition, are widely
18 preserved in the contiguous North Sea Basin. However, less attention has been paid to them
19 in the FSB. This study integrates multiple regional datasets, including 3D seismic and released
20 commercial well logs to detail the character and distribution of early Palaeogene tuffs in the
21 FSB. The earliest tuffs are more locally identified by their presence in core, whereas later tuffs
22 are more regionally recognisable, highlighting more widespread volcanism with time. The
23 distribution of tuffs also reveals the timing of formation of the previously enigmatic volcanic
24 centres. Importantly, due to constraints of vertical resolution in well data, we argue the
25 number of tuffs in the North Atlantic Margin is likely underestimated, and biased towards
26 basaltic tuffs which are easier to identify on well logs.

27

28 Volcanic tuffs are recognised as an almost ubiquitous component of flood basalt provinces

29 globally (Ross et al. 2005), and are invaluable in event stratigraphy and stratigraphic correlation

30 (Fisher & Schmincke 1984). The North Atlantic Margin experienced widespread volcanic

31 activity during the early Palaeogene (66-54 Ma), associated with continental break-up and sea-

32 floor spreading between Greenland and the northwest Europe (Passey & Hitchen 2011). A

33 manifestation of this volcanism was the widespread deposition of basaltic tuffs throughout the

34 offshore basins of northwest Europe. In the Faroe-Shetland Basin (FSB) these tuffs are
35 important in hydrocarbon exploration, as they can form prominent stratigraphic markers that

36 help with regional seismic interpretation and stratigraphic correlation, inform the position of

37 casing points, and can also act as pressure barriers to fluid flow. The early Palaeogene

38 (Palaeocene and Eocene) tuffs preserved in the North Sea Basin are extensively studied (Jaqué

39 & Thouvenin 1975; Knox & Harland 1979; Malm et al. 1983; Knox & Morton 1983; Knox &

40 Morton 1988; Morton & Knox 1990). To date though, only isolated stratigraphic units have

41 been characterised in the FSB (e.g. Eidesgaard & Ziska 2015). This study represents the first

42 truly regional stratigraphic appraisal of the tuff horizons throughout the lower Palaeogene

43 stratigraphy of the FSB. We examine the character and distribution of tuffs throughout the

44 FSB Palaeogene stratigraphy, and discuss their likely volcanic sources and the implications for

45 North Atlantic Volcanism.

46

47 Classification of tuffs

48 Tuffs are lithified volcanic ash produced during explosive volcanic eruptions (Fisher &

49 Schmincke 1984). Where ejected material is more buoyant than the surrounding atmosphere

50 it typically forms an eruption plume with ash (angular glass shards) which then rains out,

51 forming fallout deposits (Fisher & Scmincke 1984). Fallout deposits can produce a laterally

52 extensive blanket, often over hundreds of kilometres. When ash falls into the water column

53 it is hydrodynamically sorted, forming normally graded beds (Ledbetter & Sparks 1979). Many

54 of the tuffs in the offshore basins of Northwest Europe are regionally extensive (over

55 hundreds of kilometres), thin (cm scale) and normally graded (Knox & Morton 1988), which,

56 in addition to quenched glassy crystals visible in thin section, is why they are widely interpreted

57 as fallout deposits (Malm et al. 1977; Knox & Morton 1983; Knox & Morton 1988).

58 Ash that is moved from its original depositional location before lithification is

59 considered reworked (Fisher 1961). Where units contain a mixture of both tuff (>25%) and
60 epiclastic material, they are termed “tuffaceous” (Fisher & Schmincke 1984). Tuffs also fall

61 under the general umbrella term of volcaniclastics, clastic material containing epiclastic volcanic

62 grains (Mathisen & McPherson 1991). However, tuffs can generally be distinguished from other

63 volcaniclastics (e.g. clastic units formed of eroded basaltic lavas) due to their unique

64 petrophysical character, detailed in the methodology section of this paper.

65

66 Basin Evolution

67 The Faroe-Shetland Basin (FSB) is located on the NE Atlantic Margin, between Shetland and

68 the Faroe Islands (Fig. 1a). The FSB consists of a collection of southwest-northeast trending

69 sub-basins of Mesozoic to recent basin fill, bounded by intra-basinal highs of Precambrian

70 crystalline igneous and metamorphic basement capped by Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments

71 (Lamers & Carmichael 1999). The FSB developed through multiple episodes of extension and

72 subsidence between the Permo-Triassic and Palaeocene (Ritchie et al. 2011). The NE-SW

73 basin trend is thought to be inherited from the Caledonian grain (Earle et al. 1989). A series

74 of “transfer lineaments” run perpendicular to the main basin trend (Rumph et al. 1993; Naylor

75 et al. 1999; Ellis et al. 2009; Moy & Imber 2009) and appear to have affected sedimentation

76 routes (Larsen & Whitham 2005; Jolley & Morton 2007; Ritchie et al. 2011) and in some cases

77 magma emplacement (Archer et al. 2005; Schofield et al. 2015).

78 During the Palaeocene and early Eocene large areas of the North Atlantic Margin were

79 significantly affected by flood basalt volcanism due to the impinging proto-Icelandic plume and

80 associated continental breakup between Greenland and Northwest Europe (White &

81 McKenzie 1989). The remainder of the Cenozoic was characterised by post-rift thermal

82 subsidence, punctuated by several inversion episodes in the Oligocene and Miocene (Dore et

83 al. 2008). For consistency with previous work, this paper uses the lithostratigraphy of Ritchie
 84 et al. (2011) and Stoker & Varming (2011), and the sequence stratigraphic subdivision of Ebdon

85 et al. (1995), shown in Fig. 2.

86 Palaeogene Volcanic History

87 Volcanism in the FSB and North Atlantic margin can be divided into two main

88 categories: (1) volcanism prior to breakup, and (2) volcanism during breakup and subsequent

89 initiation of sea floor spreading which manifested between the Faroes and Greenland. These

90 are outlined as follows:

91

92 Phase 1: Pre-continental breakup (62 Ma to 58 Ma)

93 The earliest volcanic activity in the North Atlantic Margin is recorded by the Eigg Lava

94 Formation, North West Scotland, dated from silicic tuffs near the base of the formation to

95 the early Palaeocene/Danian [61.15 ±0.45 Ma] (Chambers et al. 2005). In the FSB, the earliest

96 expression of volcanic activity is recorded in the Mid-Palaeocene/Selandian (Ca. 62-59.8 Ma)

97 via basaltic tuffs cored in Sequences T26 and T34, described in this paper. The start of the

98 Thanetian (59.2 Ma) marks a major increase in volcanism, with regional deposition of ash

99 preserved as the Kettla Tuff Member, during Sequence T36 (Jolley & Bell 2002). Aerially

100 restricted subaerial lavas were also erupted at this time, recorded off the flank of Brendan’s

101 Volcanic Centre in well 219/21- 1 (Jolley 2009) and in the northern Foula Sub-basin in 208/21-

102 1 (Schofield et al. 2015). The Faroe-Shetland Sill Complex, an aerially extensive suite of

103 dolerite sills that preferentially intrude into the Cretaceous shales (Ritchie & Hitchen 1996;

104 Smallwood & Maresh 2002; Schofield et al. 2015), was emplaced, at least in parts, during Phase

105 1 as evidenced by Upper Palaeocene (~58.4-58.1 Ma, Lamba Fm.) sediments onlapping force

106 folds created by underlying sills (Schofield et al. 2015).

107 Phase 2: Syn-continental breakup (56.1 Ma to 54 Ma)

108 The early Eocene (56-47.8 Ma) marks the main phase of extrusive volcanism in the FSB, with

109 the emplacement of flood basalt lavas of the Faroe Island Basalt Group (56.1-54.9 Ma) over

110 an area at least 40,000 km2 (Passey & Jolley 2009; Schofield & Jolley 2013). The main phase of

111 emplacement of the Faroe-Shetland Sill Complex is during deposition of Sequence T40,

112 between 56.1-55.2 Ma (Schofield et al. 2015). Around 54.9 Ma (upper Sequence T45) the focus

113 of volcanism changed with the cessation of lava eruption in the FSB (Jolley & Bell 2002). During

114 deposition of Sequence T50 it is then postulated that flooding of this nascent rift forming

115 between the Faroes and Greenland led to the interaction between magma and water, resulting

116 in a series of phreatomagmatic eruptions which deposited the fallout tuffs of the Balder

117 Formation (Morton & Knox 1990; Jolley & Bell 2002). Following deposition of the Balder

118 Formation, the dominant expression of igneous activity along the North Atlantic was the

119 emplacement of submarine seaward dipping reflectors (Jolley & Bell 2002).

120

121 Methodology

122 Data

123 The main dataset used in this study is a collection of over 400 released commercial

124 exploration, appraisal and development wells drilled in and around the FSB (Fig. 1b). Seismic

125 datasets were used to map seismically identifiable tuffaceous units, and to understand the

126 overall basin evolution and stratigraphy. Two 3D seismic surveys were used: the Faroe-

127 Shetland PGS MegaSurvey Plus 3D, covering an area of ~24,000 km2; and the PGS/TGS MC3D-

128 FSB2012 Geostreamer®, which covers a gap in the MegaSurvey (Fig 1b). In the north of the

129 FSB, 3D seismic datasets are sparse, and the PGS CRRG regional 2D dataset was used (Fig.

130 1b).

131 Subsurface Character of Tuffs in the UK Continental Shelf

132 Micro-scale: core & ditch cuttings

133 Tuffs are rarely cored in the offshore basins of northwest Europe as they are typically best

134 preserved in non-prospective claystone dominated successions. From the rare instances of

135 Palaeocene to lower Eocene tuffs cored in the FSB, and the more extensive North Sea Basin

136 record, we recognise two distinct types of tuffaceous material (Fig. 3):

137  Type 1: Thin, discrete tuff beds (0.2-25 cm thick), typically interbedded with thin

138 claystones, siltstones, sandstones, and limestone stringers (Malm et al. 1977; Knox &

139 Morton 1988).

140  Type 2: Thicker (5-35 m), generally massive units of sandstone or siltstone containing

141 tuffaceous material.

142 Most of this tuffaceous material, in both type 1 and 2 tuffaceous deposits, is almost completely

143 altered to varicoloured (green-blue-grey), smectitic or bentonitic clay (Knox & Morton 1988)

144 (Fig. 3), though rare glass shards are identifiable in thin section (Malm et al. 1977). Ditch

145 cuttings (the rock fragments brought up to the rig site via drilling mud) are a more widely

146 available source of information regarding tuffs. In the FSB tuffs are commonly described in

147 ditch cuttings as blue-grey, amorphous, with glass shards and/or chlorite (information

148 generally found in composite logs, mud logs and End of Well Reports). An additional way tuffs

149 have been successfully identified in ditch cuttings is through geochemical analysis (Finlay et al.

150 2016), by the fingerprinting of particular elements:

151  Ti: Primarily associated with minerals occurring in mafic volcanic rocks such as

152 pyroxene (especially titanaugite), and in mafic volcanic ash deposits.

153  Cr: Linked with Cr-spinel and accessory opaque minerals found in mafic igneous

154 material, and also present in trace amounts in pyroxene.

155  Th: Associated with heavy minerals such as zircon, apatite, garnet and epidote

156 (confirmed by heavy mineral analysis) and therefore used as a proxy for detrital (non-

157 volcanic) input.

158 Meso-scale: petrophysical character

159 Thinly bedded tuffs identified in the Palaeogene of northwest Europe tend be cm-scale, with

160 rare instances of exceptionally thick tuffs (>20 cm) interpreted as reworked debris flow

161 deposits (Malm et al. 1977) or an amalgamation of several tuffs (Knox & Morton 1988). The

162 vast majority of these thin cm scale tuffs are therefore significantly below the 40 cm vertical

163 resolution of the wireline gamma ray and density logs (Rider & Kennedy 2011) (Fig. 3). It is

164 thus the grouped response of tuffs interbedded with the surrounding sediments (e.g. a

165 tuffaceous claystone or tuffaceous sandstone) that is generally imaged on well logs, which

166 makes it impossible to determine the thickness of individual ash bands unless the interval is

167 cored (Morton & Knox 1990).

168 Tuffaceous units of a sufficient thickness have a characteristic petrophysical response

169 in well logs (Fig. 4a), notably: low gamma (15-40 API), high sonic velocity (80-100 US/F) and

170 high resistivity (10-11 Ohm.m). Other lithologies can have low gamma, high sonic velocity and

171 high resistivity (Fig. 4b), such as basaltic lavas, basaltic volcaniclastics (i.e. eroded lavas),

172 limestones and heavily cemented sandstones. However, both types of tuff, interbedded (type

173 1) and massive, tuffaceous clastic units (type 2) have a characteristic density/neutron response

174 similar to claystone (Fig. 4c), which is unique amongst low gamma lithologies. More specifically

175 this equates to high neutron values (39-30 pu) and moderately low densities (2.15-2.35 g/cm3).

176 The two distinct types of tuffaceous material can be distinguished from each other most

177 clearly by the gamma ray log, where thinly bedded tuffs (type 1) tend to have a serrated motif

178 (Fig. 4d) due the presence of other interbeds (e.g. claystone and sandstone). Meanwhile, thick

179 massive tuffaceous sandstone or siltstone (type 2), tends to have a blockier gamma profile
180 (Fig. 4e) and a marginally higher sonic velocity (75 m.s/ft compared to an average of 85 m.s/ft

181 in thinly bedded tuffs) due to the lack of interbeds (Fig. 4f). Due to the high exploration costs

182 associated with offshore drilling, full wireline suites are increasingly only run in reservoir

183 intervals. As the majority of tuffaceous intervals in the FSB are preserved in non-prospective

184 claystone, this can therefore lead to only gamma, resistivity and sonic being run through them,

185 which can be problematic for their consistent identification.

186

187 Macro-scale: Seismic

188 There is generally a significant acoustic impedance contrast between tuffaceous intervals and

189 the surrounding claystone and siltstones, due to the marked increase in sonic velocity going

190 in to the tuffs. Tuffaceous intervals, where sufficiently thick, therefore appear either as

191 seismically identifiable (>12 m) or fully seismically resolvable (>25 m) positive amplitudes

192 (“hard kicks”) (Fig. 5) that can be confidently mapped across seismic surveys. Tuffaceous units

193 can also form soft kicks, where the surrounding lithologies are significantly acoustically faster,

194 such as basalt.

195

196 Stratigraphy of the tuffaceous sediments in the Faroe-Shetland Basin

197 Tuffaceous material is reported in six main lithostratigraphic units in the FSB: in the Sullom,

198 Vaila, Lamba, Flett and Balder formations, and in the undifferentiated Stronsay Group. This

199 section will detail the character and distribution of these tuffs throughout the FSB stratigraphy.

200 It should be noted that a number of tuffs reported in previous literature appear to have been

201 identified based on either limited evidence (i.e. lack of well penetrations) or misinterpretation

202 of petrophysical logs, which shall also be addressed below. For reference, tuffaceous

203 sediments present within the Sullom, Vaila and Lamba formations are equivalent to Knox &

204 Morton’s (1988) North Sea Phase 1 pyroclastic sediments (in the Lista, Maureen and Ekofisk
205 formations), while tuffs in the Flett and Balder formations fall within Phase 2 (Forties, Sele and

206 Balder formations) (Fig. 2).

207

208 Sullom Formation (T10-T22) (66 Ma to 62.9 Ma)

209 Misreported tuffs

210 Naylor et al. (1999) identify several wells (204/19- 2, 204/20- 1 and 204/24- 1A) in the Foinaven

211 Sub-basin containing thin tuffaceous units in the Sullom Formation, which they link to the

212 supposed presence of two nearby Palaeocene volcanic centres: the “Judd” and the “Westray”.

213 Both of these “volcanic centres” were identified based on circular positive gravity and

214 magnetic anomalies (Fig. 6), though in 1999 neither structure had been tested by an

215 exploration well. Subsequently, the crest of the “Judd Volcanic Centre” was penetrated by

216 204/10-1 (drilled in 2002) and at 2484 m (measured depth below the rotary table [MDBRT])

217 Devonian granodiorite was encountered, confirmed by numerous side-wall cores. The

218 “Westray Volcanic Centre” was penetrated by 204/15-2 (drilled in 2001) and encountered

219 Pre-Cambrian granite at 3788 m (MDBRT). The homogeneous seismic character and well data

220 of both testifies to them being ancient acidic plutonic bodies and not related to Palaeocene

221 volcanism. In the wells listed by Naylor et al., we recognise no petrophysically identifiable

222 tuffaceous units, nor is there any description of tuffaceous material from the ditch cuttings,

223 side-wall cores, mud log, composite log or End of Well Report. The lack of any petrophysically

224 identifiable tuffaceous units means that any hypothetical tuffaceous material identified in

225 cuttings cannot be proven as in-situ, and could be from cavings from higher in the well bore,

226 or transported via recirculated or re-used drilling mud. We therefore conclude there is, at

227 present, in the 400 wells studied, no clear evidence of tuffaceous material or volcanism in the

228 FSB during deposition of Sequences T10-T22.

229
230 Vaila Formation (T25-T35) (62.9 Ma to 58.7 Ma)

231 T25-T28

232 Character & distribution of tuffs

233 Morton et al. (1988) identify one single tuff horizon (1 cm thick) within a claystone succession

234 at 22.7 m depth from BGS shallow borehole 82/12 core, in the Papa Basin, located on the

235 extreme south eastern edge of the FSB (see Fig. 7a for location of borehole, and all other

236 wells henceforth referred to). We have re-examined the palynofloras from this borehole

237 which contain common Palaeocystsodinium bulliforme with abundant Palaeoperidinium

238 pyrophorum. This indicates an age equivalent to Sequence T26. Morton et al. note the 82/12

239 tuff is composed of pale yellow, angular, vitric shards with high TiO2 and a tholeiitic character,

240 and identify further tuffaceous material in 204/30-1 and 205/30-1, though no petrophysically

241 identifiable tuffs are recognised within these two wells. Further tuffaceous material is reported

242 in Sequences T25-T28 [unit V2 of the Vaila Fm.] in the FSB by Sørensen (2003) and Stoker &

243 Varming (2011). However, thin T28 tuffaceous mudstones identified in the Foinaven sub-basin

244 in wells 204/20-3 and 204/20-4 (Stoker & Varming 2011) have exceptionally low resistivity

245 (0.6 Ohm.m) and high density values (2.55 g/cm3) relative to tuffs, petrophysically more

246 consistent with thin beds of porous sandstone. Sørensen (2003) meanwhile does not refer to

247 any specific wells. Similar Sequence T28 thin beds are identified in the Marjun well log

248 (6004/16-1z), in the Faroese portion of the Judd Sub-basin. However, these low gamma thin

249 beds, located around 3530 m (MDBRT), are likely limestone, due to their moderately high

250 densities (2.5-2.65 g/cm3).

251

252 T31-T34

253 Character & distribution of tuffs

254 Stoker & Varming (2011) recognise several 1-2 cm, normally graded, green tuff bands in core

255 from the Flett sub-basin in the Laggan Discovery well (206/01-2). A similar tuff is present in

256 the nearby 206/01-3 well, and is characterised as chlorite-rich, with an extremely low quartz

257 content and relatively high proportions of Ti, Mg and Co (Hillier 2006), consistent with a mafic

258 tuff. In both wells, these tuffs are too thin to enable a petrophysical expression, meaning their

259 identification is therefore based purely on their visibility in core. Tuffaceous siltstone is also

260 cored in the Longan Well (6005/15-1) overlying the Sjúrður High, located at the southwestern

261 end of the FSB in the Faroese sector. The cored section is between 3508-3514 m, and in thin

262 section mainly consists of a mixture of glassy volcanic grains and detrital quartz and feldspar,

263 suggesting reworking (Nils Einar Aase pers. comm 2016). The interval has a distinct

264 petrophysical response, exhibiting a moderately low gamma (40-45 API) with a serrated motif

265 (suggesting an interbedded character, typical of type 1 tuffaceous deposits), and high resistivity

266 (10.5-11 Ohm.m). Geochemical analysis has not been conducted on this tuff. In all of the

267 quoted wells there is an abundance of Glaphyrocysta ordinata at the depths these tuffs are

268 present, which is characteristic of Sequence T34 within the basin. The cored T34 tuffs in the

269 Flett Sub-basin cannot be correlated to offset wells due to the lack of a petrophysical

270 expression. Meanwhile, the petrophysically imaged Longan tuffs do not correlate to any offset

271 wells in the Judd or Foinaven sub-basins. At present, thickness trends therefore cannot be

272 determined for Sequence T34 tuffs.

273

274 T35

275 Character & distribution of tuffs

276 Stoker & Varming (2011) also identify Sequence T35 [unit V4 of the Vaila Fm.] tuffaceous

277 sediments in wells 204/19-2 and 205/9-1, on the Westray Ridge and in the Flett Sub-basin (Fig.

278 7), respectively. However, we recognise no cuttings descriptions, side-wall cores or

279 petrophysically identifiable tuffaceous intervals in Sequence T35 in either well, though

280 Sequence T36 (Kettla Tuff Mb.) tuffs are present. There is, however, a 22 m thick tuffaceous

281 siltstone interval interbedded within “clean” siliciclastic sandstones identified in well 204/17-

282 1 in the Foinaven Sub-basin (Fig. 7a). This tuffaceous unit is described from sidewall cores as

283 greenish grey, with abundant dark grey lithic fragments and poor visible porosity.

284 Petrophysically the unit has a relatively blocky, low gamma profile, a blocky high resistivity and

285 exhibits a density/neutron response typical of claystone (Fig. 8). The blocky gamma and

286 resistivity of this tuff imply a lack of interbeds, typical of type 2 tuffaceous deposits. This 22

287 m thick tuffaceous unit is also relatively laterally discontinuous in nature, pinching out before

288 204/18-1, <9 km to the north east.

289

290 Lamba Formation (T36-38) (58.7 Ma to 56.1 Ma)

291 T36

292 Character of tuffs

293 The Kettla Tuff Member, henceforth referred to as “Kettla”, is a prominent stratigraphic

294 marker, found near the base of Sequence T36 (Lamba Fm.), characterised by a mixture of

295 siliciclastic and volcaniclastic material which contains tuffs (Eidesgaard & Ziska, 2015). At a

296 microscopic scale degraded volcanic ash is recognised in the member (Jolley et al. 2005), and

297 ditch cuttings are generally described as pale grey-blue, mottled with glass shards and abundant

298 white clay (e.g. 205/5a-1, Flett Sub-basin). Geochemically the Kettla is regionally characterised

299 by a relatively high Cr/Th and TiO2/Th content (Fig. 9a) (Chemostrat 2013; Finlay et al. 2016).

300 When the immobile elements are plotted on a geochemical discrimination diagram (e.g.

301 Winchester & Floyd 1977), the Kettla lies in the andesite field (Fig. 9b), significantly more

302 evolved than the older tuffs we have described.

303 Petrophysically the Kettla is often characterised by a double gamma peak and sharp

304 increase in sonic velocity, as well as an intra-Kettla high gamma spike (Stoker & Varming 2011),

305 interpreted as marine claystone largely devoid of tuff. However, the petrophysical character

306 of the Kettla exhibits significant lateral variability, in places showing a blockier gamma

307 (representing type 2 tuffaceous deposits), for example in well 6004/17-1 in the Judd Sub-basin

308 (Eidesgaard & Ziska 2015). Locally the Kettla grades into tuffaceous sandstone (e.g. seen in

309 core in 205/09-1, Flett Sub-basin). This cored interval in 205/09-1 is composed of a fine-

310 medium grained sandy matrix, with glassy shards and very fine-grained porphyritic igneous

311 lithoclasts (5-10 mm), and exhibits a lower gamma and higher sonic velocity than in offset

312 wells (Fig. 10). The unit is interpreted as a debrite, not a typical fallout tuff, and is occasionally

313 misattributed to Sequence T35/Vaila Fm. (e.g. see Stoker & Varming 2011), though seismic

314 horizon mapping shows it be the same reflector as the prominent Kettla in well 214/28-1,

315 Flett Sub-basin (Fig. 10). On a macro-scale, the Kettla forms a prominent, though laterally

316 restricted seismic marker, the amplitude of which generally dims as the unit thins.

317

318 Distribution of tuffs

319 The Kettla is identified by its distinct petrophysical and seismic character against the

320 background sediments, produced due to the presence of tuffaceous material. The distribution

321 of Sequence T36 tuffaceous material is therefore predicated on the distribution of the Kettla

322 as whole. Eidesgaard & Ziska (2015) identify a southern (in the Foinaven and Judd sub-basins)

323 and central Kettla depocentre (Flett Sub-basin) (Fig. 7b). There is an additional (3) northern

324 Kettla depocentre in the western edge of the Møre Basin (Fig. 7b), out with the study area of

325 Eidesgaard & Ziska (2015). In the southern depocentre the Kettla generally thickens towards

326 the northwest, away from structural highs (16 m thick overlying the Westray Ridge in 204/15-

327 2) towards basin lows (42 m in the Judd Basin, 6004/16-1z). In the central depocentre the
328 Kettla thins to the northeast, from 56 m in the southern end of the Flett Sub-basin (in 205/09-

329 1) to 9 m in the northern end (214/19-1). In the northern depocentre the Kettla is only clearly

330 identifiable in three wells in the western Møre Basin, appearing too thin to the south, from

331 25 m thick in 219/28-2z to 5 m thick in 219/28-1, 2km to the south. This thinning also

332 corresponds to a dimming in amplitude of the Kettla seismic horizon in the northern

333 depocentre.

334

335 T38

336 Character & distribution of tuffs

337 A 92 m thick volcaniclastic sandstone is penetrated in the south of the FSB, on the margin of

338 the Judd High in well 204/22-1 (Fig. 7b). The interval has a prominent petrophysical character,

339 exhibiting a low gamma (15-20 API) with a “cleaning upwards” profile (gamma decreases), and

340 a high sonic velocity (70-80 ms/ft). The unit is interpreted as volcaniclastic due to its

341 significantly lower gamma and higher sonic velocity relative to all other sandstone units

342 penetrated in the well. The unit is described as tuffaceous from ditch cuttings, though we

343 argue it cannot be confidently classified as tuffaceous as density and neutron tools were not

344 run in the well. The volcanicastic unit is relatively laterally discontinuous, present in 204/22-1

345 (overlying the Judd High) and pinching out before 204/22-2, 8 km further northwest in the

346 Judd Sub-basin. The palynological assemblage (Alisocysta margarita) through the interval is

347 typical of sediments throughout the mid-late Palaeocene (Sequence T36-T40). Through

348 examination of the seismic section (Fig. 11) the volcaniclastic unit is clearly younger than the

349 underlying Kettla Tuff Mb. and older than the T38/T40 regional unconformity in the south of

350 the FSB, which places it around Sequence T38.

351

352 Flett Formation (T40-T45) (56.1 Ma to 54.9 Ma)

353 Both type 1 and type 2 tuffaceous deposits are recognised within Flett Formation sediments

354 (Sequences T40-T45) in the FSB. There is also a third, more ambiguous category of tuffaceous

355 material present in intra-basaltic sediments, addressed in its own right. All tuffaceous

356 sediments within Sequences T40-T45 are equivalent to Knox & Morton’s (1988) phase 2a (Fig.

357 2) (Forties and Dornoch formations) in the North Sea Basin.

358

359 T40

360 Character & distribution of tuffs

361 Sequence T40 fallout tuffs are recognised by Fitch et al. (1988) through examination of sidewall

362 cores in wells 219/28-1 & 219/28-2z, in the western Møre Basin. Fitch et al. describe these

363 tuffs, as well as the overlying Balder Formation tuffs, as basaltic lithic-vitric (glass) rich, and

364 partially degraded to palagonite and chlorite. Petrophysically, the package of tuffs is

365 characteristic of tuffaceous claystone, with a low, serrated gamma typical of type 1 tuffaceous

366 deposits (22-29 API) and a density/neutron response akin to claystone (Fig. 12). We also

367 recognise a 15 m thick tuffaceous interval in the Flett Sub-basin (in wells 205/9-1 & 205/9-2).

368 Neutron logs were not run through the unit, though a bell-shaped low gamma and high sonic

369 velocity are similar in pattern to the motif seen in the Balder Fm. (Fig. 4). This tuffaceous unit

370 pinches out before 205/08-1, 6 km further southwest in the Flett Sub-basin.

371 Tuffaceous intervals are also recognised further north, around the Erlend Volcanic

372 Centre (e.g. in 209/4-1A, Fig. 7c), where a 95 m thick tuffaceous siltstone is described as pale

373 green, soft to firm and sticky from cuttings. The unit has a low gamma (15 API), high sonic

374 velocity (90 m.s/ft), high neutron (averaging 30 pu) and moderately low density (2-2.15 g/cm3)

375 typical of tuffs. The gamma motif is blocky, typical of type 2 tuffaceous deposits, and the unit

376 is interbedded within terrestrial lava flows (Jolley & Bell, 2002). A laterally discontinuous

377 tuffaceous unit is also identified in the released composite well logs of 204/26-1A & 204/27a-
378 1 (Fig. 7c), preserved in southern margin of the FSB, overlying the Judd High. On the released

379 composite logs the unit is placed within the Balder Formation (Sequence T50), though the

380 palynological assemblage (Apectodinium species and Peterospermella) indicate an age equivalent

381 to Sequence T40. This “tuff” has a blocky, low gamma (15-20 API), though it has an extremely

382 low sonic velocity (170-110 m.s/ft), and a resistivity lower than most of the sandstones

383 penetrated in the well. Density/neutron logs were not run until deeper down in the well, but

384 the acoustically slow and conductive nature of the unit suggests it is unlikely to be a tuff.

385

386 T45

387 Character & distribution of tuffs

388 There is a conspicuous dearth of petrophysically identifiable Sequence T45 tuffaceous

389 intervals. However, discrete cm scale tuffs may be present that are too thin to be detected

390 using common downhole tools, for example near coeval lavas around the Corona Ridge.

391

392 Intra-basaltic volcaniclastics- tuffaceous component (T40-T45)

393 Intra-basaltic volcaniclastic sediments in the FSB are best developed around the Erlend

394 Volcanic Centre (in Sequence T40), and on the Corona Ridge (Sequence T40-T45), for

395 instance in the Rosebank discovery well (213/27-1z). Petrophysically these sediments are

396 distinct, generally exhibiting significantly higher density (2.45-2.75 g/cm3) and a lower, blockier

397 gamma motif than tuffs. From examination of outcrop on the Faroe Islands, we recognise

398 tuffaceous material (in the form of angular glassy shards) in volcaniclastic siltstone in coeval

399 lava interbeds (Fig. 13). Ultimately many of the finer-grained volaniclastic sediments in the FSB

400 within sequence T40-T45 are likely composed of a complex assemblage of epiclastic basaltic,

401 siliciclastic and fine-grained tuffaceous material, much of which is degraded to palagonite or

402 smectite in the subsurface.

403

404 Balder Formation (T50) (54.9 Ma to 54.3 Ma)

405 Character of tuffs

406 The Balder Formation is divided into two members: the lower section (Balder Tuff Member)

407 has an abundance of tuffs interbedded with claystones, silts and sands, and is equivalent to

408 Knox & Morton’s (1988) Phase 2b. The upper Balder Fm. (Balder Claystone Member) is

409 similarly interbedded, though with proportionally less tuffs, and is equivalent to Knox &

410 Morton’s Phase 2c. This decrease in abundance in tuffs toward the top of the Balder Fm. is

411 also exhibited in outcrop, in Sequence T50 sediments near Thanet in the southeast of England

412 (Fig. 14). Balder tuffs have not been cored in the FSB, though are clearly correlatable to the

413 Central Graben, North Sea, where they are cored (e.g. in well 29/05a-7). In these cored

414 intervals there are hundreds of individual tuff beds (0.5-4.5 cm thick), potentially representing

415 hundreds of separate ash forming eruptions (Knox & Morton 1988). The tuffs are generally

416 blue to green and normally graded, interbedded with claystone, siltstone and thin sands. These

417 normally graded tuffs are interpreted as the fallout of ash, deposited into water (Knox &

418 Morton 1988). In the FSB the Balder tuffs are described in ditch cuttings as blue-grey to pale

419 green, soft, crumbly, occasionally calcareous, generally of clay grade though occasionally silty

420 (e.g. towards the Corona Ridge). Morton & Knox (1990) note the Balder tuffs in the North

421 Sea are regionally characterised by an intra-plate tholeiitic basaltic composition. More recent

422 analysis from samples in the FSB show Balder tuffs regionally marked by a high Ti, Fe and Mg

423 and low Cr (Fig. 9a), typical of a mafic magma source (Finlay et al. 2016). When the immobile

424 elements are plotted on a geochemical discrimination diagram, the Balder tuffs lie in the alkali

425 basalt field (Fig. 9b) (Chemostrat 2013).

426 The Balder Tuff Mb. has a distinct petrophysical character manifested in a serrated,

427 low gamma motif (22-40 API), with significant increases in resistivity and sonic velocity, and a
428 density/neutron response typical of claystone/shale. The Balder Claystone Mb. has a similar

429 character, though due to fewer tuffs present, gamma is slightly higher (30-46 API) and

430 resistivity and sonic velocity are marginally lower. The serrated gamma motif of both the

431 Balder Tuff and Balder Claystone members represents type 1 tuffaceous deposits,

432 corroborated by core (Fig. 3) and outcrop (Fig. 14). The top of the Balder Formation is

433 regionally marked by a high-gamma spike, interpreted as the basal Eocene transgressive

434 maximum (Mudge 2014). At a macro-scale, the Balder Fm. produces a prominent, generally

435 fully resolvable, “hard kick” seismic horizon. This seismic horizon, commonly though

436 erroneously referred to as “Top Balder”, “Balder Tuff”, or “Top Palaeocene” generally

437 represents the acoustic impedance contrast of the entire Balder Fm. with the surrounding

438 sediments.

439
440 Distribution of tuffs
441 Tuffs are recognised in the Balder Fm., and its lithostratigraphic equivalent, throughout the

442 offshore basins of north-western Europe (Knox & Morton 1983). In the FSB the Balder Fm.

443 equates to Sequence T50, which is a transgressive system tract near the top of the basin fill,

444 accounting for its widespread distribution. The preservation of tuffaceous material in

445 Sequence T50 shows significant variation in the FSB, particularly with respect to marginal/non-

446 marine depositional settings compared to the marine realm.

447

448 Marine (below the wave-base) preservation of tuffs

449 In the FSB the tuffs of the Balder Fm. are best preserved in claystone/siltstone lithologies

450 which were deposited in an inner-outer neritic shelf setting, such as the Corona Ridge, Flett

451 Sub-basin and parts of the Sissal Basin (Fig. 7d). These marine sediments are demarked by the

452 Sequence T50 palaeo-coastline, which trends northwest-southeast across the Foinaven Sub-

453 basin between the Westray and Cambo highs, curving round in a southwest-northeast trend,
454 parallel with the Flett Ridge (Fig. 7d). There are rare instances of poor tuff preservation in

455 Sequence T50 marine sediments, such as the Tobermory Discovery (214/4-1) in the Sissal

456 Basin, where a weak petrophysical and seismic character (more akin to a non-tuffaceous

457 claystone/siltstone succession). The northern extent of Balder tuffs (Quads 216, 217 & 218)

458 in the FSB is unclear, as the amplitude of the Balder Fm. seismic marker becomes weaker and

459 more difficult to map. In the single well penetration in the far north of the FSB, the Lagavulin

460 well (217/5-1), the first return of ditch cuttings was not until Sequence T40, and only gamma

461 was run in the overlying section, therefore the Balder cannot be confidently identified. The

462 Erlend and Brendan volcanic centres are interpreted to be subaerial structures during

463 deposition of Sequence T50, as evidenced by the absence of Balder Fm. sediments in nearby

464 wells 209/3-1A and 219/21-1, respectively. The thickness of the Balder Fm., and therefore the

465 abundance of tuffs, is controlled mainly by the accommodation space available during

466 deposition of Sequence T50, with thickening generally toward basin lows (e.g. 35 m thick in

467 213/23-1 on the Corona Ridge, compared to 62 m thick in 213/28-1 in the Flett Sub-basin).

468 The Balder Tuff Mb. is typically 10-35 m thick, with the Balder Claystone ranging between 8-

469 25 m.

470

471 Marginal marine to non-marine preservation

472 In marginal and non-marine settings, proximal to and up dip of the Sequence T50 palaeo-

473 coastline, the preservation of tuffs is more limited, appearing as relatively discontinuous

474 tuffaceous claystone packages (2-12 m thick) interbedded with sandstone, siltstone and coals

475 (e.g. 204/20-2). Tuffaceous material is also commonly described in ditch cuttings within a 15-

476 25 m thick, coal package. The interval is seismically resolvable, and, due to the acoustically

477 slow nature of the coals, appears as a soft-kick which can be mapped over a ~35 km2 area

478 around the Foinaven Sub-basin and Westray Ridge. The exact nature of this lithologically
479 complex interbedded succession of tuffs and coals remains enigmatic as it has never been

480 cored in the FSB. Further north in the FSB a similar depositional setting is present in the

481 Erlend sub-basin (quads 208 & 209) where a Sequence T45/T50 deltaic succession exhibits

482 limited preservation of tuffaceous material (e.g. 208/15-1A). The total thickness of Sequence

483 T50 tuffaceous intervals in marginal to non-marine sediments varies from 0 m (i.e. no

484 tuffaceous material identified petrophysically) to 20 m.

485

486 Stronsay Group (T60) (54.3 Ma to 48.6 Ma)

487 Character & Distribution

488 Tuffaceous material is commonly identified in ditch cuttings in the Stronsay Group, described

489 as varicoloured, mottled, black specked, soft, friable, amorphous with abundant dark coloured

490 lithics and rare glassy shards. Typically there is no distinct petrophysical expression associated

491 with these purported tuffs against the surroundings sediments (generally claystones and

492 siltstones). In rare instances where cuttings are described as tuffaceous (e.g. 208/17-1 Foula

493 Basin, northern FSB) and conform to low gamma (20 API)/high sonic velocity (95 m.s/ft) beds

494 (akin to tuffs), moderate densities (2.45 g/cm3) recorded are more typical of limestone

495 stringers. Low gamma (averaging 17 API) tuffaceous claystone is identified on the released

496 well log in the Ben Nevis Prospect (219/21-1), located on the Brendan Platform in the far

497 north of the FSB. However, density/neutron and sonic logs were not run in the well until the

498 underlying Lamba Formation, meaning this interval cannot be confidently interpreted as

499 tuffaceous. On the released well log these low gamma sediments are marked as belonging to

500 the Moray Group (SequencesT40-T50). However, a palynoflora assemblage of Caryapollenites

501 veriptes (frequent) and Thomsonipollis magnificoides corresponds to Sequence T60 and the

502 Stronsay Gp. (Jolley 2009).

503 As Sequence T60 is widely considered unprospective in the FSB, there is ultimately no

504 core or side-wall cores to prove the presence of tuff. The strongest evidence for the presence

505 of Sequence T60 tuffs in the FSB is the pervasiveness of its identification in cuttings by mud

506 loggers, from south to north: in the Foinaven Sub-basin (204/18-1), overlying the Westray

507 (204/15-2) and Corona Ridges (213/25c-1), in the Flett (205/09-1), Foula (208/17-1) and

508 Corona sub-basins (214/4-1, Tobermory) and in the More Basin (219/28-1 & 219/28-2: Fitch

509 et al. 1988).

510

511 Discussion

512 Derivation of Lower Palaeogene tuffs in the FSB and its Implications for North Atlantic

513 Volcanism

514

515 Danian (Sequence T10-T20, 66 Ma to 61.6 Ma) - We recognise no evidence of tuffs or volcanism

516 during the Danian (Sequences T10-20 sediments). Within the wider North Atlantic Margin

517 during the Danian, volcanic activity was occurring in the Inner Hebrides, in the form of

518 localised lava flows of the Eigg Lava Fm. (Chambers et al. 2005). The absence of Danian

519 tuffaceous material, or Danian igneous activity in general in the FSB is therefore likely due to

520 volcanism being confined to other regions on the Atlantic Margin at the time (e.g. Inner

521 Hebrides).

522 Selandian (Sequence T22-35, 61.6 Ma to 59.2 Ma) - We note several distinct episodes of

523 Selandian ash fallout deposition, during Sequence T26, T34 and finally in T35 (summarised in

524 Fig. 15, together with all other tuffs identified in the FSB). There is considerable uncertainty

525 in determining the extent and derivation of these events as the cm thickness of the Sequence

526 T26 and T34 tuffs is below wireline vertical resolution and therefore prevents correlation

527 away from the wells they are recognised in from core. Morton et al. (1988) discount the
528 British Palaeogene Igneous Province (e.g. the coeval Rum Igneous Centre) as a source of the

529 earlier Sequence T26 tuff because of a scarcity of high-Ti tholeiites, which they argued makes

530 an East Greenland or Faroe volcanic province origin more plausible. However, the onshore

531 Faroe Islands and East Greenland lava fields are erupted after deposition of Sequence T35

532 (Passey & Jolley 2009), discounting them as a source, leading Jolley & Bell (2002) to suggest

533 an, as yet, unidentified igneous centre in the offshore northeast Atlantic.

534 Sequence T34 tuffs are preserved overlying the Sjúrður High in the south of the FSB,

535 and in the Flett Sub-basin in the centre, again pre-dating the East Greenland and Faroes lavas.

536 In addition to Sequence T35 tuffs recognised in the Foinaven Sub-basin, there is a 30m thick

537 package of Sequence T35 basaltic volcaniclastic sandstones (containing no quartz) intruded by

538 sills, penetrated further north on the East Faroe-High in the Brugdan-2 well (6104/21-2).

539 These volcaniclastic sediments were deposited in a shallow-marine environment, and contain

540 a pollen and spore flora typical of those described as being sourced from the western side of

541 the Faroe-Shetland Basin (Jolley & Morton 2008). The Munkegrunnar Volcanic Province

542 (MVP), which includes the Fraenir Volcanic Centre, is to the west-south west, and is therefore

543 a possible source of these volcaniclastics. Assuming the MVP was active during deposition of

544 Sequence T35, it therefore could feasibly have sourced the Sequence T35 tuffs encountered

545 in the Foinaven Sub-basin, and other Selandian-aged tuffs.

546

547 Thanetian (Sequence T36-T38, 59.2 Ma to 56 Ma) - The start of the Thanetian marks a significant

548 escalation in volcanism, manifested in the first emplacement of lavas (initially submarine, then

549 subaerial e.g. in 219/21-1) in the FSB, and regional deposition of the Kettla (Sequence T36)

550 (Fig. 15). Eidesgaard & Ziska (2015) suggest the Corona Ridge as a source of the tuffaceous

551 and volcaniclastic material present within the Kettla. However, there is no evidence of

552 Sequence T36 volcanics either in the 10 well penetrations or in the 3D seismic in and around
553 the Corona Ridge (Schofield & Jolley 2012; Schofield et al. 2015; Poppitt et al. 2016). Jolley &

554 Morton (2007) note two different source areas, one to the south and another from the north,

555 for the palynology and sediments in the Kettla, suggesting the idea of different volcanic

556 sources. Multiple sources could explain why the three Kettla depocentres each have unique

557 thickening orientations. The Kettla is stratigraphically equivalent to the volcaniclastic Glamis

558 Tuff (Knox & Holloway 1992; Mudge & Bujak 2001) in the North Sea Basin, which Knox &

559 Morton (1988) interpret as penecontemporaneous reworking of pyroclastic material. As the

560 Glamis Tuff is confined to the Outer Moray Firth in the North Sea, the source, and therefore

561 predominant wind direction are interpreted from the west to east (Knox & Morton 1988). In

562 particular, Knox & Morton favour an Inner Hebrides derivation; The Skye Main Lava Series,

563 for instance, is biostratigraphically dated as equivalent to Sequence T36 (Jolley 1997). The

564 immobile trace element chemistry associated with the Kettla in the Flett Sub-basin (the central

565 depocentre) suggests a more intermediate (andesitic) chemical composition relative to the

566 earlier basaltic tuffs of Sequence T26 and T34 in the FSB, and to the basaltic Glamis Tuff.

567 Further geochemical studies, particularly from the southern and northern Kettla depocentres

568 in the FSB, will be important to ground truth both the andesitic composition and multiple

569 source theory related to the Sequence T36 Kettla.

570

571 Ypresian (Sequence T40-T60, 56 Ma to 47.8 Ma) - The start of the Ypresian marks the onset of

572 flood basalt volcanism in the FSB (Fig. 15). Sequence T40 tuffs are all located close to known

573 volcanic centres or edifices: Møre Basin tuffs proximal to volcanic edifices mapped near

574 Brendan’s Dome (Hodges et al. 1999; Mclean et al. 2017), Erlend Sub-basin tuffs adjacent to

575 the Erlend Centre, and Flett Sub-basin tuffs close to both the Erlend Centre and nearby coeval

576 lavas on the Corona Ridge (Schofield & Jolley 2013). Generally these Sequence T40 tuffs are

577 interpreted as reworked, laterally discontinuous tuffaceous units, produced from various
578 volcanic centres and edifices throughout the FSB. Thick, petrophysically identifiable tuffs are

579 conspicuously absent in T45 sediments, which is coincident with a change from classic tabular

580 lavas to compound flows in the Faroe Island Basalt Group (Passey & Jolley 2009), and the

581 initiation of seaward dipping reflector emplacement along the North Atlantic Margin, off

582 Eastern Greenland (Larsen & Saunders 1998).

583 Sequence T50 clearly represents the acme of ash deposition in the North Atlantic

584 Margin (Fig. 15), with hundreds of individual tuff beds recognised in the Balder Fm. (Knox &

585 Morton 1988). Each tuff bed may not necessarily equate to an individual eruption, with

586 reworking or amalgamation potentially serving the function of increasing or decreasing,

587 respectively, the number of observed tuff beds. Regardless, the exceptional thickness and

588 distribution of Sequence T50 tuffs (relative to all other tuffaceous intervals throughout the

589 FSB stratigraphy) suggest a relatively prolonged, yet explosive phenomena (Knox & Morton,

590 1988). Knox & Morton (1988) identify a northerly increase in the number of tuffs in Sequence

591 T50 core in the North Sea Basin, implying a source to the north. Sequence T50 tuffs

592 consistently exhibit an intra-plate tholeiitic basaltic geochemical signature in samples

593 throughout the North Sea Basin, which is interpreted as evidence of a common source

594 (Morton & Knox 1990). Deposition of Balder tuffs is immediately preceded by sea-floor

595 spreading during Chron 24r (Jolley & Bell 2002). Repeated flooding of the nascent rift would

596 enable interaction between groundwater and basaltic magma giving rise to phreatomagmatic

597 eruptions (Jolley & Bell 2002; Jolley & Widdowson 2005). In particular, edifices fed from the

598 proto-Icelandic plume along the nascent rift is favoured as the source. This would imply a

599 north-westerly prevailing wind direction (Morton & Knox, 1990). At present it is unclear

600 whether ash continued to be supplied to the FSB during deposition of Sequence T60

601 sediments, though this material would have to be sourced from outside the FSB, for example

602 from coeval basaltic lavas of the Irgtetiva Formation, East Greenland (Jolley & Bell 2002).
603

604 Volume of tuff underestimated in the Faroe-Shetland Basin & biased towards basaltic tuffs

605 Petrophysical detectability in subsurface well data is a key issue with tuffs, as the cored tuffs

606 throughout the UKCS tend to be thin, cm-scale beds, and therefore identifiable on a wireline

607 log scale only when present as a collection of tuffs. Thinner tuffaceous intervals, in particular

608 those cored in the Vaila Fm., may have been penetrated by a number of wells, though their

609 thinness prevents log detectability. Many of the tuffs identified within this paper are mafic in

610 composition, however, identifying more evolved silicic tuffs in offshore data is particularly

611 challenging. The presence of more evolved intrusive igneous lithologies identified in the FSB

612 (e.g. quartz porphyry sills in 205/10-5A, Flett Sub-basin, and dacite sills in 209/3-1A, Erlend

613 Volcanic Centre) suggests that nearby silicic pyroclastic eruptions may have occurred during

614 the early Palaeogene.

615 However, the more distal, fallout products of silicic eruptions tend to form thin,

616 discrete beds which would likely be below the vertical resolution of the gamma ray and density

617 tools. Additionally, the increased quantities of potassium and thorium expected (from

618 minerals such as potassium feldspar) would generate gamma ray values similar to claystone,

619 the lithology we have shown to be most conducive to tuff preservation in the FSB. This

620 inability to accurately identify both thin and silicic tuffs means there may be a significant

621 underestimation of the amount of tuffs contained not only in the FSB but globally in offshore

622 basins.

623 Ultimately, one of the most significant implications of underestimating the volume of

624 tuffs present in the FSB and UKCS as a whole, could be the underestimation of the volume of

625 magma erupted during the formation of these tuffs. For instance, if the estimated figure of

626 6000 km3 of magma erupted during formation of the Balder tuffs (Knox & Morton 1988) was

627 even greater, the volume of ash injected into the atmosphere therefore could have been
628 greater too. This may help contextualise the cooling event which proceeds deposition of the

629 Balder tuffs (Jolley & Widdowson 2005).

630

631 How the misidentification of tuffs in the FSB can help tuff characterisation in other basins globally

632 This paper presents examples throughout the FSB lower Palaeogene stratigraphy of tuffaceous

633 material described both in the literature and in mud logs (e.g. in Sequence T10, T35, T40 and

634 T60 sediments), however petrophysically resolvable tuffaceous units are absent and the

635 intervals in which the tuffs have been recorded as being present have not been cored. In such

636 circumstances the identification of tuffs appears to have been based on a misinterpretation of

637 wireline logs, or on its apparent presence in ditch cuttings. Geochemical analysis of cuttings

638 can be used to identify tuffs, though the absence of a petrophysical response (usually when

639 tuffaceous material is too thin to detect) ultimately means any tuffs cannot be proven as in-

640 situ in the absence of core/side-wall core.

641 The historical misinterpretation of both tuffs and “volcanic centres” in the FSB

642 highlights the importance of integrating multiple regional datasets- including 3D seismic,

643 petrophysical logs and biostratigraphy reports- which has important implications for other

644 volcanic margins globally. In the drive to cut costs when undertaking hydrocarbon exploration

645 in these basins, a reluctance to acquire core and run a full wireline suite in intervals deemed

646 non-prospective is clearly problematic for the identification and characterisation of tuffs for

647 several reasons:

648  Thin (cm scale), sparsely spaced tuffs are only reliably identifiable through core.

649  Thicker, petrophysically resolvable tuffaceous intervals (> meter scale) require not

650 only the basics of gamma-resistivity-sonic for identification, but crucially require

651 density/neutron to differentiate from tight sands, limestones and other volcaniclastics

652 (e.g. eroded basalts).

653  Aside from Erlend and Brendan’s, there is a dearth of geochemical and well data

654 relating to volcanic centres throughout the North Atlantic Margin, making

655 interpretation of each tuff’s likely derivation highly challenging- of key hydrocarbon

656 exploration relevance when active volcanic centres can expel material detrimental to

657 reservoir quality.

658

659 When identifying tuffs in offshore basins, emphasis should therefore be placed on key wells

660 which have broader suite of wireline data and/or core/sidewall core to calibrate to, which can

661 then be used to correlate to offset wells. This could be important when dealing with tuffaceous

662 intervals that are too thin to detect, though still may have practical implications such as

663 associated swelling clays balling the drill bit (Millet et al. 2016).

664
665
666 Conclusions
667
668 We have detailed a comprehensive stratigraphic overview of all the identifiable tuffaceous

669 intervals within the lower Palaeogene of the FSB, the first basin scale stratigraphic review of

670 tuffs anywhere in the UKCS since 1988. By integrating petrophysical logs from over 400

671 released wells, available core, and seismic horizon mapping we have been able to detail the

672 character and distribution of these tuffs through space and time, and suggest their geographical

673 volcanic derivation.

674 The majority of tuffaceous intervals in the FSB are identified due to a distinct,

675 petrophysical log motif of relatively low gamma, high resistivity and sonic velocity, and

676 density/neutron response typical of claystone. From the geochemical evidence available, these

677 tuffs are mainly basaltic in composition, which is consistent with both the extrusive lavas in

678 the region, and their low gamma character.

679 A number of units have incorrectly been interpreted as tuffaceous in previous studies,

680 the most significant of which is the absence of any Sequence T10 tuffs in the FSB, which helps

681 demonstrate that volcanism was confined to the Inner Hebrides during the Danian. The

682 earliest tuffs identified, deposited during the Selandian (Sequences T26 and T34, 62 Ma to 59.8

683 Ma), are known only through serendipitous coring, and represent the earliest recorded

684 manifestation of volcanism in the FSB. The greatest accumulation of tuffs is represented in

685 Sequences T36 (Kettla Tuff Member, 58.4 Ma) and T50 (Balder Formation, 54.9 to 54.3 Ma),

686 which form important seismic and stratigraphic markers. Ultimately though, the amount of

687 explosive volcanic activity, evidenced by tuffs, is likely underestimated in the FSB due the

688 limited vertical resolution of downhole tools. This issue may be further exacerbated in future

689 exploration by the desire to reduce costs, manifested in a limited array of tools deployed very

690 rarely in intervals deemed non-prospective, in lithologies such as claystone which are most

691 favourable for tuff preservation.

692

693 Acknowledgments

694 This work is part of DW’s PhD research, which is funded by a University of Aberdeen College of
695 Physical Sciences Scholarship. We are very grateful to PGS for generously donating seismic datasets.
696 Seismic interpretation was carried out using IHS Kingdom software, and wells were downloaded from
697 the UK Oil & Gas Common Data Access. Well log interpretation was conducted using Schlumberger
698 Techlog software. DW would also like to thank Christine Telford for insights regarding the
699 identification of tuffs in ditch cuttings, and Total (UK) for material concerning the Vaila Formation.
700 Attendees of VMRC workshops from academia and industry provided important insights into the
701 stratigraphy of the FSB. Finally, DW would like to acknowledge the late Robert Knox, without whom
702 our knowledge of North Atlantic explosive volcanism would be considerably poorer. The reviews of
703 P. Reynolds and J. Ólavsdóttir greatly improved the manuscript.
704

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893

894
895 Figure Captions

896 Fig. 1. (a) Main structural elements of the Faroe-Shetland Basin, adapted from Ellis et al. (2009) and
897 Mudge (2014). (b) Outline of the seismic coverage, including the wells used, and location of the four
898 seismic lines shown in this paper (red lines: A-A’, B-B’, C-C’ & D-D’).

899 Fig. 2. Early Palaeogene stratigraphy of the FSB (modified from Schofield et al. 2015), using the
900 lithostratigraphy of Ritchie et al. (2011), North Sea lithostratigraphy comparison of Shaw Champion et
901 al. (2008), T-sequences of Ebdon et al. (1995) and North Sea pyroclastic phases of Knox & Morton
902 (1988).

903 Fig. 3. Tuffaceous material in core appears either as (type 1) thin discrete tuffs (green-blue bands)
904 interbedded with silts and claystones (light to dark grey bands), example from the Balder Fm. in the
905 Central Graben, North Sea Basin (29/05a-3); or (type 2) massive units containing tuffaceous material,
906 example from a sandstone (Kettla Mbr., Lamba Fm.) in the Flett Sub-basin, FSB (205/09-1). Gamma ray
907 log values at the side of the core. Individual tuffs are below the vertical resolution of the tool. Images
908 are from the BGS offshore database (2016a).

909 Fig. 4. Using real examples from multiple wells throughout the FSB, this figure shows how low
910 gamma/high sonic velocity lithologies can be distinguished from each other. Tuffaceous units (a) are
911 typically characterised by low gamma, high resistivity and high sonic velocity, which can be similar to
912 sandstones, limestones and basalt (b). Tuffs however, have a distinct low to moderate density/high
913 neutron response (c), similar to a claystone, which makes their identification simple. Confidence in
914 identifying tuffaceous intervals in therefore reduced in the absence of density/neutron logs. The main
915 difference between the two types of tuffaceous material is reflected in the gamma log, where 1)
916 discrete interbedded tuffs (type 1) tend to have a serrated profile (d), and 2) massive clastic units
917 containing tuffaceous material (type 2) exhibiting a blockier motif (e), and a marginally higher sonic
918 velocity (f).

919 Fig. 5. Seismic line from FSB MegaSurvey Plus (Phase 2) perpendicular to the Flett Sub-basin. Thick
920 tuffaceous intervals, such as the “Balder Tuff” and “Kettla Tuff” form prominent, laterally continuous
921 hard kicks, making them ideal stratigraphic markers. Depending on the thickness and acoustic
922 impedance contrast, these tuffaceous intervals can be fully seismically resolvable (as seen in the Balder
923 Tuff example), or seismic identifiable (in the case of this Kettla Tuff example). Data courtesy of PGS,
924 from the FSB MegaSurveyPlus.

925 Fig. 6. Figure showing the i) gravity, ii) magnetic and iii) seismic data covering the supposed Danian
926 aged ‘Volcanic Centres’. Both the Westray and Judd Centres were identified based on circular, positive
927 gravity and magnetic anomalies (Naylor et al. 1999). Both have been drilled are now known as the
928 Westray and Cambo highs. The gravity/magnetic anomalies are a result of underlying Caledonian
929 plutonic bodies. Gravity and magnetic data from BGS Offshore Geoindex (2016a). Seismic data
930 courtesy of PGS, from the FSB2011/12 MultiClient GeoStreamer® survey.

931 Fig. 7. Palaeogeography maps of the Faroe-Shetland Basin, showing the location of wells and
932 distribution of tuffs referred to in this paper. The a) Vaila, b) Lamba and c) Flett palaeogeoographies
933 are adapted from Mudge (2014), while the d) Balder map is the author’s own. The regional Balder
934 inset is adapted from Morton & Knox (1988). The southern depocentre shown in the Lamba map is
935 modified from Eidesgaard & Ziska (2015), though the central depocentre extent is the author’s own
936 (based on well penetrations and seismic horizon mapping).
937 Fig. 8. Petrophysical character of the Sequence T35 tuff located in the Foinaven Sub-basin (well
938 204/17-1), exhibiting low gamma, high resistivity, high sonic velocity, and a density/neutron response
939 typical of claystone.

940 Fig. 9. (a) Geochemical character of the Kettla and Balder tuffs. Cr and Ti are normalised to Th as it
941 is analogous to detrital, nonvolcanic material. (b) Winchester & Floyd type (1977) discrimination chart,
942 plotting the Kettla in the andesite field, and Balder tuffs mainly in the alkali basalt field. Adapted from
943 Finlay et al. (2016).

944 Fig. 10. Well log correlation and seismic line through the Flett Sub-basin showing the character of
945 the Sequence T36 Kettla Tuff Member. Data courtesy of PGS, from the FSB MegaSurveyPlus.

946 Fig. 11. Lamba volcaniclastic unit in seismic. The unit pinches out before 204/22-2, and is likely
947 sequence T38 in age as it overlies the T36 Kettla Tuff Mbr. but is younger than the T38 regional
948 uniformity surface. Data courtesy of PGS, from the FSB MegaSurveyPlus.

949 Fig. 12. Petrophysical character of T40 Flett tuffs, in well 219/28-2z. The Flett tuffs have a similar log
950 profile to the overlying Balder tuffs, and sidewall cores examined by Fitch et al. (1988) confirm the
951 presence of glassy basaltic material.

952 Fig. 13. (i) The majority of intra-basaltic volcaniclastic units appear as moderate to high density (2.4-
953 2.6 g/cm3) reworked basaltic siltstone/sandstones, for example in well 213/26-1, distinct from lower
954 density tuffaceous units (2.15-2.35 g/cm3). (ii-v) However, angular glassy fragments are visible in coeval
955 sediments exposed onshore Faroe Islands (Sneis Formation), suggesting there may be a minor fallout
956 component to these volcaniclastic interbeds in the FSB.

957 Fig. 14. The lower Balder Tuff Mbr. has an abundance of tuffaceous horizons, whereas the upper
958 Balder Claystone Mbr. has fewer tuffaceous horizons, which conforms to observations from exposed
959 sequence T50 sediments in the south east of England, near Thanet.

960 Fig. 15. Stratigraphic summary of tuffs in the FSB, described in this paper. The relative tuff abundance
961 is an approximation for the thickness and lateral continuity, and is based on Knox & Morton’s (1988)
962 tuffs of the North Sea. The majority of tuffaceous intervals are preserved in claystone dominated
963 successions in the FSB.
Figure 1 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 1 revised.pdf

7°W 6°W 5°W 4°W 3°W 2°W 1°W 0°W

a) N

Br
M

en
Gr

ag
nu

d
im

an
FYR

s
Faroe
ur

Er BVC
Ka

Islands len
mb

d MB
Vi
an

EB
cto
Bry

Cl

ry
air
nhil

CR WEVC 62°N
We

H
d

ANB TH STB
EF

MGB
st

EVC
ray

CB SB
Jud

H
EF

CR
d

ANB FLB
HH CR
GB FOB
MR GDN ESP
FR

FVC CR
BB 61°N
H

B
FL RR
MF

FOB
CH
SH FR
Shetland
FB SB
W
WH
SP
JB FOB W
JH
MKB
RR
WTR
PB
SSVC

60°N

7°W 6°W 5°W 4°W 3°W 2°W 1°W 0°W

b) Lagavulin
N
M

Br
ag
Gr

en
nu

da
im

FYR 217
n

Faroe 218
ur

Vi

BVC
cto

Er
Ka

Islands 219
len
ry
mb

MB
d

Ben Nevis
an

EB
Cl
Bry

air

WEVC
nhi

R
Tobermory
C 62°N
We

6103
H

ANB H STB
ld

EF

T MGB
Bunnehaven
st

EVC
ray

SB
Brugdan 6104
Jud

209
EF

CR 208 210
d

213 214
FLB
ANB
HH CR A
GB FOB
MR Rosebank
GDN C’ ESP
FR
Cambo B’ Laggan
FVC Tormore A’ 61°N
6005BB 6004
H

B RR
FL
MF

C FOB
Clair 207
Shetland
SHLongan 205
FR
FB B SB
W
D’ WH SP 001 002
JB FOB
Schiehallion
206 W
JH
MKB 176 D Foinaven
RR
WTR 204
82/12
SSVC

60°N
202
Basalt at seabed Palaeogene volcanic centre 100 km
Intra-basinal lows Edge of flood basalt cover
(Sub-basins) BGS shallow borehole
Structural lineaments
Intra-basinal high Commerical well
Normal fault Hydrocarbon Discoveries:
Massiff (mainly Triassic
Limit of the Oil Condensate Gas
and older at seafloor)
Faroe-ShetlandBasin
Basins Highs and Ridges Seismic Coverage:
ANB = Annika Sub-basin CH = Cambo High
BB = Brynhild Sub-basin CR = Corona Ridge PGS
CB = Corona Sub-basin EFH = East Faroe High MegaSurveyPlus CRRG
3D

CLB = Clair Basin EH = Erlend High 2D

EB = Erlend Sub-basin ESP = East Shetland Platform PGS/TGS lines
FLB = Flett Sub-basin FR = Flett Ridge FSB2012
FOB = Foula Sub-basin FYR = Fugloy Ridge Geostreamer ®

GB = Grimhild Sub-basin HH = Hering High

GDN = Guorun Sub-basin JH = Judd High D’
JB = Judd Sub-basin MFH = Mid Faroe High Seismic lines shown in this study
= Møre Basin D
MB MR = Munkagrunner
MGB = Magnus Sub-basin RR = Rona Ridge Volcanic Centres
MKB = Munkur Basin SH = Sjúrður High
PB = Papa Basin TH = Trondur High BVC = Brendan Volcanic Centre
= Sissal Sub-basin EVC = Erlend Volcanic Centre
SB WH = Westray High FVC = Fraenir Volcanic Centre
STB = Steinvor Sub-basin WSP = West Shetland Platform
WSHB = West Shetland Basin WTR = Wyville-Thomson Ridge WEVC = West Erlend Volcanic Centre
WSB = West Solan Basin SSVP = Sule Sgeir Volcanic Centre
Figure 2 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 2 revised.pdf

North Sea Basin Faroe-Shetland Basin FSB North Sea

Pyroclastic
Lithostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy sequences
Phases

Frigg Fm. Stronsay Gp. T60

d c b
Phase 2
B2
Ypressian

Balder Fm. Balder Fm. T50

Eocene

B1
Hildasay
Member

F3
Dornoch Fm. T45
a
F2b
Colsay Member

F2a
Flett Fm.
F1b
Forties Fm. T40
56.0 F1a
Ma

L2 T38
Thanetian

Lamba Fm.
Palaeogene

Phase 1

L1
T36
Glamis Tuff Kettla Tuff Member

59.2 V4
Ma
Lista Fm. T35
Palaeocene

T34
Selandian

V3 -
T32
Vaila Fm.
T31
T28
V2 -
T25
Maureen Fm. V1
61.6
Ma
T22
S2
Danian

Sullom Fm.
S1 T10
Ekofisk Fm.
Figure 3 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 3 revised.pdf

Type 1: thin, discrete tuff beds Type 2: thick, massive sandstone

interbedded with other sediments, unit containing tuffaceous material
such as claystone and siltstone
GAMMA RAY GAMMA RAY
Depth (API) Depth (API)
(m) 75 150 (m) 150
0 0 75
2918.15 68.7 3612.95

20.9

50.4
50 cm

21.9

40.6
22.8

37.5 3613.45
2918.55
22.6

39.3
22.0

39.8
21.2

43.6
20.8
2919.10 3613.95
Figure 4 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 4 revised.pdf

Multi-well amalgamated composite log highlighting

wells used
low gamma/high sonic velocity lithologies in the Faroe-Shetland Basin
Strat RESISTIVITY 45 NEUTRON -15
GAMMA RAY Lith. medium pu SONIC
Mbr.
seq.
Fm.

deep DENSITY 3
0 API 150 0.20 Ohms 20.00 1.95 g/cm 2.95 140 US/F 40
v

v
Balder Tuff
Balder
T50

d a
v
c f

214/28-1
1. interbedded
tuffs, siltstone v
and sandstone v
Flett
Hildasay
T45

213/28-1
b

213/27-1z
T40

Lith.
v

v
2. massive
sandstone v
Kettla Tuff

with abundant
Lamba

v 205/09-1
T36

reworked
e (epiclastic)
a
v
c f
25 m

tuffaceous
v
material
v

v
Vaila
T35

Lithologies: Sandstone Claystone/Siltstone Limestone Basalt

v Tuffaceous siltstone
v Tuffaceous sandstone
Click here to download Figure Figure 5.pdf

A A’ trough (”soft kick”)

NW 206/01-3 (Laggan) SE peak (”hard kick”)
5 km a: Sea floor
1.0
a
1.5
b: Balder Tuff
two-way travel time (sec)

2.0
b
2.5
c: Kettla Tuff
3.0
c
3.5
d: Basaltic sill
Flett Ridge
4.0
d
Corona Ridge
Figure 5
Figure 6 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 6 revised.pdf

B B’
i) gravity iii) SE 204/15-2 NW SW 204/10-1 NE
B’
“Judd Centre” 1.5

mGal “Westray 2.0

150
80
Centre”
two-way travel time (sec)

70
60
50
2.5
40
30
20 B
10
0 3.0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
3.5

ii) magnetic 4.0

B’
204/10-1

nT
4.5
2612
1000
800
600 204/15-2 5.0
300
200
150
204/15-2 204/10-1
100
50
0 204/19-2 B 1.5
-50
-100 204/20-1
-150
-200 204/24-1A
-300
-600
-800
2.0
-1000
-2055
5 km
two-way travel time (sec)

Interpreted Stratigraphy: 2.5

Dolerite intrusions Foinaven
(Palaeocene-Eocene emplacement) Sub-basin
3.0
Mid Eocene-Recent: claystone,
siltstone & sandstone Flett Sub-basin
Lower Eoecene: basalts, tuffs, 3.5 Corona Sub-basin
sandstones & siltstones
Palaeocene: claystones & silstones 4.0 Westray High Cambo High
Cretaceous: claystones
Jurassic: sandstones 4.5
Triassic (?): siltstones & sandstones
Dev to Pre-Cambrian: granitic plutons 5.0
Figure 7 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 7 revised.pdf

Vaila Formation Tuffs (T26-T35) Lamba Formation Tuffs (T36-T38)

a) N b) N

219/21-1
Brendan’s

3) northern
depocentre
Munkugrunnur
Volcanic
Provincelt 2) central
Brugdan-2
sa
ba te
depocentre
ed rou 214/19-1

r
ork s
ew lastic
1) southern
5 ic
T3 lcan
vo
depocentre 214/28-1

T3 206/01-2 214/27-1
ash 5 airf 205/09-1 206/01-3
rou all 206/01-3
te
205/09-1
deep marine
Longan 204/17-1 deep marine turbidites
204/19-2 turbidites shelf sands
Marjun
shelf sands shallow marine
shallow marine 204/22-1 lava
Sula Sgeir 204/30-1 205/30-1
lava Basement
82/12
Basement volcanic centre
volcanic centre tuff distribution

wells with units identified as tuffs: T26 T34 T35 wells with units identified as tuffs: T36 T38
wells with units misidentified as tuffs: T26 T35

Flett Formation Tuffs (T40-T45) Balder Formation Tuffs (T50)

c) N d) air
fall
a
Gr sh s
ee ou
Lagvulin ? N
nla rc
nd ed
-N fro
W m
Eu the
rop n
e r asc
ift ent

Erlend
Tobermory
centres 219/28-2z

209/04-1A
208/15-1A

213/23-1
Brugdan-1
Co edifi ble
s
ng ic lva
ron ce
alo olcan reso

213/28-1
a
0 v mic

deep marine
T4 seis

turbidites
no

deep marine up
205/09-1 ak ) shelf sands
re Ma
f b 54
turbidites eo ( 204/20-2 shallow marine
205/09-2 lin
shelf sands non-marine
shallow marine Exposed
Flett lavas
204/27-1A non-marine basement
lava extinct volcanic
204/26-1A centre
basement
volcanic centres: T50 coastline
active (change in tuff
extinct preservation)

wells with units identified as tuffs: T40 wells with units identified as marine (excellent tuff preservation: T50
wells with units misidentified as tuffs: T40 wells with units identified as non-marine (limited tuff preservation) tuffs: T50
Figure 8 Click here to download Figure Figure 8.pdf

Strat RESISTIVITY 45 NEUTRON

GAMMA RAY Lith. medium -15 SONIC
Mbr.
seq.
Fm.

deep DENSITY
3
0 API 150 0.20 Ohms 20.00 1.95 g/cm 2.95 140 US/F 40

2575 m

v
Vaila
T35

v m
2600
V4

2625 m

Lithologies: Sandstone Claystone/Siltstone Limestone v Tuffaceous siltstone

Figure 9 Click here to download Figure Figure 9.pdf

1
a) Balder Fm.
(T50)
Kettla Tuff Mbr.
(T36)
0.8

0.6
TiO2/Th

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cr/Th
b) 10
Balder Fm.
(T50)
Kettla Tuff Mbr.
(T36)
Phonolite
1 Comendite
Pantellerite
Zr/TiO2 (ppm)

Rhyolite
Trachyte
0.1
Rhyodacite
Dacite
Trachyandesite
Andesite
0.01 Basanite
Andesite, Basalt Nephelinite
Alkali basalt

Sub-alkaline basalt

0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10
Nb/Y (ppm)
Figure 10 Click here to download Figure Figure 10.pdf

Flett Sub-basin Correlation: Kettla Tuff Mbr. Stratigraphic Marker

29.7 km 19.3 km 10.2 km
205/09-1 206/01-3 214/27-1 214/28-1
GAMMA RAY GAMMA RAY SONIC GAMMA RAY
seq.

GAMMA RAY SONIC SONIC SONIC

Fm.
seq.

Lith. Lith.
0 (API) 150 140 (US/F) 40 0 (API) 150
Lith.
140 (US/F) 40 0 (API) 150 140 (US/F) 40 0 (API) 150 Lith. 140 (US/F) 40

3650 m

v v v
v v
v v
v 3450
v m
3600
v
m v
v v vv
v m
3675 3375 m
v v
v v v v
Lamba

v
T36

v v
v v
Kettla Mbr.

v v
v v v
v v
v v 3450 m
3625
v m v
v 3700 m 3400
v m
v
v
v
v
v
3650
v m
casing point
3725 m
(interrupted gamma
T35
Vaila

acquisition)
Lithologies: Sandstone v Tuffaceous siltstone
cored section
Claystone/Siltstone v Tuffaceous sandstone
C C’
SW NE
205/09-1 206/01-3 214/27-1 214/28-1

3.2
two-way travel time (sec)

basal T36/Kettla Tuff Mbr. seismic reflector

59 m 30 m 39 m 27 m
3.4

3.6

15 km
3.8
Figure 11 Click here to download Figure Figure 11.pdf

D D’
SE 204/22-1 204/22-2 NW

1.8
two-way travel time (sec)

2.2

2.6 5 km

204/22-1 204/22-2

Flett Fm., Balder Fm. & Stronsay Gp.

1.8 (T45-T60)

volcaniclastic unit
regional unconformity surface
two-way travel time (sec)

(~T38) Lamba Fm.

(T36-T38) Kettla Tuff Mbr.
(T36)
Sullom Fm.-Vaila Fm.
(T10-T35)
2.2

Cretaceous

2.6 Jurassic
Judd High
Figure 12 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 12 revised.pdf

Strat RESISTIVITY 45 NEUTRON

GAMMA RAY Lith. medium pu -15 SONIC
Mbr.
seq.
Fm.

deep DENSITY
3
0 API 150 0.20 Ohms 20.00 1.95 g/cm 2.95 140 US/F 40
v

v
2325 m
Balder Tuff
Balder

v
T50

v
2350 m
Flett
T40

v
F1b

v
Lamba
T38

L2

Lithologies: Claystone/Siltstone v Tuffaceous siltstone

Figure 13 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 13 revised.pdf

Intra-basaltic suburface log character: 213/26-1 (Rosebank Field)

i) 45 NEUTRON
pu -15
GAMMA RAY SONIC
Strat Lith. DENSITY
3
Lower Volcanic Unit 0 API 150 1.96 g/cm 2.96 140 US/F 40

2975 m
Flett Fm.
T40
Colsay

3000 m
4

Lithologies: Sandstone Volcaniclastic siltstone Basalt Claystone/Siltstone

Intra-basaltic outcrop character: Gásadalur, Faroe Islands

ii) N iii)
iii)

25 m
v) iv)

v)
0.5 mm poor exposure
Figure 14 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 14 revised.pdf

Subsurface character of tuffs

Outcrop expression, SE England
in the FSB Lith.
Strat. GAMMA RAY Lith. B
2575
v m

v
Balder Claystone Mbr.

v 4 v

v
v 3 v

B v
v
v
2 v

v
Balder Formation (T50)

v 1 v

v
v
v
v
v
v
2600
v
m A
v 10 v
v
A
Balder Tuff Mbr.

v 9 v

v
v
8 v
v
v 7 v
v 6 v

v 5 v

v
4 v

3 v
v
v 2 v
v

v 1
v
v
v
2625 m
Lithologies: Claystone/Siltstone Sandstone v Tuffaceous claystone/siltstone
Figure 15 revised Click here to download Figure Figure 15 revised.pdf

SW FSB Regional Tuff Distribution NE North

Lithostratigraphy Erlend Brendan Sea
FSB Judd Judd Foinaven Corona Flett Volcanic Erlend Platform Møre (Knox &
North Faroe-Shetland sequences High Sub-basin Sub-basin Ridge Sub-basin Sub-basin Basin Morton,
Sea Basin Centre (219/21-1) 1988)

Horda
Stronsay Gp. T60
Fm.

d c b
Phase 2
B2
Balder Balder
T50
Ypresian
Eocene

Fm. Fm. B1
Hildasay
Member

F3
Dornoch
T45

a
F2b
Fm.
Colsay Member

F2a
Flett
F1b
Forties Fm.
T40
56.0 Fm. F1a
Ma

L2 T38
Thanetian

Lamba
Lista Fm.
Palaeogene

Phase 1
L1
Fm. T36
Glamis
Tuff Kettla Tuff Member
V V

59.2 V4
Ma
T35
Palaeocene

T34
V3 -
Selandian

Vaila T32
Fm.
T31
T28
V2 -
Maureen T25
Fm.
V1
61.6
Ma
T22
S2
Danian

Sullom
Ekofisk Fm.
S1 T10
Fm.

Claystone/silstone Extrusive volcanics (lavas & volcaniclastics) Relative Abundance of Tuff: High
Sandstone (marine) Moderate
Coals
Low
Sandstone (non-marine) Unconformity surfaces