International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Prediction of the penetration rate of rotary blast hole drills using

a new drillability index
S. Kahraman a,*, C. Balcõ b, S. Yazõcõ b, N. Bilgin b
a
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of NigÆde, 5100, NigÆde, Turkey
b
Faculty of Mines, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Accepted 22 December 1999

Abstract

Rotary blast hole drills were observed in several formations at di€erent open pit mines and quarries. Rock samples were
collected as near as possible to drilling locations and mechanical and physical properties of the total 22 rock samples were
determined. Indentation tests were carried out on the block samples from the same formations. A new drillability index for the
prediction of the penetration rates of rotary blast hole drills and the mechanical and physical properties of the rock formations
was de®ned from force-indentation curves of indentation tests. A penetration rate model for rotary for blast hole drills was
developed using this drillability index. It was seen that the model was valid for the formations having uniaxial compressive
strength over 40 MPa and especially for carbonaceous rocks.
The drillability index exhibits a signi®cant correlation with the proportionality constant k de®ned in the model. It is also seen
that signi®cant correlations exist between the drillability index and rock properties suggesting that the proposed model may be
used universally to estimate the penetration rate of rotary blast hole drills. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mechanical excavation. The mechanics of rock failure

Blast hole rotary drills are widely used for overbur-
den removal all over the world. A typical example may
be cited as that, more than 100 million m3 of overbur-
den blasted annually in ®ve Turkish open pit mines
with a total annual drilling length of around 1:65 
106 m. An accurate prediction of blast hole drilling
rate helps to make more ecient the planning of dril-
ling operations in a mine or quarry. However it is im-
portant to note that the prediction of physical and
mechanical properties of rock formations from drilling
rates, may help the mining engineer to control the
changing characteristics of the formations.
Rock indentation is the basic process in drilling and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90-388-225-0115; fax: +90-388-
255-0112.
E-mail address: t.yalcinoz@ieee.org (S. Kahraman).
and chip formation beneath a drill bit is a complicated
function of the mechanical and physical properties of
the rock, the state of the stress at the bottom of a
borehole, the geometrical design and shape of the bit-
teeth and the type and ¯ow rate of drilling ¯uid.
Maurer [1] studied crater formation under an indenter
and identi®ed the following distinct phases for the
brittle rocks:
. crushing of surface irregularities and elastic defor-
mation;
. extension of crushing zone beneath an indenter;
. formation of chips.
The main objective of this study is to develop a model
for the prediction of rotary blast hole drills using a
drillability index newly described from the force-inden-
tation curves. In addition, the relationships between
drillability index and rock properties are studied. Two
di€erent bit-teeth were also compared.

1365-1609/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 6 5 - 1 6 0 9 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 7 - 1
730 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743
2. Previous indentation studies
Many theoretical and experimental studies of rock
indentation have been carried out by investigators [1±
22]. Some important conclusions drawn from these stu-
dies can brie¯y be summarised as follows.
. Penetration force increases with increasing bit-tooth
angle, increasing values of rock properties and
increasing con®ning pressure. Penetration force is
minimum for the smooth-tooth case, perfect lubrica-
tion is assumed to exist along the tooth-rock inter-
face [2].
. The force-penetration curves for rocks at con®ning
pressures are essentially linear, as contrasted with
non-linear and discontinuous curves at atmospheric
pressure. This is because many rocks exhibit ductile
behaviour at con®ning pressures corresponding to
depth. Force-per-unit penetration exhibits an ap-
proximate exponential increase with increasing tooth
angle and with an increase in con®ning pressure up
to 70 MPa, after which it becomes essentially inde-
pendent of con®ning pressure [3].
. Speci®c energy is larger for penetration parallel to
the bedding than perpendicular [4,10].
. The ratio crater depth/threshold force is described
as drillability index by Morris [11]. From this index,
bit type, drilling weight, average penetration rate
and approximate bit life may be determined.
. One-half of the wedge angle plus the angle of in-
ternal friction …y ‡ f† must be less than 908 for chip-
ping to occur. For values of this sum greater than
908, the wedge indents but does not chip [4]. Lund-
berg [12] stated that when one-half of the wedge
angle is greater than 608 chip failure is rare.
. A threshold bit-tooth force must be exceeded before
a chip is formed. This force increases with both
tooth dullness and di€erential pressure between the
borehole and formation ¯uids. At high di€erential
pressures, the chips are ®rmly held in the craters
and bottom-hole cleaning problem occurs [14].
. The distance from a previous penetration crater is
described as the indexing distance. The optimum
indexing distance decreases substantially with
increasing con®ning pressure above the brittle-to-
ductile transition pressure of a particular rock.
However, the indexing distance remains approxi-
mately constant for a variation in con®ning pressure
below the transition pressure [7,16].
. The crushing phase of the indentation process is
well described by a linear force-indentation relation
for a wedge tip and by a quadratic expression for a
conical bit. The chipping phase is approximately lin-
ear for both a wedge tip and a conical bit. For
wedge indenters, the upper bound of chipping exhi-
bits a continuous concave downward shape. For
conical indenters, the upper bound of chipping is
concave upward or downward depending on
whether the Weibull parameter (m ), which charac-
terises the size e€ect, is less or greater than 12 , with a
linear relation obtained at the limiting value m ˆ 12
[13].
. Numerical analysis [22] indicates that the location
of maximum tensile stress (interpreted as the point
of crack initiation) moves away from the indenta-
tion axis as the lateral con®nement increases. A
small increase in the con®ning stress from zero
induces a large increase in the inclination of this
point on the indentation axis. However, the con-
®nement does not reduce signi®cantly the maxi-
mum tensile stress and it hardly in¯uences the
indentation pressure.
Also, a standard indentation test has been rec-
ommended by ISRM [23]. The indentation test may be
used for characterisation of hardness of rock. During
the test, an indenter under applied load penetrates into
the rock surface forming a crater. The test allows the
determination of an index that characterises rock hard-
ness and may be used to assess other strength par-
ameters with which it can be correlated, for example
to uniaxial compressive and tensile strength. It may
also be used to predict drillability or cuttability of
rock formations.
3. Field studies
The drilling performance of rotary drills was
measured in eight formations at six di€erent sites.
During the performance studies, bit type and diameter,
hole length, feed pressure, rotational pressure, air
pressure and net drilling time were recorded. Then, net
penetration rates have been calculated and feed press-
ure (bar) was converted to thrust (kN) and rotational
pressure (bar) was converted to rotational speed (rpm)
using the production catalogues of the manufacturing
®rms. Drilling parameters and net penetration rate of
each formation are given in Table 1.
The bit types used in the rotary drills were tri-cone
bits with tungsten carbide inserts. The drills with
new or little worn bits were observed in the ®eld.
Conical and spherical bit-teeth were removed from
dull bits to use in the indentation tests. In situ
Schmidt hammer (N-type) tests were conducted and
block samples were collected as near as possible to
the drilling sites to determine physical and mechan-
ical properties and drillability indexes of the rocks
drilled. In addition to the block samples collected
from drilling sites, rock samples from 14 formations
at eight di€erent sites were collected to use in inden-
tation tests.
 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743 731

4. Laboratory studies ciently plane. Therefore, at the beginning of the tests,

4.1. Mechanical and physical properties of rocks
Standard test samples were prepared from the total
of 22 di€erent block samples of rocks. Then, standard
tests [24] have been completed to measure uniaxial
compressive strength, tensile strength (Brazil test),
impact strength, point load strength, seismic velocity,
Young's modulus and density. The test results are
summarised in Table 2.
4.2. Indentation test
Indentation tests were executed using the servo-con-
trolled sti€ testing machine in the laboratory of
Mining Faculty of Istanbul Technical University. A
schematic diagram of the test apparatus is shown in
Fig. 1a. For indentation a conical bit-tooth of 608
apex angle and a spherical bit-tooth with a diameter of
14.4 mm were used (Fig. 1b). These bit-teeth were
tightly ®xed in a steel socket and were penetrated into
uncon®ned blocks of rocks having plane upper and
lower surfaces and approx. size of 13  20  12 cm at
normal laboratory conditions. In the tests, the load
was measured by a loadcell of 0.22 MN capacity and
the displacement (indentation) was measured by a
transducer (LVDT) of 0.25 mm/V. The test duration
was arranged as 3 min and the loading rate was main-
tained at 2 mm/min. The penetration depth was
selected as 3 mm, but some rock samples fractured
before the penetration reached 3 mm.
The faces of the test samples were not cut su-
some rock samples were slightly moved and then were
®xed. Before the rock sample is ®xed, the force is not
transmitted to the rock sample, but the bit-tooth
seems to penetrate. So, in the force-indentation curves
it seems as if there is an indentation at zero force.
Indentation tests were carried out on samples from
22 di€erent formations. Because there was one sample
characterising each formation and it was aimed to
eliminate the edge e€ect, the conical bit-tooth indenta-
tion was done at the upper surface of the rock sample.
Then, the sample was reversed and the spherical bit-
tooth was indented on the lower surface of the rock
sample. Bit-teeth were penetrated normal to any visible
bedding plane.
5. Presentation and discussion of indentation test result
When the force-indentation curves obtained from
indentation tests were studied, it was seen that there
were three typical curves (Fig. 2):
. linear curves;
. non-linear and discontinuous curves;
. stepped curves.
Generally, plastic rocks were only crushed and pene-
trated by an indenter, giving linear curves; whereas
brittle rocks were cracked and chips were formed, giv-
ing non-linear and discontinuous curves. Stepped
curves were seen on the force-indentation curves of
very soft formations …sc < 25 MPa), except the sand-
stone formation (Emet).

Table 1
Drilling parameters and net penetration rates for each formation

Location Formation Thrust (kN) Rotational speed (rpm) Bit diameter (cm) Net penetration rate (m/h) Date

Soma(Is° iklar) marl 59.35 120 25.1 56.4 23.03.1996

Soma(Is° iklar) marl 57.44 119 25.1 41.4 23.03.1996
Soma(Is° iklar) marl 45.95 119 25.1 48.6 24.03.1996
Soma(Is° iklar) marl 59.35 119 25.1 54.6 25.03.1996
Soma(Is° iklar) marl 53.61 119 25.1 48.6 25.03.1996
Soma(Is° iklar) marl 53.61 120 25.1 52.2 26.03.1996
SeyitoÈmer marl 61.27 119 25.1 171.6 27.07.1996
SeyitoÈmer marl 45.95 119 25.1 163.8 28.07.1996
Tunc° bilek(pane136) marl 30.63 120 25.1 123.0 29.07.1996
Tunc° bilek(pane136) marl 50.89 119 22.8 100.2 29.07.1996
Tunc° bilek(Beke) marl 49.78 119 25.1 104.4 30.07.1996
Tunc° bilek(Beke) marl 38.29 119 25.1 79.2 30.07.1996
Pozanti clayed limestone 33.18 75 16.5 70.2 23.05.1993
Emet sandstone 14.93 72 16.5 24.6 31.07.1996
Emet limestone 8.29 75 16.5 12.0 31.07.1996
Orhaneli tu€ 31.80 119 25.1 112.2 01.08.1996
Orhaneli tu€ 38.29 122 25.1 114.0 01.08.1996
Orhaneli tu€ 45.95 72 25.1 56.4 01.08.1996
 732

Table 2
Mechanical and physical properties of rocks tested

Location Formation UCS Tensile strength Schmidt rebound number Impact strength Point load strength P-wave velocity Elastic modulus Density
(MPa) (MPa) (N-type) (MPa) (km/s) (MPa) (g/cm3)

Soma (Isiklar) marl 64.9 4.4 60 75.2 3.0 3.4 4758 2.45
SeyitoÈmer marl 11.4 1.0 42 67.5 0.8 1.0 241 1.83
Tunc° bilek (panel 36) marl 21.4 2.2 53 69.9 1.7 1.9 1595 1.91
Tunc° bilek (Beke) marl 13.5 1.5 52 70.4 1.4 1.5 980 2.03
Pozanti limestone 123.8 6.6 61 82.9 5.3 5.3 10,682 2.73
Pozanti clayed limestone 45.1 6.0 68 80.5 4.6 3.3 22,419 2.42
Emet sandstone 70.5 5.5 38 75.8 6.3 3.7 13,855 2.56
Emet limestone 42.1 6.0 58 82.0 4.4 4.7 16,757 2.70
Orhaneli tu€ 10.1 0.9 35 69.3 1.2 1.2 193 1.85
Bahc° e sandstone-1 149.2 16.1 70 87.8 11.2 4.6 8746 3.00
Bahc° e sandstone-2 45.2 5.8 53 80.3 3.6 4.5 11,092 2.77
Bahc° e dolomite 68.0 6.0 59 83.4 3.5 6.3 6830 2.92
Erikli limestone 51.3 7.0 55 82.2 4.6 5.4 7193 2.74
Erikli serpentine 69.1 7.5 62 81.2 5.8 2.9 21,116 2.88
Erikli diabase 110.9 10.1 64 89.5 10.3 5.2 10,901 2.96
Erikli marl 39.5 5.2 56 76.1 2.7 3.1 4060 2.20
Konya serpentine 54.3 11.7 59 90.3 13.2 5.0 20,224 2.63
Yahyali hematite 61.8 6.6 44 84.3 6.7 2.8 19,566 3.61
Adana limestone 15.7 0.9 42 72.5 1.1 2.2 790 1.86
Misis limestone 85.2 9.1 68 84.1 8.0 5.5 20,253 2.71
Darica dolomite 189.8 10.0 56 85.8 14.9 5.1 30,163 2.92
Darica limestone 70.56 5.5 48 79.1 3.9 4.0 12,517 2.50
S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743
 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743
Pang et al. [13] stated that the crushing phase of
the indentation process is linear for a wedge tip
and a quadratic curve for a conical bit. The chip-
ping phase is approximately linear for both wedge
tip and a conical bit. The crushing phase and the
chipping phase of the force-indentation curves
obtained in this study were examined and it was
seen that the crushing phase is usually quadratic
and the chipping phase is generally linear as was
stated by Pang et al. [13]. Pang et al. [13] also sta-
ted that the upper bound of chipping exhibits a
continuous concave downward shape for wedge
indenters. For conical indenters the upper bound of
chipping is concave upward or downward depending
on the Weibull parameter. Based on statistical data,
Weibull showed that the ratio of the failure
strength sf of two specimens with volumes V1 and V2,
respectively, is given by
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of the indentation test apparatus; (b) geometry of spherical bit-tooth (a) and conical bit-tooth (b).
733
   m
sf 1 V2
ˆ …1†
sf 2 V1
where the constant m is frequently labelled the Weibull
parameter associated with the sample volume.
At least three chipping points are necessary to
establish quadratic relation. Because very few force-
indentation curves contain three chips, it is not
possible to make meaningful statements about the
upper bound of chipping. However, both concave
upward (Fig. 3) and concave downward (Fig. 4)
envelopes were seen, when the upper bound of
chipping of the force-indentation curves containing
three chips were examined.
Lundberg [12] stated that when one-half of the
wedge angle is greater than 608, chip failure is rare.
But, when the force-indentation curves of spherical
bit-tooth were studied, it was seen that there was chip-
734 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743

Fig. 2. Typical force-indenti®cation curves; a, non-linear and discontinuous curve; b, linear curve; c, stepped curve.
 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743 735

Fig. 3. Force-indentatioin curve exhibiting concave upward envelope.

ping on the curves for ten rock types. This anomaly
may be due to the fact that Lundberg made his exper-
iments on Swedish Bohus Granite.
6. Development of the penetration rate model
The following model and steps were followed to
develop an equation for prediction of drilling rate
(Fig. 5).
6.1. Description of the drillability index
Morris [11] established a drillability index p '/F, by
measuring the crater depth ( p ') produced at the
threshold force (F ) at which chips form. The method
is especially suited to the harder metamorphic and
igneous rocks, and is not suited to soft rocks that do
not exhibit chip formation.
The di€erent drillability index in this study can be
applied to all rocks, whether chip formation occurs or
not. In the method, for the force-indentation curves
giving chip formation, the average slope of the tangent
plotted for the 50% value of the chipping force was
described as the drillability index (Fig. 2a). For the
force-indentation curves not giving chip formation, the
slope of the force-indentation curve was taken at the
half of the maximum penetration value as seen in
Fig. 2b and c. Drillability index is formulated as fol-
lows:
F
aˆ …2†
p0
where a is the drillability index (kN/mm), F is the
force (kN) and p ' the penetration (mm).
The values of drillability indexes of all rock types
tested were calculated and are given in Table 3.
6.2. Penetration rate model
The model of penetration rate for rotary drills with
tri-cone bit was developed by using the Morris [11]

Fig. 4. Force-indentation curve exhibiting concave downward envelope.

736 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743

and the Bilgin's [25] approach. The penetration rate of average number of bit elements working (I ) we should
a roller-cone rock bit may be expressed by: arrive at an e€ective drilling weight (W ).
PR ˆ Np …3† W ˆ FI …4†

where PR is the penetration rate, N the rotational
speed and p the bit penetration per revolution.
Assuming the actual bit penetration per revolution
( p ) is directly proportional to the test bit-tooth pen-
etration ( p ') in a given rock or p=kp ', then
PR ˆ Nkp 0 …
where k is the proportionality constant.
By multiplying the static threshold force (F ) by the
Morris showed that only 8% of the total bits in a tri-
cone roller bit are in contact with the rock and he for-
mulates I as I ˆ 0:08C, where, C is the total number
of bit elements, therefore,
W ˆ 0:08FC …4a†
3a†
As a function of bit diameter the total number of bit
elements can be expressed as C ˆ nD [25], where, D is
the bit diameter (cm), n is a constant that varies

Fig. 5. The ¯ow chart for the developed penetration rate equation.
 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743 737

between 6 and 7, thus, Averaging the whole k values, for conical bit-tooth
kcon ˆ 0:022420:018 and for spherical bit-tooth ksph ˆ
W ˆ 0:08FnD …4b† 0:018120:013 were found. Using these k values, pen-
From the drillability index, a ˆ F=p 0 or F ˆ ap 0 , then, etration rates were estimated from Eq. (6). Actual and
estimated penetration rates are compared in Table 5.
W ˆ 0:08ap 0 nD …4c† As can be seen here, the estimated penetration rates do
not conform to the actual penetration rates. To make
or the di€erences more visual the actual penetration rates
W vs estimated penetration rates are plotted in Fig. 6.
p0 ˆ …5† The data points are not distributed uniformly about
0:08anD
the diagonal line. This suggests that perhaps k values
So, Eq. (2a) can be written as follows: are not valid. Also, the standard deviations of the
NW averaged k values are high.
PR ˆ k …6† During the investigation of this situation, it was
0:08anD
seen that the teeth of roller-cone bits used in working
areas were not suited to the formations having uniaxial
6.3. Determination of constant k compressive strength below 40 MPa. When these
roller-cone bits are used in soft formations, the bit-
Eq. (6) may be written teeth are buried in rock and crushing occurs domi-
nantly. Therefore, drilling operation becomes ine-
0:08PRanD
kˆ …7† cient. It is also shown in Table 4 that the k values can
NW
be divided into two groups, i.e. the k values for the
Substituting the penetration rate and the drilling par- rock types having uniaxial compressive strengths
ameters recorded during the ®eld observations and below and above 40 MPa.
drillability index, k values were calculated for each ob- Averaging the k values for the rock types having
servation and for conical and spherical bit-tooth, re- uniaxial compressive strength over 40 MPa, the conical
spectively (Table 4). bit-tooth gives kcon ˆ 0:027720:007 and the spherical

Table 3
The values of drillability index obtained from force-indentation curves

Location Formation UCS (MPa) Drillability index

Conical bit-tooth (acon, kN/mm) Spherical bit-tooth (ashp, kN/mm)

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 15.50 15.50

SeyitoÈmer marl 11.4 0.85 1.15
Tunc° bilek (36 pano) marl 21.4 10.40 1.20
Tunc° bilek (Beke) marl 13.5 2.70 3.80
Pozanti limestone 123.8 18.80 46.00
Pozanti clayed limestone 45.1 8.00 6.50
Pozanti limestone 123.8 18.80 46.00
Pozanti clayed limestone 45.1 8.00 6.50
Emet sandstone 70.5 5.50 9.00
Emet limestone 42.1 16.00 18.00
Orhaneli tu€ 10.1 0.83 0.62
Bahc° e kumtas° i-1 149.2 43.00 69.00
Bahc° e kumtas° i-2 45.2 4.50 6.50
Bahc° e dolomite 68.0 71.00 51.70
Erikli limestone 51.3 15.00 23.50
Erikli serpentine 69.1 ± 14.40
Erikli diabase 110.9 34.50 48.00
Erikli marl 39.5 8.20 11.00
Konya serpentine 54.3 54.60 62.00
Yahyali hematite 61.8 26.50 29.00
Adana limestone 15.7 6.80 5.00
Misis limestone 85.2 37.00 38.00
Darica dolomite 189.8 36.00 46.50
Darica limestone 70.56 ± 25.00
738 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743

Table 4
The values ofthe constant k

Location Formation UCS (MPa) Thrust (kN) Rotational speed (rmp) kcon ksph

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 59.35 120 0.0266 0.0266

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 57.44 119 0.0203 0.0203
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 45.95 119 0.0298 0.0298
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 59.35 119 0.0259 0.0259
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 53.61 119 0.0256 0.0256
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 64.9 53.61 120 0.0272 0.0272
Pozanti clayed limestone 45.1 33.18 75 0.0322 0.0262
Emet sandstone 70.5 14.93 72 0.0180 0.0294
Emet limestone 42.1 8.29 75 0.0441 0.0500
Tunc° bilek (panel 36) marl 21.4 30.63 120 0.0750 0.0087
Tunc° bilek (panel 36) marl 21.4 50.89 119 0.0370 0.0043
Tunc° bilek (Beke) marl 13.5 49.78 119 0.0100 0.0145
Tunc° bilek (Beke) marl 13.5 38.29 119 0.0102 0.0143
Orhaneli tu€ 10.1 31.80 119 0.0053 0.0040
Orhaneli tu€ 10.1 38.29 122 0.0044 0.0033
Orhaneli tu€ 10.1 45.95 72 0.0031 0.0023
SeyitoÈmer marl 11.4 61.27 119 0.0043 0.0058
SeyitoÈmer marl 11.4 45.95 119 0.0055 0.0075
Average: 0.022420.018 0.018120.013

bit-tooth gives ksph ˆ 0:029020:008: Using these k 6.4. The ®nal equations for the penetration rate
values, penetration rates were estimated from Eq. (6)
and compared with the actual penetration rates After the valid k values are substituted separately in
(Table 6). When Table 6 is examined, it is seen that Eq. (6), if constant n is selected as 6.5 and the
the estimated penetration rates conform approximately equations are re-arranged, the following ®nal
to the actual penetration rates. The plot of actual pen- equations are found.
etration rates vs estimated penetration rates is shown For conical bit-tooth:
in Fig. 7. Data points are distributed nearly uniformly
about the diagonal line, suggesting that the k values NW
PR ˆ 3:20 …8†
are valid. aD

Table 5
Actual and estimated penetration rates

Location Formation Thrust (kN) Rotational Actual penetration rate (m/h) Estimated penetration rate from Eq. (5) (m/h)

Conical bit-tooth Spherical bit-tooth

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 59.35 120 56.4 47.4 38.3

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 57.44 119 41.4 45.4 36.7
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 45.95 119 48.6 36.4 29.4
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 59.35 119 54.6 47.1 37.9
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 53.61 119 48.6 42.2 34.3
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 53.61 120 52.2 42.7 34.6
SeyitoÈmer marl 61.27 119 171.6 883.7 527.6
SeyitoÈmer marl 45.95 119 163.8 662.8 395.6
Tunc° bilek (panel 36) marl 30.63 120 123.0 40.1 280.6
Tunc° bilek (panel 36) marl 50.89 119 100.2 60.0 419.9
Tunc° bilek (Beke) marl 49.78 119 104.4 226.0 129.7
Tunc° bilek (Beke) marl 38.29 119 79.2 173.9 99.8
Pozanti clayed limestone 33.18 75 70.2 48.7 48.5
Emet sandstone 14.93 72 24.6 30.6 15.1
Emet limestone 8.29 75 12.0 6.1 4.4
Orhaneli tu€ 31.80 119 112.2 468.7 507.9
Orhaneli tu€ 38.29 122 114.0 579.8 626.9
Orhaneli tu€ 45.95 72 56.4 410.7 444.0
 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743 739

Fig. 6. The plot of actual penetration rates vs estimated penetration rates (before modifying the index).

Table 6
Actual and estimated penetration rates for the formations having uniaxial compressive strength over 40 MPa

Location Formation Thrust Rotational speed Actual penetration rate Estimated penetration rate from Eq. (5)
(kN) (rpm) (m/h) (m/h)

Conical bit-tooth Spherical bit-tooth

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 59.35 120 56.4 58.6 61.3

Soma (Is° iklar) marl 57.44 119 41.4 56.2 58.8
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 45.95 119 48.6 45.0 47.1
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 59.35 119 54.6 58.1 60.8
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 53.61 119 48.6 52.5 54.9
Soma (Is° iklar) marl 53.61 120 52.3 52.9 55.4
Pozanti clayed limestone 33.18 75 70.2 60.3 77.7
Emet sandstone 14.93 72 24.6 37.9 24.2
Emet limestone 8.29 75 12.0 7.5 7.0

Fig. 7. The plot of actual penetration rates vs estimated penetration rates for the rock types having a uniaxial compressive strength over 40 MPa
(after modifying the index).
740 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743
For spherical bit-tooth:
NW
PR ˆ 3:35
aD
where PR is the penetration rate (m/h), N the ro-
tational speed (rpm), W the thrust (kN), a the drillabil-
ity index (kN/mm) and D the bit diameter (cm).
6.5. The prediction of constant k
The plot of the constant k as a function of drillabil-
ity index is shown in Fig. 8. There is a linear relation-
ship between the constant k and the drillability index.
To improve the correlation coecients of the
equations, the value for marl (Tunc° bilek/Panel 36) was
omitted from the graph. The line of the conical bit-
tooth and the line of the spherical bit-tooth are almost
the same. The equations for the two lines are:
k ˆ 0:0016a ‡ 0:0059 conical bit-tooth …
k ˆ 0:0016a ‡ 0:0054 spherical bit-tooth …
where k is the constant and a the drillability index
(kN/mm). The correlation coecients for the conical
bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-tooth
equations are 0.84 and 0.88, respectively.
7. The relationships between drillability index and rock
properties
The rock samples were subjected to a large rock
mechanics testing program to determine the e€ect of
rock properties on drillability index. The relationships
between drillability index and rock properties are
shown in Fig. 9 for the conical bit-tooth and the
spherical bit-tooth, respectively. Because the value of
Fig. 8. The plot of the k as a a function of drillability index.
dolomite (Bahc° e) was in an anomalous position, it was
omitted from a few graphs. The lines drawn through
…9† the data points are the best-®t lines as determined by
regression analysis.
Fig. 9a shows a plot of drillability index vs uniaxial
compressive strength. The conical bit-tooth follows a
more sloped line than the spherical bit-tooth. The
equations of the two lines are:
sc ˆ 3:09a ‡ 14:13 conical bit-tooth …12†
sc ˆ 2:21a ‡ 17:72 spherical bit-tooth …13†
where sc is the uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)
and a the drillability index (kN/mm). The correlation
coecients for the conical bit-tooth equation and the
spherical bit-tooth equation are 0.83 and 0.88, respect-
ively.
There is a linear relationship between drillability
10†
index and tensile strength (Fig. 9b). The conical bit-
tooth follows a more sloped line than the spherical bit-
11† tooth. The equations of the two lines are:
st ˆ 0:22a ‡ 2:11 conical bit-tooth …14†
st ˆ 0:17a ‡ 2:34 spherical bit-tooth …15†
where, st is the tensile strength (MPa) and a the drill-
ability index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for
the conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-
tooth equation are 0.87 and 0.88, respectively.
In Fig. 9c, a linear relationship between drillability
index and point load index is shown. The conical bit-
tooth follows a more sloped line than the spherical bit-
tooth. The equations of the two lines are:
Is ˆ 0:24a ‡ 1:19 conical bit-tooth …16†
Is ˆ 0:17a ‡ 1:57 spherical bit-tooth …17†
where Is is the point load index (MPa) and a the drill-
ability index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for
the conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-
tooth equation are 0.90 and 0.86, respectively.
A plot of drillability index vs the produce of
Schmidt hammer rebound number and density is
shown in Fig. 9d. The rebound number was multiplied
by the density to improve the correlation coecient.
The produce of Schmidt hammer rebound number and
density increases with drillability index, ®rst rapidly
then gradually. The gradient of conical bit-tooth curve
is slightly greater than that of the spherical bit-tooth
curve. The equations of the two curves are:
RN r ˆ 77:34a0:22 conical bit-tooth …18†
S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743 741

Fig. 9. The plots of drillability index vs rock properties.

742 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743

RN r ˆ 78:27a0:20 spherical bit-tooth …19† where, r is the density (g/cm3) and a the drillability
index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for the
where RN is the Schmidt hammer (N-type) rebound
conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-tooth
number r the density (g/cm3) and a the drillability
equation are 0.76 and 0.80, respectively.
index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for the
It is seen that the correlation coecients of Eqs.
conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-tooth
(19), (25) and (26) are quite weak (0.76, 0.78 and 0.76,
equation are 0.84 and 0.76, respectively.
respectively). Also, other equations do not exhibit
The plot of impact strength as a function of drill-
strong correlations. This is probably due to the fact
ability index is shown in Fig. 9e. The non-linear curves
that the rock types tested are generally carbonates and
of the two bit-teeth are in agreement. The equations of
the number of rock types is limited. It is expected that
the two curves are:
if the number of rock types tested is increased, the
IS ˆ 68:17a0:061 conical bit-tooth …20† stronger correlations may be obtained. So, some rock
properties can be estimated from the drillability index,
or the drillability index can approximately be esti-
IS ˆ 66:83a0:064 spherical bit-tooth …21† mated from practical tests, such as impact strength
test, point load test and Schmidt hammer test.
where IS is the impact strength and a the drillability
index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for the
conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-tooth
8. The comparison of conical and spherical bit-tooth
equation are 0.86 and 0.90, respectively.
There is a non-linear relationship between drillability
It is stated in the literature [3,4] that penetration
index and P-wave velocity (Fig. 9f). The slope of the
force exponentially increases with increasing bit-tooth
conical bit-tooth curve is slightly greater than that of
angle. In this study, to see the di€erence between the
the spherical bit-tooth curve. The equations of the two
conical and spherical bit-tooth, the graphs of drillabil-
curves are:
ity index vs rock properties were plotted individually
Vp ˆ 1:37a0:36 conical bit-tooth …22† for the conical and spherical bit-tooth (Fig. 9). As it is
shown in Fig. 9 the conical bit-tooth follows a more
sloped line or curve than the spherical bit-tooth, except
Vp ˆ 1:30a0:34 spherical bit-tooth …23† Fig. 9e and Fig. 9h in which the curves are similar.
This means that when the rock properties are constant,
where Vp is the P-wave velocity (km/s) and a the drill-
the drillability index of the spherical bit-tooth is
ability index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for
greater than the drillability index of the conical bit-
the conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-
tooth. For a given penetration depth, the penetration
tooth equation are 0.84 and 0.83, respectively.
force for the spherical bit-tooth is greater than the
In Fig. 9g, a non-linear relationship between drill-
penetration force for the conical bit-tooth in the same
ability index and elastic modulus is shown. The conical
rock.
bit-tooth follows a more slightly sloped curve than the
spherical bit-tooth. The equations of the two curves
are:
9. Conclusions
E ˆ 405:4a1:05 conical bit-tooth …24†
Drilling and blasting operations are widely used in
surface mines, quarries and in some of the civil engin-
E ˆ 399:7a1:02 spherical bit-tooth …25† eering construction works. An accurate prediction of
the penetration rate of rotary blast hole drills from
where E is the elastic modulus (MPa) and a the drill-
rock properties and drill operational parameters is of
ability index (kN/mm). The correlation coecients for
vital importance for an ecient planning of mining
the conical bit-tooth equation and the spherical bit-
and quarrying operations. A practising engineer may
tooth equation are 0.84 and 0.78, respectively.
control also the changing characteristics of the rock
There is a non-linear relationship between drillability
formations if well-de®ned relationships between rock
index and density (Fig. 9h). The non-linear curves of
properties and drilling rates are de®ned. A detailed
the two bit-teeth are nearly in conjunction. The
research programme was followed in order to ful®l the
equations of the two curves are:
requirements of these objectives. Di€erent drilling
r ˆ 1:88a0:11 conical bit-tooth …26† sides in open pit mines and quarries were carefully
selected. Drilling rates of rotary blast hole drills were
recorded for a given rotational speed and thrust force.
r ˆ 1:82a0:12 spherical bit-tooth …27† Rock samples were collected from the same sides for
 S. Kahraman et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 37 (2000) 729±743
laboratory tests including rock physical, mechanical
and indentation tests. Spherical and conical button
tungsten carbide bit-teeth were used and a new drill-
ability index was de®ned from force-penetration
curves. It is shown that for the rocks tested, the drill-
ability index is closely related to rock compressive
strength, tensile strength, N type Schmidt hammer
rebound number, impact strength, P-wave velocity,
elastic modulus and rock density. The model proposed
is shown to be valid for rock types having compressive
strength over 40 MPa and it emphasises that pen-
etration rates of blast hole drills may be predicted
accurately from drill bit diameter, rotational speed,
thrust force and one of the rock properties mentioned
above. These relationships may also help the engineer
to predict all these rock properties from penetration
rates. However it is important to note that further
work is required to develop the index further by test-
ing wider range of rock samples.
Acknowledgements
This paper has been prepared from the ®rst author's
PhD thesis. The ®rst author would like to thank Pro-
fessor Nuh Bilgin for his many helpful comments and
suggestions during his PhD study.
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