Countless people have struggled to form their identity, specifically teens.

They
try on masks, all seeing if one would be the perfect fit, or maybe something
they can work with. This has caught the attention of Erik Erikson, a
developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on
Psychosocial Development.

And based on Erikson’s work on identity and psychosocial development in the

1960’s, Canadian developmental psychologist James Marcia refined and
extended his model, primarily focusing on adolescent development, though
this also applies to all ages.

Marcia classifies individuals based on their existence or extendt of their crisis

or commitment. Crisis is defined as a period of identity development during
which the individual is exploring alternatives. Commitment is a person’s
investment in the identity. The four categories are listed below:

o Diffusion – status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or

made any commitments, not only are they undecided about
occupational and ideological choices, they are likely to show little
interest in such manners.
o Foreclosure – status of individuals who have made a commitment but
not experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand
down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way,
before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches,
ideologies, and vocations on their own
o Moratorium – status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but
whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined.
o Achievement status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and
made a commitment

Take note that the above statuses are not stages and should not be viewed
as processes. You don’t need to finish one to go to the other, at the same
time; you don’t need to go through all of this to get to the achievement status.

References:

o Bayod, Ylona Veronica. 2013. Hand outs on Adolescent Psychology:

Social and Personality Development. Saint Louis University, Baguio
City, Philippines
o http://www.learning-theories.com/identity-status-theory-marcia.html
 O AMES MARCIA’S IDENTITY STATUSES
o James Marcia is a Canadian developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent
development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when
they experience identity crises. The four processes that Marcia defined are:
o Foreclosure
o In this state, an adolescent may blindly accept whatever ideology or values system that has been
given to them from their parents or family members. This indicates a “pseudo-identity” that is too
rigid or fixed to meet life’s future crises (Slavin).
o Identity Diffusion
o This state is a struggle of identity that is marked by no real progress in deciding an occupation or
ideology of one’s own. There is no commitment to anything or ability to develop one’s sense of
self. An individual may have had an identity crisis, but it would not have been resolved (Slavin).
o Moratorium
o This state marks little real commitment to an ideology or occupation but is also a state of
experimentation. It also marks an ongoing identity crisis and the examination of alternate life
choices (Slavin).
o Identity Achievement
o This state is the state of clarity and of development of one’s identity. It marks a commitment to an
ideology or more direction in terms of occupational goals. These decisions have been
autonomously made and developed by a formed ego identity.
o So, how does this apply to teaching adolescents? Well, as Marcia said, the successful resolution
of industry and identity leaves one with the skills and confidence they will need to pursue a career
or vocational direction (Marcia). Though Marcia did not believe that the identity process began
and ended in adolescence, it is clear that he felt that this state was a vulnerable state for a person.
As instructors, this means we need to be providing a safe learning environment where
adolescents can not only learn but interact, meet their need for intimacy and explore identity.

KEY CONCEPTS
Based on Erik Erikson’s groundbreaking work on identity and psychosocial
development in the 1960s, Canadian developmental psychologist James Marcia
refined and extended Erikson’s model, primarily focusing on adolescent
development[1][2]. Addressing Erikson’s notion of identity crisis, Marcia posited
that the adolescent stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity
confusion, but rather the degree to which one has explored and committed to an
identity in a variety of life domains from vocation, religion, relational choices,
gender roles, and so on. Marcia’s theory of identity achievement argues that two
distinct parts form an adolescent’s identity: crisis (i. e. a time when one’s values
and choices are being reevaluated) and commitment. He defined a crisis as a time
of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined. The end outcome
of a crisis leads to a commitment made to a certain role or value.
 IDENTITY STATUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Upon developing a semi-structured interview for identity research, Marcia
proposed Identity Statuses of psychological identity development:

 Identity Diffusion – the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of
having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a
commitment
 Identity Foreclosure – the status in which the adolescent seems willing to
commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this
stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the
expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine
a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options.
 Identity Moratorium – the status in which the adolescent is currently in a
crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not
made a commitment to these choices yet.
 Identity Achievement – the status in which adolescent has gone through a
identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role
or value) that he or she has chosen

Note that the above status are not stages and should not viewed as a sequential
process.

IDENTITY FORMATION PROCESS

The core idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices
and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits. The work
done in this paradigm considers how much one has made certain choices, and
how much he or she displays a commitment to those choices. Identity involves
the adoption of 1) a sexual orientation, 2) a set of values and ideals and 3) a
vocational direction. A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one’s strengths,
weaknesses, and individual uniqueness. A person with a less well-developed
identity is not able to define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses, and
does not have a well articulated sense of self.
To better understand the identity formation process, Marcia conducted
interviews with young people. He asked whether the participants in his study (1)
had established a commitment to an occupation and ideology and (2) had
experienced, or were presently experiencing, a decision making period
(adolescent identity crisis). Marcia developed a framework for thinking about
identity in terms of four identity statuses.
 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES AND
REFERENCES
RESOURCES
 Marcia et al.: Ego Identity: A Handbook for Psychosocial Research: This useful
book contains an integrated presentation of identity theory, including literature
reviews that span hundreds of of research studies, a discussion of the techniques
of interviewing for psychosocial constructs, and model Identity Status Interviews
and scoring manuals for a variety of age groups.
 Schwartz et al.: Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set]: This
impressive handbook brings “unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented
literature.” presenting perspectives from many different theoretical schools and
empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative, social identity theory, neo-
Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science, ethnic
studies).

4 Proven Behavior Modification

Techniques with Examples
Editor / January 09th 2018 / No Comments
 Behavior modification is a means of changing behavior through various
techniques used to replace undesirable behaviors with desirable ones.
Behavior modification techniques have been used to treat both adults and
children for various problems, such as enuresis (bedwetting), separation and
general anxiety, various phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), etc.
The methods use vary, but usually involve some form of positive or negative
reinforcement. This concept had its beginning in 1938, when B. F. Skinner
published his book The Behavior of Organisms, setting forth the principles of
operant conditioning – that behavior could be shaped by reinforcement or the
lack of reinforcement.

Table of Contents
 1 Using Positive and Negative Reinforcement for Behavior Modification
o 1.1 Positive Reinforcement
o 1.2 Negative Reinforcement
o 1.3 Positive Punishment
o 1.4 Negative Punishment
 2 Behavior Modification Techniques in the Classroom
 3 Using Behavior Modification Techniques for Children
o 3.1 How to Determine the Best Behavior Modification for a Child
o 3.2 How to Use Behavior Modification to Change Your Child’s Behavior
 4 How to Set up a Behavior Modification Plan
o 4.1 Related Posts
 With behavior modification, you are not worried about the cause for the
behavior, you are only using a method to change it. In this article, we will
concentrate on modifying the behavior of children. Parents, teachers, and
anyone who works with or spends time with children will find these child
behavior modification techniques provide a successful approach to having
children behave in acceptable and desired ways.

Using Positive and Negative Reinforcement for

Behavior Modification
There are four main components of behavior modification generally
recognized by experts in the field. You are probably familiar with each
component, although you may not have used these terms before. We will look
at each one and how parents and teachers can use them effectively in
modifying the behavior of children at home and in the classroom.

Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is using a reward for positive behavior to make sure
the child continues with the desired behavior. It is the most effective method of
shaping behavior because it is the most pleasant. For example, praise and
reward are both used in positive reinforcement.

Examples of Positive Reinforcements

 Your young child puts his dishes in the sink when he is finished eating and
you tell him, “Good for you! You put your dish in the sink before I asked you
to.”
 Your school-aged child earns time to play a favorite video game when
homework is completed without arguing.
 Your teenager studies hard all semester and receives an A for a challenging
subject. You take your teen out for dinner and a movie, or provide funds for a
special date night.

Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is taking something unpleasant away to reinforce
good behavior. You are not actually doing anything negative. For example,
 your child may choose to do their homework without being reminder to avoid
nagging.

Examples of Negative Reinforcements

 You nag your son every night about getting chores completed. One night your
son decides to do his chores right after school to avoid hearing you nag him.
 Your child has been misbehaving on the bus every day on the way to school.
You decide to ride with him and when his friends ask why, he must tell them it
is because he has been misbehaving or you tell them. He decides to behave,
especially when you tell him next time he will sit on your lap!
 Your teenager complains about not wanting to go to school during the entire
ride to school every morning. He hates country-western music, so you turn it
on and play it loudly. Your teenager stops complaining and talks on the way to
school so you won’t turn on country-western music.

Positive Punishment
If you present a negative consequence in response to negative behavior, you
are using positive punishment. An example is using natural consequences –
allowing a child to suffer the consequences for negative behavior – such as
getting a bad grade when homework is not completed and/or turned in.

Examples of Positive Punishments

 Your young child’s room is a mess with toys and clothes all over. You explain
that they must keep their own area clean. When they do not, you give them
extra chores to do.
 Your school-aged child comes home using language you consider to be
unacceptable. You have them write 100 sentences saying they will not use
such language again.
 Your teenager comes home late and does not call to give a reason for missing
their curfew. They are given a long lecture on being responsible.
 Negative Punishment
With negative punishment, something is taken away in response to negative
behavior. For example, taking away electronics if homework is not completed,
or taking away toys not put away in a child’s room.

Examples of Negative Punishments

 You place your child in time-out for misbehavior, removing him from the
activity or environment he enjoys.
 Your child throws a temper tantrum and you use active ignoring to withdraw all
attention from her.
 Your teenager loses all cell phone and/or computer privileges when
homework is not completed.

Remember to use positive reinforcement whenever possible, as rewards are

more effective for most children in modifying future behaviors than are
punishments.

Behavior Modification Techniques in the

Classroom
 Teachers can use behavior modification in their classroom to increase
desirable student behaviors and decrease undesirable ones. Behavior
modification is based on the idea that good behavior should be lead to
positive consequences, and bad behavior should lead to negative
consequences. When behavior modification is used consistently, students
slowly change their behavior.

 Positive reinforcement refers to giving a student something that will reinforce

their good behavior. Classroom discipline that relies mostly on positive
 reinforcement is usually very effective. Examples of positive reinforcement
include praise, a reward system, or a token economy system.
 Negative reinforcement is when a student is motivated to change behavior
because it will take away something unpleasant. A student who stops a
behavior because his teacher yells at him is trying to get rid of the negative
reinforce (the yelling). Negative reinforcement should be used sparingly with
students, because it is less effective than positive reinforcement.
 Positive punishment is used to stop negative behaviors. Although it sounds
confusing to refer to punishment as positive, when you are using operant
conditioning, the term positive means adding, so a positive punishment
involves adding a consequence that will help deter a student from repeating
the behavior. For example, a small child picks his nose in class and the
teacher corrects him in front of the class, or a teen’s cellphone starts ringing
during class and he receives a lecture on why the phone should be turned off.
 Negative punishment involves taking something away from a student.
Examples include taking away recess or removing the teacher’s positive
attention. Negative punishment can be a very effective way to help a student
learn from their mistakes.

When used consistently, modifications techniques can change a student’s

behavior. For example, start praising a student every time he shares, raises
his hand, or waits his turn to speak. Each time he speaks out in class without
raising his hand, ignore him, or take away a privilege. Over time, your
students will learn that good behavior leads to positive consequences and bad
behavior leads to negative consequences.

Using Behavior Modification Techniques for

Children
How to Determine the Best Behavior Modification for a
Child
Every child is different and what works to modify the behavior of one child
may not work for another. For example, sending a child who enjoys time alone
to their room for behavior modification may have little or no effect. If your child
does not enjoy using electronics, taking away time to play a video game will
not modify behavior.
 For behavior modification to be effective, it should be used as soon as
possible. Consequences are positive punishments and are most effective
when they are “natural consequences,” what results when a child does not
behave as they should, such as falling when their shoelaces are not tied. We
have all learned lessons from natural consequences, even adults. An example
is running out of gas when we forget to fill up, or losing our car keys when we
do not put them in the same place all the time. Natural consequences are
excellent behavior modifiers.

Behavior modification is also a way to teach desirable long-term behaviors,

such as completing homework each day, making one’s bed and cleaning up
one’s room, using good manners, telling the truth, and taking care of personal
hygiene. When behavior modification is used to teach long-term desired
behavior, it is best to teach one step at a time. For example, if you are
teaching your young child to clean their room, start with having them make
their bed each morning. When that task is mastered, make sure they put their
dirty clothes in the hamper each time they take them off and put their shoes
where they belong. Each time a task is mastered, move on to another.

One common example of positive punishment is spanking. If you spank a

child, you are giving him something, not taking something away. However,
spanking and other forms of corporal punishment are not recommended, as
they can increase behavior problems. You know your child and what types of
behavior reinforcement work. A child may respond to corporal punishment if
only used very rarely and when all other methods of behavior modification
have failed. If possible, always use alternatives to physical discipline.

How to Use Behavior Modification to Change Your Child’s

Behavior
When you want to change your child’s behavior, use positive reinforcement for
good behavior and negative punishment for each incident of misbehavior.

Making Consequences Effective

 Consequences Must Be Consistent. If you do not use the same

consequence consistently, a child may decide it is worth the risk to
misbehave. However, if he knows that each infraction always results in the
same consequence, he will likely change behavior to avoid the consequence.
 Consequences Should Be Immediate. A child needs immediate feedback,
both positive and negative. Waiting weeks to earn a reward may not reinforce
good behaviors each day. Offering an immediate positive consequence is
more likely to help your child repeat the desired behavior.
 Consequences Should be Effective. Children react differently when positive
and negative consequences are used. If your behavior modification system
does not produce the desired effect, it should be reviewed and revised
immediately.

How to Set up a Behavior Modification Plan

Step #1 Consider the Child

Every child is different and responds differently. Some respond better to

positive reinforcement and some to negative. You also need to take into
consideration the age and maturity level of the child. A young child is
motivated by different behavior modification techniques than a teenager is.
Your young child may respond to attention or a smile, while your older child
might require public recognition to positively reinforce behaviors.

Step #2 Consider the Behavior Your Wish to Modify

Is the behavior one that is easy to modify or will several steps of behavior
modification be required? For example, if you are attempting to have a child
brush their teeth before bed, it will probably take consistent positive
reinforcement, but is not as large a task as cleaning up their entire room each
day, which may involve several behavior modification techniques.

Step #3 Consider the Method That Will Work Best

Children respond differently to behavior modification techniques. Most

children respond very well to positive reinforcement. However, the teen years
can be a challenge and may require some negative reinforcement.
Additionally, choose a behavior modification plan that is easy to use, so that
your will not have trouble consistently following it.

Step #4 Choose a Behavior Modification Plan

Beware of behavior modification plans and techniques available in book form.

Remember, behavior modification plans that work the best are made
specifically for an individual child. Your behavior modification plan should
include both reinforcers, consequences designed to increase desired behavior,
and punishments, consequences that reduce unwanted behavior. The best
method is to offer natural consequences or logical consequences based upon
the behavior modification your child needs.

Your behavior modification plan can include one or more of the following:
 Attention. Giving a child attention is a positive reinforcer and can be very
effective. Spending time with your child, talking to them, and verbally
acknowledging good behavior are all ways to provide attention.
 Praise. Another positive consequence is praise. Praising your child for a task
well done will encourage your child to repeat the behavior.
 Rewards. Tangible rewards, such as earning a new toy, also modify behavior.
However, tangible rewards do not need to cost money. Free rewards, such as
a special trip to the park for your young child, or staying out a bit after curfew
for a special occasion for your teenager, also work well.
 Consequences. Your behavior plan should also include the use of
consequences, both natural and parent imposed. If your child loves a
particular activity, taking it away in response to poor grades may encourage
them to do better. Consequences influence how likely a child or student is to
repeat a specific behavior. Negative consequences deter bad behavior.
Positive consequences increase the chances that a child or student will repeat
a good behavior.

Conclusion

Behavior modification techniques work in many situations. Child behavior

modification techniques include the use of both positive and negative
reinforcements, and positive and negative punishments. Parents can use a
behavior modification plan to teach their children to have good habits and
behavior. Classroom control become easier when a teacher knows how to use
behavior modification techniques effectively.

Using the information in this article about behavior modification and the
suggestions for how to use both positive and negative reinforcers,
punishments, and consequences, can teach children and students to learn
and repeat desired behaviors. Remember to formulate a plan and you will
begin to see the results almost immediately.
oday’s success story is about a little guy that we call Nihar. Nihar was not even three when we first

met him. His mother contacted us because she needed help. Nihar was having difficulty with eating,

getting dressed, and brushing his teeth. For a toddler, well, that was most of his life’s daily activities.

Nihar had extreme difficulty coming to the table for all meals. He also had food selectivity, a condition

that is common among children on the spectrum. Nihar often rolled around on the floor when it was

time to get dressed. His mother often had to chase him and she could not get him to be still in order

to put clothes on him. Tooth brushing was a nightmare. He screamed and ran and fought at even the

mention of brushing his teeth.

The first step when we are introduced to a situation like this is to complete a functional behavioral

assessment (FBA) to determine why the behavior is happening. We discovered that:

1. Nihar was trying to avoid meal times at the table.
2. Nihar was trying to avoid non-preferred foods.
3. Nihar was trying to gain access to TV during meal time.
4. Nihar was trying to gain access to preferred foods.
5. Nihar was trying to gain his mother’s attention during meal times.
6. Nihar was trying to avoid tooth brushing.
7. Nihar did not have any tooth brushing skills.
8. Nihar was trying to gain his mother’s attention during tooth brushing.
9. Nihar was trying to avoid getting dressed.
10. Nihar was trying to gain his mother’s attention during dressing routines.

We offered Nihar’s mother a variety of interventions from which to choose. We have found that when

parents are decision makers in their child’s behavior plan, they are more likely to implement the plan.

When plans are implemented, they are more likely to be successful. Nihar’s mom selected an

intervention called Premack’s Principle. In early childhood we call it If:Then or First: Then. Still others

may call it Prespecified Reinforcement or Grandma’s Rule (“First eat your vegetables and then you can

have dessert”). Regardless of what you call it, the Premack Principle is an easy intervention to

implement. It is effective and it has substantial research to support its use. See for example this study,

or this one, or even this one.

We first introduced the intervention during meal times. We used some other helpful strategies here as

well (e.g., appropriate size table and chair, mom sitting with Nihar during meals). We simply told

Nihar (and showed him with a visual support), “First eat your chicken and then you can have some

mango.” Nihar quickly responded. When things were going well during meal times, we added the

picture card to the dressing routine. Here we told Nihar that “First put on pants, and then have car”.

His dressing behaviors improved immediately. Finally, we added it to tooth brushing. “First brush your

bottom teeth, then you can have a hug from mommy”.

Congratulations Nihar on your great behaviors and congrats to your mom for all of her hard work.

Also, Dr. Mandy Rispoli needs a shout out as she worked closely with Nihar’s family during this

intervention.

Do you use Grandma’s Rule/Premack Principle/If Then with your child? Does it work? Please share

with us!

Premack Principle
This is a principle of operant conditioning originally identified by David Premack in 1965.
According to this principle, some behavior that happens reliably (or without
interference by a researcher), can be used as a reinforcer for a behavior that occurs less
reliably.

For example, most children like to watch television--this is a behavior that happens
reliably (they learn to like TV all on their own and it is something they will do willingly
without any interference from their parents)--and parents often use this behavior to
reinforce something children like to do less such as washing dishes. So, some parents
might condition children to wash dishes by rewarding dish washing with watching
television. I'm not saying that is the right thing to do, only that it is an example of the
Premack Principle.

Contingency Contracting
Contingency Contracting is a type of intervention that is used to increase desirable
behaviors or or decrease undesirable ones. A contingency contract may be entered into
by a teacher and student, a parent and child, or a therapist and client. It specifies the
target behavior, the conditions under which the behavior will occur, and the benefits or
consequences that come with meeting or failing to meet the target.

For example, a parent and child enter into a contingency contract to get the child to
finish his homework before dinner time, after which, he earns some TV time. Every time
he satisfactorily finishes his homework before dinner time, he gets to watch an hour of
TV after dinner. If he fails to finish his homework satisfactorily, then instead of enjoying
some TV time, he has to use that time to finish his homework.