ME 568 Automotive Control Systems Lecture Notes by Peng, Stefanopoulou & Ulsoy

© 2002

PART I VEHICLE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Motivation and Background

The most noteworthy trend in automobiles over the last few decades is their rapid
transformation into complex electro-mechanical systems. Current vehicles often include many
new features, which were not widely available even a decade ago. Examples include hybrid
powertrains, electronic engine and transmission controls, cruise control, anti-lock brakes, and
active suspensions. Many of these functions can be, and have been, achieved using purely
mechanical devices. The major advantages in using electro-mechanical (or mechatronic) devices
are (1) the flexibility inherent in these systems to trade-off among different goals, and (2) the
potential to coordinate the functioning of subsystems. Flexibility enables adaptation to the
environment, thus providing more reliable performance under a wide variety of conditions.
Furthermore, re-programmability implies lower cost through exchangeable parts and reuse.
Exchange of information makes it possible to integrate sub-systems and obtain superior
performance and functionality, which are not possible with un-coordinated systems.
Today’s electrical/electronic devices have evolved into systems with good reliability and
relatively low cost. They bring many new benefits, such as increased safety, reduced congestion,
reduced emissions, improved gas mileage, improved driving performance, greater driver
satisfaction and occupant comfort. Safety is perhaps the most important motivation for
increased electronics in automobiles. On average, one person dies every minute somewhere in the
world due to a car crash. The costs of car crashes total 3% of the world’s gross domestic product
(world GDP was $31.3 trillion in 2000) and totaled nearly $1 trillion in 2000. Clearly, the
emotional toll of these accidents and fatalities is immeasurable [Jones 2002]. Data from the
National Highway Transportation Safety Association shows that 6,335,000 accidents (with
37,081 fatalities) occurred on US highways in 1998 [NHTSA 1999]. Data also indicates that,
while a variety of factors contribute to accidents, human error accounts for 90% of all accidents
[Hedrick, Tomizuka and Varaiya 1994].
Delays due to congestion are a major problem in most metropolitan areas, and also
provide strong motivation for increased automotive electronics. Traffic information systems can
significantly reduce such delays by providing information to drivers about accidents, areas of

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congestion and alternate routes. Automated systems at highway on-ramps and toll-booths can
also improve traffic flows. Traffic flows can be increased by achieving significantly higher traffic
flow through closer packing of automatically controlled vehicles into platoons on special highway
lanes. These automated highway systems (AHS) concepts require automatic longitudinal and
lateral control of vehicles and have been developed and demonstrated in California [Rajamani et
al, 2000].
In 1970 only 30 million vehicles were produced and 246 million vehicles registered
worldwide. By 1997 these numbers had increased to 56 million and 709 million respectively. By
2005, it is expected that 65 million vehicles will be produced and over 8000 million registered
[Powers and Nicastri 2000]. Consequently, another important driver for the increased electronics
in automobiles is the increasing government regulation of automotive emissions. For example, the
2005 standards for hydrocarbon emissions are less than 2% of the 1970 allowance, for carbon
monoxide 10% of the 1970 level, and for oxides of nitrogen 7% of the a970 level. The California
requirements, for ultra-low emission vehicles (ULEV), cut these levels roughly in half again.
Spilling 5.7 liters of gasoline on a driveway will produce as much hydrocarbon emissions as
ULEV vehicle driven over 160,000 kilometers. At the same time, regulations also require
improved fuel economy. Advanced control technologies (e.g., fuel injection, air-fuel ratio control,
control of spark timing, exhaust gas recirculation, idle speed control) have played an important
role in reducing emissions and improving fuel economy, and will continue to do so (e.g., hybrid
electric and fuel cell vehicles).
This evolution (some might say revolution) of electronics in the automobile is also
enabled by recent advances in the relevant technology, such as solid state electronics, computer

technology and control theory. Table 1* summarizes the developments in automotive electronics
through the year 2000. The trend toward increased automotive electronics, which is already so
evident, can be expected to continue for the foreseeable future [Ford 1986; Powers and Nicastri

2000]**. During the next decade significant advances can be expected in the use of power
electronics, advanced control systems, and alternative powertrain concepts. New technologies

* Equations, figures and tables are numbered sequentially within each chapter and referred to by their number.
When referring to an equation, figure or table from another chapter the number is preceded by the chapter number,
e.g., Eq. 6.3 refers to Eq. 3 in Chapter 6.
** Names and dates enclosed in square brackets refer to items in the Bibliography.

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under development, for example, include fuel efficiency management, integrated chassis control,
power management of hybrid vehicles, electrical power steering, collision warning and
prevention, automatic lane following, rollover and lane departure warning, fuel cell vehicles, etc.
Over the next two decades it can be expected that these advancements will go beyond the
individual vehicle and eventually lead to the development of Intelligent Transportation Systems
(ITS) [Jurgen 1991]. Due to rapidly increasing highway congestion, it is necessary for
automotive and transportation engineers to figure out ways to increase safety and throughput on
existing highways. The term ITS (which was previously termed IVHS: Intelligent
Vehicle/Highway Systems) defines a collection of concepts, devices, and services to combine
control, sensing, and communication technologies to improve the safety, mobility, efficiency, and
environmental impacts of the vehicle/highway systems. The importance of ITS lies in its
potential to produce a paradigm shift (a new way of thinking) in transportation: away from
individual vehicles and roadways toward development of vehicles and roadways, which are able
to cooperate effectively and efficiently in an intelligent manner.

Table 1. Historical Development of Automotive Electronics

Year Examples of automotive electronics available
1965 Solid state radio, Alternator rectifier
1970 Speed control
1975 Electronic ignition, Digital clock
1980 Electronic voltage regulator, Electronic engine controller, Electronic instrument cluster,
Electronic fuel injection
1985 Clock integrated with radio, Audio graphic equalizer, Electronic air suspension
1990 Anti-lock brakes, Integrated engine and speed control, Cellular phones, Power doors/windows
1995 Navigation systems, Advanced entertainment/information systems, Active suspensions
Collision avoidance, Adaptive cruise control, Vehicle stability enhancement, CVT
2000

1.2 Basic Concepts and Terminology

This section provides a brief, introductory overview of the automobile and its major
subsystems as background for subsequent chapters. The reader is referred to other sources, such
as [Bastow 1988, Bosch 1986, Dixon 1991, Ellis 1966, Gillespie 1992, Ribbens 1998, Shiga and
Mizutani 1988, Segel 1990, Washino 1988, Wong 1978], for a more in depth discussion of

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automobiles and their major subsystems. The important functional systems of an automobile are
illustrated in Fig.1 and can be classified as:

1. Chassis or body: The basic structure of the automobile, which supports many of the other
systems described below as well as passengers and loads. It is supported by the suspension,
which connects it to the axles and wheels. The design of the chassis also affects the vehicle
dynamics, the aerodynamic drag, fuel efficiency, as well as the comfort of the passengers. The
trend is toward lighter body structures, including more efficient use of lighter weight materials,
that are still durable and crashworthy.

2. Engine: Provides the power for moving the vehicle as well as operating the various
subsystems. There are many engine designs, the most widely used being the piston type, spark-
ignited, liquid-cooled internal combustion engine with four strokes/cycle and gasoline fuel (see
Fig. 2). The four-stroke cycle is illustrated in Fig. 3. Engine controls, which improve engine
performance in a variety of ways, are widely used. Many new engine technologies (e.g.,
homogenous-charge compression-ignition, electric, hybrid, fuel-cell) are under development
[Ashley 2001].

3. Drive Train or Powertrain: Consists of the engine, transmission, driveshaft, differential, and
driven wheels. We have already discussed the engine separately. The transmission is a gear
system, which adjusts the ratio of wheel speed to engine speed to provide near optimum engine
performance. Automatic transmissions are commonplace, and electronic transmission control
systems and continuously variable transmissions (CVT) are being developed. A driveshaft is
used in front-engine, rear-wheel drive systems to transmit the engine power to the drive wheels.
The differential not only provides the right-angle transfer of the driveshaft rotary motion to the
wheels, but also provides a torque increase through its gear ratio and allows the driven wheels to
turn at different speeds (e.g., in turning a corner). The wheels and pneumatic tires provide
traction between the vehicle and the road surface. Traction control systems are being developed
to provide good traction under a variety of road surface conditions.

4. Steering: Steering allows the driver to change the orientation of the front wheels to control the
direction of vehicle forward motion. A rack and pinion steering system design, typical of many
modern automobiles, is illustrated in Fig. 4. Power-assisted steering has become commonplace,
and four-wheel steer vehicles are also being developed.

5. Suspension: The major functions of the suspension are to (1) provide a smooth ride inside the
car, and (2) to maintain contact between the wheels and the road surface. A typical, independent
strut type suspension design is shown in Fig. 5. A semi-rigid axle suspension system, which is
common on rear wheels of front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, is shown in Figure 6. The design

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of the suspension also has an influence on the vehicle dynamics. Active and semi-active
suspensions, which use electronic controls, are currently available on some vehicles.

6. Brakes: The brakes are the means for bringing the vehicle to a stop. The common designs are
drum and disk brakes (see Fig. 7). Anti-lock brakes, which use electronic controls to limit the
wheel slip, are rapidly appearing on commercial vehicles.

7. Instrumentation: The modern vehicle includes many electronic sensors, actuators and other
instrumentation. In today’s cars, ther are over two dozen sensors in the pwortrain alone. Most
vehicles also now include several microprocessors, e.g., for electronic engine control and
diagnostics. Technologies like the global positioning system (GPS) are also finding their way
onto modern automobiles. The average value of automotive electronics per car, from under a
$100 dollars per car in the 1960's, reached approximately $1,000 in 1990 and over $2,000 by the
year 2000 [Ford 1986]. Due to increasing power needs, today’s 14 volt electrical systems (with
a 12 V battery) are soon planned to be replaced with a 42 V system (36 V battery).

Recommended Reading:
Jones, W.D., 2002, “Building Safer Cars,” IEEE Spectrum, January 2002, pp 82-85.
Powers, W.F. and P.R. Nicastri, 2000, “Automotive vehicle control challenges in the 21st century,”
Control Engineering Practice 8 (2000), pp 605-618

Figure 1 Vehicle sub-systems Figure 2 Engine components [Source: Ribbens 1998]

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Figure 3 Operation of 4-stroke Internal Combustion Engines [Crouse 1986]

Figure 4 Vehicle steering systems [Gillespie 1992]

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Figure 5 A typical independent strut suspension design [Bastow 1993]

Figure 6 A semi-rigid axle suspension system [Bastow 1993]

Figure 7 Drum and disk brakes [Gillespie 1992]

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