Widths of Hydraulic Fractures
T. K. PERKINS THE ATLANTIC REFINING CO,
l. R. KERN
MEMBERS AIME
ABSTRACT
A study of fluid mechanics, rupture of brittle mate-
rials and the theory of elastic deformation of rocks
shows that, for a given formation, crack width is es-
sentially controlled by fluid pressure drop in the frac-
ture. Operating conditions which cause high pressure
drop along the crack (such as high injection rate and
viscous fluids) will result in relatively wide cracks.
Conversely, operating conditions which cause low pres-
sure drop (low injection rates and thin fluids) will
result in relatively narrow cracks.
Charts and equations have been derived which permit
the estimation of fracture widths for a variety of flow
conditions and for both horizontal and vertical frac-
tures.
INTRODUCTION
There has been considerable speculation conoerning
the geometry of hydraulically created fractures in the
earth's crust. One of the questions of practical im-
portance is the width of fractures under dynamic con-
ditions, i.e., while the fracture is being created and
extended. Such width information could be used, for
instance, to help estimate the area of a fracture gen-
erated under various conditions. m Also, there has been
a recent trend toward the use of large propping par-
ticles.",15 Therefore is is desirable to know what factors
can be varied in order to assure entry of the large
particles into the fracture.
There has been some work on fracture widths re-
ported in the literature. In particular, there have been
several Russian publications dealing with this sub-
ject."'!'''' These papers have dealt principally with
the elastic theory and the application of this theory
to hydraulic fractures. These studies have not led to
an engineering method for estimating fracture widths
under dynamic conditions. A recent paper' has reviewed
and summarized the Russian concepts.
An earlier paper' from our laboratories also discussed
the application of the elastic theory to hydraulic frac-
tures. This first approach, based largely on photoelastic
studies, has proved to be too simplified to accurately
describe the fracturing process. However, these early
thoughts have served as a guide during the development
of more exact concepts.
We would like to present in this paper our current
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineer::;
office May 2. 1961. Revised manuscript received July 31. 1961. Paper
to be presented at 36th Annual Fall Meeting of SPE, Oct. 8-11,
1861. in Dallas.
lOReferences given at end of paper.
SPE 89
SEPTEMBER, 1961
DALLAS, TEX,
concepts regarding fracture widths and some estimates
of hydraulic fracture widths for several conditions.
We believe that it is now possible to predict with fair
accuracy the factors influencing fracture widths. Furth-
ermore, the method of prediction has been reduced to a
simple and convenient graphical or numerical calcula-
tion.
CRACKS IN A BRITTLE, ELASTIC MATERIAL
Many investigators"":lO have shown that competent
rocks behave elastically over some range of stresses. Of
course, if the tensile stress imposed upon a rock ex-
ceeds some limiting value, then the rock will fail in
tension. In similar manner, there are some limiting
shear stresses that can be imposed upon rocks. Hubbert
and Willis" have discussed the shear conditions which
will lead to failure,
Under moderate stress conditions (such as those
likely to be encountered when hydraulically fracturing)
and when stresses are rapidly appl~ed, relatively, most
rocks will fail in a brittle manner. Hence, for this
discussion of hydraulic fractures in the earth's crust,
we assume the rocks behave as brittle, elastic materials.
Let us develop the discussion in the following way.
(The following thoughts are applicable only to brittle
materials. )
1. First we consider a brittle, elastic system, An
energy balance will show the minimum pressur,e neces-
sary to fracture rock, and from this pressure we cal-
culate the minimum crack width resulting from ex-
tension of a hydraulic fracture.
2. Then we will show that, under ordinary fractur-
ing conditions, fracture widths are appreciably greater
than the minimum widths of extending fractures. In
fact, we will find that crack width is controlled by
fluid pressure drop in the fracture.
3. We will discuss pressure drops in fractures and
resulting crack widths for various operating conditions
and both vertical and horizontal fractures.
4. Finally, we will discuss the significance of these
concepts, their relationship to fracturing pressures, etc.
First, consider minimum fracture extension pres-
sures. We can shed some light on this question by
considering the theory proposed by Griffith"S to ex-
plain the rupture of brittle, elastic materials. Griffith
recognized that solid materials exhibit a surface energy"
(similar to surface tension in a liquid). The funda-
mental concept of the Griffith theory is that, when
cracks spread without the application of external work
(in the interior of an elastic medium which is stressed
937
externally), the decrease in strain energy resulting from
the elastic strain in the vicinity of the crack is balanced
by the increase in surface energy.
A similar approach when external work is applied by
the injection of fluid can be used to estimate hydraulic
fracture widths in rocks under static conditions (when
the fluid has stopped moving). Consider an infinite
elastic medium containing a plane crack bounded by
a circle-a penny-shaped crack. If fluid were injected
into this pre-existing crack but at a pressure less than
that necessary to extend the fracture in length, then
the crack would be "inflated". For a perfectly elastic
medium, the relationship between crack shape and
pressure within the crack has been calculated by Sned-
don." Fig. 1 shows a conceptual sketch with some of
the geometrical relationships predicted by the elastic
theory.
Now let us suppose the pressure in the crack is
increased until the crack is just ready to extend in
radius. Let volume dV be injected at the fracture ex-
tension pressure P, and suppose this results in an in-
crease in fracture radius dC. The amount of work done
to pump the fluid into the fracture is clearly PdV. The
amount of energy stored in the fracture system arises
from (1) an increase in potential energy of the elastic
medium and (2) an increase in the surface energy
caused by the increase in fracture radius. To obtain the
minimum fracture extension pressure, the work done is
equated to the energy stored in the fracture system. By
using this approach, Sack" has derived an equation
which will give the minimum pressure necessary to ex-
tend a fracture in rock (Eq. 1).
(p _ a) - ~ / 7r a E
'" - ,,2(1 - v')C
where Pm =minimum fracture extension pressure, psi,
(J = total earth stress perpendicular to the plane
Poisson's ratio), the minimum fracture extension pre~­
sure (in excess of the earth stress) varies inversely as
the square root of the fracture radius.
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE
GRIFFITH-SNEDDON APPROACH
The Griffith-Sneddon approach to minimum fracture
extension pressure can be verified experimentally. Sned-
don has shown that the volume of a radially symmetr-
ical crack with a uniform pressure P acting in the crack
is given by Eq. 2.
V = 16 (1 - v') C' (P - a)
(2)
3E
where V = volume of the crack.
Combining this with Eq. 1 to eliminate C yields
Eq.3.
27r'.a'E' ] 1/'
( p - a) - (3)
- [ 3(1 - v')'V
Hence, the fracture extension pressure should vary
inversely as the fifth root of crack volume.
We have measured fracture extension pressure and
crack volume for a Portland cement model. Fluid leak-
off into the model could not be eliminated completely.
However, it was minimiud by using a fluid of low
leak-off properties and a cement of low permeability.
The volume of fluid leaking off was estimated and
subtracted from the total volume injected to estimate
the volume of fluid remaining in the crack. The model
was arranged so that the pressure acting within the
fracture could be measured.
Fig. 2 shows a sketch of the model and a plot of
) log P vs log V. A line with slope of " - 1/5" is
(1
drawn through the data, thus verifying the relationship
shown by Eq. 3.

of the fracture, psi (total earth stress is MIMIMUM FRACTURE EXTENSION

defined as the sum of stress in rock matrix PRESSURES
plus pore pressure, see Ref. 11),
a = specific surface energy of the rock, To predict minimum fracture extension pressures for
ft-lb/sq in., field cases, we must determine typical physical proper-
E = Young's modulus of the rock, psi, ties of rocks.
v = Poisson's ratio for the rock, and

J
C = fracture radius, ft.
This equation predicts that, for a given rock (i.e.,
fixed values of surface energy, Young's modulus and
rC~~~~R
RADIALLY SYMMETRICAL
u
FRACTURE INSIPE
CEMENT BLOCK
h
, , ALUMINUM FINS
CEMENTED TO
TUBE
W-TOTAl CRACK WIDTH AT RADIUS, r
SIDE
Pm- A UNIFORM PRESSURE ACTING OVER THE
SURFACE OF THE CRACK.
DETAIL OF FRACTURE
(T. TOTAL EARTH STRESS PERPENDICULAR
INITIATING FINS
TO THE PLANE OF THE CRACIC
C • FRACTURE RADIUS
r • RADIUS UNDER CONSIDERATION : 1000
II· POISSONS RATIO FOR ROCK
E • YOUMS'S MOOULUS OF ROCK
rS~OPE OF LiNE' _I~
-4.
'- , ,
r.-
z Ii
~
"...z t 2
2 11"3a 3 E ]
~211~~-'-''-'-'-~'-1I-'-'-r-r-r.-'-'-'-,,-.
- (P -0-).

11
i~~\ I00111111111111 ttlil
3{J-v'lV
:;
...

-1.0 -0.& 0

(i)
O.!i 1.0
...
'"=>
t;
~ 1°8.01
I0.1
I
!
i
i ,0

CR~CK VOLUME, ec

FIG. I-SKETCH OF AN UNRESTRICTED FRACTURE WITH FIG. 2-SKETCH OF PORTLAND CEMENT MODEL AND THE
GEOMETRY PREDICTED BY THE ELASTIC THEORY. CRACK PRESSURE·VOLUME RELATIONSHIP.

938 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 The values of Poisson's ratios for rocks reported in
the literature""ao range from about 0,05 to 0.25. Since
the minimum fracture extension pressure is not very
sensitive to changes in Poisson's ratio, the use of an
average value of 0.15 appears justified.
Young's moduli for rocks vary over a much broader
range. Elastic moduli are influenced by the type of
rock, porosity and average stress. Table 1 gives ranges
of moduli that appear to be in agreement with most
literature data. 2,4,30
There is a paucity of surface energy data for rocks.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines" has reported some of the
best data. They report a value of 0.0265 ft-Ib/sq in. for
the surface energy of quartz crystals and 0.00613 ft-Ib/
sq in. for the surface energy of calcite crystals
(CaCO,).
The apparent surface energy during fracturing prob-
ably corresponds to the surface energy of the cement-
ing material and quartz grains actually fractured. Be-
cause of the porous nature of rock, however, the new
surface actually created during cleavage is less than
1 sq in./sq in. of fracture surface. Hence, the apparent
surface energy during typical fracturing is estimated
to be not more than 0.01 ft-Ib/sq in. and perhaps
much less.
The minimum pressures needed to extend an average
fracture can now be estimated. Let us take a simplified
case of an axially symmetrical fracture (a penny-shaped
crack). Assume that the following properties are typi-
cal: E = 4 X 106 psi, a = 0.01 ft-Ib/sq in. (or less) and
v = 0.15.
The minimum fracture extension pressure can be
calculated from Eq. 1, and the corresponding maximum
crack width at the wellbore can be calculated from Eq.
4. Eq. 4 is derived by Sneddon" for the case of a
penny-shaped crack.
the fracture. The fluid pressure at the leading edge of
the crack is nearly equal to the opposing earth stress.
(The pressure in excess of the earth stress at the
leading edge of the crack is usually negligible, as we
have just seen in the previous section; therefore, it
is taken as zero in the remainder of this paper.) This
is shown conceptually on Fig. 4. (A similar sketch
could be drawn for a horizontal fracture.) Operating
conditions which lead to high pressure drop along the
crack (such as high injection rates and viscous fluids)
will result in relatively wide cracks. Conversely, operat-
ing conditions which lead to low pressure drop (low
injection rates and thin fluids) will result in relatively
narrow cracks.
Since crack widths are controlled by pressure drop
in the crack, we must consider several controlling
situations. In this paper, we will discuss the following
cases.
1. Vertically oriented, vertically restricted fractures
-includes crack widths resulting: (a) from Newtonian
fluids flowing along the crack in laminar flow; (b)
from Newtonian fluid flowing along the crack in
turbulent flow; (c) from non-Newtonian fluids flowing
along the crack in laminar flow; and (d) when a large
amount of sand in the fracture restricts fluid flow and
thereby increases pressure drop along the fracture.
2. Horizontally oriented, axially symmetrical frac-
tures resulting from Newtonian fluids in laminar flow-
includes: (a) fractures deep within the earth; and (b)
very shallow fractures.
There are, of course, other conditions which could
be considered. However, we believe that these cases will
cover most situations and generally will show the be-
havior to be expected. (For instance, widths of un-
restricted vertical fractures will be about the same as
for horizontal fractures of the same size.)

Wm
= 8(P - (1') (1 - v')C (4)
~E . U)
Q. 0.03
where W m = maximum crack width at the wellbore. ....U 6
E • 4 XI0 PS I U)

Z a -0.01 Ft. Lb.lin.2 1&1

%
The calculated values are plotted vs the fracture .... U
1/ =0.15
~ Z
radius on Fig. 3. These curves show that, for this con- ....
....-
~ 0.025
dition of static fluid in a hydraulic fracture, the crack ~
120
widths are very small. 0 ~
0
....
~
CD

j ...J
FRACTURE WIDTHS UNDER CJ> 0.020 i;!
(/) 100
DYNAMIC CONDITIONS .... ~
~

From the previous discussion it is clear that under

Q. ....
%
Z I-
static conditions (and assuming no fluid leak-off) frac- 0
tures would be very narrow. If fluid were injected at rea- U) 0.015 I-
Z <
sonable pump rates into these narrow cracks, the in- ....
I- %
jection pressures would have to be extremely large. X
W
I-
Q
However, the resulting high fluid pressures in the frac- .... ~
ture would force the fracture walls farther apart. As a:: 0.010
j
lI&:
the crack width increased, the pressure necessary to I-
U
inject the fluid would decrease. In actuality, an equili-
U
..:
cr: •ucr:
brium condition is reached. The resulting fracture width ~

is controlled essentially by the fluid pressure drop in ::I ::I

0.005 :::I
:::I
::I
! x
z
::I '"
::I
TABLE l-ESTIMATES OF YOUNG'S MODULI OF FORMATION ROCKS b 0 0
Type of Rock Probable Value of E (psi)
Porous, Unconsolidated to Lightly
~ 0 200

Consolidated (Friable) Sands 0.5 to 1.5 X 10' C,RADIUS OF FRACTURE. FT

Medium·Hardness SOrldstone 2 to 4 X 10"
Hard, Dense Sandstone 5 to 7.5 X 10" FIG. 3-MINIMUM FRACTURE EXTENSION PRESSURES AND MAXI-
Limestone and Dolomite 8 to 13 X 10' MUM CRACK WIDTHS FOR A TYPICAL UNRESTRICTED FRACTURE.

SEPTEMBER, 1961 939

 VERTICAL FRACTURES N = 7.S1 X 10" (m (Sp Gr)
/I, (H) (ft)
Within the earth there often are conditions which
will cause vertical fractures to be limited in growth in where Nil" = Reynolds' number,
a vertical direction. Zones with horizontal stress higher Q = total injection rate, bbljmin,
than in the pay zone are sometimes found above and Sp Gr = specific gravity of fracturing fluid,
below the pay zone and will, for instance, cause the H =
height of fracture, ft and
vertically limiting effect. (High horizontal stresses are fl, = viscosity
of fracturing fluid, cpo
sometimes found in shale. Also, in limestone reservoirs, Then, when (Q) (Sp Gr)/(H) (ft) is less than about
nonpermeable sections may have higher horizontal 0.32, the fluid within the crack will be in laminar flow.
stresses than permeable sections after the reservoir The crack width is then given by Eq. 5 (see Appendix
pressure has been drawn down.) The fracture will grow A for derivation).
until it reaches the bounding zone and then will be re-
stricted in vertical growth. However, it will continue to W = 0.38 [(Q) (~) (L)] 1/1 (5)
extend laterally away from the well bore as shown on
Fig. 5. The fracture will penetrate up and down into where W maximum crack width at the wellbore,
=

the bounding zones until an equilibrium condition is in.,

reached. This equilibrium condition is similar to that of Q = total pump rate, bbljmin,
fl, = effective fracturing fluid viscosity, cp,
a lever at static equilibrium. The fracturing fluid exerts
a pressure against the fracture face tending to open and L = length of a vertical fracture measured
extend the fracture. The high stresses at top and bottom from the wellbore, ft, and
tend to close the fracture. The fracture, therefore, will E = Young's modulus of formation rock, psi.
extend into the bounding zones until the opposing forces Using the range of values of Young's moduli from
counter-balance one another. If these bounding zones Table 1, Eq. 5 is presented in a convenient graphical
are not thick enough or if pressure drop in the fracture manner as Fig. 6.
gets high enough, then the fracture may crack through As an example, suppose conditions for a fracture job
into other zones. in a medium-hardness sandstone were as follows: Q =
30 bbljmin, ft = 4 cp, L = 500 ft, Sp Gr = 0.9 and H
CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING FROM = 40 ft.
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN LAMINAR FLOW
Fortunately, it is rather easy to predict whether a Q (Sp Gr) = (30) (0.9) = 0 17
Hft (40) (4) ..
Newtonian fluid will be in laminar or turbulent flow.
In a classic work," Reynolds discovered that turbulence (Therefore, fluid is in laminar flow and Fig. 6 can be
would begin when the Reynolds' number (the ratio of used.)
QftL = (30)(4)(500) = 6X10 •
4
viscous to inertial forces in the fluid) exceeded a certain
value. In terms of fracturing conditions, the Reynolds' Therefore, Fig. 6 shows that the maximum crack
number can be reduced to (see Appendix A) : width at the wellbore would be about 0.13 to 0.15 in.
CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING FROM NEWTONIAN
SURFACE FLUIDS IN TURBULENT FLOW
PRESSURE
If (Q)(Sp Gr)/(H)(ft) is greater than 0.32, then
THERE IS A HYDROSTATIC
the fluid will be in turbulent flow within the fracture.
THERE IS A PRESSURE DROP
PRESSURE DUE TO THE
WEIGHT OF FLUID IN
DUE TO FLUIO FLOW DOWN
TUBING OR CAS ING
For this case, the width is given by Eq. 6 (see Ap-
TUBING OR CASING
pendix B for derivation).
W = . [(Q)'(SP Gr) (L) ]'/\ (6)
FLUID
IN
PRESSURE
FRACTURE
DROP 06 (E) (H)
where Sp Gr = specific gravity of fracturing fluid, and
LEADING EDGE
OF FRACTURE H = height of a restricted, vertical frac-
PRESSURE ESSENTIALLY
ture, ft.
EQUALS EARTH STRESS
Again using values of Young's moduli from Table 1,
PRESSURE EQUALS EARTH
Eq. 6 can be shown graphically as Fig. 7. Let us con-
PRESSURE EQUALS EARTH
STRESS + PRESSURE DROP
IN FRACTURE + PRESSURE
STRESS + PRESSURE DROP
IN THE FRACTURE
sider the same example as before, except suppose that
DROP THROUGH PERFORATIONS
OF ANY)
the viscosity of the fracturing fluid were 1 cp, Q = 30
bbljmin, ft = 1 cp, L = 500 ft, Sp Gr = 0.9, and H =
FIG. 4--SKETCH SHOWING PRESSURES DURING A FRACTURE JOD.
40 ft.
Q(Sp Gr) (30(0.9) = 0.68.
Hft (40)(1)
Therefore, the fluid is in turbulent flow and Fig. 7 can
be used.
Q'(Sp Gr)L (30)'(0.9) (500)
- - - - - - ; - 0 : - - - = 1.01 X 10'.
H 40
Fig. 7 shows that in this case the maximum crack
width at the wellbore would be about 0.14 to 0.16 in.
W", IS MA)(IMUM WIDTH
OF FRACTURE AT WELL BORE
END VIEW CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING FROM
NON·NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN LAMINAR FLOW
FIG. 5-SKETCH OF A RESTRICTED VERTICAL FRACTURE
(NOT DRAWN TO SCALE). If non-Newtonian fluids such as gelled oils or emu1-

940 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

sions are used, then it is necessary to determine the to the slope of the line. (Details for actually deter-
fluids' flow properties before estimating crack width. mining k' and n' from Fann data are given in Appen-
Fann meter data should be plotted in a manner similar dix C.) These two constants are then used in place of
to the log-log plot shown on Fig. 13 in Appendix C. "viscosity".
The equation of the straight-line portion is reduced to Unfortunately, we have not been able to plot crack
two constants, k' which is proportional to an intercept widths for non-Newtonian fluids in as simple a manner
at a particular rotor speed, and n' which is proportional as Figs. 6 and 7. It has been necessary to include in the

LEGEND:
un-UNCONSOLIDATED TO LIGHTLY CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONE
~-MEDIUM SANDSTONE USE THiS CHART IF:
~-HARD SANDSTONE (QSPM)(Sp.Gr.) <0.32
en ~-LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE (HFTJ ("cp.)
~ 1.0
tJ It

~
Z

~ - t -- ~ I

~~
tJ
<[
a:
tJ
W; :::::;.::~ - 4 MESH
~~ ~'I
u. 1-- .- EXnMPLE
,,!!OB~r1 'r 1+- t- ~.J. ~~ ",. -1 6 MESH
O. I
~~
0 8 MESH
10 MESH
% 12 MESH
l-
e '...f ~~~
~ ?
II 16 MESH

~
1
~ I 20 MESH

:IE ~- 1
i I,

I~ I-I~
:J
2 t 40 MESH

x .0
I
I Iii -7 60 MESH
; 10 10
4 10~
10
(0 SPM )(p,cp.)( LFT.)
Q-TOTAL PUMP RATE,SPM
p,-FRACTURING FLUID VISCOSITY, CENTIPOISE
L -LENGTH OF VERTICAL FRACTURE MEASURED FROM THE WELL SORE, FEET
Sp.Gr -SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FRACTURING FLUID
H = CRACK HEIGHT, FEET

FIG. O--CRACK WIDTHS FOR RESTRICTED VERTICAL FRACTURES RESULTING FROM NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN LAMINAR FLOW.

LEGEND:
iLZZA-UNCONSOlIDATED TO LIGHTLY CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONE
IZSZSZJ-MEDIUM SANDSTONE USE THIS CHART IF:
~-HARD SANDSTONE (OBPM )(Sp. Gr.)
"--.::..:....:::....:..'--''----'- > O. 3 2
en ~ -LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE (H FT'> (JLcp.)
~ 1.0
u
z

~
u.
1-0--- -- -
EXAMPLE
--T
PR08LEM
- .~~~~ ~~ ~ 4 MESH
6 MESH
00. I

~
8 MESH
10 MESH

~Wi~
:I: 12 MESH
l-
e 16 MESH

~ '7 ~ oK £;;i1~ 20 MESH

:IE
::l
~--- ~~ I

I~ 11 IT
1 40 MESH
:::E
I +
x .0 5 60 MESH
<[ I 10 10 6
:::E 10

Q =TOTAL PUMP RATE, BPM

fL = FRACTURING FLUID VISCOS I TV, CENTI POI SE
L = LENGTH OF VERTICAL ':RACTURE MEASURED FROM THE WELL BORE, FEET
Sp.Gr = SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FRACTURING FLUID
H =CRACK HEIGHT,FEET
FIG. 7-CRACK WIDTHS FOR RESTRICTED VERTICAL FRACTURES RESULTING FRO~l NEWTONIAN FLUIDS l'i TURImLE:'>T FLOW.

SEPTFMHER. 1'161 941

design chart Young's moduli of the formation rocks. The conditions which lead to settling of sand in a
Values of Young's moduli can again be estimated from fracture were discussed in a pr,evious paper. 14 The crack
Table 1. After the flow constants k' and n' are deter- width is not easily calculated for these conditions. We
mined for the fluid and the Young's modulus of the have studied a few cases and found that the crack
rock has been estimated, crack widths can be esti- widths were several times as wide as the predicted
mated from Fig. 8. (See Appendix C for derivation.) crack width without sand present. At the present time,
Suppose, for a given fracturing case, k' = 4.69 X we can only suggest that, for all cases when sand is
10-2 lb-sec n ' /sq ft, r = 0.654, * Q = 20 bbl/min, L = present, crack width should be estimated in the manner
100 ft, H = 30 ft, and E = 6 X 10' psi (estimated for described below where sand concentrates due to fluid
hard sandstone from Table 1). leak-off but does not settle.
k'Q''£ H 1- n ' (4.69 X 10-2 )(20)°.654(100)(30)°316 If the sand is suspended in a very viscous fluid, it
E 6X1~
will settle so slowly that a settled sand pack will not
= 1.8 X 10-5 • have time to form during the fracture treatment. How-
ever, during the treatment, the fracturing fluid can leak
From Fig. 8, the maximum crack width at the well- off into the porous formation, leaving a high concentra-
bore is then estimated to be 0.2 in. tion of sand suspended in the fracture. The viscosity of
CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING WHEN SAND IN the concentrated sand slurry will be considerably
THE FRACTURE RESTRICTS FLUID FLOW greater than the viscosity of the pure fracturing fluid.
The crack widths estimated from Figs. 6, 7 and 8 Fig. 9 shows the ratio of the slurry viscosity to the pure
apply when pure fluids are being pumped along a frac- fracturing fluid viscosity as a function of the volume
ture. These estimated widths are also valid when there fraction of solid material in the slurry."
is a sparse distribution of propping agent suspended in The crack width is easily estimated in the following
the fluid (because a dilute suspension of solid material way if the sand concentrates because of fluid leak-off.
will not appreciably influence pressure drop along the I, The amount of fluid remaining in the fracture is
crack). However, if a large amount of sand is injected estimated by the method proposed by Howard and
as a propping agent, then its presence in the fracture Fast. 10 By knowing the amount of fluid in the fracture
will influence pressure drop and thereby influence crack and the amount of sand in the fracture, the average
width. slurry concentration can be calculated.
In field operations, sand is usually placed in the 2. The average slurry viscosity can then be estimated
fracture such that one of the two following conditions from Fig. 9.
will be obtained: (1) a great deal of sand settles to the
bottom of the fracture; or (2) the sand is nearly uni- 3. The crack width is then estimated from Figs. 6
formly suspended in the fracture and concentrated due and 7 using the average slurry viscosity and density
rather than the viscosity and density of the pure frac-
to leak-off of the fracturing fluid.
turing fluid.
"These particular values of k' and n' are for a very thick gelled In the actual case, slurry properties vary from point
fracturing oil. to point in the fracture. Hence, the width calculated as
-3
just shown must be interpreted as only an approximate
10
. . width.
~ (THIS EQUATION DEFINES
~ k' AND n~ SEE APPEND IX CI
HORIZONTAL FRACTURES
.L
T -IbFt.2F
10-. )----

~
= k,(-dV
-
dY
sec. - I t II 1/1/
If a fracture is oriented horizontally, crack width
may result from two types of rock movement. If the
)----
t-T'EXAMPLE PROBLEM fracture is deep within the earth, crack width results
- -- - principally from compression of rock in the vicinity of
10
5 Q= TOTAL PUMP RATE, BPM
L = DISTANCE FROM EXTEND-
I 7lYw the fracture. However, if the fracture is very shallow,
-" I NG EDGE OF CRACK
!. iJ crack width may also result from flexing and lifting of
.....:
H • CRACK HEIGHT, FEET
tlttJ the overburden. This is shown conceptually in Fig. 10.
E
..:...
10-. E = YOUNG'S MODULUS FOR
THE FORMATION ROCK
PS I (SEE TABLE I I / I 'I/, . .
... ~
i
It is shown in Appendix D that compression of sur-

..J .
D.
I 1~
i- )-
~
45
UJ
"i 7 !! II II /~I iii 40
"- 0

£'"
10 f;>' o·'II
'"
hj
o·
~ "-
~-to~ ~] O' '"
(,)
II)
)-- 35 /
O-,-",';+:
~> /
T
-0- , Q)
0

.....
0
g .... I I o·
;:;:
10
-8 V 1/ 1/ I /
-..::=....- V

II II I
/
10-. II I '/ f- ./
V
5
V
'/I
:0;- -:-- I -
~-
-10 / II I / 0!D
r
ftj ~ _ G<D" 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
100.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 VOLUME FRACT I ON OF SOLIO MATERIAL
WIDTH,INCHES IN THE SLURRY
Fn;.
8--CRACK WIDTHS FOR RESTRICTED VERTICAL FRACTURE FIG. 9-VISCOSITY OF A SLURRY CONTAINING SUSPENDED SOLID
RESTJLTING FROM NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN LAMINAR FLOW. MATERIAL COMPARED TO THE VISCOSITY OF THE BASIC FLUID.

JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 rounding rock is the principal mechanism leading to
crack width if the depth is greater than about three-
fourths of the fracture radius. (Hence, this is the
mechanism that controls during most fracture treat-
ments.) For this condition, the width is given approxi-
mately by Eq. 7.
We'm) =. 022
.
[Q(bbl/min)f.L(C P ) C(ft)] 1/.'
E(psi)
where C = radius of the fracture, ft.
(In deriving this equation we have assumed a homo-
geneous medium. Actually, in the case of a horizontal
fracture, the value of Young's modulus should be an
effective av'erage for the pay zone and the formations
above and below it, since they are also compressed
when the fracture is opened. However, for simplicity
SURFACE
OVERBURDEN LIFTED
we have used the values of Young's modulus for the
pay zones as shown in Table 1 in applying this equa-
tion.)
Fig. 11 graphically shows the order of magnitude of
crack width to expect in horizontal fractures (depth is
greater than three-fourths of the fracture radius) if
.
(7) the fluid is in laminar flow. Laminar flow of the fluid at
every point in a horizontal fracture is probably en-
countered only rarely in field operations. Hence, turbu-
lent flow must also be considered before a generally ap-
plicable equation can be derived. However, the turbu-
lent zone usually will not extend far from the wellbore;
therefore, Fig. 11 is approximately correct in all cases.
Appendix D also shows an equation for estimating
crack widths of shallow horizontal fractures (depth is
less than three-fourths of the fracture radius).
If a large amount of suspended sand is injected into
the fracture, then the width of the fracture can be
estimated by using the viscosity of the sand slurry
rather than the viscosity of the basic fracturing fluid.

SURFACE
CONSEQUENCES OF THESE WIDTH CONCEPTS

(OVERBURDEN NOT LIFTED

Now let us briefly discuss some of the consequences
APPREC IABLY) and significance of these width concepts. First, consider
the relationship between crack width and fracturing
z c<~z pressure. Pressure drops along the fracture can be esti-
mated from Eq. A-lO or D-4 (in Appendixes A and D,
respectively) and crack width Eqs. 5, 6, or 7. For those
fractures oriented vertically, pressure drops along the
cracks will probably range from a few tens of pounds
per square inch (for very tall cracks) to perhaps 1,000
ROCK COMPRESSED psi (for thin zones). The higher pressures in thin zones
FIG. lO-SKETCH SHOWING A SHALLOW AND A DEEP increase the probability of cracking out of the pay zone
HORIZONTAL FRACTURE. into zones above and below.

LEGEND:
IZ:ZZ)-UNCONSOLIDATED TO LIGHTLY CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONE aDDD-HARD SANDSTONE
1ZSZS2I- MEDIUM SANDSTONE ~ - LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE

(/)
I&J
:I:
o
Z

IL.
o
:I: I
I-
o
60 MESH
i

.oo~Lo---L-1-1~~~IO~2~-L-L-LLLLUI~03~~~~~WULIO~4~~~-L~~UIO~5--~~~~~1~06S-~~~~~~I07
I
(Q BPM)(JLcP. )(e FT)
Q. TOTAL PUMP RATE, BPM
JL s FRACTURING FLUID VISCOSITY, CENTIPOISES
C • FRACTURE RADIUS, FEET

FIG. ll-ApPROXIMATE CRACK WIDTHS FOR HORIZONTAL FRACTURES RESULTING FROM NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN LAMINAR FLOW.

SEPTEMBER. 1961
943
 For horizontal fractures or unrestricted vertical frac-
tures, pressure drops will be very high initially but
quite low for large fractures.
Bottom-hole fracturing pressures will be equal to the
sum of the total earth stress perpendicular to the plane
of the crack and the pressure drop in the fracture.
Hubbert and Willis" and Cleary· have discussed the fac-
tors influencing earth stresses.
Fig. 12 shows our estimates of the ranges of earth
stresses (similar to estimates of Hubbert and Willis or
Cleary) plus pressure drops for vertical and horizontal
fractures (as discussed in this paper). This figure also
shows some bottom-hole fracturing pressures calcu-
lated from actual field treatments. It is apparent that
bottom-hole pressures for most of these fracturing
treatments fell in the range predicted for vertical frac-
tures. It is interesting to note that predicted pressures
for vertical and horizontal fractures overlap at depths
less than about 3,000 ft. Hence, at these shallow
depths, fracture orientation cannot be determined by
cursory inspection of the bottom-hole fracturing pres-
sure gradient.
Another interesting consequence of these concepts is
the behavior to be expected after pumping has ceased.
Since the fracture extension pressure is nearly equal to
the earth stress, the fracture will continue to extend
after pumping has ceased. The crack will become nar-
rower and longer until the minimum width (previously
discussed) is reached or until formation walls grip the
propping material. Of course, fluid will continue to
leak-off over the whole fracture area and particularly
near the extending edge of the fracture as the walls
close. This limits the additional length obtained after
pumping stops.
Finally, let us review the factors which influence
crack width (see Eqs. 5, 6, and 7).
1. The thickness of pay zone should have no effect
on pressure or width of horizontal fractures. For re-
stricted vertical fractures, pressure drop along the
fracture will be large for thin zones but small for thick
zones. On the other hand, crack width at the wellbore
is nearly independent of height of a vertical fracture
(except in turbulent flow).
2. Depth of pay zone will generally have little effect
on crack width (except that rock properties may vary
IOr------r------r------r------.-~~7r~~_.
(f)
'"
~ e~----~------~----~--~
rn
"'-
n::_
n.(f)
n.
'"~~
::l
0-'"
uc
<[z
n::<[
... rn
",0
::l
..J:I:
00-
::t:-
2
o y = distance
0-
0-
o Z = depth of fracture (measured from surface
III
DEPTH ,(THOUSANDS OF FEET)
FIG. 12-THEORETICALLY PREDICTED BOTTOM·HoLE
FRACTURING PRESSURES AND FIELD DATA.
94·t
with depth). For very shallow horizontal fractures, the
width may be somewhat greater than normal because
of lifting of the overburden. However, this should be of
no significance in most normal fracturing operations.
3. Crack width is not particularly sensitive to rock
properties. Young's moduli of rocks have a range of
about ten- or twenty-fold. However, crack width is in-
versely proportional to the fourth root of Young's
modulus; therdore, only about a twofold variation in
crack width should be expected from this range of
moduli.
4. Since the viscosity of a fracturing fluid (or effec-
tive viscosity if slurries are considered) can be varied
over a very wide range, this factor will have an ap-
preciable effect on crack width.
5. Pump rate will also influence width, but usually the
range of pump rates is limited by the horsepower avail-
able.
6. Fracture width at the well bore will also be in-
fluenced by length or radius of a fracture. As the vol-
ume of fluid in the fracture increases, the crack width
will increase.
7. Crack width is strongly influenced by a large
amount of solid propping material in the fracture. The
solid material increases resistance to fluid flow and re-
sults in a wider crack.
NOMENCLATURE
C = fracture radius
Dc = equivalent diameter
E = Young's modulus of rock
f =friction factor
H = height of a vertical fracture
k' = a measure of the flow properties of a non-
Newtonian fluid. It is determined as ex-
. [(lb)(SeC)"']
plained in Appendix C, -sq-ft----
L = length of a vertical fracture (measured
from the well bore )
n' = a measur,e of the flow properties of a non-
Newtonian fluid. It is determined as ex-
plained in Appendix C.
Nil, = Reynolds' number
P = pressure
P,,,." = average fluid pressure in the fracture
P'" = minimum fracture ,extension pressure
P". = fluid pressure at the wellbore
Q = total injection rate into a well
r = radius
r w = radius of the well bore
R" = hydraulic radius
Sp Gr = specific gravity of fracturing fluid
u = velocity
v = velocity
V = volume
W = crack width
W" = average fracture width
W", = maximum crack width at wellbore
x = distance
of ground)
(l' = specific surface energy of rock
10 darcies .
(3 = (a constant), see Eq. D-I
12 sq cm
y = a proportionality constant relating equiva-
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 lent diameter and hydraulic radius (see Eq.
A-3)
8, = upward deflection of an elastic plate
clamped at the edge (see Eq. D-8)
8, = downward deflection of an elastic medium
(see Eq. D-9)
f1. = viscosity of a fracturing fluid
v = Poisson's ratio for rock
p = fluid density
o' = total earth stress perpendicular to the plane
of the fracture
T = shear stress
REFERENCES
I. Barenblatt, G. 1.: "On Equilibrium Cracks Formed in
Brittle Fracture", Soviet physics-Doklady., (1960) 4.
2. Birch, Francis: Editor, Handbook 0/ Physical Constants,
GSA Special Paper No. 36 (Jan. 31, 1942).
3. Khristianovitch, S. A. Zheltov, Y. P., Barenblatt, G. I. and
Maximovich, G. K.: "Theoretical Principles of Hydraulic
Fracturing of Oil Strata", Proc., Fifth World Pet. Cong.,
N. Y. (1959) Section II.
4. Cleary, J. M.: "Hydraulic Fracture Theory, Parts I, II,
III", Circulars 251, 252, 281, Illinois Geological Survey,
Urbana, II!. (1959).
5. Davies, S. J. and White, C. M.: Proc., Roy. Soc. of Lon-
don (1928) 119A,92.
6. Gilman, J. J.: "Direct Measurement of the Surface Ener-
gies of Crystals", Jour. Appl. Phys. (1960) 31., 2208.
7. Griffith, A. A.: Phil. Tra't.I. Roy. Soc of London, (1920)
A, 221, 163.
B. Griffith, A. A.: Proc .. Int. Congo App!. Mech. (1924)
Delft, 55. ' from the well bore ) .
9. Harrison, Eugene, Kieschnick, W. F., Jr. and McGuire,
W. J.: "The Mechanics of Formation Fracture Induction
and Extension", Trans., AIME (1954) 201, 252.
10. Howard, G. C. and Fast, C. R.: "Optimum Fluid Char-
acteristics for Fracture Extension", Drill. and Prod. Pmc.,
API (1957) 26l.
11. Hubbert, M. K. and Willis, D. G.: "Mechanics of Hy-
draulic Fracturing", Trans., AIME- (1957) 210, 153.
12. HUtIt, J. 1.: "Flui<l Flow in Simulated Fractures",
AIChE Jour. (1956) 2,259.
13. Huitt, J. L. and McGlothlin, B. B.: "The Propping of
Fractures in Formations in which Propping Sand
Crushes", API Paper No. 875-13-E (May, 1959).
14. Kern, 1. R., Perkins, T. K. and Wyant, R. E.: "The Me-
chanics of Sand Movement in Fracturing", Trans., AIME
(1959) 216, 403.
15. Kern, 1. R., Perkins, T. K. and Wyant, R. E.: "Propping
Fractures with Aluminum Particles", Jour Pet. Tech.
(June, 1961) 583.
16. Lamb, Horace: Hydrodynamics, Sixth Ed., Cambridge U.
Press (1932).
17. Moody, L. F.: Trans., ASME (1944) 66, 671.
18. Perry, J. H.: Editor, Ch!emical Engineers' Handbook, Third
Ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., N. Y. (1950) 378.
19. Reynolds, 0.: "An Experimental Investigation of the Cir·
cumstances Which Determine Whether the Motion of
Water Will Be Direct or Sinuous, and of the Law of Re-
sistance in Parallel Channels", Phil. Trans. (1883) Roy.
Soc. of London.
20. Rothfus, R. R., Archer, D. H., Klimas, I. C. and Sikchi,
K. G.: "Simplified Flow Calculations for Tubes and Paral-
lel Plates", AIChE Jour. (1957) 3, 208.
21. Sack, R. A.: "Extension of Griffith's Theory of Ruptur.e
to Three Dimensions", Proc., Phys. Soc. of London (1946)
58, 729.
22. Sneddon, 1. N.: "The Distribution of Stress in the Neigh-
bourhood of a Crack in an Elastic Solid", Proc., Roy. Soc.
(1946) A, 187, 229.
23. Sneddon, 1. N. and Elliott, H. A.: "The Opening of a
Griffith Crack Under Internal Pressure", Quarterly of
Appl. Math. (1946) 4,262.
24. Stein our, H. H.: "Rate of Sedimentation - Nonfloccu-
SEPTEMBER, 191>1
lated Suspensions cf Uniform Spheres", Ind. Eng. Cheni.
(1944) 36, 618.
25. Timoshenko, S.: Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., N. Y. (1940) 60.
;~6. USB:\f Bulletin 402, U. S. Dept. Interior.
27. Walker, J. E., v/han, G. A. and RothfllS, R. R.: '-Fluid
Friction in Noncircular Duets", AIChE Jour. (1957) 3,
484.
28 Way, S.: "Bending of Circular Plates \I'ith Large De-
Oection,,", Trans., AIME (1934) 56, 627.
29. '\'/eil, N. A. and Newmark, N. ;-'1.: "Large DeOections of
Elliptical Plates", Jour. Appl. Mech. (1956) 23, 21.
,~(). Wllcrker, R. C~,: "Annotated Table,; of Strength and
Elastie Properties d Rocks", Paper 66.'3-G published as
separate publication by SPE 09S61.
:It. Zheltov, Y. P. and Khristianovich, S. A.: "The Hydraulic
Fracturing of an Oil-Producing Formation", izvest, Aklld.
Nallk USSR, Otde!' Tckh. Nauk (1955) No.5, 3.
32. Zhelto\" Y. P.: "An Approximatc :\Iethod of Calculating
the Size of Fissures Produced hy the Hydraulic Fracturing
01 :l Formation", Izvest. Akad. ,iVauk USSR. Otde!' Te!dl.
Nauk (957) No . .'3, 180.
APPENDIX A
DERIVATION OF AN EQUATION GIVING
VERTICAL CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING FROM
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN LAMINAR FLOW
Widths of restricted, vertical cracks resulting from
injection of Newtonian fluids can be estimated by mak-
ing the following assumptions.
I. Assume that the fracture is vertical and of fixed
height H (the height is independent of the distance
2. Assume that the cross-sectional shape of the crack
at any point is essentially elliptical and that the maxi-
mum width at that point is proportional to the difference
betw,een pressure and stress at that point. The equation
of the ellipse is taken as Sneddon's equation for a two-
dimensional system (Eq. A-lO).
3. Assume that the pressure drop can be estimated
by means of Fanning's equation in which the hydraulic
radius for an ellipse has been substituted.
4. Assume that the fluid pressure at the extending
edge of the crack is essentially equal to the total earth
stress perpendicular to the plane of the fracture.
5. Assume there is no leak-off of the injected fluid.
(By assuming the limiting condition of a total fluid
leak-off rate large enough that the fracture is no
longer extending, one can readily show that leak-off has
little effect on crack width.)
The Fanning equation may be written as Eq. A-I.
dP 2 f v' p
(A-I)
dx Do
where, for laminar flow,
f=~~··
D,yp
(A-2)
For an ellipse of essentially zero eccentricity (ec-
centricity is the ratio of minor to major diameters),
Perry" has shown •
D
,
= yR[[ = y(~)
2.546
(A-3)
where Do = equivalent diameter,
y = a proportionality constant,
RIf = hydraulic radius, and
W = minor diameter of the ellipse (equals
maximum crack width).
'H5
 Lamb' • has shown for an ellipse of nearly zero ec- By integrating and noting that (P - 0') = 0 at the
centricity and for laminar flow leading edge of the crack, we can express the pressure
dP 32Qp. as a function of the distance from the leading edge of
dx = -rrH W·: . (A-4) the crack. By then substituting into Eq. A-lO, the width
is given as a function of the distance from the end of
Substituting Eqs. A-2, A-3 and A-S into Eq. A-I and the crack. Assuming v = 0.15, we can therefore express
equating to Eq. A-4 shows the width in convenient units as
y = 3.6 . (A-5)
. ) = 0 3S [Q(bbI/min) p.(cp) L(ft)]':' (A-12)
(This can be compared with y for a circular pipe of W (m . . E(psi)
4 or y for parallel plates of 3.26.)
We assume that y = 3.6 is the value that should be APPENDIX B
used for all cases considered here, both laminar and
turbulent. The Reynolds' number of the fluid flowing DERIVATION OF AN EQUATION GIVING
down the crack can now be written. VERTICAL CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING FROM
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN TURBULENT FLOW
( R H ) (flOW rate)
N R, = D 6 V Y P = area P The basic assumptions for this case are the same as
p. P. those listed in Appendix A. If Reynolds' number is
greater than 2,500, we assume that
area ) ( flow rate)
y ( wetted perimeter area P f = 0.0125 . (B-1)
The friction factor is influenced by the r:.mghness of
fl·
the walls; the f = 0.0125 value corresponds to a rela-
3.6( flo;;ate) P tive roughness" of about 0.02. The effect of relative
roughness is clearly shown by the experiments of
p. Huitt."
= 7.S1 X 10" (Q) (Sp Cr) Substituting Eqs. A-3, A-5, A-S, A-lO and B-1 into
(A-6)
(H) (p.) Eq. A-I yields Eq. B-2.
Fluid will be in laminar flow in the crack if Reyn- pQ2E"
( P_ )3dP=[(0.0125)(2.546)]( ]dX
olds' number is less than about 2,500. (See, for in- 0' . -rr' (3.6) (1 - V 2 )3 Ir
stance, the data of Huitt" or Rothfus, et al20.) Substi- (B-2)
tution of N R6 < 2,500 into Eq. A-6 shows that laminar
By integrating, noting that (P - 0') = 0 at the lead-
flow will obtain if
ing edge of the crack and substituting into Eq. A-lO,
(Q) (Sp Cr) 032 we obtain Eq. B-3 for maximum crack width at the
(H) (p.) <. . wellbore.
In the laminar region, the friction factor is given by _ [(Q)' (Sp Cr) (L) ]'/'
Eq. A-2. We can compare this friction-factor relation- W - 0.6 (E) (H) . (B-3 )
ship for parallel plates with experimental data which
have been reported in the literature. For smooth paral-
lel plates, the data of Huitt,l2 Davies and White: Roth- APPENDIX C
fus, et aI," and Walker, et aI," are in agreement with DERIVATION OF AN EQUATION GIVING
each other. Furthermore, in the laminar region the ex- VERTICAL CRACK WIDTHS RESULTING FROM
perimental data are in exact agreement with this theo- NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN TURBULENT FLOW
retical approach.
Substituting Eqs. A-2, A-3 and A-5 into Eq. A-I The relationship between shear stress and shear rate
yields Eq. A-7. for many non-Newtonian fluids (as well as Newtonian
fluids) can be r:epresented by Eq. C-l.
dP 32 (2.546), v p.
( - d)'"
(A-7)
dx (3.6)' W' T = k' d~ . . (C-l)
But we note that
where T = shear stress,
2Q
v= -rrWH' (A-S) = velocity = fey),
u
k',n' = constants, and
Therefore,
dP 64 (2.546)' Qp.
(A-9)
(~;) = shear rate.
dx 7r (3.6)' W'H
The shear behavior of most fracturing fluids, in fact,
For a fracture restricted at top and bottom, Sned- can be represented by this question. The constants k'
don" has shown and n' can be evaluated with a Fann meter. Table 2
2 (1 - v')(P. -I(]') H (A-lO) shows the relationship between shear rate in seconds-'
W z= E and rotor rpm for a Fann meter.
If we assume that Q. is constant (this neglects leak- At each shear rate, the meter will indicate a scale
off and accumulation in the crack), then substituting reading which can be converted to shear stress in
Eq. A-I0 into Eq. A-9 gives Eq. A-It. pounds per square feet by means of Eq. C-2.
3
= [(S)(2.546)'][ p.QE ]dX (scale reading) (spring constant) (C-2)
(P
_ 3
0') dP -rr (3.6)' H' (1 - v')" Tlb/sq ft = 100 .
(A-ll ) Shear stress should then be plotted vs shear rate on

946 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

log-log paper. Fig. 13 shows typical data for a thick
fracturing oil which has been gelled varying amounts.
A straight line is drawn through each set of data
points. (The points at low shear rate frequently deviate
from the straight line and should not be used.) The
constant n' is then determined from any two points on
the straight lines, as indicated by Eq. C-3.
By substituting in the Sneddon equation for the width
of a two-dimensional elliptical crack (Eq. A-lO) and
by assuming that the flow rate is independent of x,
Eq. C-9 can be integrated. Substitution of the resulting
(P - a) into Eq. A-IO yields Eq. C-lO.
= [2(1 - v2)H] { (2n' + 2) cpE''''+1Qn'L}2n'+2

n' =
(log) (T,/T,)
(log) (shear rate) 2 •
1
(C-3 )
W E [2(1 - v') Hr'+1
(C-lO)
[ (shear rate) 1
Having 11', the constant k' is determined at any point
where ,-I--
'I'
= ~
37T
k' (~~)'" _1_ .
n' Hn'
on the straight line by means of Eq. C-4. Equation C-10 can be written with a more conven-
k' = T (C-4) ient set of units as shown by Eq. C-l1.
(shear rate),,'
Now l,et us derive an equation giving crack widths 10
in terms of the constants k' and n'. Fig. 14 is a sche-
l1
matic representation of a fluid flowing in laminar flow ./

~
between parallel plates. For steady, non accelerated /'
flow, the force per unit height acting to the right on (0' V ,/
~v

(O~+:[(/
,/
the fluid element of thickness y and length L may be
~<i-<":~ Vx

.'''~~''~~ /
,,'/
equated to the force per unit height acting towards the /
left as shown by Eq. C-5.
yb.P=LT (C-5) -
'"
~ "~
Eq. C-1 may be substituted into Eq. C-5, and the
"
..ci '/, (0 0 ~
,,"v' /
V
~:t::?~/v
equation can then be integrated by observing that the
velocity is zero at the wall. Eq. C-6 gives the resulting E
velocity profile. ~ry
(Jl 1.0
~,,/ /
/0 ,"/ Y
= ( n' 11~ ~~ ) ~[( ~)n'n:~ _ y n', :1] .
W
0:
II 1 )( I-
Ul
L A /
0: / oC+<"/
(C-6) <t
W
:c
/ +0/
The total flow rate into the two sides of the fracture Ul
/ x/
is given by Eq. C-7.
/
f
wl2

Q=4
o
Rudy

2n' +1
/
=4 ( 211'n'+ 1 )( k'L
b.P W)---';;-
H 2 . (C-7)
)n' .(
200 500 1000
Re-arrangement of Eq. C-7 yields Equation C-8 ex- SHEAR RATE, SEC.-I
plicit in the pressure gradient.

f
FIG, 13---FA.'1N ,METER DATA FOR GELLED FRACTURING Of!"

( - ~~) = 2k'Qn' el1'l1~ 1 ~n' W':'+1' (C-8)

Lamb13 has shown that the pressure gradient when
flowing Newtonian fluids in an elliptical conduit of
/(
//r------~--~--~--~~~
~ f{ ~
. 11
essentIa y zero eccentncity .. . (16) tImes
. as great as - - :/:/ '"
m=
IS 37T 1" - - - - - ,-","---{--"<"'"

the pressure gradient when flowing the same fluid be-

tween parallel plates under the same condition of I
")---------~~
- - ,,'~
height, maximum width and flow rate. If it is assumed I I
that this same relationship holds approximately for non- I I I I
Newtonian fluids, then Equation C-9 applies to es-
sentially elliptical fractures.
_ dP) ~~2k'( 211' + 1)"'_1_ ~
% t1 PI
+...f
I
I 0( L
I 'JJ{P2
~ 1 1//
//

( dx ellipse 37T n' H

nl I I 1///
w:!nl+l
l I I

!j~
I

(C-9)
I :

Speed of Rotor
-~--
(rpm)
TABLE 2
Rate of Shear
~~~n_d~~.l_
959
17 ~---------~ '- I I /

300 479
200 320
100 160
6 9.6
3 4.8 FIG. 14-LAMINAR FLOW OF FLUllJ BE'I'WElcN PARALLF.L PLATES.

9 t,7
 w= 12 [( 32~ ) (/1' + 1) ( 2n'n~ f ')

WaY.l!"=iWmn:\..

By noting that the pressure at the leading edge of

(D-S)

the crack is equal to the earth stress, substitution of Eqs.

(O.~::S)( S~~~f r'+'[Qn'k'~ HI~r~~' D-l, D-3 and D-S into Eq. D-4 yields Eq. D-6.

_j27 (1 - v') CQ}J-[l - (~)' 1(.1'

(C-ll )
Wm " - ) ~_. , _____~ (W-6)
where W = maximum crack width at the well bore, in., , 470' Ef3 I
k' = a measure of the flow properties of a non-
Newtonian fluid, (lb) (sec)"' /sq ft, The termll - (~)' ] may be assumed equ:ll to unity
n' = a measure of the flow properties of a non- for any practical size of fracture. Assuming v = O.IS,
Newtonian fluid, Eq. D-7 gives the approximate crack width at the well-
Q = total injection rate, bbljmin, bore with a more c:mvenient set of units.
L = length of a vertical fracture measur,ed
W(in.) = 0.22[Q(bbljmin) }J-(cp) C(ft)]'!'
from the well bore,
E(psi)
H = height of a vertical fracture, ft, and
(D-7)
E = Young's modulus of the formation rock,
psi. This derivation assumes that the crack width results
Eq. C-II is plotted as Fig. S. from compression of rock in the vicinity of the frac-
ture. If the radius of the fracture is large compared to
the depth, then it will be possible to lift the overburden
APPENDIX D as well as compress the rock near the fracture. Let us
DERIVATION OF AN EQUATION GIVING now consider crack widths if the overburden is lifted.
APPROXIMATE CRACK WIDTHS Again it is assumed that there is an average pressure
acting in the fracture given by Eq. D-3. The deflection
FOR HORIZONTAL FRACTURES
of an elastic plate which is clamped at the edges has
Let us derive an approximate relationship which will been given by Timoshenko," Way," and Weil and New-
give the order of magnitude for horizontal crack widths mark." If the center deflection of the plate is less than
if the fluid is in laminar flow. Assume that there is 40 per cent of the plate thickness, then the deflection is

r
some average crack width in the fracture and that this given by Eq. D-S.
average width can be used to get the approximate pres-
sure distribution. Then for a radial system and fluid in
laminar flow, the pressure distribution is given by Eq.
8 = 3(P,,," - IT) (1 -v')
1 16 EZ'
c'l 1- (-z.-),
D-l. .(D-S)
r where 8, = upward deflection of the plate at radius r,
QiJJn~
rw and
P = Pw - 271: {3 W a 3 (D-l) Z = thickness of the plate (or depth of the frac-
ture) .
wherc P = pressure at radius r,
P" = pressure at the wellbore, The rock below the fracture is compressed slightly;
1'" = radius of the wellbore, the down-ward deflection is given approximately by
Q = total injection rate, Sneddon's equation, Eq. D-9.
/_t = viscosity of the fluid,
{3 = 10'/12 darcies /sq cm (a constant), and
8, = 4(P - :) ~l - v') C[ 1 _ (~)'
ayg
f'
Wa = average craek width. (D-9)
The average pressure exerted over the fracture face The resulting maximum crack width at the well bore
is given by Eq. D-2. is given by Eq. D-IO.
71: r,/ P w
G

+ J 271: r P dr W
max
= (PaY. - IT)(l - v')
E
C[-;:-4 + 163 (C)3J
Z
P avg = 7I:C"
(D-2)
(D-lO)
Substituting Eq. D-l into Eq. D-2 and integrating Based on volume, the average width can be related
yields Eq. D-3. to maximum width as shown by Eq. D-ll.
c
P ayg = P n - -[~ln~ + ~(~)'
Qp.
7I:{3 W,i' 2 r" 4 C
-~]
4
Wayg J 0271:r W dr
2

(D-3 ) W mHX 7T'C W IIIH :>.::

Sneddon" shows that, for a three-dimensional radi-

ally symmetrical crack, the width is given approxi-
mately by Eq. D-4.
W = S(1 - v') C (PaY. - IT) (D-4)
Tllax "E
Based on volume, the average width is related to (D-ll)
maximum width by Eq. D-S.

i(2C)' W mnx = 7I:C' W, v ",

By noting that the pressure at the leading edge of the

948 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

crack is essentially equal to the earth stress, substitution Hence, Eq. D-12 is applicable if C ~ 4/3 Z. Neglect-
of Eqs. D-J, D-3 and D-Il into Eq. D-IO yields Eq.
D-J2.
ing the term [1 - (I~ )'] ,assuming v = O. 15 and sim-

W mux =:::
plifying units results in Eq. D-J3.

1 - c) '][4
--; + 163(C)']')'/'
Wm",(in.) =
vo) C QfL ((rw ~
)(1 -
( 0
Z _ )Q(bbl/min) fL(CP) C(ft)[~+-&(~rrr'
~ 3h E 13[3: + (~)T
1
32 ~ 0.076) )
~
[4
E(psi) 37T
1
+ 3 2 ~"
()"J ' )
(
(D-12) (D-J3)
This gives a crack width equal to that calculated for C 4·
> --.
where -Z -- 3 ***
deep horizontal fractures (Eq. D-6) when C/Z;:::;: 4/3.

SEPTEMBER, 1961 949