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Introduction:
Antitubercular drugs- used to treat tuberculosis (TB), caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Antileprotic drugs- used to treat leprosy, caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
Combinations of two or more drugs are required to overcome these obstacles and to
prevent emergence of resistance during the course of therapy.
The response of mycobacterial infections to chemotherapy is slow, and treatment
must be administered for months to years, depending on which drugs are used.
Isonizid (INH)
Isoniazid, the hydrazide of isonicotinic acid, is a synthetic analog of
pyridoxine (Vit-B6).
Most potent of the antitubercular drugs
Mechanism of action:
Inhibits synthesis of Fig: One of several recommended multidrug
mycolic acids, which are essential schedules for the treatment of tuberculosis.
Antibacterial spectrum:
For bacilli in the stationary phase, INH is bacteriostatic
But for rapidly dividing organisms, it is bactericidal.
It is effective against intracellular bacteria.
Isoniazid inhibits most tubercle bacilli in a concentration of 0.2 µg/mL or less.
Penetrates into macrophages and is active against both extracellular and
intracellular organisms.
Resistance:
Treatment with INH alone leads to development of resistance, occurs within
a few weeks after therapy is started.
This is associated with several different chromosomal mutations.
Drug-resistant mutants are normally present in susceptible mycobacterial
populations at about 1 bacillus in 106. Since tuberculous lesions often contain
more than 108 tubercle bacilli, resistant mutants are readily selected out if
isoniazid or any other drug is given as a single agent.
Pharmacokinetics
Isoniazid is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.
A 300-mg oral dose (5 mg/kg in children) achieves peak plasma
concentrations of 3-5 µg/mL within 1-2 hours.
Isoniazid diffuses readily into all body fluids and tissues.
Metabolism of isoniazid, especially acetylation by liver N-acetyltransferase, is
genetically determined.
Subtherapeutic concentrations may occur if drug is administered as a once-
weekly dose or if there is malabsorption.
Metabolites and a small amount of unchanged drug are excreted mainly in
the urine.
Clinical Uses
Usual dosage of isoniazid is 5 mg/kg/d; a typical adult dose is 300 mg given
once daily.
Up to 10 mg/kg/d may be used for serious infections or if malabsorption is a
problem.
A 15 mg/kg dose, or 900 mg, may be used in a twice-weekly dosing regimen
in combination with a second antituberculous agent (eg, rifampin 600 mg).
Adverse effects:
Adverse effects are related to the dosage and duration of administration.
1. Peripheral neuritis:
Peripheral neuritis is one of the most common adverse effects, appears to be
due to a relative pyridoxine deficiency. Most of the toxic reactions are
corrected by supplementation of 25 to 50 mg per day of pyridoxine (vitamin
B6).
[Note: Isoniazid can achieve levels in breast milk that are high enough to
cause a pyridoxine deficiency in the infant unless the mother is supplemented
with the vitamin.]
Rifampin
Antibacterial spectrum:
Rifampin is bactericidal for both intracellular and extracellular mycobacteria,
including M. tuberculosis, and atypical mycobacteria, such as M. kansasii.
Effective against many gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.
Frequently used prophylactically for individuals exposed to meningitis
caused by meningococci or Haemophilus influenzae.
Rifampin is the most active antileprosy drug at present, but to delay the
emergence of resistant strains, it is usually given in combination with other
drugs.
Pharmacokinetics:
Rifampin is well absorbed after oral administration and excreted mainly
through the liver into bile.
It then undergoes enterohepatic recirculation, with the bulk excreted in feces
and a small amount in the urine.
Distributed widely in body fluids and tissues. It is relatively highly protein-
bound, and adequate cerebrospinal fluid concentrations are achieved only in
the presence of meningeal inflammation.
Adverse Reactions
1. Rifampin imparts a harmless orange color to urine, sweat, tears, and contact
lenses (soft lenses may be permanently stained).
2. Occasional adverse effects include rashes, thrombocytopenia, and nephritis.
3. May cause cholestatic jaundice and occasionally hepatitis.
4. Commonly causes light-chain proteinuria.
5. If administered less often than twice weekly, rifampin causes a flu-like
syndrome characterized by fever, chills, myalgias, anemia, and
thrombocytopenia and sometimes is associated with acute tubular necrosis.
6. Strongly induces most cytochrome P450 isoforms which increases the
elimination of numerous other drugs including methadone, anticoagulants,
cyclosporine, some anticonvulsants, protease inhibitors, some nonnucleoside
reverse transcriptase inhibitors, contraceptives, and a host of others.
7. Should be used with caution in patients who are alcoholic, elderly, or have
chronic liver disease due to the increased incidence of severe hepatic
dysfunction when rifampin is administered alone or concomitantly with
isoniazid.
Ethambutol
Antibacterial spectrum:
Susceptible strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria are
inhibited in vitro by ethambutol, 1-5 µg/mL.
Pharmacokinetics :
Ethambutol is well absorbed from the gut. After ingestion of 25 mg/kg, a
blood level peak of 2-5 mcg/mL is reached in 2-4 hours.
About 20% of the drug is excreted in feces and 50% in urine in unchanged
form.
Ethambutol accumulates in renal failure, and the dose should be reduced by
half if creatinine clearance is less than 10 mL/min.
Ethambutol crosses the blood-brain barrier only if the meninges are inflamed.
Clinical Use
Ethambutol hydrochloride, 15-25 mg/kg, is usually given as a single daily
dose in combination with isoniazid or rifampin.
The higher dose is recommended for treatment of tuberculous meningitis.
The dose of ethambutol is 50 mg/kg when a twice-weekly dosing schedule is
used.
Adverse Reactions
The most common serious adverse event is retrobulbar neuritis, resulting in
loss of visual acuity and red-green color blindness. This dose-related side
effect is more likely to occur at doses of 25 mg/kg/d continued for several
months.
At 15 mg/kg/d or less, visual disturbances are very rare. Periodic visual
acuity testing is desirable if the 25 mg/kg/d dosage is used.
Ethambutol is relatively contraindicated in children too young to permit
assessment of visual acuity and red-green color discrimination.
Pyrazinamide
Pyrazinamide (PZA) is a relative of nicotinamide, stable, and slightly soluble
in water.
Inactive at neutral pH, but at pH 5.5 it inhibits tubercle bacilli and some other
mycobacteri .
The drug is taken up by macrophages and exerts its activity against
mycobacteria residing within the acidic environment of lysosomes.
Pharmacokinetics:
Pyrazinamide is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and widely
distributed in body tissues, including inflamed meninges.
The half-life is 8-11 hours.
Metabolized by the liver, but metabolites are renally cleared; therefore,
pyrazinamide should be administered at 25-35 mg/kg three times weekly
(not daily) in hemodialysis patients and those in whom the creatinine
clearance is less than 30 mL/min.
In patients with normal renal function, a dose of 40-50 mg/kg is used for
thrice-weekly or twice-weekly treatment regimens.
Pyrazinamide is an important front-line drug used in conjunction with
isoniazid and rifampin in short-course (ie, 6-month) regimens as a "sterilizing"
agent active against residual intracellular organisms that may cause relapse.
Adverse Reactions
Major adverse effects of pyrazinamide include hepatotoxicity (in 1-5% of
patients), nausea, vomiting, drug fever, and hyperuricemia (level of uric acid
in the blood that is abnormally high).
The latter occurs uniformly and is not a reason to halt therapy.
Hyperuricemia may provoke acute gouty arthritis.
Streptomycin
First clinically effective drug to become available for the treatment of TB.
Irreversible inhibitors of protein synthesis.
Protein synthesis is inhibited by aminoglycosides in at least three ways (1)
interference with the initiation complex of peptide formation; (2) misreading
of mRNA, which causes incorporation of incorrect amino acids into the
peptide, resulting in a nonfunctional or toxic protein; and (3) breakup of
polysomes into nonfunctional monosomes.
Most tubercle bacilli are inhibited by streptomycin, 1-10 µg/mL, in vitro.
Nontuberculosis species of mycobacteria other than Mycobacterium avium
complex (MAC) and Mycobacterium kansasii are resistant.
Adverse Reactions
Streptomycin is ototoxic and nephrotoxic.
Vertigo and hearing loss are the most common side effects and may be
permanent.
Toxicity is dose-related, and the risk is increased in the elderly. As with all
aminoglycosides, the dose must be adjusted according to renal function.
Toxicity can be reduced by limiting therapy to no more than 6 months
whenever possible.
Types of leprosy:
1. Tuberculoid
2. Lepromatous
3. The in-between or borderline.
The tuberculoid is relatively benign and is often self healing. The lepromatous
is a steadily progressing form of the disease. The distinction between two is
difficult as mixed symptoms are always found. The symptoms involve both
skin & nervous system.
Skin manifestations range from areas of whitening of the skin to massive
nodules.
Nerve involvement may be pain in certain centres & in serious cases, total loss
of feeling in certain parts of the body.
The eyes may be affected leading to total blindness.
Ulcers may occur in mouth & larynx.
There are tragic cases when fingers fall of the joints leaving only the palms
over which the entire skin starts rotting.
Lepra reactions:
After the chemotherapy against leprosy is started, some clinical features called Lepra
Reaction can appear. There are two types-
1. Type-I: It is so called reversible reaction, appears during borderline cases.
There is intensification of skin lesions. Sometimes it is difficult for the
physician to identify whether it is type-I lepra reaction or flaring up of the
disease itself.
2. Type-II: Erythema nodosa leprosum appears during dapsone therapy of
lepromatous leprosy & even the borderline cases. It is manifested as crop of
nodules appearing under the skin.
Several drugs closely related to the sulfonamides have been used effectively
in the long-term treatment of leprosy. The most widely used is dapsone
(diaminodiphenylsulfone).
Like the sulfonamides, it inhibits folate synthesis.
Resistance can emerge in large populations of M leprae, eg, in lepromatous
leprosy, if very low doses are given.
Therefore, the combination of dapsone, rifampin, and clofazimine is
recommended for initial therapy.
Dapsone may also be used to prevent and treat Pneumocystis jiroveci
pneumonia in AIDS patients.
Pharmacokinetics:
Sulfones are well absorbed from the gut and widely distributed throughout
body fluids and tissues.
Dapsone's half-life is 1-2 days, and drug tends to be retained in skin, muscle,
liver, and kidney.
Skin heavily infected with M leprae may contain several times more drug than
normal skin.
Excreted into bile and reabsorbed in the intestine.
Excretion into urine is variable, and most excreted drug is acetylated. In renal
failure, the dose may have to be adjusted.
The usual adult dosage in leprosy is 100 mg daily. For children, the dose is
proportionately less depending on weight.
Adverse reactions:
Many patients develop some hemolysis, particularly if they have glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.
Methemoglobinemia is common, but usually is not a problem clinically.
Gastrointestinal intolerance, fever, pruritus, and various rashes occur.
During dapsone therapy of lepromatous leprosy, erythema nodosum
leprosum often develops.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish reactions to dapsone from
manifestations of the underlying illness.
Erythema nodosum leprosum may be suppressed by corticosteroids or by
thalidomide.
Clofazimine
Pharmacokinetics:
Absorption of clofazimine from the gut is variable, and a major portion of the
drug is excreted in feces.
Clofazimine is stored widely in reticuloendothelial tissues and skin, and its
crystals can be seen inside phagocytic reticuloendothelial cells.
It is slowly released from these deposits, so that the serum half-life may be 2
months.
Clinical use:
Clofazimine is given for sulfone-resistant leprosy or when patients are
intolerant to sulfones.
A common dosage is 100 mg/d orally.
Adverse effects:
The most prominent untoward effect is skin discoloration ranging from red-
brown to nearly black.
Gastrointestinal intolerance occurs occasionally.
Eosinophilic enteritis has been reported as an adverse effect.